UNIT VIII – Digestion and Absorption

1. Sites of Digestion
2. Carbohydrate Digestion
3. Protein Digestion
4. Lipid Digestion
5. Absorption of Nutrients
5.1 Role of lipoproteins
in absorption of fats
Food – substance consisting essentially of protein, carbohydrate, fat, and
other nutrients used in the body of an organism to sustain growth and
vital processes and to furnish energy.

Sources of food that possess the nutrients | Download Scientific Diagram (researchgate.net)
Sites for Digestion

What are all the components of the digestive system? | Socratic

Unit 5: The Digestive System – Douglas College Human Anatomy & Physiology II (2nd ed.) (bccampus.ca)
 Carbohydrate Digestion
➢ Digestion is facilitated by hydrolases (hydrolytic enzymes) for the
hydrolysis of carbohydrates into simple sugars.

Enzymes in carbohydrate digestion:

1. Salivary amylase (ptyalin) -acts on amylose of starch, converting it to
oligosaccharides, disaccharides (maltose) and glucose
2. pancreatic amylase (amylopsin)- secreted by the pancreas, is associated
with the breakdown or digestion of starch within our food. This process
takes place within the duodenum of the small intestine.
3. Sucrase- hydrolyzes sucrose into glucose and fructose
4. Maltase- hydrolyzes maltose into 2 glucose units
5. Lactase- hydrolyzes lactose into glucose and galactose
26.5: The Four Stages of Catabolism - Chemistry LibreTexts
Why Carbohydrates Are Important For Athletes - Nutrition Mission
 Protein Digestion

➢ Digestion is facilitated by proteases (hydrolytic enzymes) for the hydrolysis

of protein into peptides and oligopeptides.

Proteases in protein digestion:

1. Pepsin- a stomach enzyme that serves to digest proteins found in ingested
food. Gastric chief cells secrete pepsin as an inactive zymogen called
pepsinogen.
2. Trypsin- enzyme in the first section of the small intestine that starts the
digestion of protein molecules by cutting long chains of amino acids into
smaller pieces.
3. Chymotrypsin- digestive enzyme component of pancreatic juice acting in the
first part of small intestine, where it performs proteolysis, the
breakdown of proteins and polypeptides. It is secreted by the pancreas
and converted into an active form by trypsin
4. Carboxypeptidase - protease enzyme that hydrolyzes a peptide bond at the
carboxy-terminal end of a protein or peptide.
5. Aminopeptidase - facilitates the hydrolysis of peptides into amino acids
6. Phosphatase- catalyze the removal of a phosphate group from protein

26.5: The Four Stages of Catabolism - Chemistry LibreTexts

 Digestion of Lipids

➢ Digestion is facilitated by lipases (hydrolytic enzymes) by catalyzing the

hydrolysis reaction and breaks down ester bonds of lipids and fats and
converts into fatty acids, glycerol, and other alcohols.

Lipases in lipid digestion:

1. Gastric lipase- found mostly in the stomach, it facilitates the hydrolysis of
fats into partial glycerides, fatty acids and glycerol
2. Pancreatic lipase (steapsin)- digestive enzyme present in the pancreatic
juice that helps in the digestion of fats.
3. Phospholipase- also known as a lysophospholipase, a major digestive enzyme,
cleaves the ester bonds in phospholipids. As a consequence, a variety of
lipid products are generated, which control much of cellular signaling
4. esterase- breaks down the ester-containing compounds into alcohol and acid
during a chemical reaction along with the production of water.

Enzymatic reaction for the quantification of cholesterol. In the first... | Download Scientific Diagram (researchgate.net)
Lipase - Worthington Enzyme Manual | Worthington Biochemical (worthington-biochem.com)
26.5: The Four Stages of Catabolism - Chemistry LibreTexts
 Digestion of Nucleic Acids

Nucleases- an enzyme that catalyze the hydrolysis of nucleic acids to

oligonucleotides and nucleotides

Nucleases enzymes:
1. Ribonuclease (RNases) - catalyzes the breakdown of RNA and plays a role
in the digestion of RNA in vertebrate species
2. Deoxyribonuclease (Dnase) - digest single-stranded and double-stranded
DNA. It breaks the phosphodiester bond formed between two
nucleotides of dsDNA or ssDNA, by cleaving either at/on ends or
between the nucleic acid strands.
Digestion, Absorption, and Transport in Digestive System (brainkart.com)
18.3: Digestion and Absorption - Biology LibreTexts
 METABOLISM
➢ the totality of the chemical reactions that occur in an organism
➢ the chemical reactions carried out by living cells
➢ The sequences of the reactions are called PATHWAYS.

Metabolic pathway - a linked series of chemical reactions occurring within a

cell. The reactants, products, and intermediates of an enzymatic
reaction are known as metabolites, which are modified by a sequence of
chemical reactions catalyzed by enzymes.

➢ Two aspects:
1. catabolism
2. anabolism
Catabolism – a destructive metabolism, the pathways or processes that break
down larger molecules into smaller ones with the release of energy in the
form of ATP, GTP, and reduced coenzymes.

Catabolic processes:
1. Cellular respiration
2. Lipolysis and ß-oxidation
3. Glycogenolysis
4. Amino acid catabolism
5. Catabolism of nucleotides
6. Catabolism of heme
1. Cellular respiration
➢ the main energy-producing pathways of the cell
➢ the process in which cellular energy is generated through the oxidation of
nutrient molecules with oxygen as the ultimate electron acceptor.
➢ If cellular respiration takes place in the presence of oxygen, it is known as
aerobic respiration. If it takes place in the absence of oxygen, it is known as
anaerobic respiration.
2. Lipolysis and ß-oxidation- broking down of fat by hydrolysis into their two
principal components: fatty acids and glycerol. This process takes place
in the cytoplasm. The resulting fatty acids are oxidized by β-oxidation
into acetyl CoA, which is used by the Krebs cycle.
3. Glycogenolysis- biochemical pathway in which glycogen breaks down into
glucose-1-phosphate and glucose units.
4. Amino acid catabolism- process by removing the amino group of the amino
acids. The amino group become urea, in the liver. It is then released into
the blood stream, where it is transferred to the kidneys, which will
secrete the urea as urine.
5. Catabolism of nucleotides- liberates ammonia, which is then incorporated
into amino acids.
6. Catabolism of heme- heme is converted into bile, an aqueous solution
produced and secreted by the liver which aids digestion of fats in the
duodenum.
Anabolism- is the set of metabolic pathways that construct molecules from
smaller units. These reactions require energy, known also as an
endergonic process. Anabolism is the building-up aspect of metabolism.
➢ the pathways which harness the released energy to synthesize molecules
needed for cell manufacture, growth and reproduction

Anabolic processes:
1. Gluconeogenesis
2. Glycogenesis
3. Pentose phosphate pathway or hexose monophosphate shunt
4. Ketogenesis
5. Synthesis of purines and pyrimidines
1. Gluconeogenesis- the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-
carbohydrate precursors such as glycerol, lactate and some amino acids.
2. Glycogenesis- the formation of glycogen, the primary carbohydrate stored
in the liver and muscle cells of animals, from glucose. This process takes
place when blood glucose levels are sufficiently high to allow excess
glucose to be stored in liver and muscle cells.
3. Pentose phosphate pathway- a metabolic pathway parallel to glycolysis to
produce Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH), which is
a heavy-duty reducing agent, pentoses and also to produce ribose-5-
phosphate, which is used in the synthesis of nucleotides and nucleic
acids.
4. Ketogenesis- a metabolic pathway that produces ketone bodies, which
provide an alternative form of energy for the body.
5. Synthesis of purines and pyrimidines- pyrimidine synthesis is responsible
for synthesizing uracil, cytosine and thymine nucleotides Purine
synthesis is responsible for synthesizing adenine and guanine nucleotides
 Nutrient Absorption
➢ When digestion is finished, simple nutrient molecules go through the process
of absorption from the GI tract by blood or lymph so they can be used by
cells throughout the body.
➢ A few substances are absorbed in the stomach and large intestine.
➢ About 95 percent of nutrient molecules are absorbed in the small intestine.
➢ Absorption of the majority of these molecules takes place in the second part
of the small intestine, called the jejunum.
➢ Exceptions. iron is absorbed in the duodenum, and vitamin B12 is absorbed in
the last part of the small intestine, called the ileum.
➢ After being absorbed in the small intestine, nutrient molecules are
transported to other parts of the body for storage or further chemical
modification. For example, amino acids are transported to the liver to be
used for protein synthesis.

18.3: Digestion and Absorption - Biology LibreTexts

➢ The epithelial tissue lining the small intestine is specialized for absorption.
It has many wrinkles and is covered with villi and microvilli, creating an
enormous surface area for absorption.
➢ Each villus has a network of blood capillaries and fine lymphatic vessels
called lacteals close to its surface.
➢ The thin surface layer of epithelial cells of the villi transports nutrients
from the lumen of the small intestine into these capillaries and lacteals.
➢ Blood in the capillaries absorbs most of the molecules, including simple
sugars, amino acids, glycerol, salts, and water-soluble vitamins.
➢ Lymph in the lacteals absorbs fatty acids and fat-soluble vitamins

18.3: Digestion and Absorption - Biology LibreTexts

ABSORPTION OF NUTRIENTS ACROSS INTESTINES

Absorption of nutrients across intestines – About a dietitian (wordpress.com)

How can you improve absorption of micronutrients? (linkedin.com)
Villi and microvilli - Labster Theory
Role of lipoproteins in absorption of fats

➢ The primary function of lipoproteins is the transportation and delivery of

fatty acids, triacylglycerol, and cholesterol to and from target cells in many
organs.
➢ The intestinal cells absorb the fats. Long-chain fatty acids form a large
lipoprotein structure called a chylomicron. It transports fats through the
lymph system. Chylomicrons are formed in the intestinal cells and carry
lipids from the digestive tract into circulation.

❑ Cholesterols are poorly absorbed when compared to phospholipids and

triacylglycerols.
❑ High intake of fiber is recommended to decrease blood cholesterol
❑ Foods high in fiber such as fresh fruits, vegetables, and oats can bind bile
salts and cholesterol, preventing their absorption and carrying them out of
the colon.
❖ In the stomach fat is separated from other food substances. In the small
intestines bile emulsifies fats while enzymes digest them. The intestinal
cells absorb the fats.
❖ Long-chain fatty acids form a large lipoprotein structure called a
chylomicron that transports fats through the lymph system.
❖ Chylomicrons are formed in the intestinal cells and carry lipids from the
digestive tract into circulation.
❖ Short- and medium-fatty chains can be absorbed directly into the
bloodstream from the intestinal microvillus because they are water-soluble.
❖ Cholesterol absorption is hindered by foods high in fiber.
❖ When energy supplies are low the body utilizes its stored fat reserves for
energy.

5.4: Digestion and Absorption of Lipids - Medicine LibreTexts

 Overview of lipoprotein functions in the body

Lipid Transport, Storage, and Utilization – Nutrition: Science and Everyday Application, v. 1.0 (pressbooks.pub)