Cells

Cells & Tissues
Anatomy & Physiology
Cells & Tissues
• Carry out all chemical activities
needed to sustain life
• Cells are the building blocks of all
living things
• Tissues are groups of cells that are
similar in structure and function
• Cells are not all the same
• All cells share general structures
• Cells are organized into three
Main regions:
• Nucleus
• Cytoplasm
• Plasma membrane
Nucleus
• Control center of the cell
• Contains genetic material (DNA)
• Three regions:
• Nuclear membrane – the barrier of the nucleus, consists of a double
phospholipid membrane and contains nuclear pores that allow for
exchange of material with the rest of the cell
• Nucleolus – site of ribosome production, ribosomes then migrate to
the cytoplasm through nuclear pores
• Chromatin – composed of DNA and protein and it condenses to
form chromosomes when the cell divides

Plasma Membrane
• Barrier for cell contents
• Also known as the cell membrane
• Gives strength, shape and protection to the cell
• Regulates traffic flow of materials between the interior of the cell and its
environment
• Double phospholipid layer:
• Hydrophilic heads
• Hydrophobic tails
• Other materials in the plasma membrane:
• Protein
• Cholesterol
• Glycoproteins
Plasma Membrane
• Membrane Specializations:
• Microvilli – finger-like
projections that increase
surface area for
absorption
• Membrane Junctions:
• Tight junctions
• Desmosomes
• Gap junctions
Cytoplasm
• Material outside the nucleus and inside the plasma membrane
• Cytosol – fluid that suspends other elements and is the site of many
metabolic pathways
• Organelles – metabolic machinery of the cell which are membrane
bound and have its own unique structure and functions
• Inclusions – non-functioning units
Cytoplasmic Organelles
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Ribosomes
• Made of protein and RNA
• Sites of protein synthesis
• Found at two locations: free in the cytoplasm & attached to rough
endoplasmic reticulum
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
• Fluid-filled tubules for carrying substances
• Two types:
• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum – studded with ribosomes and is the
site where building materials of cellular membrane are formed
• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum – functions in cholesterol synthesis
and breakdown, fat metabolism, and detoxification of drugs
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Golgi Apparatus
• Modifies and packages proteins
• Produces different types of packages:
• Secretory vesicles
• Cell membrane components
• Lysosomes
Lysosomes
• Contain enzymes that digest non-usable materials within the cell
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Peroxisomes
• Membranous sacs of oxidase enzymes
• Detoxify harmful substances
• Break down free radicals (highly reactive chemicals)
Mitochondria
• “Powerhouses” of the cell
• Change shape continuously
• Carry out reactions where oxygen is used to break down food
• Provides ATP for cellular energy
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Cytoskeleton
• Network of protein structures that
extend throughout the cytoplasm
• Provides the cell with an internal
framework
• Three different types:
• Microfilaments
• Intermediate filaments
• Microtubules
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Centrioles
• Rod-shaped bodies made of
microtubules
• Direct formation of mitotic spindle

during cell division
Cellular Projections
• Not found in all cells
• Used for movement
• Cilia moves materials across
the cell surface
• Flagellum propels the cell
Cell Diversity
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Cell Diversity
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Cell Diversity
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Cell Diversity
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Membrane Transport
Membrane Transport – movement of substances into and out of the cell
• Transport is by two basic methods
• Passive Transport – no energy is required
• Active Transport – the cell must provide metabolic energy
Solutions and Transport
• Solution – homogenous mixture of two or more components
• Solvent – dissolving medium
• Solutes – components in smaller quantities within a solution
• Intracellular fluid – nucleoplasm and cytosol
• Interstitial fluid – fluid on the exterior of the cell
Selective Permeability
• The plasma membrane allows some materials to pass while excluding
others.
• The permeability includes movement into and out of the cell
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Passive Transport
Passive Transport – movement of a substance across a membrane
without the direct expenditure of energy.
Diffusion
• Particles tend to distribute themselves evenly within a solution
• Movement is from high concentration to low concentration, or down a
concentration gradient
• Types of Diffusion:
• Simple Diffusion – unassisted process, solutes are lipid-soluble
materials or small enough to pass through membrane pores
• Osmosis – simple diffusion of water, highly polar water easily crosses
the plasma membrane
• Facilitated Diffusion – substances require a protein carrier for passive
transport
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Passive Transport
Filtration
• Water and solutes are forced through a membrane by fluid, or
hydrostatic pressure
• A pressure gradient must exist
• Solute-containing fluid is pushed from a high pressure area to a lower
pressure area
Diffusion
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Osmosis
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Facilitated Diffusion
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Filtration
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Active Transport
Active Transport – transport substances that are unable to pass by
diffusion and the movement requires ATP expenditure
• They may be too large
• They may not be able to dissolve in the fat core of the membrane
• They may have to move against a concentration gradient
• Two common forms of active transport:
• Solute Pumping
• Bulk Transport
Solute Pumping
• Amino acids, some sugars and ions are transported by solute pumps
• ATP energizes protein carriers, and in most cases, moves substances
against concentration gradients
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Active Transport
Bulk Transport
• Exocytosis
• Moves materials out of the cell carried in a membranous vesicle
• Vesicle migrates to the plasma membrane then combines with it
until the material is emptied outside
• Endocytosis
• Extracellular substances are engulfed by being enclosed in a
membranous vesicle
• Types of Endocytosis:
• Phagocytosis – cell eating
• Pinocytosis – cell drinking
Solute Pumping
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Exocytosis
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Phagocytosis
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Pinocytosis
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Cell Life Cycle
Cells have two major periods:

• Interphase
• Cell grows with no cell division
• Cell carries on metabolic processes, activity and growth
• Cell Division
• Cell replicates itself
• Function is to produce more cells for growth and repair processes
• Two events of cell division:
• Mitosis – division of the nucleus and results in the formation of two
nuclei
• Cytokinesis – division of the cytoplasm, begins when mitosis is
near completion and results in the formation of two daughter
cells
Cell Life Cycle
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Interphase
Interphase – interval between successive cell divisions. Protein
synthesis, DNA replication and many other events occur during the
interphase.
Phases:
• G1 (Gap 1) Phase – during this phase, the cell grows, carries out its
basic functions, and produces the new organelles and other
components it will require if it divides. (Normal cell function and cell
growth)
• S (Synthesis) Phase – during this phase, enzymes replicate the cell’s
genetic material and repair damaged DNA. (DNA replication)
• G2 (Gap 2) Phase – during this phase, the cell continues to grow but
also prepares to divide, producing proteins that will help coordinate

mitosis.
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DNA Replication
• Genetic material is
duplicated and readies a
cell for division into two cells.
• Occurs at the S Phase of
Interphase
• DNA uncoils and each side
serves as a template
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Mitosis
• Prophase – first part of cell division, centromeres migrate to the
poles
• Metaphase – spindle from centromeres are attached to
chromosomes that are aligned in the center of the cell
• Anaphase – daughter chromosomes are pulled toward the poles
and the cell begins to elongate
• Telophase – daughter nuclei begin forming, a cleavage furrow
begins to form
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Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis
• The splitting of the cell into two daughter cells. The cytoplasm and
the two nuclei are distributed into the two forming daughter cells,
which then physically separate.
Cleavage Furrow
• The first sign of cytokinesis. It is a slight indentation around the
middle of the dividing cell. A ring of proteins beneath the cell
membrane contracts, separating the daughter cells.
Cell Division
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Cell Division
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Protein Synthesis
Protein Synthesis – is the process in which cells make proteins.
Gene – DNA segment that carries a blueprint for building one protein
and specifies the structure of an RNA molecule.
Gene Expression – is the production of RNA and or proteins from the
information stored in DNA. RNA is essential for protein synthesis.
Proteins have many functions:
• Building materials for cells
• Act as enzymes (biological catalysts)
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Role of RNA
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
• Carries the instructions for building a protein from the nucleus to the
ribosome
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
• Transfers appropriate amino acids to the ribosome for building the
protein
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
• Helps form the ribosomes where proteins are built
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Protein Synthesis
Transcription
• Transfer of information from DNA’s base sequence to the
complimentary base sequence of mRNA
• Occurs at the nucleus
Translation
• Base sequence of nucleic acid is translated to an amino acid
sequence
• Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins
• Occurs at the cytoplasm
Protein Synthesis
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Body Tissues
Cells are specialized for
particular functions.
Tissues
• Groups of cells with similar
structure and function
• Four primary types:
• Epithelial Tissue
• Connective Tissue
• Muscle Tissue
• Nervous Tissue
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Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial Tissue – covers and protects surfaces, both outside and inside
the body.
• Cells are fit closely together
• Tissue layer always has one free surface
• The lower surface is bound by a basement membrane
• Avascular – no blood supply
• Regenerate easily if well nourished
• Found in different areas: body coverings, body linings, and glandular
tissue
• Functions:
• Protection
• Absorption
• Filtration
• Secretion
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Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial Tissue Classifications
Number of Cell Layers:
• Simple – one layer
• Stratified – more than one layer
Shape of Cells:
• Squamous – flattened
• Cuboidal – cube shaped
• Columnar – column like
Epithelial Tissue Types:
• Simple Epithelium
• Stratified Epithelium
• Glandular Epithelium
Simple Epithelium
1. Simple Squamous
• Single layer of flat cells
• Usually forms membranes:
lines body cavities; lines
lungs and capillaries
Simple Epithelium
2. Simple Cuboidal
• Single layer of cube-like cells
• Common in glands and their
ducts
• Forms walls of kidney tubules
• Covers the ovaries
Simple Epithelium
3. Simple Columnar
• Single layer of tall cells
• Often includes goblet cells,
which produce mucus
• Lines digestive tract
DD
Simple Epithelium
4. Pseudostratified
• Single layer, but some cells
are shorter than others
• Often looks like a double cell
layer
• Sometimes ciliated, such as in
the respiratory tract: nasal
cavity, nasal sinuses, pharynx,
trachea, bronchi and auditory
tubes
Stratified Epithelium
1. Stratified Squamous
• Cells at the free edge are
flattened
• Found as a protective
covering where friction is
common
• Locations: skin, mouth,
esophagus
D
2. Stratified Cuboidal
• Two layers of cuboidal cells
• Location: sweat gland ducts,
ovarian follicular cells and
salivary gland ducts
Basement
Membrane
Stratified cuboidal
3. Stratified Columnar
• Surface cells are columnar,
cells underneath vary in size
and shape
• Location: mammary gland
ducts, larynx, portion of the
male urethra
D Basement
Membrane
Stratified columnar
4. Transitional Epithelium
• Shape of cells depends upon
the amount of stretching
• Lines organs of the urinary
system: urinary bladder,
ureters, superior urethra
D
D
Glandular Epithelium
Gland – one or more cells that secretes a particular product
Two major gland types:
1. Endocrine gland
• Ductless
• Secretions are hormones
2. Exocrine gland
• Empty through ducts to the epithelial surface
• Include sweat and oil glands
Glandular Epithelium
Connective Tissue
Connective Tissue
• Found everywhere in the body
• Includes the most abundant and widely distributed tissues
• Variations in blood supply: some tissue types are well vascularized
while some have poor blood supply or are avascular
• It consists of cells separated from each other by abundant
extracellular matrix.
Functions:
• Binds body tissues together
• Supports the body
• Provides protection
• Stores compounds
• Transporting substances
Connective Tissue
Extracellular matrix – non-living material that surrounds living cells
Two main elements:
• Ground substance – mostly water along with adhesion proteins and
polysaccharide molecules
• Protein fibers – produced by the cells
Three types: collagen fibers, elastic fibers, reticular fibers
Extracellular Matrix
Connective Tissue
1. Bone (Osseous Tissue)
• Composed of: bone cells in
lacunae (cavities), hard matrix of
calcium salts, large number of
collagen fibers
• Used to protect and support the
body
• Spongy bone: found at the interior
bones of the skull, vertebrae,
sternum, and pelvis, in the ends of
the long bones
• Compact bone: found at the outer
portions of all bones, shafts of long
bones D
Connective Tissue
2. Hyaline Cartilage
• Composed of: abundant collagen
fibers and rubbery matrix
• Entire fetal skeleton is hyaline
cartilage
• Most common cartilage located
at growing long bones, cartilage
rings of the respiratory system,
costal cartilage of ribs, nasal
cartilages, articulating surface of
bones, embryonic skeleton
D
Connective Tissue
3. Elastic Cartilage
• Provides elasticity
• Location at the external ears,
epiglottis and auditory tubes
4. Fibrocartilage
• Highly compressible
• Example: forms cushion-like discs
between vertebrae, intervertebral
disks, symphysis
DD
Connective Tissue
5. Dense Connective Tissue
• Main matrix element is collagen
fibers running in somewhat the
same direction
• Cells are fibroblasts
• Examples:
tendon – attach muscle to bone,
ligaments – attach bone to bone
DD
Connective Tissue
6. Areolar Connective Tissue
• Most widely distributed
connective tissue: packing
between glands, muscles, and
nerves; also attached the skin to
underlying tissues
• Soft, pliable tissue

• Contains all fiber types
• Can soak up excess fluid
DD D
Connective Tissue
7. Blood
• Blood cells surrounded by fluid
matrix
• Fibers are visible during clotting
• Functions as the transport vehicle
for materials
DD D
Connective Tissue
8. Adipose Tissue
• Matrix is an areolar tissue in which
fat globules predominate
• Many cells contain large lipid
deposits
• Insulates the body, protects some
organs and serves as a site of fuel
storage
DD D
Connective Tissue
9. Reticular Connective Tissue
• Delicate network of interwoven
fibers
• Forms stroma (internal supporting
network) of lymphoid organs:

lymph nodes, spleen, bone
marrow
DD D
Muscle Tissue
Muscle Tissue – functions to
produce movement
Three types:
• Skeletal Muscle
• Cardiac Muscle
• Smooth Muscle
DD D
Muscle Tissue
1. Skeletal Muscle
• Can be controlled voluntarily
• Cells attach to the bone or other
connective tissue
• Cells are striated
• Cells have more than one
nucleus
DD D
DD
Muscle Tissue
2. Cardiac Muscle
• Found only in the heart

• Function is to pump blood
(involuntary)
• Cells attached to other
cardiac muscle cells at
intercalated disks
• Cells are striated
• One nucleus per cell
DD D
DDD
Muscle Tissue
3. Smooth muscle
• Involuntary muscle
• Surrounds hollow organs such as
the stomach and small intestines
• Attached to other smooth muscle
cells
• No visible striations
• One nucleus per cell
DD D
DD
Nervous Tissue
Nervous Tissue
• Neurons and nerve support
cells found in the brain, spinal
cord and ganglia
• Function is to send impulses to
other areas of the body:
• Irritability
• Conductivity
D
DD D
DD
Tissue Repair
Regeneration – replacement of destroyed tissue by the same kind of cells
Fibrosis – repair by dense fibrous connective tissue (scar tissue)
Determination of method:
• Type of tissue damaged
• Severity of the injury
Events in Tissue Repair
1. Capillaries become very permeable
• Introduce clotting proteins
• Wall off injured area
2. Formation of granulation tissue (new tissue)
3. Regeneration of surface epithelium
Tissue Repair
Tissue Regeneration
Tissues that regenerate easily:
• Epithelial tissue
• Fibrous connective tissue and bone
Tissues that regenerate poorly:
• Skeletal muscle
Tissues that are replaced largely with scar tissue:
• Cardiac muscle
• Nervous tissue within the brain and spinal co

Cells

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Cells

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Cells & Tissues

Anatomy & Physiology

Cells & Tissues

• Carry out all chemical activities

needed to sustain life

• Cells are the building blocks of all

• Tissues are groups of cells that are

similar in structure and function

• Cells are not all the same

• All cells share general structures

• Cells are organized into three

• Control center of the cell

• Contains genetic material (DNA)

• Nuclear membrane – the barrier of the nucleus, consists of a double

phospholipid membrane and contains nuclear pores that allow for

exchange of material with the rest of the cell

• Nucleolus – site of ribosome production, ribosomes then migrate to

the cytoplasm through nuclear pores

• Chromatin – composed of DNA and protein and it condenses to

form chromosomes when the cell divides

• Barrier for cell contents

• Also known as the cell membrane

• Gives strength, shape and protection to the cell

• Double phospholipid layer:

• Other materials in the plasma membrane:

projections that increase

surface area for

• Material outside the nucleus and inside the plasma membrane

• Organelles – metabolic machinery of the cell which are membrane

bound and have its own unique structure and functions

• Inclusions – non-functioning units

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Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer

adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer

adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue

• Made of protein and RNA

• Sites of protein synthesis

• Found at two locations: free in the cytoplasm & attached to rough

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

• Fluid-filled tubules for carrying substances

• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum – studded with ribosomes and is the

site where building materials of cellular membrane are formed

• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum – functions in cholesterol synthesis

and breakdown, fat metabolism, and detoxification of drugs

DOLOR SIT AMET,

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer

adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue

• Modifies and packages proteins

• Produces different types of packages:

• Cell membrane components

• Contain enzymes that digest non-usable materials within the cell

DOLOR SIT AMET,

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer

• Membranous sacs of oxidase enzymes

• Detoxify harmful substances

• Break down free radicals (highly reactive chemicals)

• “Powerhouses” of the cell

• Change shape continuously

• Carry out reactions where oxygen is used to break down food

• Provides ATP for cellular energy

DOLOR SIT AMET,

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer