 Meiosis occurs in human males in seminiferous tubules.

(AIIMS 14)
 Sperm after formation is stored in Epididymis. (AIIMS 99)
 Sperm acquires motility in Epididymis (AIIMS 97).
 Fertilization normally occurs in the ampulla of fallopian tube.

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  Independent Assortment of chromosome occurs at primordial
spermatocyte to secondary spermatocyte level (AIIMS 2015).
 Spermatogenesis occurs at – Temperature lower than core body
temperature.
 Polar bodies are formed during – Oogenesis.
 In a female child at birth oocyte is in a stage of – Prophase 1st
meiotic.
 1st Polar body is formed after first meiosis.
 Fertilization is complete; when 2nd polar body is foamed.
 Ovulation occurs after 24-36 hours of LH surge.

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 Derivatives of the three germ layers
Embryoblast

Epiblast

Trilaminar embryonic disc

Endoderm Mesoderm Ectoderm

Head Paraxial Intermediate Lateral

(Neural crest cells)

Surface ectoderm Neuroec toderm

Neu ral crest Neuraltu be

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 Structures Derived from Pharyngeal Arch

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 Structures Derived from Pharyngeal Pouch
Pharyngeal Pouch Adult Derivatives
1 Epithelial lining of auditory tube and middle ear cavity,
and mastoid air cells
2 Epithelial lining of palatine tonsil crypts
3 Inferior parathyroid gland
Thymus
4 Superior parathyroid gland
Ultimobranchial body (Neural crest cells migrate into the
Ultimobranchial body to form parafollicular cells (C cells) of
the thyroid, which secrete calcitonin).

 Structures Derived from Pharyngeal Groove

Pharyngeal Groove Adult Derivatives
1 Epithelial lining of the external auditory
meatus
2,3,4 Obliterated
 Structures Derived from Pharyngeal Membrane
Pharyngeal Membrane Adult Derivatives
1 Tympanic membrane
2,3,4 Obliterated

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 TOPIC: CVS

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 DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARTERIAL SYSTEM

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 DEVELOPMENT OF THE VENOUS SYSTEM

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 Fossa ovalis is a remnant of septum primum.
 Cardiac defects causing right to left shunt, leading to early cyanosis are: -
Transposition of great vessels, Teratology of fallot, Persistent truncus
arteriosus.
 Essential components of teratology of fallot are: - Pulmonary stenosis, VSD,
Overriding aorta and Right ventricular hypertrophy. (AIIMS 2007)
 Heart beat begins by day 22 post-ovulation and can be detected by Doppler
ultrasound.
 Heart is fully developed at 10th week of intrauterine life.

Diaphragm
 The diaphragm separates the pleural cavities from the peritoneal cavity.
 The diaphragm is formed through the fusion of tissue from four different
sources:
 The septum transversum is a thick mass of mesoderm located between
the primitive heart tube and the developing liver. The septum transversum
is the primordium of the central tendon of the diaphragm in the adult.
 The paired pleuroperitoneal membranes are sheets of somatic
mesoderm that appear to develop from the dorsal and dorsolateral body
wall by an unknown mechanism.
 The dorsal mesentery of the esophagus is invaded by myoblasts and
forms the crura of the diaphragm in the adult.
 The body wall contributes muscle to the peripheral portions of the
definitive diaphragm.

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POSITIONAL CHANGES OF THE DIAPHRAGM

 During week 4 of development, the developing diaphragm becomes innervated by

the phrenic nerves, which originate from C3, C4, and C5 and pass through the
pleuropericardial membranes. This explains the definitive location of the phrenic
nerves associated with the fibrous pericardium.
 By week 8, an apparent descent of the diaphragm to L1 occurs because of the rapid
growth of the neural tube.
 The phrenic nerves are carried along with the “descending diaphragm,” which
explains their unusually long length in the adult.

CLINICAL CONSIDERATIONS

 Congenital diaphragmatic hernia is a herniation of abdominal contents into the

pleural cavity caused by a failure of the pleuroperitoneal membrane to develop or
fuse with the other components of the diaphragm.
 A congenital diaphragmatic hernia is most commonly found on the left
posterolateral side and is usually life threatening because abdominal contents
compress the lung buds, causing pulmonary hypoplasia.
 Bochdalek hernia is a postero-lateral (usually left) opening in the diaphragm due to
deficiency in the pleuro-peritoneal membrane.
 Morgagni hernia (rare) is antero medial (usually right) opening in the diaphragm.
 Esophageal hiatal hernia is a herniation of the stomach through the esophageal
hiatus into the pleural cavity caused by an abnormally large esophageal hiatus. An
esophageal hiatal hernia renders the esophagogastric sphincter incompetent so that
stomach contents reflux into the esophagus.

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 GIT-EMBRYOLOGY

 The fates of the lung bud (LB), Thyroid diverticulum (TD) . E = esophagus; ST =
stomach; HD = hepatic diverticulum; GB = gall bladder; VP = ventral pancreatic
bud; DP = dorsal pancreatic bud; CA = celiac artery; YS = yolk sac; VD =
Vitelline duct; AL=allantois; SMA = superior mesenteric artery; CL =cloaca; IMA
=inferior mesenteric artery.

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Histological and embryological organization of the adult gastrointestinal tract

Derivation of Adult Mesenteries

Pancreases Development:-
 The Pancreases is formed by two buds, dorsal and ventral, originating from the
endodermal line of duodenum. See fig 1.A & B

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  Whereas the Dorsal pancreatic bud is in the dorsal mesentery, the
ventral pancreatic bid is closed to the bile ducts. See fig 2. A & B

 When the duodenum rotates tom the right and becomes C-shaped,
the Ventral pancreases bud moves dorsally in a manner similar to the
sifting of the entrance of the bile duct. See fig 3.A

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  Finally the ventral buds come to the lie immediately below and behind
the dorsal bud. See figure 4. A &B

 Later the Parenchyma and the duct system of dorsal and ventral pancreatic
bud fuse to form an adult pancreas.
 The ventral bud forms the unicate process and inferior part of the head of the
pancreases. The remaining part of the head, body, and tail is derived from the
dorsal bud.
 The main pancreatic ducts (of Wirsung) is formed by the anastomosis of distal
two-third of the dorsal pancreatic duct (the proximal is one-third) and entire
ventral pancreatic duct.
 The proximal one-third of dorsal pancreatic duct either is obliterated or
persists as a small channel, the accessory pancreatic duct (of Santorini). See fig
5.A &B

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  The main pancreatic duct and common bile duct form a single opening
(Hepatopancreatic ampulla of Vater) into the duodenum at the site of the
major papilla (Hepatopancreatic papilla).
 The entrance of accessory duct (when present) is at the site of the minor
papilla. See fig 6. A

 The acinar cells, islet cells, and simple columnar or cuboidal epithelium lining the
pancreatic ducts of the definitive pancreas are derived from endoderm. The
surrounding connective tissue and vascular components of the definitive pancreas
are derived from visceral mesoderm.
 In the third month of Fetal life, pancreatic islets (of Langerhans) develops from the
parenchymatous pancreatic tissue and scatter through pancreases. Glucagon and
Somatostatin secreting cells also develop from parenchymal cells.
 Insulin Secretions begins at approximately at the fifth month.
Molecular Regulation of Pancreas Development:-
 Fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) and Activin (a TGF-β family member)
produced by the notochord and endothelium of the dorsal aorta repress SHH
expression in gut endoderm destined to form the dorsal pancreatic bud.
 The ventral bud is induced by visceral mesoderm. As a result, expression of the
pancreatic and duodenal homeobox-1 (PDX) gene is upregulated. Although all
of the downstream effectors of pancreases development have not been
determined, it appears that expressions of the paired homeobox genes PAX4
and 6 specifies the endocrine cell lineage, such that cells expressing both genes
become β (insulin), δ (Somatostatin) γ (pancreatic polypeptide) cells; whereas
those expressing only PAX 6 become α (glucagon) cells.
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Accessory pancreatic duct:-
 It develops when the proximal one-third of the dorsal pancreatic duct persists
and opens into the duodenum through minor papillae at a site proximal to the
ampulla of Vater (33% incidence).
 It may be anywhere from the distal end of the esophagus to the tip of the
primary intestinal loop. Most frequently, it lies in the mucosa of the stomach
(AIIMS MAY 07)
and in Meckel’s diverticulum.
 Meckel’s diverticulum refers to persistent proximal part of the vitellointestinal
duct. (AIIMS MAY 05)
 The drawing (Figure 1) shows an accessory pancreatic duct.

Pancreas divisum: -
 It occurs when the distal two-thirds of the dorsal pancreatic
duct and the entire ventral pancreatic duct fail to anastomose(NBE TYPE)
and the proximal one-third of the dorsal pancreatic duct persists, thereby
forming two separate duct systems Most common Anomaly of pancreases (4%
incidence).(NBE TYPE)
 The dorsal pancreatic duct drains a portion of the head, body, and tail of the
pancreas by opening into the duodenum through minor papillae. The ventral
pancreatic duct drains the unicate process (PGI NOV 09) and a portion of the head
of the pancreas by opening into the duodenum through the major papillae.
 Patients with pancreas divisum are prone to pancreatitis, especially if the
opening of the dorsal pancreatic duct at the minor papillae is small. The
drawing (Figure 2.A) shows pancreas divisum.

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Note that: - The distal two thirds of the dorsal pancreatic duct and the ventral
pancreatic bud fail to anastomose hereby forming two separate duct systems.
 An endoscopic retrograde pancreatogram (Figure 2.B) performed through the
accessory minor papillae shows the dorsal Pancreatic duct in pancreatic
divisum.

Annular pancreases:-
 It occurs when the ventral pancreatic bud fuses with the dorsal bud
both dorsally and ventrally, thereby forming a ring of pancreatic
tissue around the duodenum and causing severe duodenal
obstruction.
 New-borns and infants are intolerant of oral feeding and often
have bilious vomiting. The drawing (Figure 3.A) shows

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  Radiographic evidence of an annular pancreas is indicated by a duodenal
obstruction, where a “double bubble” sign is often seen due to dilation of
the stomach and distal duodenum (also associated with Down syndrome).
The barium contrast radiograph (Figure 3.B) shows a partial duodenal
obstruction consistent with an annular pancreas.

Hyperplasia of pancreatic islets:-

 It occurs when fetal islets are exposed to high blood glucose levels, as
frequently happens in infants of diabetic mothers. Glucose freely crosses
the placenta and stimulates fetal islet hyperplasia and insulin secretion,
which causes increased fat and glycogen deposition in fetal tissues.
 This results in increased birth weight of infants at term (i.e., macrosomia)
and serious episodes of hypoglycemia in the postnatal period.
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 Urogenital System

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Derivatives and Vestigial Remnants of Embryonic Urogenital Structures

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INTERNAL EAR:-
 The internal ear develops in week 4 from a thickening of the surface ectoderm
called the otic placode.
 The otic placode invaginates into the underlying mesoderm (or mesenchyme)
adjacent to the rhombencephalon and becomes the otic vesicle. The otic
vesicle divides into utricular (Ventral) and saccular portions.(Dorsal)

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Utricular portion of the otic vesicle gives rise to the following:
 Utricle contains the sensory hair cells and otoliths of the macula utriculi. The
utricle responds to linear acceleration and the force of gravity.
 Semicircular ducts contain the sensory hair cells of the cristae ampullares.
The semicircular ducts respond to angular acceleration.
 Vestibular ganglion of cranial nerve (CN) VIII lies at the base of the internal
auditory meatus.
 Endolymphatic duct and sac is a membranous duct that connects the saccule
to the utricle and terminates in a blind sac beneath the dura. The
endolymphatic sac absorbs endolymph.

Saccular portion of the otic vesicle gives rise to the following:

 Saccule contains the sensory hair cells and otoliths of the macula sacculi. The
saccule responds to linear acceleration and the force of gravity.
 Cochlear duct (organ of Corti) is involved in hearing. This duct has pitch
(tonopic) localization whereby high-frequency sound waves (20,000 Hz) are
detected at the base and low-frequency sound waves (20 Hz) are detected at
the apex.
 Spiral ganglion of CN VIII lies in the modiolus of the bony labyrinth.

THE MEMBRANOUS AND BONY LABYRINTHS:-

 The membranous labyrinth consists of all the structures derived from the otic
vesicle.
 The membranous labyrinth is initially surrounded by neural crest cells that
form a connective tissue covering. This connective tissue becomes cartilaginous
and then ossifies to become the bony labyrinth of the temporal bone.
 The connective tissue closest to the membranous labyrinth degenerates, thus
forming the perilymphatic space containing perilymph.
 This establishes an interesting anatomical relationship in which the
membranous labyrinth floats in perilymph within the bony labyrinth.
 Perilymph, which is similar in composition to cerebrospinal fluid,
communicates with the subarachnoid space via the perilymphatic duct.

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MIDDLE EAR:-
A. Ossicles of the middle ear
 The malleus develops from Meckel cartilage derived from neural crest cells
within pharyngeal arch 1. The malleus is attached to the tympanic
membrane and is moved by the tensor tympani muscle derived from
mesoderm within pharyngeal arch 1. The tensor tympani muscle is
innervated by CN V3.
 The incus develops from Meckel cartilage derived from neural crest cells
within pharyngeal arch 1. The incus articulates with the malleus and stapes.
 The stapes develops from Reichert cartilage derived from neural crest cells
within pharyngeal arch 2. The stapes is attached to the oval window of the
vestibule and is moved by the stapedius muscle derived from mesoderm
within pharyngeal arch 2. The stapedius muscle is innervated by CN VII.
B. The epithelial lining of the auditory tube and epithelial lining of the middle
ear cavity develop from endoderm of pharyngeal pouch 1.
C. The tympanic membrane develops from ectoderm, intervening mesoderm
and neural crest cells, and endoderm of pharyngeal membran1.The tympanic
membrane separates the middle ear from the external auditory meatus of the
external ear. The tympanic membrane is innervated by CN V3 and CN IX.

EXTERNAL EAR:-
A. The epithelial lining of the external auditory meatus develops from
ectoderm of pharyngeal groove 1. The external auditory meatus becomes
filled with ectodermal cells that form a temporary meatal plug, which
disappears before birth. The External auditory meatus is innervated by CN
V3 and CN IX.
B. Auricle (or pinna)
 It develops from six auricular hillocks that arise during the 5th week on the
1st & 2nd pharyngeal arches.
 The hillocks on the 1st pharyngeal arch are called the tragus, helix and
cymba conch (or 1 to 3 respectively). The hillocks on the 2nd arches are
called the antitragus, antihelix and concha (or 4 to 6respectively). See figure
4

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 These names indicate which hillocks
eventually from each part of pinna. See the
Figure 5
 The auricle is innervated by CN V3, CN VII, CN
IX, and CN X and cervical nerves C2 and C3.

Note: - During 7th week, the auricular hillocks

begin to enlarge, differentiate and fuse to
produce to definitive form of Auricle.

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 EYE

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 Tongue

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 -------------------------GOOD LUCK-------------------------

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