Beowulf

Historical background

Beowulf, heroic poem, the highest achievement of Old English literature and the earliest European
vernacular epic. The work deals with events of the early 6th century, and, while the date of its
composition is uncertain, some scholars believe that it was written in the 8th century. Although
originally untitled, the poem was later named after the Scandinavian hero Beowulf, whose exploits
and character provide its connecting theme. There is no evidence of a historical Beowulf, but some
characters, sites, and events in the poem can be historically verified. The poem did not appear in print
until 1815. It is preserved in a single manuscript that dates to circa 1000 and is known as the Beowulf
manuscript (Cotton MS Vitellius A XV).
First page of Beowulf in Cotton Vitellius
Beowulf is an Old English epic poem in the tradition of Germanic heroic legend consisting of 3,182
alliterative lines. It is one of the most important and most often translated works of Old English literature.
The date of composition is a matter of contention among scholars; the only certain dating is for the
manuscript, which was produced between 975 and 1025.[2] Scholars call the anonymous author the
"Beowulf poet".[3] The story is set in pagan Scandinavia in the 6th century. Beowulf, a hero of the
Geats, comes to the aid of Hrothgar, the king of the Danes, whose mead hall in Heorot has been under
attack by the monster Grendel. After Beowulf slays him, Grendel's mother attacks the hall and is then
defeated. Victorious, Beowulf goes home to Geatland (Götaland in modern Sweden) and becomes king of
the Geats. Fifty years later, Beowulf defeats a dragon, but is mortally wounded in the battle. After his
death, his attendants cremate his body and erect a tower on a headland in his memory.

#
Anglo-Saxon poetry is constructed very differently from a modern poem. There is little use of rhyme,
and no fixed number of beats or syllables; the verse is alliterative, meaning that each line is in two
halves, separated by a caesura.*
*caesura is a metrical pause or break in a verse where one phrase ends and another phrase begins. It may
be expressed by a comma (,), a tick (✓), or two lines, either slashed (//) or upright (||).

The poem survives in a single copy in the manuscript known as the Nowell Codex(one of the four major
Anglo-Saxon poetic manuscripts). It has no title in the original manuscript, but has become known by
the name of the story's protagonist. In 1731, the manuscript was damaged by a fire that swept through
Ashburnham House in London, which was housing Sir Robert Cotton's collection of medieval
manuscripts. It survived, but the margins were charred, and some readings were lost.[4] The Nowell
Codex is housed in the British Library. The poem was first transcribed in 1786; some verses were first
translated into modern English in 1805, and nine complete translations were made in the 19th century,
including those by John Mitchell Kemble and William Morris. After 1900, hundreds of translations,
whether into prose, rhyming verse, or alliterative verse were made, some relatively faithful, some
archaising, some attempting to domesticate the work. Among the best-known modern translations are
those of Edwin Morgan, Burton Raffel, Michael J. Alexander, Roy Liuzza, and Seamus Heaney. The
difficulty of translating Beowulf has been explored by scholars including J. R. R. Tolkien (in his essay
"On Translating Beowulf"), who worked on a verse and a prose translation of his own.

Plot

Beowulf falls into two parts. It opens in Denmark, where King Hrothgar has a splendid mead hall known
as Heorot, a place of celebration and much merriment. However, the joyous noise angers Grendel, an
evil monster living in a nearby swamp. For 12 years the creature terrorizes Heorot with nightly visits in
which he carries off Hrothgar’s warriors and devours them.

After learning of the Danes’ trouble, young Beowulf, a prince of the Geats in what is now southern
Sweden, arrives with a small band of retainers and offers to rid Heorot of its monster. Hrothgar is
astonished at the little-known hero’s daring but welcomes him. After an evening of feasting, much
courtesy, and some discourtesy—at one point, one of Hrothgar’s men insults Beowulf—the king retires,
leaving Beowulf in charge. During the night, Grendel comes from the moors, rips open the heavy
doors, and devours one of the sleeping Geats. He then grapples with Beowulf, who refuses to use a
weapon. Beowulf grips one of Grendel’s hands with such force that the monster finally wrenches himself
free only when his arm is torn off at the shoulder. Mortally wounded, Grendel returns to his swamp and
dies. Beowulf then displays the monster’s arm in Heorot for all to see.

The next day is one of rejoicing in Heorot, and a feast is thrown in Beowulf’s honour. However, as the
warriors sleep that night, Grendel’s mother, another swamp monster, comes to avenge her son’s death,
and she kills one of Hrothgar’s men. In the morning Beowulf dives into her mere (lake) to search for
her, and she attacks him. They struggle in her dry cave at the mere’s bottom, and Beowulf finally kills her
with a sword. In the cave, Beowulf discovers Grendel’s corpse, whose head he cuts off and takes back to
Heorot. The Danes rejoice once more. Hrothgar makes a farewell speech about the character of the true
hero, and Beowulf, enriched with honours and princely gifts, returns home to King Hygelac of the Geats.

The second part passes rapidly over Hygelac’s subsequent death in a battle (of historical record), the
death of his son, and Beowulf’s succession to the kingship and his peaceful rule of 50 years. However,
the tranquility ends when a fire-breathing dragon becomes enraged after a man steals from its treasure-
filled lair. The creature begins ravaging Geatland, and the brave but aging Beowulf decides to engage it,
despite knowing that he will likely die. The fight is long and terrible—a painful contrast to the battles of
his youth. Painful too is the desertion of all his retainers except for his young kinsman Wiglaf, who
comes to his aid. They ultimately kill the venomous dragon, but Beowulf is mortally wounded from a
bite in the neck. Before he dies, he names Wiglaf his successor. Beowulf is cremated on a funeral pyre,
and his remains are buried in a barrow built by the sea. As his people mourn his death, they also express
the fear that, without Beowulf, Geatland will be invaded by nearby tribes.

Summary (spark note)

King Hrothgar of Denmark, a descendant of the great king Shield Sheafson, enjoys a prosperous and
successful reign. He builds a great mead-hall, called Heorot, where his warriors can gather to drink,
receive gifts from their lord, and listen to stories sung by the scops,(scop is used to designate oral
poets within Old English literature.) or bards. But the jubilant noise from Heorot angers Grendel, a
horrible demon who lives in the swamplands of Hrothgar’s kingdom. Grendel terrorizes the Danes
(plural noun: Danes;
a native or inhabitant of Denmark) every night, killing them and defeating their efforts to fight back.
The Danes suffer many years of fear, danger, and death at the hands of Grendel. Eventually,
however, a young Geatish warrior named Beowulf hears of Hrothgar’s plight. Inspired by the challenge,
Beowulf sails to Denmark with a small company of men, determined to defeat Grendel.

Hrothgar, who had once done a great favor for Beowulf’s father Ecgtheow, accepts Beowulf’s offer
to fight Grendel and holds a feast in the hero’s honor. During the feast, an envious Dane named Unferth
taunts Beowulf and accuses him of being unworthy of his reputation. Beowulf responds with a
boastful description of some of his past accomplishments. His confidence cheers the Danish warriors, and
the feast lasts merrily into the night. At last, however, Grendel arrives. Beowulf fights him unarmed,
proving himself stronger than the demon, who is terrified. As Grendel struggles to escape, Beowulf tears
the monster’s arm off. Mortally wounded, Grendel slinks back into the swamp to die. The severed arm is
hung high in the mead-hall as a trophy of victory.

Overjoyed, Hrothgar showers Beowulf with gifts and treasure at a feast in his honor. Songs are sung in
praise of Beowulf, and the celebration lasts late into the night. But another threat is approaching.
Grendel’s mother, a swamp-hag who lives in a desolate lake, comes to Heorot seeking revenge for her
son’s death. She murders Aeschere, one of Hrothgar’s most trusted advisers, before slinking away.
To avenge Aeschere’s death, the company travels to the murky swamp, where Beowulf dives into the
water and fights Grendel’s mother in her underwater lair. He kills her with a sword forged for a giant,
then, finding Grendel’s corpse, decapitates it and brings the head as a prize to Hrothgar. The Danish
countryside is now purged of its treacherous monsters.

The Danes are again overjoyed, and Beowulf’s fame spreads across the kingdom. Beowulf departs after a
sorrowful goodbye to Hrothgar, who has treated him like a son. He returns to Geatland, where he and his
men are reunited with their king and queen, Hygelac and Hygd, to whom Beowulf recounts his
adventures in Denmark. Beowulf then hands over most of his treasure to Hygelac, who, in turn,
rewards him.

In time, Hygelac is killed in a war against the Shyflings, and, after Hygelac’s son dies, Beowulf
ascends to the throne of the Geats. He rules wisely for fifty years, bringing prosperity to Geatland.
When Beowulf is an old man, however, a thief disturbs a barrow, or mound, where a great dragon lies
guarding a horde of treasure. Enraged, the dragon emerges from the barrow and begins unleashing fiery
destruction upon the Geats. Sensing his own death approaching, Beowulf goes to fight the dragon. With
the aid of Wiglaf, he succeeds in killing the beast, but at a heavy cost. The dragon bites Beowulf in the
neck, and its fiery venom kills him moments after their encounter. The Geats fear that their enemies
will attack them now that Beowulf is dead. According to Beowulf’s wishes, they burn their departed
king’s body on a huge funeral pyre and then bury him with a massive treasure in a barrow overlooking the
sea.

Summary
The protagonist Beowulf, a hero of the Geats, comes to the aid of Hrothgar, king of the Danes, whose
great hall, Heorot, is plagued by the monster Grendel. Beowulf kills Grendel with his bare hands, then
kills Grendel's mother with a giant's sword that he found in her lair.

Later in his life, Beowulf becomes king of the Geats, and finds his realm terrorized by a dragon, some of
whose treasure had been stolen from his hoard in a burial mound. He attacks the dragon with the help
of his thegns or servants, but they do not succeed. Beowulf decides to follow the dragon to its lair at
Earnanæs, but only his young Swedish relative Wiglaf, whose name means "remnant of valour",[a] dares
to join him. Beowulf finally slays the dragon, but is mortally wounded in the struggle. He is cremated and
a burial mound by the sea is erected in his honour.

Beowulf is considered an epic poem in that the main character is a hero who travels great distances to
prove his strength at impossible odds against supernatural demons and beasts. The poem begins in medias
res or simply, "in the middle of things", a characteristic of the epics of antiquity. Although the poem
begins with Beowulf's arrival, Grendel's attacks have been ongoing. An elaborate history of characters
and their lineages is spoken of, as well as their interactions with each other, debts owed and repaid, and
deeds of valour. The warriors form a brotherhood linked by loyalty to their lord. The poem begins and
ends with funerals: at the beginning of the poem for Scyld Scefing and at the end for Beowulf.

First battle: Grendel

Beowulf begins with the story of Hrothgar, who constructed the great hall, Heorot, for himself and his
warriors. In it, he, his wife Wealhtheow, and his warriors spend their time singing and celebrating.
Grendel, a troll-like monster said to be descended from the biblical Cain, is pained by the sounds of joy.
[20] Grendel attacks the hall and kills and devours many of Hrothgar's warriors while they sleep.
Hrothgar and his people, helpless against Grendel, abandon Heorot.

Beowulf, a young warrior from Geatland, hears of Hrothgar's troubles and with his king's permission
leaves his homeland to assist Hrothgar.[21]

Beowulf and his men spend the night in Heorot. Beowulf refuses to use any weapon because he holds
himself to be Grendel's equal.[22] When Grendel enters the hall, Beowulf, who has been feigning sleep,
leaps up to clench Grendel's hand.[23] Grendel and Beowulf battle each other violently.[24] Beowulf's
retainers draw their swords and rush to his aid, but their blades cannot pierce Grendel's skin.[25] Finally,
Beowulf tears Grendel's arm from his body at the shoulder and Grendel runs to his home in the marshes
where he dies.[26] Beowulf displays "the whole of Grendel's shoulder and arm, his awesome grasp" for
all to see at Heorot. This display would fuel Grendel's mother's anger in revenge.[27]

Second battle: Grendel's mother

The next night, after celebrating Grendel's defeat, Hrothgar and his men sleep in Heorot. Grendel's
mother, angry that her son has been killed, sets out to get revenge. "Beowulf was elsewhere. Earlier, after
the award of treasure, The Geat had been given another lodging"; his assistance would be absent in this
battle.[28] Grendel's mother violently kills Æschere, who is Hrothgar's most loyal fighter, and
escapes.

Hrothgar, Beowulf, and their men track Grendel's mother to her lair under a lake. Unferð, a warrior who
had earlier challenged him, presents Beowulf with his sword Hrunting. After stipulating a number of
conditions to Hrothgar in case of his death (including the taking in of his kinsmen and the inheritance by
Unferth of Beowulf's estate), Beowulf jumps into the lake, and while harassed by water monsters gets to
the bottom, where he finds a cavern. Grendel's mother pulls him in, and she and Beowulf engage in fierce
combat.

At first, Grendel's mother prevails, and Hrunting proves incapable of hurting her; she throws Beowulf
to the ground and, sitting astride him, tries to kill him with a short sword, but Beowulf is saved by his
armor. Beowulf spots another sword, hanging on the wall and apparently made for giants, and cuts her
head off with it. Travelling further into Grendel's mother's lair, Beowulf discovers Grendel's corpse and
severs his head with the sword. Its blade melts because of the monster's "hot blood", leaving only the
hilt. Beowulf swims back up to the edge of the lake where his men wait. Carrying the hilt of the sword
and Grendel's head, he presents them to Hrothgar upon his return to Heorot. Hrothgar gives Beowulf
many gifts, including the sword Nægling, his family's heirloom. The events prompt a long reflection by
the king, sometimes referred to as "Hrothgar's sermon", in which he urges Beowulf to be wary of pride
and to reward his thegns.[29]

Final battle: The dragon

Beowulf returns home and eventually becomes king of his own people. One day, fifty years after
Beowulf's battle with Grendel's mother, a slave steals a golden cup from the lair of a dragon at
Earnanæs. When the dragon sees that the cup has been stolen, it leaves its cave in a rage, burning
everything in sight. Beowulf and his warriors come to fight the dragon, but Beowulf tells his men that he
will fight the dragon alone and that they should wait on the barrow. Beowulf descends to do battle with
the dragon, but finds himself outmatched. His men, upon seeing this and fearing for their lives, retreat
into the woods. One of his men, Wiglaf, however, in great distress at Beowulf's plight, comes to his aid.
The two slay the dragon, but Beowulf is mortally wounded. After Beowulf dies, Wiglaf remains by his
side, grief-stricken. When the rest of the men finally return, Wiglaf bitterly admonishes them, blaming
their cowardice for Beowulf's death. Beowulf is ritually burned on a great pyre in Geatland while his
people wail and mourn him, fearing that without him, the Geats are defenseless against attacks from
surrounding tribes. Afterwards, a barrow, visible from the sea, is built in his memory.

Scyld Scefing
|
Beow
|
Halfdane
 |
Hygelac and Hygd Hrothgar and Wealhtheow
|
Heardred

Ecgtheow
|
Beowulf

Character List

Danes(Scyldings)

Scyld Scefing A mythical figure, Scyld was the founder of the tribe of the Scyldings long before
Beowulf's story begins. His ship funeral early in the poem is a significant ritual.

Hrothgar The aging king of the Danes welcomes Beowulf's assistance in facing the menace of Grendel.
His sermon to Beowulf before the Geat champion's departure is thematically important; his great mead-
hall, Heorot, symbolizes the kingdom's success, civilization, and joy.

Wealhtheow Hrothgar's queen welcomes Beowulf and is the embodiment of charm and hospitality.

Unferth One of Hrothgar's top retainers, Unferth insults Beowulf after dipping too deeply into the mead
bowl at the first banquet. He later lends Beowulf a sword for a crucial battle.

Geats

Beowulf A mighty warrior and noble individual, the poem's hero, with the strength of 30 in his hand-
grip, comes to the aid of Hrothgar's Danes. Later Beowulf is king of the Geats.

Wiglaf The only thane(servant) to stand with Beowulf against the dragon, he is the Geats' future king
and a symbol of loyalty within the social/political structure of the comitatus.

Hygelac King of the Geats and uncle to Beowulf, his death in battle (c. 520) is recorded historically,
unlike most of the events in the poem.
Hygd Hygelac's queen is a perfect hostess in the style of Wealhtheow and exemplifies propriety in
royalty. Beowulf is loyal to her and her young son, Heardred, when Hygelac dies.

Heardred Despite Beowulf's support, the young king, son of Hygelac and Hygd, is killed in a feud.
Beowulf then becomes king of the Geats.

Monsters

Grendel A descendant of the biblical Cain, the enormous ogre despises mankind's joy. He menaces
Hrothgar and the Danes for 12 years before facing Beowulf in battle.

Grendel's mother Although not as powerful as her son, she is a formidable foe. She and her son live in a
cave beneath a swampy lake (or mere) where she battles Beowulf.

Dragon guarding a treasure-trove in Geatland, he is angered when a fugitive steals a single gold-
plated flagon. His raids throughout the countryside lead to a battle with Beowulf, the king's last.

Two Men, Three Swords, and a Great Mead-Hall

Breca A royal member of the Brondings, he and Beowulf engaged in a swimming contest against each
other as adolescents, which Unferth claims Beowulf lost.

Weland The legendary, magical blacksmith who made Beowulf's armor.

Hrunting Beowulf receives the ancient sword from Unferth and uses it, albeit unsuccessfully, against
Grendel's mother.

Magical Giant Sword Beowulf miraculously finds this wonderful weapon in the underwater cave and
uses it to kill Grendel's mother. It melts down to the hilt after Beowulf uses it to decapitate Grendel's
corpse. Beowulf presents the hilt to Hrothgar along with Grendel's head.

Naegling Beowulf's own mighty sword is ineffective in the fight with the fiery dragon.

Heorot Hrothgar's mead-hall is more like a palace, symbolizing his and the Scyldings' success. Grendel
sees it as a symbol of mankind's joy and delights in raiding and capturing it nightly.

Character List (different Source)

Beowulf
The protagonist of the epic, Beowulf is a Geatish hero who fights the monster Grendel, Grendel’s mother,
and a fire-breathing dragon. Beowulf’s boasts and encounters reveal him to be the strongest, ablest
warrior around. In his youth, he personifies all of the best values of the heroic culture. In his old age, he
proved a wise and effective ruler.

King Hrothgar
The king of the Danes. Hrothgar enjoys military success and prosperity until Grendel terrorizes his realm.
A wise and aged ruler, Hrothgar represents a different kind of leadership from that exhibited by the
youthful warrior Beowulf. He is a father figure to Beowulf and a model for the kind of king that Beowulf
becomes.

Grendel
A demon descended from Cain, Grendel preys on Hrothgar’s warriors in the king’s mead-hall, Heorot.
Because his ruthless and miserable existence is part of the retribution exacted by God for Cain’s murder
of Abel, Grendel fits solidly within the ethos of vengeance that governs the world of the poem.

Grendel’s mother
An unnamed swamp-hag, Grendel’s mother seems to possess fewer human qualities than Grendel,
although her terrorization of Heorot is explained by her desire for vengeance—a human motivation.

The dragon
An ancient, powerful serpent, the dragon guards a horde of treasure in a hidden mound. Beowulf’s fight
with the dragon constitutes the third and final part of the epic.

Scyld Scefing
The legendary Danish king from whom Hrothgar is descended, Scyld Scefing is the mythical founder
who inaugurates a long line of Danish rulers and embodies the Danish tribe’s highest values of heroism
and leadership. The poem opens with a brief account of his rise from orphan to warrior-king, concluding,
“That was one good king”.

Beow
The second king listed in the genealogy of Danish rulers with which the poem begins. Beow is the son of
Scyld Scefing and father of Halfdane. The narrator presents Beow as a gift from God to a people in need
of a leader. He exemplifies the maxim, “Behavior that’s admired / is the path to power among people
everywhere” (24–25).

Halfdane
The father of Hrothgar, Heorogar, Halga, and an unnamed daughter who married a king of the Swedes,
Halfdane succeeded Beow as ruler of the Danes.

Wealhtheow
Hrothgar’s wife, the gracious queen of the Danes.

Unferth
A Danish warrior who is jealous of Beowulf, Unferth is unable or unwilling to fight Grendel, thus proving
himself inferior to Beowulf.

Hrethric
Hrothgar’s elder son, Hrethric stands to inherit the Danish throne, but Hrethric’s older cousin Hrothulf
will prevent him from doing so. Beowulf offers to support the youngster’s prospect of becoming king by
hosting him in Geatland and giving him guidance.

Hrothmund
The second son of Hrothgar.

Hrothulf
Hrothgar’s nephew, Hrothulf betrays and usurps his cousin, Hrethic, the rightful heir to the Danish throne.
Hrothulf’s treachery contrasts with Beowulf’s loyalty to Hygelac in helping his son to the throne.

Aeschere
Hrothgar’s trusted adviser.
Hygelac
Beowulf’s uncle, king of the Geats, and husband of Hygd. Hygelac heartily welcomes Beowulf back from
Denmark.

Hygd
Hygelac’s wife, the young, beautiful, and intelligent queen of the Geats. Hygd is contrasted with Queen
Modthryth.

Wiglaf
A young kinsman and retainer of Beowulf who helps him in the fight against the dragon while all of the
other warriors run away. Wiglaf adheres to the heroic code better than Beowulf’s other retainers, thereby
proving himself a suitable successor to Beowulf.

Ecgtheow
Beowulf’s father, Hygelac’s brother-in-law, and Hrothgar’s friend. Ecgtheow is dead by the time the story
begins, but he lives on through the noble reputation that he made for himself during his life and in his
dutiful son’s remembrances.

King Hrethel
The Geatish king who took Beowulf in as a ward after the death of Ecgtheow, Beowulf’s father.

Breca
Beowulf’s childhood friend, whom he defeated in a swimming match. Unferth alludes to the story of their
contest, and Beowulf then relates it in detail.

Sigemund
A figure from Norse mythology, famous for slaying a dragon. Sigemund’s story is told in praise of
Beowulf and foreshadows Beowulf’s encounter with the dragon.

King Heremod
An evil king of legend. The scop, or bard, at Heorot discusses King Heremod as a figure who contrasts
greatly with Beowulf.

Queen Modthryth
A wicked queen of legend who punishes anyone who looks at her the wrong way. Modthryth’s story is
told in order to contrast her cruelty with Hygd’s gentle and reasonable behavior.

Character List

Beowulf
Beowulf exemplifies the traits of the perfect hero. The poem explores his heroism in two separate
phases—youth and age—and through three separate and increasingly difficult conflicts—with Grendel,
Grendel’s mother, and the dragon. Although we can view these three encounters as expressions of the
heroic code, there is perhaps a clearer division between Beowulf’s youthful heroism as an unfettered
warrior and his mature heroism as a reliable king. These two phases of his life, separated by fifty years,
correspond to two different models of virtue, and much of the moral reflection in the story centers on
differentiating these two models and on showing how Beowulf makes the transition from one to the other.

In his youth, Beowulf is a great warrior, characterized predominantly by his feats of strength and courage,
including his fabled swimming match against Breca. He also perfectly embodies the manners and
values dictated by the Germanic heroic code, including loyalty, courtesy, and pride. His defeat of
Grendel and Grendel’s mother validates his reputation for bravery and establishes him fully as a hero. In
first part of the poem, Beowulf matures little, as he possesses heroic qualities in abundance from the start.
Having purged Denmark of its plagues and established himself as a hero, however, he is ready to enter
into a new phase of his life. Hrothgar, who becomes a mentor and father figure to the young warrior,
begins to deliver advice about how to act as a wise ruler. Though Beowulf does not become king for
many years, his exemplary career as a warrior has served in part to prepare him for his ascension to the
throne.

The second part of the story, set in Geatland, skips over the middle of Beowulf’s career and focuses on
the very end of his life. Through a series of retrospectives, however, we recover much of what happens
during this gap and therefore are able to see how Beowulf comports himself as both a warrior and a king.
The period following Hygelac’s death is an important transitional moment for Beowulf. Instead of
rushing for the throne himself, as Hrothulf does in Denmark, he supports Hygelac’s son, the rightful heir.
With this gesture of loyalty and respect for the throne, he proves himself worthy of kingship.

In the final episode—the encounter with the dragon—the poet reflects further on how the responsibilities
of a king, who must act for the good of the people and not just for his own glory, differ from those of the
heroic warrior. In light of these meditations, Beowulf’s moral status becomes somewhat ambiguous at the
poem’s end. Though he is deservedly celebrated as a great hero and leader, his last courageous fight is
also somewhat rash. The poem suggests that, by sacrificing himself, Beowulf unnecessarily leaves his
people without a king, exposing them to danger from other tribes. To understand Beowulf’s death strictly
as a personal failure, however, is to neglect the overwhelming emphasis given to fate in this last portion
of the poem. The conflict with the dragon has an aura of inevitability about it. Rather than a conscious
choice, the battle can also be interpreted as a matter in which Beowulf has very little choice or free will at
all. Additionally, it is hard to blame him for acting according to the dictates of his warrior culture.

Hrothgar

Hrothgar, the aged ruler of the Danes who accepts Beowulf’s help in the first part of the story, aids
Beowulf’s development into maturity. Hrothgar is a relatively static character, a force of stability in
the social realm. Although he is as solidly rooted in the heroic code as Beowulf is, his old age and his
experience with both good and ill fortune have caused him to develop a more reflective attitude toward
heroism than Beowulf possesses. He is aware of both the privileges and the dangers of power, and he
warns his young protégé not to give in to pride and always to remember that blessings may turn to grief.
Hrothgar’s meditations on heroism and leadership, which take into account a hero’s entire life span rather
than just his valiant youth, reveal the contrast between youth and old age that forms the turning point in
Beowulf’s own development

Unferth

Unferth’s challenge to Beowulf’s honor differentiates him from Beowulf and helps to reveal some of the
subtleties of the heroic code that the warriors must follow. Unferth is presented as a lesser man, a foil for
the near-perfect Beowulf. (A foil is a character whose traits contrast with and thereby accentuate those of
another character.) The bitterness of Unferth’s chiding of Beowulf about his swimming match with Breca
clearly reflects his jealousy of the attention that Beowulf receives. It probably also stems from his shame
at being unable to protect Heorot himself—he is clearly not the sort of great warrior whom legend will
remember. While boasting is a proper and acceptable form of self-assertion, Unferth’s harsh words show
that it ought not to be bitter or disparaging of others. Rather than heroism, Unferth’s blustering reveals
pride and resentment. Later, Unferth’s gift of his sword for Beowulf’s fight against Grendel’s mother
heals Unferth’s breach of hospitality, but it does little to improve his heroic status. Unlike Beowulf,
Unferth is clearly afraid to fight the monster himself.

Grendel

Likely the poem’s most memorable creation, Grendel is one of the three monsters that Beowulf battles.
His nature is ambiguous. Though he has many animal attributes and a grotesque, monstrous appearance,
he seems to be guided by vaguely human emotions and impulses, and he shows more of an interior life
than one might expect. Exiled to the swamplands outside the boundaries of human society, Grendel is an
outcast who seems to long to be reinstated. The poet hints that behind Grendel’s aggression against the
Danes lies loneliness and jealousy. By lineage, Grendel is a member of “Cain’s clan, whom the creator
had outlawed / and condemned as outcasts.” (106–107). He is thus descended from a figure who
epitomizes resentment and malice. While the poet somewhat sympathetically suggests that Grendel’s
deep bitterness about being excluded from the revelry in the mead-hall owes, in part, to his accursed
status, he also points out that Grendel is “[m]alignant by nature” and that he has “never show[n] remorse”
(137).

Grendel’s Mother

Grendel’s mother, like her son, is a mysterious humanoid creature. She enters the poem as an “avenger”
(l.1258), seeking redress for the death of her son at Beowulf’s hands. For this reason, some readers have
seen Grendel’s mother as an embodiment of ancient Northern European society’s tendency toward
unending blood-feuds. Other readers have suggested that she represents the suffering of women under the
bloodfeud system. Before Grendel’s mother attacks, we hear the story of Hildeburh, a princess who loses
all her male relatives because her brother’s family is feuding with her husband’s. However, Grendel’s
mother is by no means only an embodiment of blood-feuding and its failures. She lives in a “mere”
(l.1362) whose bottom “has never been sounded by the sons of men” (l.1367). Many readers have seen
the mere as powerfully symbolic of the human subconscious, or of the mysteries that lie beyond human
knowledge. To these readers, Grendel’s mother represents the dangers that await anyone who seeks to
confront the unknown, either in the world or in themselves.

The Dragon
The dragon is a mighty and glamorous opponent, an appropriate match for Beowulf. The dragon is so
well suited to bring about Beowulf’s downfall, in fact, that some readers have seen it as a symbolic
representation of death itself: the unique, personal end that awaits every person. Hrothgar prepares us to
view the dragon in this way when he warns Beowulf that for every warrior an unbeatable foe lies in wait,
even if it is only old age. However, the dragon also symbolizes the specific fate that lies in wait for the
Geats, and for pagan society generally. The dragon is “driven […] to guard heathen gold, / through age-
long vigils, though to little avail” (ll.2275-7). Like Beowulf, the dragon uses its strength to accrue a huge
mound of treasure, but in the end all the treasure does is bring about its death. The treasure also brings
about Beowulf’s death. Possibly the poem’s Christian narrator sees greed for treasure as a kind of
spiritual death, suffered by pagans who value treasure over Heaven. The dragon hoards his treasure in a
“barrow,” that is, a grave.

Wiglaf

Wiglaf, one of Beowulf’s kinsmen and thanes, is the only warrior brave enough to help the hero in his
fight against the dragon. Wiglaf conforms perfectly to the heroic code in that he is willing to die
attempting to defeat the opponent and, more importantly, to save his lord. In this regard, Wiglaf appears
as a reflection of the young Beowulf in the first part of the story—a warrior who is strong, fearless,
valiant, and loyal. He embodies Beowulf’s statement from the early scenes of the poem that it is always
better to act than to grieve. Wiglaf thus represents the next generation of heroism and the future of the
kingdom. His bravery and solid bearing provide the single glint of optimism in the final part of the story,
which, for the most part, is dominated by a tone of despair at what the future holds.
Major Themes in Beowulf

Loyalty

One of the central themes of Beowulf, embodied by its title character, is loyalty. At every step of his
career, loyalty is Beowulf's guiding virtue.

Beowulf comes to the assistance of the Danes (Scyldings) for complicated reasons. Certainly he is
interested in increasing his reputation and gaining honor and payment for his own king back in Geatland.
However, we soon learn that a major motivation is a family debt that Beowulf owes to Hrothgar. The
young Geat is devoted to the old king because Hrothgar came to the assistance of Beowulf's father,
Ecgtheow, years before. Now deceased, Ecgtheow had killed a leader of another tribe in a blood feud.
When the tribe sought vengeance, Hrothgar, then a young king, sheltered Beowulf's father and settled the
feud by paying tribute (wergild) in the form of "fine old treasures" (472) to Ecgtheow's enemies. Hrothgar
even remembers Beowulf as a child. The tie between the families goes back many years, and Beowulf is
proud to be able to lend his loyal services to Hrothgar.

When the hero returns to Geatland, he continues his loyalty to his uncle and king, Hygelac, risking his life
even when the tactics of the ruler are not the best. After Hygelac is killed in an ill-advised raid on
Frisia, Beowulf makes a heroic escape (2359 ff.) back to Geatland. Beowulf could become king then
but is more loyal than ambitious. Queen Hygd offers Beowulf the throne after her husband dies,
thinking that her young son (Heardred) is unable to protect the kingdom; Beowulf refuses and
serves the young king faithfully. After Heardred is killed, Beowulf does become king and rules with
honor and fidelity to his office and his people for 50 years. In his final test, the burden of loyalty will rest
on other, younger shoulders.

Preparing for his last battle, with the fiery dragon, Beowulf puts his trust in 11 of his finest men, retainers
who have vowed to fight to the death for him. Although the now elderly king insists on taking on the
dragon alone, he brings along the 11 in case he needs them. When it is apparent that Beowulf is losing the
battle to the dragon, however, all but one of his men run and hide in the woods. Only Wiglaf, an
inexperienced thane who has great respect for his king, remains loyal. Wiglaf calls to the others in
vain. Realizing that they will be no help and that his king is about to be killed, he stands beside the old
man to fight to the death — theirs or the dragon's. For Beowulf, sadly, it is the end. Although he and
Wiglaf kill the dragon, the king dies. As he dies, Beowulf passes the kingdom on to the brave and loyal
Wiglaf.
Reputation

Another motivating factor for Beowulf — and a central theme in the epic — is reputation. From the
beginning, Beowulf is rightly concerned about how the rest of the world will see him. He introduces
himself to the Scyldings by citing achievements that gained honor for him and his king. When a drunken
Unferth verbally assaults Beowulf at the first banquet, at issue is the hero's reputation. Unferth's slur is
the worst kind of insult for Beowulf because his reputation is his most valuable possession. Reputation is
also the single quality that endures after death, his one key to immortality. That's why Beowulf later
leaves the gold in the cave beneath the mere, after defeating the mother, preferring to return with
Grendel's head and the magic sword's hilt rather than treasure. He has and continues to amass treasures;
his intent now is in building his fame.

Unferth's slur accuses Beowulf of foolishly engaging in a seven-day swimming contest on the open sea,
as a youth, and losing. If Beowulf can't win a match like that, Unferth asserts, he surely can't defeat
Grendel. Beowulf defends his reputation with such grace and persuasion that he wins the confidence of
King Hrothgar and the rest of the Danes. He points out that he swam with Breca for five nights, not
wanting to abandon the weaker boy. Rough seas then drove them apart, and Beowulf had to kill nine sea
monsters before going ashore in the morning. His reputation intact, Beowulf prepares to meet Grendel
and further enhance his fame.

As he discusses Beowulf's later years, the poet lists the virtues (2177 ff.) leading to the great man's fine
reputation. Beowulf is courageous and famous for his performance in battle but equally well known for
his good deeds. Although aggressive in war, Beowulf has "no savage mind" (2180) and never kills his
comrades when drinking, an important quality in the heroic world of the mead-hall. Beowulf respects the
gifts of strength and leadership that he possesses.

As he prepares to meet the dragon, near the end of the poem, now King Beowulf again considers his
reputation. He insists on facing the dragon alone despite the fact that his death will leave his people
in jeopardy. Hrothgar's Sermon warned Beowulf of the dangers of pride, and some critics have accused
the great warrior of excessive pride (hubris) in the defense of his reputation. A more considerate judgment
might be that Beowulf is an old man with little time left and deserves the right to die as a warrior. The
final words of the poem, stating that Beowulf was "most eager for fame' (3182), might be best understood
by a modern audience by remembering that, in Beowulf's world, fame is synonymous with reputation.

Generosity and Hospitality

The Scyldings' King Hrothgar and Queen Wealhtheow embody the themes of generosity and
hospitality. The code of the comitatus is at the heart of the Beowulf epic. In this system, the king or
feudal lord provides land, weapons, and a share of treasure to his warriors (called thanes or retainers) in
return for their support of the leader in battle. The leader's generosity is one of his highest qualities. There
are more than 30 different terms for "king" in the poem, and many of them have to do with this role as
provider. He is the "ring-giver' (35) or the "treasure-giver" (607); his seat of power is the "gift-throne"
(168).

When booty is seized from an enemy in battle, everything goes to the king. He then allots treasure to each
warrior according to the man's achievements as a soldier. When Beowulf defeats Grendel and
Grendel's mother, he expects and receives great riches as his reward, including a golden banner,
helmet, and mail-shirt, as well as a jeweled sword, magnificent horses with golden trappings that hang to
the ground, a gem-studded saddle, and a golden collar. Such generosity is emblematic of Hrothgar's
character. In turn, Beowulf will present these treasures to his own king, Hygelac, who will then honor
Beowulf with appropriate gifts. Propriety/generosity is, thus, a crucial part of the political, military,
social, and economic structure of the culture.

Wealhtheow shares in the gift giving and is the perfect hostess. When she serves mead in Heorot, it is an
act of propriety and diplomacy, attending first to her king and then to various guests, paying special
attention to Beowulf. An improper queen would be one like Modthrytho (1931 ff.) who was so
inhospitable as to have her own warriors executed for the offense of merely looking into her eyes.

Hospitality is such an established part of the culture that the poet feels free to refer to it with casual
humor. When Beowulf reports to Hrothgar on his victory over Grendel (957 ff.), he ironically speaks in
terms of hospitality. He tried, he says, to "welcome my enemy" (969) with a firm handshake but was
disappointed when he received only a "visitor's token" (971), Grendel's giant claw, "that dear [meaning
'precious'] gift" (973), a kind of macabre gratuity for services rendered. Beowulf had, ironically speaking,
tried to be the perfect host; but he wanted the entire ogre body as his tip. Grendel left only his claw as a
cheap compensation.

Envy

Despite Unferth's jealous rant at the first banquet, the most serious embodiment of envy in the
poem is Grendel. The ogre who has menaced Hrothgar's people for 12 years is envious of the Danes
because he can never share in mankind's hope or joy. The monster's motivation is one of the few
undeniably Christian influences in the epic. Grendel is a descendant of Cain, the biblical son of Adam and
Eve who killed his brother Abel out of jealousy (Genesis 4). The legend is that the monsters of the earth
are Cain's descendants and eternally damned. Grendel resents men because God blesses them but will
never bless him. The bright lights and sounds of joy emanating from Hrothgar's magnificent mead-hall,
Heorot, especially annoy the ogre.

The scop's "Song of Creation" angers Grendel because it reminds him of the light and hope of God's
creation and the loss he suffers because of Cain's sin. Grendel stomps up from the mere to devour Danes
and rule nightly over Heorot as a form of revenge stemming from this envy.

Revenge
Revenge serves as a motivating factor for several characters throughout the poem, initially stirring
Grendel and his mother. Grendel seeks revenge upon mankind for the heritage that he has been dealt.
He delights in raiding Heorot because it is the symbol of everything that he detests about men: their
success, joy, glory, and favor in the eyes of God. Grendel's mother's revenge is more specific. She
attacks Heorot because someone there killed her son. Although she is smaller and less powerful than
Grendel, she is motivated by a mother's fury. When Beowulf goes after her in the mere, she has the added
advantage of fighting him in her own territory. As she drags him into her cave beneath the lake, her
revenge peaks because this is the very man who killed her son. Only Beowulf's amazing abilities as a
warrior and the intervention of God or magic can defeat her.

Revenge also motivates the many feuds that the poet refers to and is a way of life — and death — for the
Germanic tribes. Old enmities die hard and often disrupt attempts at peace, as the poet recognizes. Upon
his return to Geatland, Beowulf (2020 ff.) speculates about a feud between Hrothgar's Scyldings and the
Heathobards, a tribe in southern Denmark with whom Hrothgar hopes to make peace through the
marriage of his daughter. Beowulf is skeptical, envisioning a renewal of hostilities. In fact, the
Heathobards do later burn Heorot in events not covered by the poem but probably familiar to its audience.
Another example of revenge overcoming peace occurs in the Finnsburh section (1068-1159).

Beowulf's final battle is the result of vengeance. A dangerous fire-dragon seeks revenge because a
fugitive slave has stolen a valuable cup from the monster's treasure-hoard.

His raids across the countryside include the burning of Beowulf's home. Beowulf then seeks his
own revenge by going after the dragon.

Major Symbols in Beowulf

A literary symbol is something, often an object, that stands for a significant concept or series of ideas.
Often a symbol is emblematic of the values of the characters. In Beowulf, some of the most important
symbols are Hrothgar's mead-hall, Grendel's cave, Grendel's arm and head, and the dragon's treasure-
trove.

Heorot

Hrothgar's great mead-hall, Heorot ("Hall of the Hart"), functions as both setting and symbol in the epic.
It is much more than a place to drink. Symbolically, Heorot represents the achievements of the
Scyldings, specifically Hrothgar, and their level of civilization. The hall is a home for the warriors who
sleep there and functions as a seat of government. It is a place of light, warmth, and joy, contrasting with
Grendel's morbid swamp as well as the dark and cold of winters in Scandinavia. In Heorot, Hrothgar
celebrates his victories and rewards his thanes (warriors) with various treasures. The building is like a
palace. It towers high and is compared to a cliff. The gables are shaped like horns of the hart. People from
neighboring tribes have respectfully contributed to the rich decorations and intricate designs. The hall is
also symbolic in that it is the setting of Beowulf's first great battle, the defeat of Grendel. When Grendel
invades the hall, he knows that he strikes at the very heart of the Scyldings. That lends special meaning to
his victories and to Beowulf's eventual liberation of the hall from the ravages of the ogres.

The Cave

The cave where Grendel and his mother hide from the world is symbolic of their lives as outcasts.
Hidden beneath a treacherous mere in the middle of a dark, forbidding swamp, the cave allows them a
degree of safety and privacy in a world that they view as hostile. They certainly are not welcome at
Heorot, and they know it.

The cave also represents their heritage. As descendants of Cain, they are associated with sorcery,
black magic, demons, ancient runes, and hell itself. When Grendel's mother is able to fight Beowulf in
the cave, she has a distinct advantage; his victory is all the more significant. It is not clear whether he
wins because of his own ability, the influence of magic (the giant sword), or God's intervention. All are
mentioned, probably because the poet borrowed from various influences in creating the poem. The cave
itself represents a world alien to Heorot. One is high and bright and full of song and joy, towering as the
Scyldings' greatest achievement. The other is dark and dank and full of evil, beneath a mere in the middle
of a fen and the symbolic home of resentful outcasts.

Grendel's Claw and Head

Beowulf had hoped to have an entire Grendel body to present to King Hrothgar after his battle with the
ogre in Heorot. He has to settle for the right arm or claw, ripped from its shoulder socket, when the
mortally wounded adversary flees to the swamp. The claw is hung high beneath Heorot's roof (most likely
on the outside beneath the gables) as a symbol of Beowulf's victory.

Grendel's mother also sees it as a symbol, representing her personal loss and mankind's macabre sense of
what might be an appropriate trophy. Filled with grief and rage, she retrieves the arm from Heorot and
kills another Scylding in the process. When Beowulf tracks her to the mere and ends up in her underwater
cave, he has no more interest in the claw. Grendel's head, which he is able to find after a strange, perhaps
holy brilliance illuminates the dimly lighted cave, is much more impressive. He ignores the vast treasure
in the cave, instead choosing to carry the magnificent, huge head as symbolic of his victory over both
ogres.

The Dragon's Treasure-Trove

The dragon's treasure-trove poignantly represents the vanity of human wishes as well as the mutability
of time. The dragon's barrow holds wealth in abundance, yet the wealth is of no use to anyone. The
ancient treasures in the hoard once belonged to a regional tribe of warriors who were killed in battle some
300 years previously. Only one survivor, who is called the "keeper of the rings" (2244), lived to hide the
treasures in the barrow.
Just as the dead warriors cannot use the treasure, neither can the dragon. He devotes his life to guarding
a treasure that he frankly has no use for. Beowulf gives his life defeating the dragon and gaining this
impressive treasure for his people, but they won't benefit from it either. The treasure is buried with the
great warrior in his funeral barrow and, we are told, remains there still, a mighty horde of riches that is
of absolutely no use to anybody.

Dialect

#Beowulf is written mostly in the West Saxon dialect of Old English, but many other dialectal forms are
present. It retains a complicated mix of Mercian, Northumbrian, Early West Saxon, Anglian, Kentish and
Late West Saxon dialectical forms.

Questions from Previous Years

Broad Questions
1.Write a comparative essay on the character of Beowulf and king Arthur as strong heroic protagonists.
2.What is epic? Evaluate Beowulf as a primary epic of the Anglo-Saxon period.
3.Beowulf, being an epic, promotes certain values. Do you agree? Justify your answer.
4."Beowulf is an eloquent celebration of a heroic life and death"- Discuss.
5. What traits of Beowulf help him to appear as the "true hero".

Short Note
1. Hrothgar
2. Mead hall
3. Grendel
4. Grendel's Mother ★
5. Fight with the dragon.

Important Sites

1.Cliffsnotes