MEC121 - GENERAL THERMODYNAMICS & HEAT TRANSFER

THERMODYNAMICS – a branch of physical science that treats of various phenomenon of energy and
related properties of matter, especially of the transformation of heat into other forms of energy and
vice-versa.

 (ex. Electrical power generation)

 Converting heat into electrical power

Types of Thermodynamics

Classical Thermodynamics
refers to the macroscopic approach is concerned with the gross or overall behavior

Statistical Thermodynamics
refers to microscopic approach is concerned directly with the structure of matter

APPLICATIONS
SYSTEMS OF UNITS:
1. International Systems of Units (SI Units) – MKS System
2. Metric Units – CGS System
3. English Units – FPS System

BASE UNITS:
Quantity SI Unit Symbol Quantity English Unit Symbol
Mass kilogram kgm Mass slug, pound slug, lbm
Length meter m Length feet ft
Time second s Time second s

DERIVED UNITS:
Quantity SI Unit Symbol Quantity English Unit Symbol
Force, Weight Newton N Force, Weight pound-force lbf
Area square meter m2 Area square feet ft2
Volume cubic meter m3 Volume cubic feet ft3
Speed, Velocity meter per second m/s Speed, Velocity feet per second ft/s
Acceleration meter per second squared m/s2 Acceleration feet per second squared ft/s2
Pressure Pascal Pa (N/m2) Pressure pound per feet squared lbf/ft2
Mass Density kilogram mass per cubic meter kgm/m3 Mass Density pound mass per cubic feet lbm/ft3
Specific Volume cubic meter per kilogram mass m3/kgm Specific Volume cubic feet per pound mass ft3/lbm
Energy Joule J (N-m) Energy foot-pound force ft-lbf
Power Watt W (J/s) Power foot-pound force per second ft-lbf/s
CONVERSION FACTORS OF UNITS:
LENGTH:
1 m = 3.281 ft
1 ft = 12 inches
1 yard = 3 ft
1 inch = 1000 mil
1 statute mile = 5,280 ft
1 nautical mile = 6,080 ft
1 league = 3 nautical mile
1 cable length = 720 ft
1 fathom = 6 ft
1 rod = 16.5 ft
1 span = 9 inches
1 furlong = 220 yards
1 vara = 33.33 inches
1 chain = 66 ft
1 link = 7.92 inches
1 hand = 4 inches
AREA: MASS: WORK / ENERGY:
1 hectare (ha) = 10,000 m2 1 kgm = 2.2046 lbm 1 BTU = 1.055 kJ = 778 ft-lbf
1 m2 = 10.764 ft2 1 lbm = 7000 grains 1 J = 1 N-m
1 acre = 4046.856 m2 1 slug = 32.174 lbm 1 cal = 4.187 J
1 are (a) = 100 m2 1 lb = 16 oz. 1 erg = 1x 10-7 J = 1 dyne-cm
VOLUME: WEIGHT: POWER:
1 m3 = 1,000 liters 1 kgf = 9.81 N = 2.2046 lbf 1 hp (Mech.) = 0.746 kW
1 gal = 3.785 liters 1 gf = 981 dyne = 33,000 ft-lbf/min
1 ft3 = 7.481 gallons 1 N = 1 kgm-m/s2 = 42.4 Btu/min
1 drum = 55 gallons 1 lbf = 1 slug-ft/s2 = 32.2 lbm-ft/s2 1 metric hp = 0.736 kW
1 petroleum barrel (bo) = 42 gallons 1 metric ton = 1,000 kgf 1 boiler hp = 35,322 kJ/hr
1 net or short ton = 2000 lbf
SPEED: 1 long ton = 2,240 lbf PRESSURE:
1 knot = 1 nautical mile per hr 1 atm = 101.325 kPa
VISCOSITY: = 14.7 psi
1 reyn = 1 lbf-s/in2 or 1 psi-s = 29.92 in-Hg
2
1 poise =1 dyne-s/cm or 0.1 Pa-s = 760 mm-Hg or Torr
2
1 stoke = 1 cm /s = 34 ft water
= 1.034 kgf/cm2
1 bar = 100 kPa

SI UNIT PREFIXES:
Prefix Factor Symbol Prefix Factor Symbol
Exa 1018 E Deci 10-1 d
Peta 1015 P Centi 10-2 c
Tera 1012 T Milli 10-3 m
Giga 109 G Micro 10-6 μ
Mega 106 M Nano 10-9 n
Kilo 103 k Pico 10-12 p
Hekto 102 h Femto 10-15 f
Deka 10 da Atto 10-18 a
 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM

Thermodynamic System – any region of space or a finite quantity that occupies a volume and has
boundary. The sum of the system and the surroundings is the universe.

THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM - or simply system refers to the quantity of matter or certain volume in
space chosen for study. This is the thing that we are always talking about in thermodynamics.

SURROUNDINGS - are the mass or region outside the system

BOUNDARY - is the real or imaginary surface that separates the system from the surroundings
(Fixed or movable)

Types of Thermodynamic System:

1. Closed System – also known as “non-flow system”, is a system where the mass within the
boundary remains constant. A closed system permits exchange of heat and work with the
surroundings, but does not permit any mass transfer across the boundary.
 2. Open System – also known as “steady-flow system”, is a system in which both the mass and
energy (heat and work) cross the boundary.

3. Isolated System – a system where there is no interaction between the system and the
surroundings It is of fixed mass and energy and there is no mass or energy transfer across the
system boundary.
Ex. Thermos flask (in reality, a perfect isolated system does not exist)

PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
Property - any quantity which serves to describe a system.
a. Intensive Property – one which does not depend on the mass of the system (ex. temperature,
pressure, density and velocity).
b. Extensive Property- one which depend on the mass of the system (ex. volume, momentum and
kinetic energy).
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES:
1. Mass (m) – the quantity of matter possessed by the body or substance; it is a constant quantity, that the mass of the substance can only be changed
by adding more matter to it or taking away from it.
2. Weight (W) – the force of gravity acting on the body.
W = m g where: W = weight
m = mass of the body
a) at standard gravity g = gravitational acceleration
Ws = m  g s Ws = standard weight of the body
Wo = observed weight of the body
b) at observed gravity gs = standard gravity = 9.81 m/s2 = 32.2 ft/s2
Wo = m  g o go = observed gravitational acceleration

Force (F)
Newton’s Second Law of Motion: “The force acting on a body is proportional to the product of the mass and its acceleration produced.”
F = m a where: F = force applied
m = mass of the body
a = acceleration
3. Mass Density (ρ) – the ratio of the mass of a substance to its volume.
m where: m = total mass of the body or substance
= V = total volume of the substance
V ρ = 1000 kg/m3 = 1 kg/li = 62.4 lb/ft3 (for water)

4. Weight Density (δ) – the ratio of the weight of a substance to its volume. It is also known as “specific weight”.
W
= where: W = weight of the body or substance
V V = total volume of the substance
δ = 9.81 kN/m3 = 1 kgf/li = 62.4 lb/ft3 (for water)
5. Specific Volume (ʋ) – the ratio of the volume of a substance to its mass. It is the reciprocal of the mass density.
V 1 m = total mass of the body or substance
=
where:
=
m  V = total volume of the substance
ρ = mass density

6. Specific Gravity (S.G.) – the ratio of the weight (or density) of any substance to the weight (or density) of a standard substance (usually water).
s where: S.G. for common liquids: Note:
S .G. =
 water water = 1 If S.G. < 1.0, the substance will float in the water
mercury = 13.6 If S.G. > 1.0, the substance will sink in the water
seawater = 1.03
oil = 0.8 (if not specified)
FLOW RATE EQUATIONS:
•
1. Volume Flow Rate (V ) - the volume of fluid flowing passed a given point or section in unit time.
V
V = = A  v where: V = total volume of the fluid
t t = time of flow
A = cross-sectional area
v = fluid velocity
•
2. Mass Flow Rate ( m ) - the mass of fluid flowing passed a given point or section in unit time.
m where: m = mass of the body
m = t = time of flow
t ρ = mass density
m =   V =   A  v v = velocity of flow
A = cross sectional area
3. Mass Continuity Equation
For any two sections in an open system: where:  1 = 1 A1v1
m
m 1 = m 2  2 =  2 A2 v2
m

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
5. What is the weight of a 1-kilogram mass at an altitude where the local acceleration of gravity is 9.75
m/s²?

6. What is the weight of a 1-lbm mass at an altitude where the local acceleration of gravity is 32.0 ft/s²?
7. A 1m³ container, is filled with 0.12 m³ of granite, 0.15 m³ of sand, and 0.2 m³ of liquid 25°C water; the
rest of the volume, 0.53 m³, is air with a density of 1.15 kg/m³. Find the overall (average) specific volume
and density.