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Anatomical terminology
Foundational Sciences Anatomy Introduction to anatomy

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Introduction to the central and peripheral nervous systems

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Anatomical terminology
Introduction to anatomy

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Introduction to anatomy

Anatomical terminology

Introduction to the central and peripheral nervous systems

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ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY

Figure 1: A. Anatomical position. B. Anatomical planes.

 Figure 2: Sections of the limbs. A. Longitudinal section. B. Oblique section. C.

Transcript

Content Reviewers
Antonella Melani, MD, Andrew Horne, MSc, BSc (Hons), David Clay, MSc, BSc

Contributors
Lahav Constantini, Jake Ryan, Samantha McBundy, MFA, CMI, Kaia Chessen, MScBMC

When someone talks to us, we’re only able to understand them if we know their language.
Well… the same thing goes for anatomy!

To study anatomy and communicate among peers, we have to use specialized terminology
that helps us describe the structures of the human body, where exactly they’re located, and
their relationship to one another.

If I tell you to look at the right-most finger of your hand - which one will it be? Your pinkie?
Your thumb? It will depend on the position of your hand and whether you're looking at the
back or the palm. This is why all anatomical descriptions are expressed in relation to one
consistent position to eliminate any ambiguity.

Anatomical position is the position that is globally adopted for anatomical and medical
descriptions of the human body. Now, let’s describe the position the body is in when we refer
to anatomical position.

When a person is in the anatomical position, they are standing straight with their legs close
together, their feet parallel to one another, toes directed forward, their arms are down at
their sides with the palms of their hands facing forward, and they are keeping their head up
and gazing straight forward. All descriptions of the body refer to the position shown here.

Now, if we’re looking at someone in anatomical position, there are four imaginary planes that
intersect the body to help us with anatomical descriptions.

First, we have the median plane, which is an imaginary vertical plane going through the
body’s midline, over structures such as the nose and belly button, separating the body into
right and left halves.

Second, are sagittal planes, which are also vertical planes, but aren't fixed, meaning that
they could be placed anywhere parallel to the median plane, dividing the body into uneven
left and right parts. You might also hear the term paramedian plane, which describes a
sagittal plane that is near the median plane.

Next we have frontal planes, also known as coronal planes. These imaginary planes are also
vertical, but perpendicular to the sagittal and median planes, meaning they go from left to
right, separating the body into a front portion and a back portion.

Finally, we have transverse planes, which are the only horizontal planes, and thus are also
known as - you’ve guessed it! - horizontal planes. These planes are perpendicular to the
median and sagittal planes as well, but they divide the body into an upper portion, and a
lower portion. In radiology, it’s also common to use the term axial plane, which is short for
transaxial plane.

The use of planes allows us to cut the body into sections which provide a view of depth.
Longitudinal sections refer to sections that are cut along the longitudinal axis of a structure.
Transverse sections, also known as cross sections, are perpendicular to the longitudinal axis.
These sections are useful for understanding the relative depths of different internal
structures and their position in relation to each other. Last but not least, oblique sections are
sort of intermediate to the two sections we’ve talked about, since they’re not cut in a straight,
defined plane, but rather in diagonal.

Now, here are some examples of anatomical structures being shown in different planes and
sections. Pause the video and see if you can correctly define the plane of view!

Alright! Now, when an anatomical structure is introduced, it is common to describe its

position or location related to surrounding structures, and this is done with specific
anatomical terms. Among the most frequently used terms, we have up and down directions,
which are termed superior and inferior. Let’s go back to the anatomical position!

Okay, so superior means towards the head, while inferior means towards the feet. So we can
say that the chest is superior to the hip, but inferior to the neck. Another way of saying this is
using the terms cranial and caudal. Cranial refers to the cranium, or head, while caudal refers
to the cauda, which means tail in Latin. So, caudal means towards the tail or feet.
In the human body, the cauda can either refer to the coccyx, which is the most inferior bone in
the vertebral column, or simply to the feet. Keep in mind that the terms cranial and caudal
are commonly used to describe embryological structures and their growth or development.

Now, to indicate that a structure is in front of another, we use the terms anterior, as well as
ventral, which literally means ‘belly’ in Latin.

When referring to structures in the head or brain, we can also use the term rostral, which
means nose or beak. For example, the nose is considered a rostral structure, and the frontal
lobe of the brain is rostral to the cerebellum. On the other hand, to indicate a structure that is
more towards the back, we can say it is posterior, or dorsal, which means ‘back’ in Latin.

But keep in mind that the term dorsum or dorsal surface can also be used to describe the
superior part of a structure that projects out of the body anteriorly, like the nose or foot, as
well as the posterior surface of the hand. On the other ...hand, the anterior surface of the
hand is known as the palmar surface. The sole is the inferior aspect of the foot which is
referred to as the plantar surface.

This might seem confusing, but if we think of a bear walking with its four paws touching the
ground, the palmar and plantar surfaces are what would be touching the ground and the
dorsal surfaces are the upper sides of the hands or feet that are not touching the ground.

Now, to describe a structure’s relative proximity to the median plane, we use the terms
medial and lateral. Medial refers to a structure that is closer to the midline or median plane,
while lateral refers to a structure that is farther from it.

So, when looking at the head, our eyes are closer to the midline than our ears. Therefore, we
could express this by saying that our eyes are medial to our ears, and our ears are lateral to
our eyes.

Next, there’s external and internal, which refer to the proximity to the center of an organ or
cavity, regardless of the direction. External indicates structures that are outside or further
from the center, while internal means inside, or closer to the center. So, for example, our
heart, which is in our chest cavity, is more internal, while the ribs are more external.

Similar and yet different are the terms superficial, and deep. These terms are used in relation
to the surface or the body. For instance, our skin is superficial to the muscles that lie deep to
it. We can also use the term intermediate to express the position in between. So, a layer of
fat between the skin and muscle layers could be considered intermediate.

Lastly, the terms proximal and distal are used for structures that have a beginning and an
end, such as the limbs, bones, or blood vessels. In the limbs, these terms describe the
relative proximity of a structure to the trunk.

For example, the thigh is proximal to the foot because it’s closer to the trunk, and of course
we can say the foot is distal to the thigh. These terms are also useful in describing two ends
of bones. For example, let’s take the humerus - the long bone of the arm. Its proximal portion
helps form the shoulder joint, while the distal portion helps to create the elbow joint.

Okay, let’s stop for a second and review what we’ve just learned. Pause the video and take a
look at the images. Which terms can you recognize?

Alright, good job! Don’t be alarmed if you couldn’t recall everything, as you go on studying
anatomy, these terms will become second nature!

Let’s move on to the four terms of laterality. When a structure is only found on one side of
the body, it is said to be unilateral, such as the spleen. Conversely, paired structures found on
both sides of the body, like the limbs, lungs or kidneys are bilateral. Now, structures and
organs that are on the same side of the body are said to be ipsilateral, like the left arm and
the left leg. Conversely, structures located on the opposite side of the body are described as
contralateral, like the left and right hands.

Now, there are also various terms used to describe the movements of the limbs and other
body parts. Most of these movements are defined in relation to the anatomical position and
the planes we have discussed already. The majority of movements in the body occur at joints
between two or more bones.

So, flexion and its counterpart extension are movements in the sagittal plane. Flexion
indicates bending or decreasing the angle between two parts of the body, bringing them
closer together. Flexion usually involves movement in the anterior direction; the one
exception to this is the knee, where the leg moves in the posterior direction during flexion.

Some examples of flexion include bending your trunk forward, as well as bending your
elbow or knee. The opposite movement is extension indicating straightening or increasing
the angle between two parts of the body, bringing them farther away from each other. Using
the same examples, extension includes bringing your trunk backwards or posteriorly, as well
as straightening your knee or elbow back to anatomical position.

Similarly, when referring to the movement of the ankle, we can use the term dorsiflexion or
flexion in the upward direction - where the toes move towards the shin - since the dorsal
surface of the foot is in the upper surface. Plantarflexion, “on the other foot” - pun intended -
refers to flexion in the downward direction, where the foot and toes move towards the
ground, like when you stand on your tippy-toes.

Next we have abduction and adduction, which are movements that generally occur in the
frontal plane. Abduction refers to movement of the limbs away from the center or the
median plane of the body, like when you spread your arms to the side. On the other hand,
adduction describes movement of the limbs towards the midline, back into the anatomical
position. Think of ‘ADDuction’ as in adding the parts back towards the body!

Now, keep in mind that structures in the midline like the neck or trunk may also move to the
sides. This is referred to as lateral flexion or lateral bending.
Now, at some joints like the hip and shoulder, if we sequentially perform flexion, abduction,
extension and adduction - or these movements in the opposite order – we get a compound
circular movement called circumduction. In circumduction, the proximal end of the joint
remains fixed, while its distal end moves in a circular motion.

Rotation may sound the same, but it actually involves movements that are done around the
longitudinal axis of the body, like rotating your head and neck side-to-side when you want to
say ‘no’.

Rotational movement of the shoulder or hip joints that brings the anterior surface of the limb
away from the median plane is called lateral or external rotation. If the movement brings the
anterior surface of the limb closer to the median plane, it is called medial or internal rotation.

Rotational movements of the forearm and hand are due to the medial and lateral rotation of
the distal radius, the lateral bone in the forearm over the anterior aspect of the ulna, the
medial bone of the forearm. These movements are specifically called pronation and
supination.

During pronation, the radius rotates medially, crossing over the distal ulna so that the palm
of the hand faces posteriorly. Supination is the opposite movement where the radius rotates
laterally, uncrossing the distal ulna so that the palm of the hand faces anteriorly. A helpful
way to remember these movements is that to hold a bowl of soup, we need to be in a
supinated position, while to dribble like a basketball pro, we need to be in a pronated
position.

Similar terms are used to describe the direction and position of a person when lying
horizontally. So, when a person lies on their back, with their face and abdomen facing
upwards, they’re in the supine position. On the flip side, literally, when a person is lying on
their abdomen with their face down, they’re in the prone position.

Next, eversion and inversion are movements that are specific to the feet. Eversion refers to
the movement of the sole of the foot laterally, or away from the median plane, while
inversion describes the opposite movement, so medially, or towards the median plane.
Complete eversion of the foot results in dorsiflexion as well, while complete inversion results
in plantarflexion. These are the movements that occur when we sprain or roll our ankle.

Now, the term opposable thumbs is related to the anatomical terms opposition and
reposition. Opposition is when the thumb moves medially to touch one of the other four
fingers - like when you begin snapping your fingers or when pinching someone! Reposition
refers to moving the thumb back, or repositioning it, towards its anatomical position.

Moving on, protrusion refers to an anterior movement of a body part, like when you stick out
your tongue. Protrusion can also be done by the lips and the mandible - or lower jaw.
Conversely, retrusion is the posterior movement of the tongue, lips or mandible.

Protraction and retraction are very similar, but refer to the anterolateral or posteromedial
movements of the shoulder blades or scapulae on the posterior chest wall. Retraction is
when you bring your shoulders backward and the scapulae move posteromedially.
Protraction is when you move the shoulders forward and the scapulae move anterolaterally
along the chest wall. For example, a boxer is protracting when punching.

Finally, we have elevation and depression, which are as simple as they sound. Elevation
refers to movement of a body part superiorly, such as shrugging your shoulders or opening
your upper eyelids. On the other hand, depression defines movements of a body part
inferiorly, such as lowering your shoulders from the shrugged position, or closing the upper
eyelids.

All right, as a quick recap… The anatomical position is the body position that serves as a
universal reference posture for the body's planes, sections, and terms of relationship.

There are four main anatomical planes. The median plane, sagittal plane, and frontal or
coronal planes are vertical, while the transverse or horizontal plane is horizontal. Sections
are cuts made according to a certain plane, consisting of longitudinal, oblique and transverse
or cross sections.

There are also important terms of relationship and comparison of the body including superior
or cranial versus inferior or caudal; anterior, ventral, or rostral versus posterior and dorsal;
palmar, plantar, and dorsal surfaces; external and internal; medial and lateral; superficial,
deep, and intermediate; and proximal and distal.

We also have body parts that are unilateral, like the spleen, and others that are bilateral, like
the limbs or lungs. Some structures can be ipsilateral to one another or on the same side,
while others are contralateral or on the opposite side.

Anatomical terms of movement include flexion and extension; dorsiflexion and

plantarflexion; abduction and adduction; circumduction and rotation; pronation and
supination; eversion and inversion; opposition and reposition; protrusion or protraction, and
retrusion and retraction; and lastly elevation and depression.

Sources

1. "Clinically Oriented Anatomy" Lippincott Williams & Wilkins (2014)

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