ETHICS
PRELIMINARY
INTRODUCTION ON ETHICS
Ethics
- deals with “good-ness.”
- Have always existed since men began living
together as a community.
- Nobody asks where ethical rules came from or
why they must be obeyed. They just obey these
ethical rules without questions to appease the
gods and bring peace to the land.
The Meaning of Good
- In general, the term good in philosophy is similar
to words like necessary, important or valuable
- Plato’s goodness is in the mind, completely
unknowable, unchanging and infinite. We can
only know little about it, because it is a pure
idea, thus it can’t be understood 100% by our
senses. Plato’s good is conceptual (pure
concept). So for Plato, a good citizen is a very
responsible citizen, somebody who knows their
job perfectly and did it well, something ideal.
- Aristotle (384 -322 BC) says that happiness is
the right term for what is good. So, what is good
for Aristotle? The answer is happiness. As a
result, to achieve the highest good is to attain
ultimate happiness. This can be done only by
being good all the time. Since perfection is good,
and to be good is to achieve happiness
(eudaimonia).
- Being ethical also involves choosing to do good
and not just knowing what is good. Choosing
and knowing are two necessary elements in
Ethics. They are inseparable. They make a
human person truly good.
- According to some philosophers: goodness can
be achieve by just following the rules which is
universal like Immanuel Kant (1724 – 1804) and
Thomas Aquinas (1225 – 1274); or obey God or
gods like Augustine (354 – 430) and Abelard
(1079 – 1142); Jeremy Bentham (1748 – 1832)
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and John Stuart Mill (1806 – 1873), who
embrace utilitarianism, identified the good with
pleasure.
Ethics Explained
- a science that deals with moral principles or
rules.
- It influences how people make decisions and
lead their lives
- For Jose M. de Mesa, Ph.D., a lay Filipino
theologian and professor of Applied Systematic
Theology at De La Salle University, Manila,
ethics is to discern what is “pagiging-tao or may
mabuting kalo-oban or asal-tao”(behave as a
good human person or moral) versus
“pagiging-hayop or may masamang kalo-oban or
asal-hayop” (behave as an evil person or
immoral)
- Ethics is the study of norms that people must
follow in order to attain their ultimate goal in life,
which is to attain ultimate happiness, in the light
of reason alone.
Definition of Norms
- derived from the Greek term “nomos” meaning
“laws,” are rules and regulations in society.
- They guide us to behave in a particular way.
They tell us what is acceptable or fitting behavior
in society.
- In ethics, we constantly study and evaluate
various moral norms or rules, to ensure that
citizens and society are behaving correctly
within the context of reasonable and solidly
based norms.
Nature and Goals of Ethics
- The goal of ethics is to know or determine the
proper or improper, fitting or not fitting,
appropriate or inappropriate behaviors of a
human person in society and try to explain why
people behave that way.
- Ethics deals with the rightness or wrongness of
human behaviors in society and the attempt to
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explain them using various ethical principles in Framework for Ethical Decision Making
order to attain total happiness. - There are many ways to make decisions, and
- There are so many challenges in our life. Often the one below is one of its ways.
these challenges move us to decide. Making a
A. Awareness of an ethical issue – know
decision is not easy and simple, because there
are numerous choices to consider. the issue by heart.
- We all have to make decisions all the time; and - Is this issue ruining a
not to decide, is a decision. A decision not to relationship – group and
decide. individual? Are there good or
bad choices in this issue?
Making Ethical Decision - Does this issue talk about legal
- Ethics offers different ways to make decision by or religious matters? Are there
offering various moral principles available at alternative choices to this issue?
hand: B. Collate the evidences available
- Action-based ethics regarding the issue
- It teaches that human action is - What is your factual data on this
the measure of one’s ethicality issue? What is the present
- Result-oriented ethics situation of this issue? Do I have
- It teaches that the end goal of a enough knowledge on the issue
person is the measure of one’s to make a decision?
ethical-ness, and many more to - Who are the people involved in
mention. the issue? What are the
- Ethics is interested in assisting people in making important concerns of this
decisions by explaining the concept of good issue? What is to prioritize and
human behavior, through various available moral what is not? Why?
assumptions. But what is lucid and vital in the - Do I have options in making a
study of ethics is the desire of every individual to decision on this issue? What are
achieve its ultimate goal, which is, to be happy, these options? Have those
and build a peaceful and orderly society, for people involved on this issue
growth and development. And for those who been consulted? Do I have a
think that there is God or gods, the goal is to better choice to solve the
attain eternal life and be happy with God or gods problem?
in eternity. C. Make assessment of alternative actions
- Making judgment about what is appropriate and by asking the following questions:
inappropriate behavior in society is indeed a - Which actions will give the most
difficult task, but a necessary and indispensable good and do the least harm?
feature of human life, and it often produces a (The Utilitarian Approach)
great deal of trouble in society. Why? Because - Which actions best respect the
ethics involves the assigning and assuming of rights of other people? (The
moral burdens to individuals. Any laws or rules Rights Approach)
or beliefs, make demands upon those who - Which actions will give partial or
believe them. impartial judgement? (The
- So, it is the task of Ethics to identify those Justice Approach)
demands or standards, like rules and regulations - Which actions help the
in society, city ordinances or church‘s doctrines community more as a whole,
or tenets or various ethical principles. and not just some selected
- Etymologically (i.e. coming from the root word), individuals in the community?
the word ethics is derived from the Greek term (The Common Good Approach)
“ethos” (noun), which means distinct attitude or - Which action reveals the inner
set of moral beliefs. beauty or goodness in me? (The
Virtue Approach)

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D. Test your decision
- Is my choice the best option to
act?
- If I do this action, how will
people react ?
E. Make an action and mull over on the
result
- Is the action appropriate or
inappropriate?
- Does the action hurt other
people? Does the action affect
the majority or minority in the
community?
Sources of Ethics
Philosophers, both from East and the West, think and
believe that ethics basically begins from the following:
1. A concept of a Supreme Being or beings and all
types of doctrines pertaining to all types of
beings – material or spiritual, that have been
propagated by the institutional religions like
Catholic religion, to perpetuate their existence or
perhaps to spread fear and gain ultimate power;
or maybe because these beings really exist and
these religions experience the mysterious
presence of these beings.
2. A desire for the highest achievement in life or
‘highest good’ or the ‘summum bonum’, ‘ultimate
happiness’, ‘perfect end’ or ‘salvation’ or to be
with ‘God’ for the Christians, to be like ‘Buddha’
for the Buddhists or be united with the ‘Tao’ or
nature for the Taoists.
3. The examples of good and respected people at
home, in the community and in society. Like
parents, political leaders or religious guru.
4. The analysis or assessment of human actions or
intentions or behaviors and the effects of all
these things to other people, society and
environment.
5. The existence of ‘Political Power’ and leaders of
society who exemplifies good governance.
6. To our human conscience, the subjective norms
of morality and to our intuitions or feelings.
Possible Questions in Ethics
Ethics covers the following questions in life, such as:
1. What is Moral Decision making? Do we have the
capacity to discern? what is to be good and how
to avoid what is evil?
2. If we have the capacity to discern what is
appropriate and inappropriate behavior in
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society? Are we free to do it? What is freedom?
Do we have rights?’
3. If we are truly free to discern good and bad
behaviors or actions, are we responsible to
them? What is responsibility?
4. What is the meaning of right and wrong, good
and bad, appropriate and inappropriate? How to
tell the difference between them?
5. How do people live a good life and achieve
happiness or be successful?
Ethics is not…
Philosophers agree that Ethics is not simply about the
following:
1. Being just lawful in society, like crossing on a
pedestrian lane, casting votes during election
time or paying your taxes on time.
2. Being religious or about one’s religious beliefs
and obligations, like going to Sunday Mass,
Fasting during Ramadan, or offering incense or
food to gods or Buddha or even to our ‘dead
relatives’.
3. About what you feel is right or wrong,
appropriate or inappropriate, fitting or not
fitting... because feelings are in the mind and it
generates emotions. Emotions on the other
hand is the external expression of our feelings, it
is directed to mental concepts. Feelings
combined with how we understand the concept
give rise to either pleasant or unpleasant
emotions. For example, feeling combined with
the concept of ‘control’ will produce the emotions
of happiness and sadness. I feel happy if I can
control people; I feel sad if people control me.
Hence feelings are vital in assessing human
actions or behaviors.
4. About doing what society accepts or imposes to
its citizens, like marriage or citizenship or
casting votes during election time. No one can
tell us directly what is to be good; they can only
give us reminders, recommendations,
suggestions or options; or what is worse,
nobody can impose their ethical principles to
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follow. At the end of the day, we are the one who
makes the final decision to be good or bad.
The use of ethics in our life
Ethics can be very useful to us. But it will not tell us what
to think and do. It will not impose so many rules to
observe and obey without questions. The use of ethics
are the following:
1. It helps us solve hard questions in life and
encourages us to solve them by ourselves.
2. It evaluates what lies behind our moral
judgements.
3. It attempts to explain and evaluate what a good
person is like.
4. It can’t guarantee that we will always make a
correct decision, but it will give us a lucid and
better way of understanding how and why we
come to our decision.
The three divisions of ethics
Ethics is divided into 3 divisions. They are the following:
1. Meta-ethics: It studies the origin and meaning of
various ethical principles. Where do ethical
principles come from and what do they mean? It
centers on the issues of objective truths, God’s
will, the use of reason in ethical judgments, and
the meaning of ‘good’ or ‘evil’?
2. Normative ethics: It takes on the question ‘how
to know the principles that will make us conform
to right behavior to avoid wrong conduct. This
may include the good character we should
acquire, the role of feelings in making decisions,
the duties to be obeyed, or the consequences of
our behavior on others.
3. Applied ethics: It involves the evaluation of
particular controversial ethical issues, like
abortion, war, animal rights, euthanasia,
prohibited drugs, graft and corruption,
environmental concerns, homosexuality, capital
punishment, or nuclear war.
SUMMARY: INTRODUCTION ON ETHICS
Ethics deals with the study of moral standards a human
person must follow to attain his or her goal by reason
alone. It began when human beings lived as a tribal
community when tribal and spiritual leaders instructed
their people to avoid anti-social activities that will
damage peace and order in their community. But formal
ethical reflection started when ancient Greek
philosophers came. They focused on the meaning of
“goodness” in society and for individual people.
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“Good-ness” according to Socrates, Plato and Aristotle,
is not just about obeying the rules, but to think the
reason why there are rules and why obey them? They
even questioned their religious beliefs if these are
necessary to be ‘good.’ The goal of ethics is to know
what is proper and improper behavior in society. Thus,
making decisions is not just important but a necessary
element to be ethical. The source of ethics is God or
the need to achieve the highest good, or the examples of
good people, or good intentions, or even political power
and leaders, and conscience. Ethics is better understood
in three areas of concern – meta-ethics, normative
ethics and applied ethics. Ethics assists the human
person decide for his or her good life, to attain ultimate
happiness in life.
HUMAN PERSON AS MORAL AGENT
Thales
- an ancient philosopher, claims that the most
difficult thing to do in life is to know oneself.
- “in effect, the human person is full of mystery” -
Avery Dulles. “A mystery is an occurrence or a
being that is difficult to comprehend because it
has no clear explanation. Like the origin of the
human world or person. But the human person
is moved by this mystery the yearning to know,
explore and understand himself or herself.”
Necessary Elements of a Moral Agent
- The human person is a union of body and soul. -
Karl Rahner. The body is the visible realities in a
person like the eyes or limbs, while the soul is
the spiritual part, the invisible part, like the mind.
- soul is really existing, and the one that animates
the body - Aristotle
- the place of the soul is in the human mind -
Aquiñas. That’s the reason why the human mind
has the functions of:
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1. seeking the truth due to his or her
capacity to reason out, and
2. choosing the good due to his or her free
will.
A. Thinking Being
- The human person is a thinking being. This
attribute makes the person different from other
beings.
- It is a power bestowed to everybody to figure out
problems, discover laws within nature, improve
one’s life as human beings, form and articulate
language, express emotions and dream dreams.
It is a power that assists a person to
communicate, feel and progress.
- 5.
B. Free Being
- A person, as a rational being, does have a
certain amount of freedom, which enables him
or her to choose—free will. It is the faculty of the
human mind that enables the person to choose
among many options, most especially to choose
between good and evil. Without the person’s
free will, it is impossible for him or her to decide
and do what is right and avoid what is wrong.
- Freedom is limited and not absolute. “Freedom
is an illusion”- Frederic Skinner. In other words,
it is not true that a person is free, it is just a
concept in the mind, it is not tangible.
- Some people believe that human person’s
freedom is limited because of the following
reasons:
1. Human person is an embodied spirit.
Meaning the person is both matter and
spirit. Matter exists within the boundary
of time and space unlike the spirit. In
simple words, a person lives only for a
specific time and in a certain location.
No person can live in this world
eternally. He or she is not permanent in
this world. Thus, a person dies at a
certain point in time. Besides, no person
can be in the same place at the same
time.
2. Human person is restricted by his or her
behavior. Psychology is the science of
human behavior and the study of the
human mind. Let us talk about human
behavior. Human behavior can either be
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physical or emotional. Behaviors are
any actions or mannerism of a person
as a response to his or her own feelings,
other persons’ behaviors and
environment. Human person is not
totally free to do what he or she likes to
do in all situations.
3. The person’s present concrete situation.
There are times when a person’s
present situation restricts him or her to
do something he or she likes.
4. Due to a person’s habits. Habits are
things a person repeatedly does.
Sometimes harmful, sometimes not.
Nonetheless, habits greatly affect the
person’s choices.
Due to the person’s motivations. There
are many reasons why a person does
something. The person’s motivations
restrict him or her to choose freely and
clearly.
6. The concept of predestination.
Predestination is a religious teaching
that everything that happens to a person
is caused by a powerful force outside
himself or herself. There are forces
outside the person that guide his or her
direction in life. Forces that influence
him or her to act or not to act on a
certain situation, such as the person’s
belief that all occurrences in his or her
life are fixed and designed by a
Supreme Being. This influences the
person’s ability to choose freely.
Human Person is Free
- Human person is free. “a rationalist is a person
who believes that reason alone is the source of
knowledge”- Jean Jacques Rousseau. “Human
freedom refers to the ability of human beings to
act differently and do anything they want.”
- “Freedom is an act based on self interest” -
Thomas Hobbes
- “Freedom as an act based on the person’s ability
to decide for himself and make a choice”.-
Thomas Aquinas
- In modern times, human person is considered
free because of the following reasons:
1. The person’s openness to the possibility
that anything can happen to him or her
everyday, the so-called “aha”
experience. The truth is, nobody knows
what will happen to him or her the next
day. Yet, he or she is free to accept or
ignore that reality.
2. Due to the human person’s experience
of responsibility. Any person
experiences that in everything he or she
has willingly done, in words or in deeds,
it always entails responsibility.
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Responsibility in simple terms, is a
person’s obligation to do the things that
he or she is supposed to do, and accept
the consequences of his or her actions.
In such cases, the person chooses to be
or not to be a responsible person.
3. Due to immediate experience of making
decisions or choices. Sometimes there
are people who say, “I don’t like to
choose or decide” or “I can’t make a
choice or decision.” No one can escape
from making a choice or decision.
Everybody chooses or decides. Not to
choose is a “choice,” not to decide is a
decision.
4. Due to rewards and punishment. Many
times a person may notice, if he or she
does good things, he or she receives a
reward. If he or she does bad things, he
receives a punishment. So, the person
chooses between doing good or bad,
because of the reward and punishment
he or she will get. Thus freedom
determines or shapes the person’s life.
The Human Person as Moral Agent
- A tract on human acts is necessary, but it does
not lead to the thought that morality is only a
matter of actions. The person is more than the
sum of his actions. In truth, more than an
embodied spirit, with the ability to reason out
and make a choice, the person is also a social
being. A being that interacts with other beings
including his or her environment. It is his or her
very nature.
- From infanthood to adulthood, the person never
misses interacting. If he or she needs to learn
from experiences, the person interacts with
fellow human beings. If a human person is
isolated from all other beings, he will not survive.
However, if other beings influence the life of one
person, he or she also influences other beings in
this world, either good or bad. Thus the person
is more than his brain, freedom, body and spirit.
- The human person is also a social being. He
either affects or is affected by others in society.
So, the person must assess first his or her
action or behavior in society, if it is appropriate
or inappropriate; good or bad; right or wrong.
- The capacity of the human person to discern
what is ‘good and bad,’ ‘right or wrong,’
‘appropriate or inappropriate,’ and to be
responsible for one’s actions or behaviors are
the basis for which a human person is called a
moral agent.
- All actions of the human person can be called
“human acts.” But the concept here is restricted
to those actions that proceed from reason and
freewill. Acts for which the human person is
responsible.
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- In Christian ethics, under the influence of
Thomas Aquinas, there are two types of actions:
1. “Actus Humanus” refers to human
actions that one does consciously and
wilfully or deliberately. So, it suggests
that the human person is consciously
and wilfully performing the act. Nobody
forces the person to act. He or she
alone does the action with all his or her
knowledge and with full freedom. Thus
the person is morally liable or
accountable for her own actions,
because it is resulted from his own
discretion or choice. For this reason, the
action has a moral significance.
- Under this comes a more
complex act known as “forced
act.”—an action which is not
wilfully or deliberately committed
by the actor itself. A third party
compels the person to act
against his or her will or desire.
2. “Actus hominis” or the “act of man” is
an involuntary action of the person, thus
it is regarded as “amoral” or “neutral”. It
is not “willed” nor “desired.” It is not
“yearned” nor “prayed for” to happen. It
just happens to us from “dusk to dawn”
spontaneously or instantaneously. Thus
it entails no responsibility or
accountability on the part of the one
carrying out the action. It means that the
person is not responsible for his or her
action. In simple words, the action is
neither ethical (an action which
conforms to standards) or unethical (an
action which does not conform to
standards). Thus these actions are
things that happen to a human person
involuntarily or not deliberately. But,
mind you, there are “actus hominis” that
become human acts when they are
intentionally used, such as, using the
sense of sight when a man is looking at
a woman lustfully.
- However, modern ethicists will not just center on
human actions as the main culprit in the spread
of “good and evil” in this world, but on human
behaviors (i.e. the way one conducts itself) and
human nature (i.e. what a human person is in
itself).
- Human persons as Moral agents have a moral
responsibility not to initiate or start groundless
harm to other people, to society and
environment (Haring, 1978). With an exception,
children as well as adults with mental
disabilities, are not considered moral agents.
Moreover, adults with full mental capacity are
not held full responsibility for their actions in
extreme circumstances.
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- Thus, only people who can intentionally,
consciously or deliberately do good things to
others or harm others are responsible or
accountable for their behavior or actions.
SUMMARY: HUMAN PERSON AS MORAL AGENT
The human person as an embodied spirit is
composed of body and soul, different entities, yet
united and undivided. One is material, the other is
immaterial. Remove one from the other and the person
dies. Thomas Aquinas says that the place of the soul is
the mind. The functions of the mind is to reason out and
to choose, that makes the person a thinking and free
being. As a thinking and free being, the person is
capable of choosing an action or behavior, consciously
and willingly. This makes a person a moral agent,
somebody who can discern and choose an action and
be responsible for it.
CULTURE AND ETHICS
People Have Different Ethical Opinions
- Human beings do not always agree on how they
should behave or act in certain issues. This is
because people go about their ethical reasoning
in different ways. Some place great emphasis on
religious tenets and sacred books; others
consult their conscience; others think of the
consequence of their actions, others on
following one’s duties or authorities like parents;
and others follow their virtues or cultures. In
other words, different people give greater weight
to different sources of moral authority.
- Since there are unchanging laws in physical
science, there also exist definite ethical codes
which are similarly unalterable or unchanging, fix
or permanent. At the same time, there are
ethical standards that are fixed or unchanging.
They exist, even if the person doesn’t think or
aware of it. They can be applied to all situations
anytime.
- There are people who can’t accept this
reasoning, because their ethical view is not
analogous to physical science, but to cultural
anthropology. In cultural anthropology, the focus
is on the dissimilarity of people due to their
different cultures. This may conclude that each
culture has its own ethical codes which are
different from the rest.
Effects of culture to people
- Whether a person likes it or not, culture
influences his or her way of seeing realities; or
his or her way of understanding things.
- Culture is learned the moment a person is
immersed into it. It is transmitted or passed from
one generation to the next through socialization
or enculturation.
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- Indeed, every human group or society has
different ways of living and expressing their
lives. That is why, people with different cultures
have different behaviors and that affect even its
moral code.
- “morality is the way of life in one country and the
present sentiment of a friend” - Samuel Butler.
Ethical values and way of thinking also changed
in time, but it takes a long period of time before it
happens according to Butler.
- Culture influences morality, and morality
influences culture. But they don’t always agree.
So like the “clash of the Titans,” the issue never
ends.
- Ethical views are also changing:
- The objectivist believes that universal
law which is permanent and
independent of the mind exists.
Whereas, the subjectivist believe that
universal law does not exist, laws are
changing and dependent on one’s
worldview.
Cultural Relativism
- Truth is never an objective reality says Danish
Physicist Niels Bohr (1885 – 1962), but a
subjective one (Popova, 2018).
- The concept of cultural relativism is coined and
used by a German-American anthropologist
Franz Boas
- It is made to counter the concept of
ethnocentrism, which depicts discrimination of
one group of people to another group of people
by saying that “my culture is the best among
many cultures.”
- Briefly, a relativist believes that an analogy from
physical sciences does not accurately reflect the
situation in ethics. The wide diversity of moral
codes and the fast changes in our cultural mores
show that there is no one definitively correct
moral code. Ethical judgements are always
judged from a certain moral perspective, with no
one perfective necessarily any better than
another.
- is the notion that universal moral code or
universal law does not exist, and therefore all
moral codes are equally valid and no one is
better than the other existing moral principles.
- Moral codes are different from culture to culture.
In this regard, any view on morality is subject to
the cultural point of view of a person.
- Cultural perspective assists a person to know
why certain human behaviors are considered
‘good’ or ‘evil’ by a specific culture.
- It is impossible to say that anything a culture
does is right or wrong. This makes an ethical
discussion really problematic, chaotic and
sometimes, non-sense.
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- Some people will say that cultural relativism is
impossible tool in making moral judgement
because of the following reasons:
1. A cultural relativist loses the chance to
make judgements whether an action or
behavior is “right” or “wrong.” Often what
is right to a relativist is wrong to
non-relativist, and what is wrong to a
relativist is right to a non-relativist. Thus
it is difficult for a relativist to make a
general moral judgment.
2. A cultural relativist accepts conflicting
beliefs or practices which insinuates
unclear stands for all types of views. But
some people disagree to it, especially
on issues pertaining to “human rights”
violation, like raping and killing a child.
This is completely morally wrong;
3. A cultural relativist’s reasoning is
illogical. If the relativist will say that, truth
is relative, and it is valid then, this
statement is absolutely correct. But this
statement opposes the idea of cultural
relativism and therefore, absolute truth
exists.
4. A cultural relativist believes that there
are right and wrong actions. If these are
absolutely true, then absolute or
universal law exists.
- Thus as a conclusion, cultural relativists can’t
simultaneously go with logic because there is
no room for both of them to come together.
Indeed, the only locus of cultural relativism in
logical perspective is to start with something
universal.
Unique Asian and Filipino Culture
- The best starting point of good ethics in Asia is
‘respect’ (A Little Adrift Jr. by Ana, 2012).
- Their understanding of respect progresses. But
their knowledge about it develops into two kinds
– people or things are to be respected and not to
be respected. However, it becomes easy for
them to identify those people who will not be
respected using their intuitions or feelings.
- As a whole, everybody is taught to respect all
persons and non-persons because it means
‘good behavior.’ And ‘good behavior’ is equal to
‘good conduct.’ A person who has ‘good
conduct’ is considered ‘Ethical’. Thus, ethics
needs people who are respectable and knows
how to respect. Thus, respect and ethics are
complementary to each other.
- Everytime a person acts, he or she makes a
choice. He or she chooses between ‘right’ and
‘wrong’ in ethical problems. Most of the time, it
can be exasperating and baffling to constantly
concentrate on the “nitty-gritty” of the ethical
dilemma and the ambiguous spot, to escape the
moral mess. And the only way to do it is
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approaching ethics from the vantage point of
‘respect’.
- Be reminded that, if we respect authorities it
does not mean we will not support their victims
against unjust and oppressive situations.
Remember there is no better tool to remove an
oppressor, pacify an angry customer or correct
an unjust system than to respond with respect
and professionalism; it is the quickest way to be
ethical in society, however it is not the only way.
Anatomy of ‘Respect’
- Respect is known as a basic human right, thus it
is a necessary ingredient of the “self” and of
interpersonal rapport. If we fail to respect
people, then it results in fighting, fragmentation
and violence.
- Respect is derived from the Latin word
“respectus.” It refers to a person’s attentiveness
to oneself, others, environment and society. It
can also mean “esteem for or a sense of the
worth or excellence of a person, a personal
quality or ability, or something considered as a
manifestation of a personal quality or ability.
- It also refers to our ability to give value and
honor to the person, in deeds and in words, in
spite of our disapproval sometimes to his or her
misbehavior. It is our ability to accept the other
person’s behavior and not just try to change
them. Respecting another person is not judging
them by their attitudes, behaviors or thoughts. It
does not expect for someone to be different or to
change.
- Our uniqueness creates our identity. It means
we are different from one another. More than
anything else, as members of a society we are
equal. All people are due respect for the simple
reason of being unique. Equality keeps us in an
equilibrium.
Importance of Respect
Respect is important for several reasons:
1. Conflict and restlessness in a web of
relationships. Respect is necessary when we
communicate with others and to pacify conflicts.
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2. It is necessary to feel safe and to express
ourselves without fear of being judged,
humiliated or discriminated against.
3. to increase our self-esteem, self-efficacy, mental
health, and well-being.
Teaching Respect to children
Teaching children, in deeds and in words, to respect
people and things is the first step to learn respect. Such
as,
1. If you wish to say something to children, say it
calmly and don’t shout at them.
2. Don’t ridicule your children or insult them in
front of friends and strangers. If children
misbehave, ask the question, “What have I done
wrong?”
3. Parents should not think they must always be
respected by the young ones. Parents should
also respect their children, too. Children learn
respect if they experience it from their parents.
4. Don’t let your children see you being
disrespected by other people, and don’t let your
children disrespect you. Be an exemplar for
them.
5. Set limits always. When teaching respect, it is
important to set boundaries on what is right and
wrong for children. When they behave
disrespectfully, point out the behavior, calmly,
without shouting.
6. Teach your children to say “sorry” and ask for an
apology when they are wrong, it is humility.
7. Give rewards to your children whenever they are
respectful or congratulate them when they do
good things to others, but do it from the heart.
to another. The German-American anthropologist, Franz
Boas, uses the terms cultural relativism as a form of
subjectivism. However, some philosophers oppose the
idea presented by Boas because the principles in
cultural relativism are conflicting. Anyways, the only way
to accept cultural relativism is to begin with something
objective or universal, that is, to start with respect.
Respect is the best starting point of ethics.
THE STUDY OF WHY’S
PLATO: THE PHILOSOPHICAL LIFE
- philosophers have a duty to society to help the
citizens live a good life
- Wrote most influential book in Western
civilization, The Republic
- Plato’s ethical theory rests on idealist
metaphysical assumptions about the nature of
knowledge and reality.
Philosophy
- Plato is the rational quest for the unchanging,
universal and eternal forms existing in the world
of ideas(mind). These transcendental forms
constitute being and reality.
- A philosophical life is a life of contemplation
of whatever in reality is true and good.
ALLEGORY OF THE CAVES
- Plato uses the cave as a symbolic
representation of how human beings live in the
world, contrasting reality versus our
interpretation of it. These two ideas reflect the
two worlds in the story: the world inside the
cave, and the world outside.

Being respectful is a nice behavior and a

cultural practice among Asians.
- Chinese still bow their heads as a gesture of
respect
- Malays placing a hand in the center of their
chest
- The Filipinos say ‘opo and po’
GREEK UNDERSTANDING OF PHILOSOPHY
SUMMARY: CULTURE AND ETHICS

Culture influences the person’s way of seeing

realities. It shapes the person’s entire life, and way of
interpreting realities, including what is right and wrong.
Thus, culture reflects the ethical standards that tell how
people should behave and relate with others. Since
different people have different cultures, therefore,
CHINESE UNDERSTANDING OF PHILOSOPHY
people vary in their ethical opinions. Some cultures
believe in objectivism, others in subjectivism.
Objectivism is a belief system that accepts the
existence of an eternal and permanent law which is
obligatory for all to follow in any situation. While,
subjectivism is its opposite, and believes that laws are
not permanent and eternal. It changes from one culture

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HINDUS UNDERSTANDING OF PHILOSOPHY Purpose Of Philosophy

- The pleasure of philosophizing, thinking,
reflecting, analyzing, evaluating, etc. is
fulfillment or satisfaction alien to a person who
has a narrow interest in reality. There is indeed a
joy of philosophizing, a joy which only the
pundits can experience.
- Philosophy enables us to understand ourselves
better;
- Philosophy helps us to understand others, our
fellowmen;
- Philosophy helps us to understand others’ way
of thinking;
- Philosophy helps us to understand the world and
FORMAL UNDERSTANDING OF PHILOSOPHY our place and role in it;
- Philosophy helps us understand the
significance, meaning, value, and finality of
human life;
- Philosophy helps us know and understand God
in his nature, essence, activities, and attributes.

The Philosophical Fields

Minor Branches Of Philosophy

These branches (sub-fields) have particular doctrine in
answering key questions in philosophy.
1. Philosophy of Art – deals on art, aesthetic
value, expression, and other concepts that the
critic employs.
2. Philosophy of Education – deals with
speculation and application of philosophical
methods in the study of educational issues and
problems.
3. Philosophy of History – deals with the
description of events and actions of man’s past
happenings and those that are to happen in
Origin Of Philosophy man.
- Originated in Ancient Greece, India and China 4. Philosophy of Language – deals with
(1st Millenium BC) languages, their meanings and how to use and
manage the language to man’s existence.
Active Philosopher during 4th & 6th Century BC 5. Philosophy of Law – deals with the formulation
- Pythagoras of theories and concepts in law to help man
- Plato understand the nature of law, its sources of
- Socrates authority and role in society.
- Aristotle 6. Philosophy of Mathematics – is concerned
- Thales with the critical examination of basic

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mathematical entities, mathematical theories
and number systems.
7. Philosophy of Nature – deals with whatever
issues regarding the actual features of nature as
reality. It is divided into Philosophy of Physics
and Philosophy of Biology.
8. Philosophy of Psychology – deals with actual
theories and research efforts of contemporary
psychologists.
9. Philosophy of Politics – deals with the
question of the origin of the state and authority
and the law of the land.
10. Philosophy of Religion – deals on situation,
experience, issues and problems relating to
religion and its methodology
11. Philosophy of Science – provides intellectually
and accurately satisfying explanations of a
broad range of natural phenomena.
12. Philosophy of Society – deals with questions
about personal morality in relation to man’s
existence as a member of society.
13. Philosophy of Man – is concerned with the
study of human nature, purpose, existence,
destiny including his relationship with people in
society and God. It is sometimes referred to as
Philosophy of the Human Person.
Always do good and avoid evil
Always be good even OTHERS are not
ETHICS UNDERSTANDING
Ethical Theory:
- A man without ethics is a wild beast loose upon
this world. - Albert Camus
- No Man is an Island
- Man as a rational being
Ethics vs. Morals
1. Ethics refers to the rules that a social system
provides us with.
2. Morals are our own principle.
Understanding Ethics
- "ethics" is derived from the Greek "ethos"
(meaning "custom" or "habit“ )
- It is not limited to specific acts and defined moral
codes, but encompasses the whole of moral
ideals and behaviors, a person's philosophy of
life
Example of Ethics
- Acceptance
- Charity
- Respect
- Compassion
- Responsibility
- Empathy
- Equality
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- Integrity
- Justice
- Transparency
Morality
- came from the latin word “Moralis” custom or
character in which people do things refers to
what we call moral code of conduct
Example of Morality
- Tell the truth
- Do not cheat
- Respect our lives and the lives of others
- Be generous
- Be loyal
- To live according to the rules of society
- Dot not envy
- Altruism
- To live according to the will be God
- Do not do to others what we would not like them
do to us
Why Study Ethics/Imperatives Of Ethics (Christopher
Panza and Adam Potthast)
1. Ethics allows you to live an authentic life.
- An authentic life and meaningful life
requires you to live with a sense of
integrity.
- Integrity is making commitments and
sticking through thick and thin – no
matter how much violating them may
benefit you. Having a firm character or
set of principles to guide your life and
the choices you make is what ethics is
all about.
2. Ethics makes you more successful.
- You may think that ethics can hold you
back in all kinds of ways, but the truth is
the opposite. Ethical people embody
traits that unethical people have to work
at to fake – they’re honest, trustworthy,
loyal, and caring. As a result, ethical
people are perfectly suited not only for
interpersonal relationships generally, but
also more specifically for the kinds of
interactions that make for thriving
business. Unethical people generally
don’t do so well at these things.
3. Ethics allows you to cultivate inner peace.
- Lives that are lived ethically tend to be
calmer, more focused, and more
productive than those that are lived
unethically.
4. Ethics provides for a stable society.
- When people live ethical lives, they tell
the truth, avoid harming others, and are
generous. Working with such people is
easy. On the other hand, callous and
insensitive people are distrusted, so it’s
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difficult for them to be integrated well

into social arrangements.
- A stable society requires a lot of ethical
people working together in highly
coordinated ways. If society were mostly
composed of unethical people, the
society would quickly crumble.
5. Ethics may help out in the afterlife.
- Some religious traditions believe ethics
is the key to something even greater
than personal success and social Acts of man
stability : ETERNAL LIFE. No one can - actions beyond one’s consciousness; not
be sure about an eternal life, but people dependent on the intellect & the will.
of faith from many different religions
believe that good behavior in this life
leads to rewards in the next life.

THREE DIVISIONS OF ETHICS

1. META-ETHICS. It studies the origin and
meaning of various ethical principles/theories;
branch of ethics that seeks to understand the
nature of ethical properties, statements,
attitudes, and judgments.
2. NORMATIVE ETHICS. It takes on the question
“how to know the principles that will make us
conform to right behavior to avoid wrong
conduct. Normative ethical theories try to deliver
a guideline for people to do the right/moral thing.
An example of normative ethics are asking;
”what I ought to do” – It is also called
prescriptive ethics
3. APPLIED ETHICS. It involves the evaluation of
particular ethical issues. A branch of ethics with
respect to real-world actions and their moral
considerations in the areas of private and public
life, the professions, health, technology, law, and
leadership. It includes for instance social and
political ethics, computer ethics, medical ethics,
bioethics, environmental ethics, business ethics,
and it also relates to different forms of
professional ethics.

Ethics is everything. If you don’t have a strong moral

standing, if you don't have an ethical foundation you
just crumble.

Modifiers Of Human Acts

HUMAN ACT VS ACT OF MEN
Human Act
- are actions that are proper to humans, thus the
crucial elements or willful consent and
knowledge of the action must be present. One
must freely use his/her intellect and freewill
when acting. Human acts reveal the value of
responsibility or accountability.
- Ignorance: Lack of knowledge or information
- Passion: A very strong feeling
- Fear: An unpleasant emotion caused by the
belief that someone or something is dangerous,
likely to cause pain, or a threat.
- Behavior involving physical force intended to
hurt, damage, or kill someone or something.
- Good moral habits are called virtues while bad
habits are vices. People are expected to exert
utmost effort to free themselves from vicious
habits.
God bless po sa exam!!! - i.cienna

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