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Utilization of Solid Waste in the Production of Autoclaved Aerated Concrete

and Their Effects on its Physio-mechanical and Microstructural Properties:
Alternative Sources, Characte...
Article in International Journal of Concrete Structures and Materials · October 2022

DOI: 10.1186/s40069-022-00569-x
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ArticleTitle Utilization of Solid Waste in the Production of Autoclaved Aerated Concrete and Their Effects on its Physio-mechanical and Microstructural
Properties: Alternative Sources, Characterization, and Performance Insights
Article Sub-Title
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Journal Name International Journal of Concrete Structures and Materials
Corresponding Author FamilyName Kumar
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Given Name Rajesh
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Organization AcSIR-Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research
Address Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, 201 002, India
Division Organic Building Materials (OBM) Group
Organization CSIR-Central Building Research Institute
Address Roorkee, Uttarakhand, 247 667, India
Phone
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Email rajeshkumar@cbri.res.in
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ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2512-2659
Author FamilyName Abhilasha
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Email abhilash.cbri21a@acsir.res.in
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Author FamilyName Lakhani
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Given Name Rajni
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Email rlakhani@cbri.res.in
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Author FamilyName Mishra
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Given Name Raghav Kumar
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Author FamilyName Khan

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Given Name Shahnavaz
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Schedule Received 4 Apr 2022
Revised
Accepted 7 Oct 2022
Abstract Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) is the lightest masonry material available in today’s building industry. It shows properties, such as high
strength per unit weight, lesser density, lower shrinkage, higher thermal insulation, and fire resistance as compared to traditional concrete. Not
only engineering properties of AAC make it popular in construction industry, but also its eco-friendly nature also contributes in conservation
of energy. AAC produces about 67% lower carbon emission than the clay bricks. Consequently, it becomes a cost-effective product which
reduces the cost of construction. This paper provides thorough insight into possible solutions for the waste utilization. It has been inferred that
fine aggregates can be replaced by these wastes in the preparation of AAC. This replacement will improve its physio-mechanical properties,
such as bulk-density, moisture absorption, compressive strength, along with microstructure. These properties are comprehensively presented
to categorize the investigation which has been done in such fields earlier. The ongoing research work at the author’s institute, i.e., the
development of lightweight concrete by using different kind of waste materials, such as marble slurry, fly ash, etc., is being presented.
Graphical Abstract:
Keywords (separated by '- Lightweight concrete - Autoclaved aerated concrete - Waste utilization - Lower carbon cement - Thermal insulation - Fire resistant
')
Footnote Information Journal information: ISSN 1976-0485 / eISSN 2234-1315
Abhilasha et al. Int J Concr Struct Mater _#####################_
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40069-022-00569-x International Journal of Concrete
Structures and Materials
1
REVIEW Open Access
2 Utilization of Solid Waste in the Production

3 of Autoclaved Aerated Concrete and Their
4 Effects on its Physio‑mechanical
5 and Microstructural Properties: Alternative
6 Sources, Characterization, and Performance
F
7 Insights
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8 Abhilasha1,2, Rajesh Kumar1,2* , Rajni Lakhani1,2, Raghav Kumar Mishra2 and Shahnavaz Khan2
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9
10
AQ1
11
Abstract
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Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) is the lightest masonry material available in today’s building industry. It shows
properties, such as high strength per unit weight, lesser density, lower shrinkage, higher thermal insulation, and fire
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12 resistance as compared to traditional concrete. Not only engineering properties of AAC make it popular in construc-
13 tion industry, but also its eco-friendly nature also contributes in conservation of energy. AAC produces about 67%
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14 lower carbon emission than the clay bricks. Consequently, it becomes a cost-effective product which reduces the
15 cost of construction. This paper provides thorough insight into possible solutions for the waste utilization. It has
16 been inferred that fine aggregates can be replaced by these wastes in the preparation of AAC. This replacement will
EC
17 improve its physio-mechanical properties, such as bulk-density, moisture absorption, compressive strength, along
18 with microstructure. These properties are comprehensively presented to categorize the investigation which has been
19 done in such fields earlier. The ongoing research work at the author’s institute, i.e., the development of lightweight
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20 concrete by using different kind of waste materials, such as marble slurry, fly ash, etc., is being presented.
21 Highlights
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22 • The paper presents the feasibility to use different agro-industrial wastes to develop AAC.
23 • Studies on the effect of fiber reinforcement on the physio-mechanical properties of AAC have been discussed.
24 • Ca/Si ratio affects the tobermorite formation and the mineralogy of AAC.
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25 • Influence of porosity on the microstructure of AAC has been investigated.

26 • Ongoing R&D work at the author’s institute has been described.
Journal information: ISSN 1976-0485 / eISSN 2234-1315

*Correspondence: rajeshkumar@cbri.res.in
1
AcSIR-Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, Ghaziabad, Uttar
Pradesh 201 002, India
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article
© The Author(s) 2022. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which
permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the
original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or
other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line
to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory
regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this
licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
Journal : BMCTwo 40069 Dispatch : 18-10-2022 Pages : 22

Article No : 569 ¨ LE ¨ TYPESET
MS Code : þ CP þ DISK
Abhilasha et al. Int J Concr Struct Mater _#####################_ Page 2 of 22
27 Keywords: Lightweight concrete, Autoclaved aerated concrete, Waste utilization, Lower carbon cement, Thermal
28 insulation, Fire resistant
29 Graphical Abstract
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1 Introduction
Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) was invented in 1923,
and extensively used worldwide. The estimated yearly
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and mechanical processes. The reaction of aluminum
and calcium hydroxide generates hydrogen gas which is
responsible for the porous shape with low weight (Rah-
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65
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34 66
35 worldwide production of AAC (non-reinforced) in recent man et al., 2019). Metallic compounds can also be used as 67
36 years sums up to 450 million m3 (Fouad & Schoch, 2018). an air-entraining agent in the chemical process for gen- 68
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37 It holds 16% of total construction in India; whereas, in erating air bubbles within the concrete. However, in the 69
38 the UK and Germany it contributes over 40 and 60% of mechanical process a variety of foaming agents can be 70
39 total construction (Subash et al., 2016). AAC is assessed used (Karakurt et al., 2010). 71
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40 as lightweight building material with higher thermal In general, AAC can be prepared under the condi- 72
41 resistivity and lower heat conduction. The density and tion of high pressure and temperature which should lie 73
42 compressive strength of AAC vary widely ranging from between 180 and 200 °C in a high-pressure autoclave 74
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43 451 to 1000 kg/m3 and 1.5 to 7.0 MPa, respectively, as (Narayanan & Ramamurthy, 2000). Generally, the pro- 75
44 per IS: 2185 (Part 3). Its thermal insulation property duction of AAC is carried by a homogeneous mixing of 76
45 reduces about 50% consumption of building energy (Rah- commonly available basic raw materials, such as mixture 77
46 man et al., 2019). Even there is no additional thermal of quartz sand which should be ground finely, cement, 78
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47 insulating layers to the building walls in comparison of lime and limiting quantity of aluminum powder (air- 79
48 traditional concrete, hence maximize energy efficiency entraining agent). Air-entraining agent form pores when 80
49 in buildings. Consequently, AAC counts as an environ- steam cured at high pressure and temperature (Kunchari- 81
ment friendly or green material (Rahman et al., 2019). yakun et al., 2015). During the process of autoclaving,
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50 82
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51 AAC block generated around 67% less carbon emissions AAC is strengthened due to the formation of the 1.1 nm 83
52 than clay brick (Yaman & Abd Rashid, 2021). Instead of calcium-silicate-hydrate (Ca5Si6O16(OH)2·4H2O) in crys- 84
53 using standard burnt clay brick, AAC block considerably talline phase called Tobermorite in the fresh state as well 85
54 lessened the environmental effect (Yaman & Abd Rashid, as in hardened state (Qu & Zhao, 2017). 86
55 2021). As the population and urbanization are increasing day 87
56 Aerated concrete can be categorized as autoclaved aer- by day, the consumption of natural resources for mak- 88
57 ated concrete (AAC) or non-autoclaved aerated concrete ing building materials increasing simultaneously. Conse- 89
58 (NAAC) based on pore growth mechanism, cementi- quently, there is a massive increase in the generation of 90
59 tious materials used, and most importantly, the curing unmanaged waste in various industries. This continuous 91
60 method (Narayanan & Ramamurthy, 2000). NAAC is increment in unmanaged waste is the reason why many 92
61 a foamed concrete in which foaming agents are gener- countries including India are facing serious environmen- 93
62 ally based on proteins, synthetic, and glue resins, etc. tal issues. Therefore, re-cyclization and consumption of 94
63 The AAC can be produced by two methods, chemical waste for developing sustainable construction materials, 95

96 such as AAC is the need of today’s world as well as it’s an properties. AAC has been developed using different per- 110
97 effective solution for managing the waste (Munir et al., centage of RHA at a temperature of 180 °C for 8 h. and 111
98 2018). Fig. 1 shows the recent observed country-wise 18 h. Microfine RHA particles showed positive effect as 112
99 and year-wise research pattern in the area of lightweight C-S-H transformed to tobermorite during the cement 113
100 concrete (Source: https://www.scopus.com/, Keyword: hydration (Kunchariyakun et al., 2015). Clinoptilolite 114
101 Lightweight Concrete, Accessed on: 25–08–2022). These which is known as natural zeolite, worked as an aggregate 115
102 observations indicate the urgent need of attention in this as well as a bubble-forming agent in the preparation of 116
103 research area. AAC. Physio-mechanical properties of AAC incorpo- 117
rated with clinoptilolite enhanced due to its coarser size 118
104 1.1 Waste Substitution in AAC of grain (Karakurt et al., 2010). Incorporation of sugar 119
105 Various studies have been conducted by combining dif- sediment waste as a raw material in the preparation of 120
106 ferent waste products [such as—rice husk ash (RHA), AAC improves the compressive strength which is the 121
107 coal gangue, stone waste, solid municipal waste, etc.] into consequence of tobermorite formation in higher amount 122
this course of action. RHA affects various parameters of (Thongtha et al., 2014).
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108 123
109 AAC, such as physio-mechanical and microstructural
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Fig. 1 a Country-wise observed research pattern. b Year-wise observed research pattern

124 In order to reduce the generation of iron ore tailings help for the further assessment. Chemical composition of 175
125 (IOTs) which is a waste produced from the steel indus- various wastes is summarized in Table 2. AQ4 176
126 try, a new technology has been applied in which coal Wastes such as rice husk (Kunchariyakun et al., 2015), 177
127 gangue (CG) is also used with IOTs as a siliceous material Zeolite Socony Mobil-5 (ZSM-5) (Jiang et al., 2021), 178
128 to develop AAC (Wang et al., 2016). AAC mix contains black rice husk ash (BRHA) (Kunchariyakun et al., 2018), 179
129 maximum percentages of siliceous compounds compared quartz tailing (Jin et al., 2016), and quartzite (Albay- 180
130 to other aggregates. Mineral-based aggregates, such as rak et al., 2007) are rich in silica content (90–95%). Due 181
131 broken rock and granites are the major sources of silica to the higher percentages of silica and alumina oxides 182
132 which is the best alternative source of natural river sand (SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 > 90%), they are highly pozzolanic 183
133 (Zafar et al., 2020). Various properties of AAC, such as and active in nature; whereas wastes such as natural zeo- 184
134 thermal, mechanical, and durability has been examined lite (Karakurt et al., 2010), sugar sediment (Thongtha 185
135 in several studies. The solid waste generated during the et al., 2014), iron ore tailing (Wang et al., 2016), stone 186
136 process of cutting, grinding or other processing of stone sawing mud (Wan et al., 2018), granite dust (Zafar et al., 187
is known as stone sawing mud (SSM). Basically, it is a 2020), bagasse ash (Kunchariyakun et al., 2018), and glass
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137 188
138 stone powder which contains lots of water (Alyamaç cullet traces (Walczak et al., 2015a) contain 65–78% of 189
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139 & Aydin, 2015). Quartz with soda feldspar and potas- silica content and can easily replace the quartz sand dur- 190
140 sium feldspar are the major mineral composition of the ing the preparation of AAC. Traces of other chemicals, 191
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141 stone sawing mud. So, the utilization of SSM is a prob- such as CaO, Fe2O3, K2O, and MgO are also present in 192
142 lem subjected to the protection of the groundwater and very less quantities. 193
environment. AAC formed with SSM have good thermal
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144 insulation performance (Wan et al., 2018). 2 Constituents of AAC 194
145 To utilize the waste generated from the stone process- AAC consists of basic components, such as binders 195
146 ing plant, stone dust is being used as a partial replace- (cement, lime), fine aggregate (silica sand), gypsum, an 196
ment of natural or quartz sand in AAC (Zafar et al., air-entraining agent, and water. All the aforementioned
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147 197
148 2020). As a result, reduction in environmental and health ingredients will be discussed in detail in the following 198
hazards, takes place along with the control over exca- subsections.
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149 199
150 vation of river. This research was based on the feasible
151 potential addition of the granite waste in the preparation 2.1 Binder 200
152 of AAC. It has been found that granite waste effectively In AAC, different calcareous and siliceous materials can 201
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153 modifies the various properties in terms of physio- be used as a binder (Narayanan & Ramamurthy, 2000). 202
154 mechanical, thermal and microstructural (Zafar et al., However, cement is the main component used for bind- 203
155 2020). The final properties of AAC depend on the vari- ing it. Generally, OPC and PPC are the types of cement 204
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156 ation of several factors, such as quality of raw materials, that have been used (Hamad, 2014). However, lime as a 205
157 mix design proportioning method, autoclaving time and calcareous material can replaced cement to some extent 206
158 temperature. Although a large number of research have with percentages of cement up to 5% to increase the 207
been published, there is still much scope for improve- pozzolanic properties (Zafar et al., 2020). On the other
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159 208
160 ment in optimizing composition, thermal performance, hand, the raw siliceous material which is used in higher 209
161 shrinkage, and long-term durability (Qu & Zhao, 2017). amounts in the preparation of AAC is quartz which is 210
162 The manufacturing of AAC concrete using various types taken from natural resources. There are numerous stud- 211
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163 of wastes is shown in Table 1. This state of art is primarily ies in which natural sand has been replaced by waste 212
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164 focused on the utilization of different wastes in the prep- material which enhanced the properties of AAC. This 213
165 aration of AAC (Fig. 2). also helped to manage the industrial wastes, such as pul- 214
verized fuel ash, slate waste, and fly ash used to replace 215
166 1.2 Chemical Compositions of Waste Materials the binder or sand (Narayanan & Ramamurthy, 2000). 216
167 Characterization of waste materials provides useful Besides, silica fumes are beneficial for strength increment 217
168 information about the nature of waste. Chemical compo- and affect thermal conductivity due to their higher poz- 218
169 sitions help in the selection of feasible solution by which zolanic properties (Qu & Zhao, 2017). 219
170 that particular waste can be utilize effectively. Geograph-
171 ical locations are the prime factor for the compositions of 2.2 Micro‑particles 220
172 waste. Same type of waste can show different properties Various types of pozzolanic additives in finely dis- 221
173 if they have collected from different places. Still, we can persed form are widely used to enhance the proper- 222
174 conclude useful facts by the characterization, which will ties of concrete. Pozzolanic material can be natural 223
or technogenic material having pozzolanic properties 224

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Table 1 Preparation of AAC using various wastes
Waste Characterization and uses Observations Refs.
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Rice husk ash Silica content is about 92.80%, therefore it can easily 50% optimize replacement of sand has been done. Due to Kunchariyakun et. al. (2015)
replace quartz sand during the formation of AAC the higher reactivity, it decreased the autoclaving time by
converting C-S-H into tobermorite efficiently
MS Code :
Clinoptilolite (natural zeolite) Rich in silica content (> 75%) due to which it can work as an At 50% of optimum replacement of sand, compressive Karakurt et. al. (2010)
Article No : 569
aggregate by replacing silica sand in AAC. Its calcined form strength was increased by 27.9% whereas thermal conduct-
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can be used for generating bubbles in AAC due to the high ance and unit weight (930 kg/m3) was decreased by 11.6%
surface energy after calcination and 14%, respectively. With calcined zeolite, compressive
Journal : BMCTwo 40069

strength was observed as 4.6 MPa without using Al powder
Sugar sediments It has almost similar chemical composition to that of sand 7.5% and 30% replacement of sand and lime by weight has Thongtha et. al. (2014)
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(69.20% SiO2). Therefore, it can be used as an alternative been done, respectively. As a results, higher compressive
source of sand. Due to the presence of 15.57% CaO, it can strength (6.1 MPa) and lower thermal conductivity (com-
be added as alternative to lime paratively 26.3% less) was observed
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Iron ore tailings (IOTs) and coal gangue (CG) Around 68% and 34% silica content were presented in IOTs Combination of IOTs and CG replaced sand completely in Wang et. al. (2016)
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and CG, respectively AAC samples of 600 kg/m3 density for which compressive
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strength was observed 3.68 MPa
Stone processing Mud (SPM) Besides, 70% of SiO2 and 15% of Al2O3, 3.5 and 4.5% K2O
D On 100% replacement of river sand, compressive strength Wan et. al. (2018)
and Na2O presented, respectively was increased by 3.4% and porosity decreased by 1.3%
(average pore size of 0.82 mm)
Dispatch : 18-10-2022
Granite dust 65% SiO2 (average grain size of 15 µm) was presented with At 20% optimal replacement, compressive strength was Zafar et. al. (2020)
15% of Fe2O3. Therefore, it can be used as an alternative increased by 42%. With 5% solution of sulphuric acid
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source of silica rich fine aggregate for the preparation of (H2SO4) and hydrochloric acid (HCl), 32% and 54% higher
AAC acid resistance has been observed, respectively, when com-
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pared to control mix
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Solid municipal waste (incinerated bottom ash) Contains 32% SiO2, 29% CaO and 8.6% A l2O3. Works as a Improved strength with uniformity in pore structure. Song et. al. (2015)
replacement of silica rich fine aggregate and aluminum Decreased drying shrinkage
powder
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decreased the temperature of forming mixture up to 252

1.5%, increased in volume up to 16.0% and increased in 253
UIV up to 2.0% and increased plasticity strength up to 254
152.9% (Lekūnaitė et al., 2012). 255
2.3 Air‑Entraining Agent 256

Aluminum is one of the most commonly used air- 257
entraining agent in the preparation of AAC (Kalpana & 258
Mohith, 2020). The intrusion of air in AAC is generally 259
done by the addition of aluminum powder (AP), having 260
very fine grain size. The aluminum powder reacts with 261
the solvable bases presents in the cement/lime slurry to 262
produce small sizes of bubbles (Narayanan et al., 2000). 263
However, some municipal solid waste (MSW), such as
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264
incineration bottom ash (IBA) can be a substitute for the 265
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conventional AP. It can be used as an air-entraining agent 266
in the formation of AAC. Fig. 3 represents the grain size 267
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distribution curves of three IBAs and AP (Song et al., 268
2015). 269
Fig. 2 Different wastes used for AAC formation PR

2.4 Fiber Addition
AAC is brittle in nature and having similarities to fiber-
reinforced aerated concrete (FRAC) (Laukaitis et al.,
270
271
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2009). FRAC is lightweight AAC in which reinforcement 273
has been done internally by using polymeric fibers (Lau-
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274
225 contains majorly active silica (SiO2). This reacts with kaitis et al., 2009; Zollo, 1997). The micro-structures of 275
226 Portlandite constituent (Ca(OH)2) in cementitious AAC and FRAC show different textures. AAC having 276
brittle behavior and under flexural or tensile loading,
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ingredients. This forms calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S- 277

227
228 H), as a result of additional strength in cementitious does not show any crack resistance nature. On the con- 278
229 materials (Jo et al., 2007; Taylor, 1997). Sinica et. trary, FRAC is a tough concrete and sufficiently dissipates 279
230 al. (2014) has investigated the performance of AAC large energy, because fiber prevents the opening of cracks 280
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231 which contains continuous basalt fibers (BF) and silica by bridging action (Pehlivanlı et al., 2015). FRAC has 281
232 micro-dust (SMD), within recurrent cooling and heat- significantly lower values of compressive strength than 282
233 ing cycles. It was confirmed that BF having 0.1–6 mm AAC, because room temperature curing is performed 283
for the preparation of FRAC. Autoclaving process can
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length, 4.6 µm an average diameter and S iO2 micro- 284

234
235 dust with about 20 µm average size particle, signifi- damage polypropylene fibers and to prevent this damage, 285
236 cantly enhanced the AAC stability (Sinica et al., 2014). autoclaving process has been eliminated. This elimina- 286
237 After 25 cycles of cooling and heating, the compressive tion of the autoclaving process in FRAC will result in a 287
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238 strength increases from 20 to 52%, bending strength lower strength value and a higher degree of unevenness. 288
239 increases from 27 to 62% and shrinkage deformation FRAC had nearly half compressive strength than that 289
240 decreased by 25% when compared to normal samples of AAC samples but flexural strength of FRAC was 100 290
241 without additives (Sinica et al., 2014). times greater than that of AAC. This was due to the pres- 291
242 Incorporation of nano-sized amorphous silica (AS) ence of fibers, which act as a bridge between the macro- 292
243 and carbon fiber (CF) in the formation of AAC, affects and micro-cracks (Laukaitis et al., 2009). However, fibers 293
244 the properties of AAC forming mixture. At 1.0% of can increase the ductile properties of AAC by providing 294
245 optimum replacement of sand by AS in the AAC the bridging between micro- and macro-cracks (Lau- 295
246 mix, expansion of the forming mixture of AAC was kaitis et al., 2009; Pehlivanlı et al., 2015). 296
247 increased by 11.0%. Temperature of the forming mix Different fibers, such as polypropene, basalt, non- 297
248 increased by 2.1%, compressive strength increased by hydrophilic and hydrophilic carbon, and kaolin have 298
249 271.4%, and, ultrasonic impulse velocity (UIV) also been used to enhance the properties of AAC (Pehlivanlı 299
250 increased by 3.0% (Lekūnaitė et al., 2012); whereas, et al., 2015, 2016). 300
251 the optimal substitution of CF with sand by 0.1%

Table 2 Chemical composition of various wastes used in the formation of AAC
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Waste materials SiO2 Al2O3 CaO Fe2O3 FeO Fe2O P2O5 SO2 MgO Na2O K2O CaSO4 SO3 LOI Refs.
Rice husk 92.80 0.15 0.70 0.17 – – 1.87 – 0.77 0.08 3.35 – – – Kunchariyakun et. al. (2015)
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Natural zeolite 77.07 13.56 2.36 1.59 – – – – 1.45 0.11 3.86 – – – Karakurt et. al. (2010)
Sugar sediment 69.20 7.08 15.57 0.92 – – – – 0.12 0.90 1.20 – – – Thongtha et. al. (2014)
Iron ore tailing 68.96 7.68 4.35 2.32 4.47 – – 0.02 3.64 1.41 1.85 – – 2.49 Wang et. al. (2016)
MS Code :
Coal gangue 34.05 26.00 0.67 0.49 1.70 – – 0.28 0.61 - 0.16 – – 32.76
Article No : 569
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Autoclaved coal 51.05 36.71 1.05 3.12 0.42 – – – 0.92 - 0.23 – – 0.72
Stone sawing mud 72.66 15.09 1.56 1.15 – – – – 0.38 4.54 3.58 – – 0.42 Wan et. al. (2018)
Journal : BMCTwo 40069

Granite dust 65.53 5.39 9.50 15.09 – – – – – – 2.60 – – 1.89 Zafar et. al. (2020)
IBA 32.75 8.57 29.06 10.02 – – 4.77 – 1.75 2.87 1.24 – 3.01 6.60 Song et. al. (2015)
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EPS 70 14 3 2.4 – – – – 0.2 7.6 – – 1.7 Bonakdar et. al. (2013)
Lime sulphate ash 0.42 0.26 43.9 – – – – – – 2.34 – 31.0 – – Hauser et. al. (1999)
Al-bearing ash 14.51 9.30 24.4 – – – – – – 0.44 - 10.7 – –
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Iron tailings 42.90 10.75 12.97 7.51 – – – – 7.10 2.06 1.96 – 9.04 4.48 Ma et. al. (2016)
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CP
ZSM-5
Black rice husk
94.01
93.70
0.55
0.40
0.16
0.92
0.23
–
–
–
–
0.28
–
–
–
–
D
1.48
–
-
0.03
-
2.55
–
–
–
–
3.57
4.40
Jiang et. al. (2021)
Kunchariyakun et. al. (2018)
Bagasse ash 68.60 3.97 7.85 – – 3.16 1.71 – 1.69 1.07 3.92 – – 5.22
Dispatch : 18-10-2022
Carbide slag 2.57 1.88 65.03 0.09 – – – – 0.17 0.09 – – – 28.31
Quartz tailing 93.23 1.68 0.33 0.56 – – – – 0.14 – 0.64 – – 0.78 Jin et. al. (2016)
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Phospho-gypsum 10.64 1.22 25.39 0.54 – – – – 0.19 0.23 0.50 – – 22.91
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Quartzite 97.58 0.31 0.14 1.20 – – – – 0.10 0.10 0.03 – – 0.03 Albayrak et. al. (2007)
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Glass cullet 67.1 0.90 7.4 0.20 – – – – 4.2 19.4 – – – – Walczak et. al. (2015a)
Hematite tailing 24.4 10.95 6.2 44.52 – – 2.78 – 0.99 0.28 – – 0.24 6.95 Zhao et. al. (2012)
Copper tailing 44.52 5.36 13.56 1.94 – – – – 19.92 1.00 1.20 –
O – 9.26 Huang et. al. (2012)
Blast furnace slag 32.7 15.4 38.79 0.4 – – – – 8.97 0.23 0.36 – – 0.76
F
Page 7 of 22
301 Result shows that both type of fiber additives, i.e., Reinforcing of AAC with fiber microstructure analysis 354
302 hydrophilic, and non-hydrophilic enhanced the flexural seems to be strengthen the adherence. 355
303 and compressive strengths of AAC. Hydrophilic additives Graphical representation of few desirable properties 356
304 are more effective than their respective non-hydrophilic is shown in Fig. 5. From the graph, it can be easily con- 357
305 fibers. Compressive and flexural strengths are increased cluded that the thermal behavior of with fiber AAC (WF) 358
306 more in this case; whereas, all other fiber substitution linearly varies with thermal properties of the added fib- 359
307 enhanced the modulus of rupture of concrete more than ers unlike non-fiber AAC (NF). It can also be concluded 360
308 the compressive strength, the order of which was as fol- that flexural strength as well as compressive strength also 361
309 lows: kaolin fiber < basalt fiber < polypropylene fiber < car- increased in WF when compared to NF. The bulk den- 362
310 bon fiber (Laukaitis et al., 2009). sity was increased in the AAC mix with/without fiber 363
311 The results of microstructural analysis of FRACs using addition. 364
312 scanning electron microscope (SEM) showed that the
313 carbon and polypropylene fibers are chemically inert
with the hardened concrete matrix. Therefore, FRAC 2.5 Hydrophobic Agents 365
F
314
315 using these fibers can resist the erosion of alkaline mor- Addition of suitable hydrophobic agents enhanced the 366
strength characteristics of the AAC. This leads to enable
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316 tar media. So it will not be chemically damaged, will not 367
317 lose its flexibility, and when destructive force is applied to its suitability in various field of civil engineering, such as 368
bridge, hydraulic structures, etc. The effect of inclusion of
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318 the concrete, they will slide in the matrix of the hardened 369
319 binder. Hence, flexural and compression strength of con- hydrophobic products in preparation of AAC is discussed 370
cretes generally increases in these cases (Laukaitis et al., in this investigation. It has been found that various mate-
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371
320
321 2009; Pehlivanlı et al., 2015); whereas, the filaments of rial properties significantly change at the same time, such 372
322 fibers like basalt and kaolin fibers chemically react with as compressive and bending strengths. Also, important 373
323 the binder of concrete. Consequently, they will not slide effect takes place on reducing water absorption capacity, 374
in the mixture when the concrete is destroyed or when which play important role in building construction and 375
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324
325 the destructive forces are applied. Due to the chemical subsequently enhanced freeze–thaw resistance, carbona- 376
reactions, only little increment in the compressive and tion resistance, and chloride ion penetration (Beben and 377
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326
327 bending strength of the concrete is observed (Laukaitis “Zee” Manko, 2011). 378
328 et al., 2009).

329 Experimental examination of fiber reinforcement con-
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2.6 Superplasticizer 379
330 cluded that the thermal behavior of fiber incorporated By chemical nature, superplasticizers are water-solu- 380
331 AAC linearly varies with thermal properties of the added ble polymers (Dziekan et al., 2011). They contain sul- 381
332 fibers (Tanyildizi, 2008). AAC reinforced with basalt fiber fonated and carboxylated macromolecules and referred
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382
333 gives the lowest thermal resistivity. But AAC reinforced as high-range water reducers in concrete. Reduction of 383
334 with carbon fiber shows higher modulus of rupture and the amount of water in the mix is crucial for decreas- 384
335 compressive strength. SEM analyses of polypropylene, ing the capillary porosity of the hardened cementitious 385
glass, basalt, fiber undoped AAC and AAC reinforced
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336
materials. The second important function of a superplas- 386
337 with carbon fiber are shown in Fig. 4 (Pehlivanlı et al., ticizer is to retain the specified consistency of concrete 387
338 2016). Microstructural analysis was obtained using fiber at fresh state for a given course of time, even at feasible 388
339 undoped AAC as reference. Fig. 4a shows the C-S-H water/binder ratio (Dziekan et al., 2011). Superplasticiz- 389
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340 (tobermorite) crystals of the control sample at (5000×) ers based on polycarboxylates are useful to influence the 390
341 magnification along with reference sample at (35×) mag- properties of AAC. Poly-carboxy, carboxylic groups and 391
342 nification. It was observed that the sizes of pores were polyether contains plasticizers having more solubility in 392
343 varying from 1 and 1.5 mm. In SEM image of basalt the water. 393
344 FRAC (Fig. 4b), between AAC and basalt fiber (bond Solutions of water in which 30% (by wt.) plasticizer are 394
345 produced by the fiber and AAC) adherence compli- added as an admixture, were applied to concrete (Zemin- 395
346 ance was developed. Small quantity of tobermorite gels ian et al., 2018). Samples concrete are based on calcium 396
347 also visible in the image. In polypropylene FRAC image oxide, gypsum and, fly ash as binders and an aggregate. 397
348 (Fig. 4c), between AAC and polypropylene fiber adher- Foam–gas–silicate (FGS) technique was used to form 398
349 ence compliance was ensured. In cropped carbon FRAC concrete in this study. Mixtures containing superplasti- 399
350 image (Fig. 4d), between AAC and cropped carbon fiber cizers as well as mixtures without containing superplas- 400
351 adherence compliance was ensured (Pehlivanlı et al., ticizers were autoclaved, and then characterized. The 401
352 2016). Fig. 4e shows the reinforcement by glass fiber. samples with superplasticizers were enabled to decrease AQ5 402
353 Also, on the left side, tobermorite (C-S-H) was observed. water requirement by 20% and showed 10% higher 403

becomes slow. Hence, gas is not entrapped properly and 436

tends to move upward which consequently generates 437
interconnected pores. This distribution of uneven pores 438
in the direction of expansion is known as anisotropy 439
(Qu & Zhao, 2017). The setting rate of slurry and gas- 440
formation rate is influenced by the initial water tempera- 441
ture which is responsible for the balance between these 442
two. Reasonable water temperature increases the tem- 443
perature of slurry about 70–80 °C at room temperature 444
which consequently provides satisfactory pore size (Ma 445
et al., 2016; Qu & Zhao, 2017). The density of AAC can 446
be adjusted by the dosage of aluminum powder and the 447
range of aluminum powder lies between 0.1 and 0.25% of 448
the weight of binder (Bonakdar et al., 2013; Hussin et al.,
F
449
2010; Kunchariyakun et al., 2015; Rahman et al., 2021; 450
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Wang et al., 2016; Zafar et al., 2020). With steam curing 451
Fig. 3 Particle size distribution curves of three incineration bottom in autoclave treatment, the transformation of an origi- 452
ash and aluminum powder (Song et al., 2015)
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nally formed C-S-H phase takes place into tobermorite 453
(5CaO·6SiO2·5H2O) by reacting with dissolved silica. 454
PR
This hydrated product provides smaller shrinkage and 455
404 density, and about 20% higher compressive strength higher compressive strength at a lower density. Gyrolite 456
405 compared to the samples without plasticizers (Zemin- (Ca4(Si6O15)·(OH)2·3H2O) was formed when finer quartz 457
406 ian et al., 2018). Phase analysis did not show any differ- is utilized for preparation of AAC at higher autoclaving 458
ences between these two concrete samples. All samples time (Albayrak et al., 2007). On increasing the autoclav-
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407 459
408 contained tobermorite phase, and the C-S-H phase. It is ing pressure (i.e., > 0.8 MPa) tobermorite developed well, 460
409 important to note that there is not any significant effect whereas when the autoclaving pressure was more than
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461
410 on chemical and mineralogical composition of AAC on 1.2 MPa other hydrothermal products were also formed 462
411 addition of superplasticizer (Kerienė et al., 2013). which had lower strength (Baspinar et al., 2014; Cong 463
et al., 2016; Zhao et al., 2012). Tobermorite appears at 464
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412 3 Preparation Method of AAC nearly 2 h of autoclaving and profound up to 6–8 h and 465
413 In the physical stage of mix proportions of AAC, calcare- further, no formation takes place on increasing time 466
414 ous materials and siliceous materials, the dosage of air- (Narayanan et al., 2000; Wang et al., 2006). The process 467
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415 entraining agent (Al powder), initial water temperature, of AAC preparation is described in Fig. 6 (Hamad, 2014). 468
416 and water solids ratios (W/S) are the major parameters
417 that should be predetermined. The range of bulk (Ca/ 4 Physio‑mechanical Properties 469
418 Al + Si) ratio opted by many researches are varying from 4.1 Density
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470
419 0.48 to 0.83 (Bonakdar et al., 2013; Laukaitis et al., 2009; Bulk density affects numerous behaviors of AAC, such as 471
420 Pehlivanlı et al., 2016; Qu & Zhao, 2017; Walczak et al., dry shrinkage, compressive strength, and thermal con- 472
421 2015a), whereas binder (cement and lime)/fine aggre- ductivity (Tada, 1986). The specific gravity of constitu- 473
gate ratio lies as 1:1–1:2 (Qu & Zhao, 2017). The water
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422 ent materials and quantity of air-entraining agent are the 474
423 solids ratios are the ratio of the weight of water, required factors that closely controlled the bulk density (Karakurt 475
424 for mix formation to the weight of solid, required for the et al., 2010; Kunchariyakun et al., 2015; Song et al., 2015). 476
425 formation of mixture. W/S ratio can change depending As the density control the various physical properties of 477
426 on the fluidity of the slurry, and hence varies with con- AAC, it is essential to specify the density with respect 478
427 stituents and mix proportion. At lower W/S ratio, higher to the moisture condition, i.e., at equilibrium with the 479
428 viscosity with rapid hardening will slow down its smooth atmosphere or oven-dry condition. AAC produced from 480
429 swelling because of increased cohesive forces (Laukaitis autoclaving may be 15 to 25% more heavier than oven 481
430 et al., 2009). treated AAC (Narayanan et al., 2000). On increasing the 482
431 Pore structure, such as distribution and pore size duration of autoclave (i.e., > 8 h), bulk density slightly 483
432 relates the variation in the volume of AAC slurry which increases because more hydration products were formed 484
433 is essentially control by W/S ratio (Laukaitis et al., 2009). (Narayanan et al., 2000; Karakurt et al., 2010). 485
434 At a very higher W/S ratio, the segregation in the slurry AP reacting with lime results in a decrement in den- 486
435 occurs at different location and the hardening rate sity, consequently reducing the strength of AAC. To 487

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Fig. 4 SEM image analysis of a reference AAC; b basalt FRAC (×1000); c polypropylene FRAC (×2000); d cropped carbon FRAC (×2000) and e glass
fiber FRAC (×500) (Pehlivanlı et al., 2016)
488 compensate this decrement in strength, marble waste showed gradual decrement in the density (Kunchari- 495
489 used as substituents of cement which fill the micro- yakun et al., 2015). Responsible cause for this decrement 496
490 pores created during aeration reaction hence enhanced was the lower specific gravity of RHA (Kunchariyakun 497
491 the strength of AAC. Hence reutilization of industrial et al., 2015); whereas, the sudden decrease was observed 498
492 waste helps to the development of energy-efficient con- in the density of BA substituted AAC samples (Kunchari- 499
493 crete (Perumalsamy et al., 2018). Fig. 7 shows graphical yakun et al., 2018). This was due to the nonpolar surface 500
494 representation of bulk density. AAC samples with RHA and retardation effect of presented unburned carbon in 501

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Fig. 5 Influence of fiber addition on the properties of AAC (Pehlivanlı et al., 2016)
502
503
BA. At 20% of optimum replacement of sand by granite
dust, density of AAC was increased by 13.45% (Zafar
et al., 2020). Responsible cause for this increment was the
PR
which is very important to maintain the density as well as
compressive strength. Higher compressive strength is the
result of smaller microscopic pores which can be derived
532
533
D
504 534
505 formation of higher density tobermorite crystals, instead from smaller values of the W/S ratio (Kunchariyakun 535
506 of hexagonal Portlandite crystals (Zafar et al., 2020). The et al., 2015; Song et al., 2015). Tobermorite crystals are 536
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507 bulk density was decreased by 12% when quartz sand majorly responsible for the compressive strength of AAC. 537
508 replaced with 5% perlite waste; whereas, density was Higher compressive strength and more crystalline phases 538
509 decreased by 45% quartz sand replaced by 40% perlite are correlated to each other hence basic proportioning 539
EC
510 waste (Różycka & Pichór, 2016). should be optimal for larger tobermorite crystals (Thong- 540
tha et al., 2014). Low values of the C/S ratio result in the 541
creation of very poor-quality crystalline phase as well 542
4.2 Compressive Strength
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511 as not facilitates the formation of Tobermorite crystals. 543

512 The measurement of resistance which is offered by walls Hence, to prevent these outcomes the range of the C/S 544
513 of pores to stress is known as compressive strength. Many ratio should lie at 0.8–1.0 (Mostafa, 2005). Quartz sand is 545
514 factors can affect the compressive strength, such as pore higher in the percentages of silica in comparison to river 546
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515 size distribution with the number of pores and the hydro- sand thus the estimated addition of sand is bound to 20% 547
516 thermal products (such as C-S-H) formed by the binder only, whereas an increment in compressive strength has 548
517 (Tada, 1986). However, the porosity has imposed more been observed from 2.2 to 3.74 MPa on increasing the 549
518 effect on this mechanical property. Porosity also affects quantity of quartz sand (Cicek & Tanrıverdi, 2007).
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550
519 density, as increase in the porosity, density reduces. From Fig. 8, it can be concluded that addition of waste 551
520 However, compressive strength is not solely dependent can enhance the strength of AAC. Optimal range for 552
521 on porosity, but pore size can also influence it. Smaller the addition of various wastes to improve the compres- 553
522 pores lead to higher compressive strength in comparison sive strength of AAC is 30–40%, as shown in the graph. 554
523 to larger pores (Tada, 1986); whereas reduction in density At 30% of optimal replacement by different wastes, such 555
524 leads to the decrement in compressive strength (Albayrak as black rice husk ash (Kunchariyakun et al., 2018), bot- 556
525 et al., 2007; Alexanderson, 1979; Bonakdar et al., 2013; tom ash (Kunchariyakun et al., 2018), and sugar sediment 557
526 Holt & Raivio, 2005; Hu et al., 1997; Kunchariyakun et al., (Thongtha et al., 2014), compressive strength increases 558
527 2018; Narayanan et al., 2000; Petrov & Schlegel, 1994; by 46%, 26% and 18%, respectively. Beyond 40% addi- 559
528 Song et al., 2015; Wongkeo & Chaipanich, 2010; Wong- tion of waste shows no improvement on the compressive 560
529 keo et al., 2012). strength and it decreases gradually. As specific strength is 561
530 Microstructure and ingredients also influence the com- defined as strength per unit density, compressive strength 562
531 pressive strength. W/S ratio predicts the amount of water increases with increase in density and vice-versa. From 563

Fig. 6 Methodology adopted for development of AAC (Hamad, 2014)
F
O
formation of AAC provides max strength. On the other
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582
hand, ZF (fine zeolite 100 µm) decreased the strength due 583
to lower particle size and retardation effect of pozzolonic 584
PR
materials (Karakurt et al., 2010). At 20% optimal replace-
ment of sand by waste granite dust, flexural strength was
increased by 50% (Zafar et al., 2020).
585
586
587
D
4.4 Drying Shrinkage 588
The process of drying leads to dimensional changes
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589
responsible for inducing cracks in the structure. AAC 590
shows high drying shrinkage which is the result of the 591
specific surface of pores, high porosity, and absence of 592
EC
aggregates. Drying shrinkage of porous building material 593

is explained by capillary tension theory which stated that 594
Fig. 7 Bulk density of AAC on the addition of various wastes water experiences stress in the micro-pores which creates 595
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attraction between the walls of the pore (Nielsen,1983; 596

Ramamurthy & Narayanan, 2000). AAC has less drying 597
shrinkage when compared to NAAC due to the conver- 598
564 Fig. 8b, it can be observed that optimal addition of vari-
sion of set cement gel into microcrystalline form after 599
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565 ous kinds of wastes (by 20–40%), such as black rice husk
autoclaving (Alexanderson, 1979; Washa et al., 1965). 600
566 ash (Kunchariyakun et al., 2018), bottom ash (Kunchari-
As cement is fine, it therefore provides a large surface 601
567 yakun et al., 2018) can improve the specific strength of
area to evaporate adsorbed water and hence higher dry- 602
568 AAC.
ing shrinkage can be observed. The increment in lime/
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603
cement ratio increased the quantity of fines in the mix- 604
569 4.3 Flexural Strength
ture which consequently increases the drying shrinkage. 605
570 Flexural strength is the measurement of bending strength
So limiting the incorporation of lime in the mix prevents 606
571 of beams or slabs of AAC when exposed to a transverse
the increment in drying shrinkage. Fly ash also increases 607
572 load at the mid-span of the beam and its value is about
the drying shrinkage due to the presence of a higher sur- 608
573 17–34% of their compressive strength (Hu et al., 1997).
face area (Lam et al., 2018). The quantity of air-entraining 609
574 Comparison between the properties of AAC and FRAC
agent, superplasticizers, and silica fumes has no influence 610
575 was studied. It was concluded that AAC has slightly
on drying shrinkage (Ramamurthy & Narayanan, 2000); 611
576 higher maximum flexural stress than FRAC (Dey et al.,
whereas the incorporation of alumina-rich substances, 612
577 2014); whereas deflection and toughness capacity are
such as bauxite, alumina-rich cement and blast furnace 613
578 reported higher in FRAC than AAC due to the presence
slag can decrease the percentage of drying shrinkage by 614
579 of polypropene fiber (0.5% by weight) which provides
580 bridging to cracks (Song et al., 2015). Fig. 9 shows that at
581 50% replacement of ZC (coarse zeolite 0.5–1 mm) in the

615 30–100% because of the development of a greater num- of participated pores during the suction process. Mois- 646
616 ber of tobermorite (Alexanderson, 1979). ture condition plays a decisive role in water absorp- 647
617 The shrinkage mechanism of AAC is still unclear. It has tion (Lam et al., 2018). Water vapor diffusion increases 648
618 not been thoroughly explored for the wide range of sat- in the dry state because all pores are vacant in the dry 649
619 uration conditions to dry conditions at various range of state; whereas, in the regions where humidity is high, 650
620 relative humidity (RH) (Lam et al., 2018). Drying shrink- the capillary condensed water can fill some pores due to 651
621 age of AAC has been studied at lower and higher value of which these pores will not contribute to water vapor dif- 652
622 RH. Result shows that at higher RH (> 65%), capillary ten- fusion, and consequently water moves in it through the 653
623 sion theory plays important role for the drying shrinkage capillary forces only (Prim & Wittmann, 1983). Fig. 10 654
624 mechanism; whereas at lower RH (< 65%) the shrinkage shows graphical representation of water absorption using 655
625 of AAC has a linear connection with the surface energy different wastes, such as sugar sediments (Thongtha 656
626 change. It has been determined that the primary factor et al., 2014), waste granite dust (Zafar et al., 2020) and, 657
627 for AAC to shrink under low RH circumstances (RH 65%) stone sawing mud (Wan et al., 2018). On increasing the 658
is a shift in the surface free energy (Lam et al., 2018).
F
628
O
629 4.5 Water Absorption
630 High porosity is the main characteristic of AAC which
O
631 is mainly responsible for high moisture absorption of
632 AAC (Jerman et al., 2013). Water absorption is basi-
PR
633 cally worked from two channels, i.e., capillary pores
634 and artificial air pores. The volume of capillary pores
635 does not vary so much but as the volume of artificial
636 air pores increases, average length for water migration
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637 also increases in the material. Moisture absorption in
638 air pores is resulting from the capillary rise which can
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639 be observed when any porous material comes into the

640 contact of water and can be explained by the following
641 relationship:
EC
642
√
M = CF t,
643
644 where ‘F’ is absorbed water per surface area with time
Fig. 9 Flexural strength of AAC on the addition of various wastes
(t); ‘C’ is the capillary coefficient and depends on number
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645
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(a) (b)
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Fig. 8 a, b Compressive strength and specific strength of AAC on the addition of various wastes

659 percentage of various wastes, water absorption was con- calcium hydroxide hexagonal plate-like morphology 711
660 stant. However, decrement in the water absorption is was observed (Fig. 11a). All crystals are shown in Fig. 11 712
661 the result of lesser porosity. Water absorption gradually (Zafar et al., 2020). 713
662 decreased up to 8% when sand is replaced by SSM from
663 10 to 100% (Wan et al., 2018). 5.2 X‑ray Diffraction Analysis 714
Solid crystalline phases of specimens formed by using 715
664 5 Microstructural Analysis wastes were analyzed by XRD. Fig. 12 represents 716
665 5.1 Mineralogy the diffraction patterns of AAC after 8 h and 18 h of 717
666 Alite and belite are the major C-S-H phases of Portland autoclaving time with and without waste (Kunchari- 718
667 cement. The reaction of alite with water is relatively yakun et al., 2015). Fig. 12a shows the peak of quartz, 719
668 faster than belite leads to development of early strength Ca(OH)2 and tobermorite crystals with high intensity. 720
669 in concrete. Belite reacts slowly in initial stages, but in As RHA introduced in control mix, peak intensity of 721
670 later ages it can significantly impart strength in concrete quartz and Ca(OH)2 was decreased. As the substitution 722
(Karakurt et al., 2010). Autoclaving process limits the of RHA reached up to 100%, peak of quartz has disap-
F
671 723
672 formation of Portlandite as a result of development of peared; whereas, the peak intensity of tobermorite was 724
O
673 stable C-S-H, which have similar properties alike tober- increased on RHA substitution. Decrement in the peak 725
674 morite natural mineral (characterized by a 11.3 Å basal of Ca(OH)2 concluded that silica which present in RHA 726
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675 reflection and discovered in 1880 by Heddle). As the is highly reactive and readily consumed Ca(OH)2 to 727
676 autoclaving time increases, initial crystalline phases pro- produce C-S-H. However, there is no effect on tober- 728
duced by various components (Isu et al., 1995; Karakurt
PR
677 morite formation when temperature was increased 729
678 et al., 2010; Kikuma et al., 2011; Klimesch et al., 1996). from 8 to 18 h (Fig. 12b) (Kunchariyakun et al., 2015). 730
679 The literature study on XRD has confirmed that C-S-H, XRD of AAC (Fig. 12d) with stone sawing mud con- 731
680 tobermorite, and other crystalline systems are the main cludes that tobermorite is main constituent (Wan et al., 732
mineralogical constituent of AAC (Albayrak et al., 2007; 2018) and its peak intensity was increased as compared
D
681 733
682 Hauser et al., 1999; Huang et al., 2012; Karakurt et al., to normal AAC samples (Fig. 12c). XRD graphs of AAC 734
2010; Kunchariyakun et al., 2015; Mostafa, 2005; Yang with ZSM-5 waste are shown in Fig. 12e, f. It shows that
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683 735
684 et al., 2013). Earlier studies showed that the C/S ratio sample produced with 15% ZSM-5 (or ZN15) has the 736
685 determines the texture and micro-morphology of crys- highest crystallinity peak, as shown in Fig. 12e. As the 737
686 talline phases like tobermorite crystals (Hong & Glasser, time of autoclaving increased, peak of CH, mullite was 738
EC
687 2004; Mostafa, 1995; Mostafa et al., 2001; Pellenq et al., decreased in Fig. 12f (Jiang et al., 2021). Tobermorite 739
688 2009; Sato & Grutzeck, 1991; Taylor, 1997). was formed predominantly after 2 to 8 h. 740
689 The optimal C/S range for the formation of tobermorite
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690 has been reported by previous works, which shows that

691 the range lies between 0.8 and 1.0 (Kunchariyakun et al.,
692 2015; Mostafa, 2005). At a higher C/S value (> 1), tober-
morite crystals of needle-shaped were formed; whereas
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693
694 at lower C/S value (< 1), crumbled foil-like and plate-like
695 tobermorite crystals were formed but at very less C/S
696 value (< 0.8), grass-like C-S-H was observed which can be
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697 easily convert in tobermorite crystals due to having short

698 silica chains. (Kunchariyakun et al., 2015, 2018; Papatzani
699 et al., 2015; Sato & Grutzeck, 1991).
700 The effect of waste granite dust (WGD) inclusion in
701 AAC has also been studied (Zafar et al., 2020). High-
702 quartz sand is partially replaced by WGD in various per-
703 centage of replacement, such as 5, 10, 15, and 20%. In
704 this research, the energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) test on
705 AAC result showed that the C/S ratios of the crystalline
706 phases comes out to be 0.99, 0.94, and 1.40 for WGD10
707 mix, WGD20 mix, and CM, respectively (Zafar et al.,
708 2020). For WGD10 mix, foiled tobermorite (plate-like/
709 crumble) (Fig. 11c), and for WGD20, C-S-H gel (Fig. 11b)
710 was observed; whereas microstructure of CM mixes the Fig. 10 Water absorption of AAC on the addition of various wastes

741 5.3 Pore Structure concrete value of thermal conductivity lies between 1.6 775
742 High porosity (which covers the range from 65 to 90%) and 2.0 W/mK (Dey et al., 2014; Thongtha et al., 2014). 776
743 is the main characteristic of AAC. Due to this prop- Many factors can influence the thermal conductiv- 777
744 erty, density and compressive strength of AAC is com- ity, such as pore structure, density, etc. However, ther- 778
745 paratively low with respect to normal-weight concrete mal conductivity has largely been influenced by density. 779
746 (Bonakdar et al., 2013; Thongtha et al., 2014). There are at On the decrement of density, thermal conductivity also 780
747 least two types of pores in AAC, which are called “macro- decreases. On the other hand, density and porosity both 781
748 pores” and “micro-pores”. Macro-pores are pores with are inversely proportional to each other. More porosity % 782
749 diameters more than 50 nm and micro-pores have pore results in more entrapped air in the pores and hence less 783
750 sizes lower than 2 nm (Lam et al., 2018). The other one density and more thermal insulation have been observed. 784
751 is called “meso-pores” and they exist between the gaps On increasing porosity from 50 to 70%, decrement of 785
752 of these two ranges. The pore distances of air pores in thermal conductivity as 0.22–0.08 W/mK, was observed 786
753 AAC may range from one millimeter down to zero which (Albayrak et al., 2007; Dey et al., 2014; Hu et al., 1997; Jer- 787
means the pores touch each other or are even intercon- man et al., 2013; Kreft et al., 2011; Kunchariyakun et al.,
F
754 788
755 nected. The pore size in AAC is always in the millimeter 2015; Schober, 2005; Topçu & Uygunoğlu, 2007). 789
O
756 range, mostly having diameters in the range between 0.5 Depending on the phase structure, thermal conductiv- 790
757 and 3.0 mm as shown in Fig. 13a (Schober, 2011). ity also varies. AAC with fly ash has a lower value of ther- 791
O
758 The pore size distribution is commonly a mono modal mal conductivity than AAC with Quartz sand because 792
759 and narrow one and it is primarily a matter of air- they both have different hydrated phases, and also fly ash 793
entraining agent or method by which medium size of
PR
760 particles have microporous structures as compared to 794
761 air pores will be generated in AAC. The air pores con- Quartz sand (Choo et al., 2021). Fly ash has glass phases 795
762 tribute between 25 and 70% to the total volume of pores whereas quartz sand has crystalline phases. Since, fly ash 796
763 introduced in AAC during the manufacturing process has a high glass concentration. Therefore, it is possible 797
(Schober, 2011). The expanding crack structure is a sig- to see distinct phase compositions, such as tobermorite-
D
764 798
765 nificant pore structure element in AAC material made like fiber, gel C-S-H, or hydrogarnets, due to high A l2O3 799
with aluminum as shown in Fig. 13b. The cracks own a content within fly ash incorporated AAC. While, only a
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766 800
767 preferred orientation that they lie horizontal when the tobermorite-like plates can be seen in the sand incorpo- 801
768 rising direction is upward and mostly are interconnect- rated AAC (Walczak et al., 2015b). Also, apart from the 802
769 ing the air pores (Petrov & Schlegel, 1994; Schober, 2005, above, as fly ash comprises 60–85% glass, 10–30% crys- 803
EC
770 2011). talline compound and around 5% unburned carbon. Par- 804
ticles of carbon are generally cellular (> 45 µm). Studies 805
771 6 Functional Property: Thermal Conductivity on particle size distribution reveal that fly ash contains 806
RR
772 AAC has very low thermal conductivity due to its cellular particles ranging from nearly 1 µm to 100 µm (Mehta & 807
773 structure and it ranges from 0.1 to 0.7 W/mK in the den- Monteiro, 2013). Most of the particles in fly ash occur 808
774 sity range of 400–1700 kg/m3; whereas for normal-weight as solid spheres of glass. Sometimes a small number of 809
CO
UN
Fig. 11 Surface texture of granite dust incorporating AAC. a Control mix; b WGD20 and c WGD10 (Zafar et al., 2020)

F
O
O
PR
D
TE
EC
RR
CO
UN
Fig. 12 XRD patterns of rice husk ash AAC samples: a at 8 h of autoclaving time and b 18 h of autoclaving time (Kunchariyakun et al., 2015). XRD
curves of c normal AAC sample and d stone sawing mud AAC sample (Wan et al., 2018). XRD patterns of AAC e at different percentage of ZSM-5
waste and f 15% ZSM-5 AAC sample at different autoclaving time (Jiang et al., 2021)
810 hollow spheres, called cenospheres (completely empty) 2021). Thus, due to the above reasons, fly ash induced 817
811 and plerospheres (packed with numerous small spheres), AAC has lower thermal conductivity as compared to 818
812 may also be present. Presence of these hollow spheres in AAC with quartz sand. 819
813 fly ash increases the porosity in the fly ash incorporated Low specific gravity substances reduce thermal con- 820
814 AAC. As the thermal performance of AAC is directly ductivity, e.g., coal bottom ash (39% reduction), rice husk 821
815 related to the porosity, the larger the porosity, the lower ash (29% reduction), perlite waste (41% reduction), and 822
816 the thermal conductivity (Chen et al., 2021; Kumar, natural zeolite (47% reduction) (Karakurt et al., 2010; 823

824 Kunchariyakun et al., 2015; Kurama et al., 2009). Ther- Fig. 15 shows the laboratory preparation of AAC blocks 859
825 mal conductivity depends on the water content, i.e., by at CSIR-CBRI. Targeted features to be achieved are as per 860
826 increasing the water content by 10%, thermal conduc- IS 2185 (Part-3), i.e., density and compressive strength 861
827 tivity can increase about 0.04–0.05 W/mK (Campanale should be in range 451 to 1000 kg/m3 and 2.0 to 7.0 MPa, 862
828 & Moro, 2016; Campanale et al., 2013; Collet & Pretot, respectively. Thermal conductivity should lie between 863
829 2014; Jerman et al., 2013; Jin et al., 2016). Autoclaving has 0.21 and 0.42 W/mK. 864
830 no effect on thermal conductivity (Narayanan et al., 2000;
831 Karakurt et al., 2010). Fig. 14 shows the graphical repre- 8 Recommendations 865
832 sentation of thermal conductivity, waste content and bulk
833 density. It shows that on increasing the different waste • In order to reduce the carbon emission, replacement 866
834 content thermal conductivity of AAC decreased. So, of cement by different wastes should be acknowl- 867
835 AAC can be used for thermal insulation in construction. edged in the preparation of AAC. 868
• Impact of various wastes on the acoustic properties 869
7 R&D at CSIR‑CBRI of AAC must be studied.
F
836 870
837 Earlier, R&D work has been done on Lightweight Con- • Utilization of demolished AAC waste should also 871
O
838 crete by CSIR—Central Building Research Institute need attention in construction. 872
839 (CBRI) (Lakhani & Kumar, 2015; Kumar, 2020, 2021; • As micro- and macro-pores are the main characteris- 873
O
840 Kumar & Lakhani, 2021; Kumar & Srivastava, 2022; tic of AAC, therefore how the utilization of different 874
841 Kumar et al., 2022a, 2022b). Limestone slurry has been waste affects the porosity of AAC should be studied. 875
used for the development of Cellular Lightweight Con-
PR
842 • Stone wastes contain various other components 876
843 crete (CLC) blocks of density ranging from 650 to (except quartz) like potassium and soda feldspar. 877
844 1200 kg/m3 (Kumar et al., 2018). Generally, cement, fly Their involvement in the hydration process is still not 878
845 ash and natural river sand are the basic constituents for much explored. 879
the formation of CLC blocks. For the generation of foam,
D
846 • Strength of AAC is related to the moisture content. 880
847 natural protein based foaming agent was used in the Detailed study of this parameter will be helpful for 881
ratio of 1:20 (foaming agent and water). Limestone slurry
TE
848 further research studies. 882

849 being rich in silica content, was used for the replacement
850 of natural river sand. 50% optimized replacement of natu-
851 ral river sand was done by limestone slurry. Various phys- 9 Conclusions
EC
883
852 ico-mechanical properties of the developed CLC blocks The following observations are being provided in light 884
853 were determined. It was found that there was enhance- of the many literature studies that were previously 885
854 ment in compressive strength and performance factor of mentioned. Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) offer-
RR
886
855 CLC blocks. ing a potential solution for dealing with various wastes. 887
856 At present, CSIR-CBRI has initiated the work on the While focus on the changes in microstructure and char- 888
857 development of AAC blocks by using different waste acteristics is important, it is also important to consider 889
materials like marble slurry, fly ash, industrial wastes, etc.
CO
858 the underlying toxicity of waste. Investigations of the 890

UN
Fig. 13 Pore structure of a AAC sample and b expanding crack structure of an AAC sample made with aluminum powder as expanding agent
(Schober, 2011)

891 microstructure using a scanning electron microscope and • AAC can be used in constructions of panel in both 921
892 an X-ray diffraction study will be useful for determining load and non-load bearing for walls, roofs, floors, etc. 922
893 the pore development and structure of AAC. There is • Fiber-reinforced aerated concrete (FRAC) had nearly 923
894 evidence in the literature that properties of AAC can be half compressive strength than that of AAC samples 924
895 enhanced by wastes/byproducts according to criteria of but flexural strength of FRAC was 100 times greater 925
896 affordability and durability. The following findings can be than that of AAC. 926
897 made as a result of the literature review: • On increment in the autoclaving pressure (i.e., 927
> 0.8 MPa) tobermorite developed well, whereas 928
898 • As most of the raw materials of AAC are silicious when the autoclaving pressure was more than 929
899 in nature. It offers wide opportunity for the various 1.2 MPa other hydrothermal products were also 930
900 silicious waste throughout the world. For e.g., Rice formed which have lower strength. 931
901 Husk, Natural zeolite and Sugar sediments, etc.,
902 highly rich in silica content (> 65%) can easily replace
natural resources like sand (up to 20–40%).
F
903
904 • As it is light in weight, therefore application becomes
O
905 very easy. As well as it requires less reinforcement in
906 the foundation work of buildings.
O
907 • All the ingredients used in the production of AAC
908 are eco-friendly and utilization of fly ash as one of the
PR
909 constituents is leading it towards greener develop-
910 ment.
911 • The pore size in AAC is always in the millimeter
912 range, mostly having diameters in the range between
D
913 0.5 and 3.0 mm.
914 • Presence of air voids in AAC, provide thermal insu-
lation properties to it. Due to its thermal insulation
TE
915
916 property, about 50% consumption of building energy
917 reduces. Hence maximize energy efficiency in build-
ings.
EC
918
919 • AAC block generated around 67% less carbon emis-
Fig. 15 Laboratory preparation of light weight concrete. a Pouring
920 sions than clay brick. of mix; b expansion of mix; c autoclaving of AAC blocks and d
developed AAC block
RR
CO
(a) (b)
UN
Fig. 14 a, b Thermal conductivity of AAC after the addition of various wastes

932 • Tobermorite crystals are majorly responsible for the Declarations 984
933 compressive strength of AAC. Tobermorite appears
Competing interests 985
934 at nearly 2 h of autoclaving and profound up to 6–8 h The authors declare that they have no competing interests. 986
935 and further, no formation takes place on increasing
time. Author details 987
936 1
AcSIR-Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, Ghaziabad, Uttar 988
937 • Preparation of AAC by using different industrial Pradesh 201 002, India. 2 Organic Building Materials (OBM) Group, CSIR-Central 989
938 wastes is a great way to cope with the problems Building Research Institute, Roorkee, Uttarakhand 247 667, India. 990
939 which have been generated by the wastes.
Received: 4 April 2022 Accepted: 7 October 2022 991
992
940
Abbreviations References 993

941
AAC: Autoclave aerated concrete; NAAC: Non-autoclaved aerated concrete; Albayrak, M., Yörükoğlu, A., Karahan, S., Atlıhan, S., Yılmaz Aruntaş, H., & Girgin, 994
942
İ. (2007). Influence of zeolite additive on properties of autoclaved aerated 995
F
943 C-S-H: Calcium-silicate-hydrate; RHA: Rice husk ash; IOT: Iron ore tailings;
CG: Coal gangue; SSM: Stone sawing mud; OPC: Ordinary Portland cement; concrete. Building and Environment, 42(9), 3161–3165. https://doi.org/10. 996
944
1016/j.buildenv.2006.08.003 997
O
945 SMD: Silica micro-dust; AS: Amorphous silica; CF: Carbon fiber; UIV: Ultrasonic
impulse velocity; WGD: Waste granite dust; PPC: Pozzolana Portland cement; Alexanderson, J. (1979). Relations between structure and mechanical proper- 998
946
AP: Aluminum powder; MSW: Municipal solid waste; IBA: Incineration bottom ties of autoclaved aerated concrete. Cement and Concrete Research, 9(4), 999
947
507–514. https://doi.org/10.1016/0008-8846(79)90049-8
O
948 ash; FRAC: Fiber-reinforced aerated concrete; FGS: Foam gas silicate; BF: Basalt 1000
fiber; CM: Control mix; BRHA: Black rice husk ash; BA: Bottom ash. Alyamaç, K. E., & Aydin, A. B. (2015). Concrete properties containing fine aggre- 1001
949
gate marble powder. KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering, 19(7), 2208–2216. 1002
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Acknowledgements https://doi.org/10.1007/s12205-015-0327-y 1003
950
Not applicable. American Concrete Institute. (1965). High pressure steam curing modern 1004
951
practice, and properties of autoclaved products. ACI Journal Proceedings. AQ7 1005
Author contributions https://doi.org/10.14359/7728 1006
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A: conceptualization/reproducibility of results/experiments, data cura- Beben, D., & “Zee” Manko, Z. (2011). Influence of selected hydrophobic agents 1007
953
on some properties of autoclaving cellular concrete (ACC). Construction 1008
D
954 tion, writing—original draft preparation, writing—review and editing. RK:
methodology, validation, formal analysis, Investigation, supervision, formal and Building Materials, 25(1), 282–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbu 1009
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analysis, writing—review and editing. RL: investigation, supervision, formal ildmat.2010.06.028 1010
956
Bonakdar, A., Babbitt, F., & Mobasher, B. (2013). Physical and mechanical
TE
957 analysis. RKM: data curation, methodology, validation, writing—original draft 1011
preparation. SK: writing—review and editing. All authors have agreed to the characterization of fiber-reinforced aerated concrete (FRAC). Cement and 1012
958
AQ6 published version of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final Concrete Composites, 38, 82–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp. 1013
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manuscript. 2013.03.006 1014
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Cai, L., Li, X., Liu, W., Ma, B., & Lv, Y. (2019). The slurry and physical-mechanical 1015
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Authors’ information performance of autoclaved aerated concrete with high content solid 1016
961
Abhilasha: First Author, Ph.D. Research Scholar, AcSIR-Academy of Scientific wastes: Effect of grinding process. Construction and Building Materials, 1017
962
and Innovative Research, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, 201 002, India & Project 218, 28–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.05.107 1018
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Assistant, Organic Building Materials (OBM) Group, CSIR-Central Building Campanale, M., Deganello, M., & Moro, L. (2013). Effect of moisture movement 1019
964
RR
Research Institute, Roorkee, Uttarakhand, 247 667, India. on tested thermal conductivity of moist aerated autoclaved concrete. 1020
965
Rajesh Kumar: Second Author and Corresponding Author, Senior Scientist & Transport in Porous Media, 98(1), 125–146. https://doi.org/10.1007/ 1021
966
Head, Organic Building Materials (OBM) Group, CSIR-Central Building Research s11242-013-0136-z 1022
967
Institute, Roorkee, Uttarakhand, 247 667, India. Campanale, M., & Moro, L. (2016). Thermal conductivity of moist autoclaved 1023
968
Rajni Lakhani: Third Author, Ph.D, Chief Scientist, Organic Building Materials aerated concrete: Experimental comparison between heat flow method 1024
CO
969
(OBM) Group, CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, Uttarakhand, (HFM) and transient plane source technique (TPS). Transport in Porous 1025
970
247 667, India. Media, 113(2), 345–355. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11242-016-0697-8 1026
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Raghav Kumar Mishra: Fourth Author, Project Assistant, Organic Building Chen, G., Li, F., Jing, P., Geng, J., & Si, Z. (2021). Effect of pore structure on 1027
972
Materials (OBM) Group, CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, thermal conductivity and mechanical properties of autoclaved aerated 1028
973
Uttarakhand, 247 667, India. concrete. Materials, 14(2), 339. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14020339 1029
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Shahnavaz Khan: Fifth author, Project Assistant, Organic Building Materials Choo, H., Won, J., & Burns, S. E. (2021). Thermal conductivity of dry fly ashes 1030
975
(OBM) Group, CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, Uttarakhand, with various carbon and biomass contents. Waste Management, 135, 1031
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247 667, India. 122–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2021.08.033 1032
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Cicek, T., & Tanrıverdi, M. (2007). Lime based steam autoclaved fly ash bricks. 1033
Funding Construction and Building Materials, 21(6), 1295–1300. https://doi.org/10. 1034
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We are grateful to ‘The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change 1016/j.conbuildmat.2006.01.005 1035
979
(Grant No. GAP-0090), New Delhi, Government of India’ for the sustained Collet, F., & Pretot, S. (2014). Thermal conductivity of hemp concretes: Variation 1036
980
financial support to the project. with formulation, density and water content. Construction and Building 1037
981
Materials, 65, 612–619. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.05.039 1038
Availability of data and materials Cong, X., Lu, S., Yao, Y., & Wang, Z. (2016). Fabrication and characterization of 1039
982
Not applicable. self-ignition coal gangue autoclaved aerated concrete. Materials & Design, 1040
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97, 155–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2016.02.068 1041
Dey, V., Bonakdar, A., & Mobasher, B. (2014). Low-velocity flexural impact 1042
response of fiber-reinforced aerated concrete. Cement and Concrete Com- 1043
posites, 49, 100–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2013.12.006 1044

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Utilization of Solid Waste in the Production of Autoclaved Aerated Concrete

Article in International Journal of Concrete Structures and Materials · October 2022

Abhilasha Prajapati Rajesh Kumar Sharma

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Rajni Lakhani Raghav Mishra

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Address Roorkee, Uttarakhand, 247 667, India

Author FamilyName Khan

2 Utilization of Solid Waste in the Production

25 • Influence of porosity on the microstructure of AAC has been investigated.

Journal information: ISSN 1976-0485 / eISSN 2234-1315

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Fig. 1 a Country-wise observed research pattern. b Year-wise observed research pattern

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decreased the temperature of forming mixture up to 252

2.3 Air‑Entraining Agent 256

Fig. 2 Different wastes used for AAC formation PR

ingredients. This forms calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S- 277

length, 4.6 µm an average diameter and S ­ iO2 micro- 284

251 the optimal substitution of CF with sand by 0.1%

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328 et al., 2009).

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becomes slow. Hence, gas is not entrapped properly and 436

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511 as not facilitates the formation of Tobermorite crystals. 543

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Fig. 6 Methodology adopted for development of AAC (Hamad, 2014)

aggregates. Drying shrinkage of porous building material 593

attraction between the walls of the pore (Nielsen,1983; 596

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639 be observed when any porous material comes into the

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690 has been reported by previous works, which shows that

697 easily convert in tobermorite crystals due to having short

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848 further research studies. 882

858 the underlying toxicity of waste. Investigations of the 890

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Fig. 14 a, b Thermal conductivity of AAC after the addition of various wastes

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Abbreviations References 993

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1338 Publisher’s Note

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2.3 Air‑Entraining Agent 256

length, 4.6 µm an average diameter and S iO2 micro- 284