Faults

A fault is a failure which interferes with the normal flow of current.

Causes
I Lightning
I Insulation failure
I Faulty Operation

Fault Analysis
Faults lead to heavy currents in the system which needs to be
protected. It is all about finding the magnitude of fault currents
under fault conditions.
Types of Faults

1. Symmetrical Faults
1.1 Three pahse short circuit
2. Unsymmetrical Faults
2.1 Single line to ground fault
2.2 Line to line fault
2.3 Double line to ground fault
2.4 Open conductor faults

I Symmetrical faults are very rare but severe.

I Unsymmetrical faults are common.
I Analyzing symmetrical faults is easy.
I Analyzing unsymmetrical faluts needs a special tool.
Transients in RL Circuits
R L

Vmax sin(ωt + α) +
−

After the switch is closed,

di
Vmax sin(ωt + α) = Ri + L
dt
On solving it for i
 
Vmax −Rt
i= sin(ωt + α − θ) − exp( ) sin(α − θ)
|Z | L
Transients in RL Circuits - Contd...

where |Z | = R 2 + (ωL)2 and θ = tan−1 (ωL/R). If the voltage is

p

applied at t = 0,
2
1

0.5 1
i(t)

i(t)
0
0
−0.5

−1 −1
0 2 4 6 0 2 4 6
t t

(a) α − θ = 0 (b) α − θ = −π/2

Transients in RL Circuits - Contd...

1 1

0.5
0.5

0
i(t)

i(t)
0
−0.5
−0.5
−1

−1
−1.5
0 2 4 6 0 2 4 6
t t

(c) α − θ = π (d) α − θ = π/2

1. DC component is zero when α − θ = 0 or π

2. DC component is maximum when α − θ = ±π/2
3. DC component may have any value from 0 to Vmax /|Z |
depending on the instantaneous value when the switch is
closed and on the power factor of the circuit.
Synchronous Machine
The per phase equivalent circuit is
Ra Xs

E + Vt
−

When a short circuit occurs,

I Since the instantaneous voltage is different in each phase, DC

component will be different in each phase.
I Unlike RL circuits, the phase current in each phase will follow
a different pattern.
Synchronous Machine - Short Circuit Current

1
i(t)

−1

−2
0 5 10 15 20
t
Synchronous Machine - Under Short Circuit Conditions
Xd00 Xd0

E + E +
− −

(e) Subtransient (f) Transient

Xd

E +
−

(g) Steady State

Synchronous Machine on Load

Let us consider a synchronous generator that supplies a balanced

load.
R X IL P
+ +
Xdg RL
Vt Vf
Eg + XL
−
− −

Figure: Steady state Condition

Synchronous Machine on Load- Prefault Condition

R X IL P
+ +
00
Xdg RL
Vt Vf
Eg00 + XL
−
− −

Figure: Prefault Condition

Eg00 = Vt + Xdg
00 00
IL = Vf + (R + X )IL + Xdg IL
Synchronous Machine on Load- Prefault Condition

R X IL P
+ +
0
Xdg RL
Vt Vf
Eg0 + XL
−
− −

Figure: Prefault Condition

Eg0 = Vt + Xdg
0 0
IL = Vf + (R + X )IL + Xdg IL
Synchronous Machine on Load - During Fault
R X
P
+ +
00
Xdg RL
Vt Vf If00
Eg00 + XL
−
− −

Figure: During Fault

00 I
Eg00 Vf + (R + X )IL + Xdg L
If00 = 00 = 00
(R + X ) + Xdg (R + X ) + Xdg
Since the static load does not supply any fault current, it can be
removed,
Vf
If00 = 00
(R + X ) + Xdg
Synchronous Generator supplying Synchronous Motor

R X IL P
+
00
Xdg 00
Xdm
Vf
Eg00 + + Em00
− −
−

Figure: Prefault Condition

Eg00 = Vf + (R + X + Xdg
00
)IL
Em00 = Vf − (Xdm
00
)IL
Synchronous Generator supplying Synchronous Motor
R X Ig00 P Im00
+
00
Xdg 00
Xdm
Vf If00
Eg00 + + Em00
− −
−

Figure: Postfault Condition

Eg00 Vf
Ig00 = 00 = 00 + IL
(R + X ) + Xdg (R + X ) + Xdg
Em00 Vf
Im00 = 00 = 00 − IL
Xdm Xdm
Fault Current Calculation

Vf Vf
If00 = Ig00 + Im00 = 00 + 00
(R + X ) + Xdg Xdm

R X Igf00 P Imf
00

−
00
Xdg 00
Xdm
Vf +

If00

Figure: Applying Vf to the dead network

Fault Current Calculation using Thevenin’s Theorem
00
R X Xdg Igf00

P
00
Xdm 00
Imf
+ Vf
−

If00

Figure: Thevenin Equivalent

00 (R + X + X 00 )
Xdm
Vf dg
If00 = where Zth = 00 + X 00 )
ZTh (R + X + Xdg dm
Fault Calculations using ZBus

 0.5
1 2
 0.25  0.25

1 1
+ 3

Vf
Ea00 + + Eb00
− −
−
Fault Calculations - Contd...

If a three phase fault occurs at bus 3,

 0.5
1 2
 0.25  0.25

1 1
3
+ V
− f
If00

Ea00 + + Eb00
− + −Vf −
−
To find the changes in voltages,
      
∆V1 ∆V1 Z11 Z12 Z13 0
∆V2  = ∆V2  = Z21 Z22 Z23   0 
∆V3 −Vf Z31 Z32 Z33 −If
   
∆V1 Z13
∆V2  = −If00 Z23 
−Vf Z33
Vf
If00 =
Z33
 Z13
 
− V
 Z33 f 
 
∆V1
− Z23 V 
∆V2  =  
 Z f
∆V3 33
−Vf
If the faulted network is assumed to be without load before the
fault occurs,      
V1 Vf ∆V1
V2  = Vf  + ∆V2 
V3 Vf ∆V3
Z13 Z13
   
− V 1−
 Z33 f 
   
V1 Vf  Z33 
V2  = Vf  +  Z23  = Vf 
   Z23 
− Z Vf  1 − Z 

V3 Vf 33 33
−Vf 0
When a three phase fault occurs on bus k,
Vf
If00 =
Zkk
By neglecting prefault load currents, the voltage at any bus j
during the fault
Zjk
Vj = Vf − Zjk If00 = Vf − Vf
Zkk

The subtransient current Iij00 from bus i to j in the line of

impedance Zb connecting those two buses
   
00 Vi − Vj 00 Zik − Zjk Vf Zik − Zjk
Iij = = −If =−
Zb Zb Zb Zkk
Selection of Circuit Breakers

√
Short-circuit MVA = 3 × nominal kV × ISC × 10−3
where ISC is the three phase short circuit current in A.
√
Base MVA = 3 × base kV × Ibase × 10−3

If base kV equals nominal kV,

Short-circuit MVA in per unit = ISC in per unit

At nominal voltage, the Thevenin impedance is

1 1
ZTh = per unit = per unit
ISC short circuit MVA
Two factors to be considered are
1. The maximum instantaneous current which the breaker must
carry
2. The total current when the breaker contacts part to interrupt
the circuit
The momentary current which occurs immediately after a fault is
higher than the initial symmetrical RMS current.

momentary current = 1.6 × symmetrical current

I The factor 1.6 is to account for the DC component.

I The interrupting current is lower than the momentary current
and depends on the speed of the breaker such as 8, 5,3 or 2
cycles.
Unsymmetrical Faults

(a) SLG (b) LL

(c) LLG (d) Open

Figure:
Symmetrical Components
Any arbitrary set of three phasors can be written as
Ia = Ia0 + Ia1 + Ia2
Ib = Ib0 + Ib1 + Ib2
Ic1
Ic = Ic0 + Ic1 + Ic2 I 2
b
Ia2

Ia1

Ib1 Ic2
(a) Positive Sequence (b) Negative Sequence

Ia0
Ib0
Ic0
(c) Zero Sequence

Figure: Balanced sets

Unbalanced Currents

Ic1
Ia0
Ia2 Ia
Ic I 1
Ib2 Ic2 Ib Ic0 a
Ib0
Ib1
    0  1  2
Ia Ia Ia Ia
Ib  = I 0  + I 1  + I 2 
b b b
Ic Ic0 Ic1 Ic2
Let us introduce α = 1∠120◦ .
       
Ia 1 1 1
Ib  = Ia0 1 + Ia1 α2  + Ia2  α 
Ic 1 α α2
     0
Ia 1 1 1 Ia
Ib  = 1 α 2 α  Ia1 
Ic 1 α α 2 Ia2
 
1 1 1
A= 1 α2 α 
1 α α2
 I = AIs
where I is the phase current vector and Is is the symmetrical
components vector.
Is = A−1 I
 
1 1 1
1
A−1 = 1 α α2 
3
1 α2 α
 0   
Ia 1 1 1 Ia
Ia1  = 1 1 α α2  Ib 
3
Ia2 1 α2 α Ic
Once Is is known, the remaining six components can be calculated
by using the properties of the positive, negative and zero sequence
sets.
Similarly for unbalanced voltages,

Va = Va0 + Va1 + Va2

Vb = Vb0 + Vb1 + Vb2
Vc = Vc0 + Vc1 + Vc2
     0
Va 1 1 1 Va
Vb  = 1 α2 α  Va1 
Vc 1 α α2 Va2

1
Va0 = (Va + Vb + Vc )
3
1
Va1 = (Va + αVb + α2 Vc )
3
1
2
Va = (Va + α2 Vb + αVc )
3
Observations

1. Line currents into a ∆ connected circuit have no zero

sequence current.
Let Ia , Ib and Ic be a set of unbalanced line-line currents.
1
Ia0 = (Ia + Ib + Ic )
3
1
Ia0 = (Iab − Ica + Ibc − Iab + Ica − Ibc ) = 0 (1)
3
2. Zero sequence line-line voltage is always zero.
Let Vab , Vbc and Vca be a set of unbalanced line-line voltages.

0 1
Vab = (Vab + Vbc + Vca )
3

0 1
Vab = (Van − Vbn + Vbn − Vcn + Vcn − Van ) = 0
3
Power Calculation using Symmetrical Components

The total complex power flowing into a three phase circuit is

S3φ = P + Q = Va Ia∗ + Vb Ib∗ + Vc Ic∗

where Va , Vb and Vc are the voltages to reference at the terminals

and Ia , Ib and Ic are the currents flowing into the circuit.
In matrix notation,
 ∗
  Ia
S3φ = Va Vb Vc Ib 
Ic
 T  ∗
Va Ia
S3φ = Vb  Ib 
Vc Ic
 S3φ = [AVs ]T [AIs ]∗
 0  0
Va Ia
where Vs = Va1  and Is = Ia1 .
Va2 Ia2
T T
Since (AB) = B A , T

S3φ = VsT AT A∗ I∗s

AT = A and α∗ = α2 .
    0 ∗
1 1 1 1 1 1 Ia
S3φ = Va0 Va1 2 2 2 Ia1 
 
Va 1 α
 α  1 α α  
1 α α 2 1 α 2 α Ia2
   0 ∗
1 0 0 Ia
S3φ = Va0 Va1 Va2 3 0 1 0 Ia1 
 

0 0 1 Ia2
  0 ∗
Ia
= 3 Va Va1 Va2 Ia1 
 0 
S3φ
Ia2
So, the complex power is

S3φ = Va Ia∗ + Vb Ib∗ + Vc Ic∗ = 3Va0 (Ia0 )∗ + 3Va1 (Ia1 )∗ + 3Va2 (Ia2 )∗

Transformation is power invariant.

Unbalanced Fault Analysis

1. An unbalanced network is divided into three balanced

networks.
2. The three balanced networks are solved on per phase basis.
3. Using the superposition principle, the three responses are
added.

General Procedure
1. Find the per phase positive sequence, negative sequence and
zero sequence networks of the given system.
2. Connect them as per the fault conditions at the fault point.
3. Determine the sequence currents and voltages.
4. Find the unbalanced fault currents using the sequence
currents.
Sequence Circuits of Y Impedance
Ia
a
− +
ZY
Vab
In
Vca n ZY
ZY
−Ib Zn
b +
+ Vbc
Ic
c − g

In = Ia + Ib + Ic = (Ia0 + Ia1 + Ia2 ) + (Ib0 + Ib1 + Ib2 ) + (Ic0 + Ic1 + Ic2 )

= (Ia0 + Ib0 + Ic0 ) + (Ia1 + Ib1 + Ic1 ) + (Ia2 + Ib2 + Ic2 )
= 3Ia0
The voltage of phase a with respect to ground as

Va = Van + Vng

where Vng = 3Ia0 Zn . Similarly

Vb = Vbn + Vng
Vc = Vcn + Vng

In matrix form      
Va Van Vng
Vb  = Vbn  + Vng 
Vc Vcn Vng
     0     
Va ZY Ia 3Ia Zn Ia 1
Vb  = ZY Ib  + 3Ia0 Zn  = ZY Ib  + 3Ia0 Zn 1
Vc ZY Ic 3Ia0 Zn Ic 1
  0  0  
Va Ia 1
1 1 0
A Va = ZY A Ia + 3Ia Zn 1
    
Va2 Ia2 1
Premultiplying both sides by A−1 ,
 0  0  
Va Ia 1
Va1  = ZY Ia1  + 3Ia0 Zn 0
Va2 Ia2 0

Va0 = (ZY + 3Zn )Ia0 = Z 0 Ia0

Va1 = ZY Ia1 = Z 1 Ia1
Va2 = ZY Ia2 = Z 2 Ia2
 Ia1 ZY Ia2 ZY
n n
a a
+ +

Va1 Va2
−
g −
g
(a) Positive Sequence Circuit (b) Negative Sequence Circuit

+
Ia0 ZY
n
a
Va0
3Zn
−
g
(c) Zero Sequence Circuit

Figure: Sequence Circuits of Y Impedance

If the neutral of the Y connected circuit is grounded through zero
impedance,

+
Ia0 ZY
n
a
Va0

−
g

If there is no connection between neutral and ground there can not

be any zero sequence current flow.

Ia0 ZY
n
a
+

Va0
−
g
Sequence Circuits of ∆ Impedance

Ia
a
− +

Vab

Z∆
Z∆
Vca
−Ib Z∆
b +
+ Vbc
Ic
c −

Since a ∆ connected circuit can not provide a path through

neutral, the line currents flowing into it or its equivalent Y circuit
can not contain any zero sequence components.
 Vab = Z∆ Iab Vbc = Z∆ Ibc Vca = Z∆ Ica

0 1 2 0 1 2
Vab + Vbc + Vca = (Vab + Vab + Vab ) + (Vbc + Vbc + Vbc )+
0 1 2
(Vca + Vca + Vca )

0 0
Vab + Vbc + Vca = 3Vab = 3Z∆ Iab
Since the sum of line-line voltages is always zero,
0 0
Vab = Iab =0
The zero sequence circuit a ∆ connected circuit is,

Ia0 Z∆
a
+

Va0
−
g
Sequence Circuits of a symmetrical transmission line
Z1 Ia1 Z2 Ia2

(a) Positive Sequence Circuit (b) Negative Sequence Circuit

Z0 Ia0

(c) Zero Sequence Circuit

Z1 = Z2 6= Z0 . But Z0 > Z1 . Z0 is 2 to 3.5 times Z1 .

Sequence Circuits of a synchronous machine
Ia
a

+ E
− an
Zn In
n

E bn
n
Ec − −
+ +

b Ib
c
Ic
The terminal voltages are as follows:
Van = Ean − Ia (R + ωLs ) + ωMs (Ib + Ic )
Vbn = Ebn − Ib (R + ωLs ) + ωMs (Ic + Ia )
Vcn = Ecn − Ic (R + ωLs ) + ωMs (Ia + Ib )

In Matrix form
        
Van Ia 1 1 1 Ia Ean
Vbn  = −[R +ω(Ls +Ms )] Ib +ωMs 1 1 1 Ib +Ebn 
Vcn Ic 1 1 1 Ic Ecn
By using V = AVs and I = AIs
 0  0    0
Van Ia 1 1 1 Ia
Van1  = −[R+ω(L +M )] I 1 +ωM A−1 1 1 1 A I 1 
s s a s a
2
Van Ia2 1 1 1 Ia2
 
Ean
−1 
+A Ebn 
Ecn
Since the synchronous generator is designed to supply balanced
three phase voltages, Ean , Ebn and Ecn are positive sequence
phasors.
 0  0    0
Van Ia 1 1 1 Ia
1  = −[R+ω(L +M )] I 1 +ωM A−1 1 1 1 A I 1 
Van s s a s a
2
Van Ia2 1 1 1 Ia2
 
Ean
+ A−1 α2 Ean 
αEan

 0  0    0  
Van Ia 3 0 0 Ia 0
1  = −[R+ω(L +M )] I 1 +ωM 0 0 0 I 1 +E 
Van s s a s a an
2
Van Ia2 0 0 0 Ia2 0
 0
Van = −RIa0 − ω(Ls − 2M)Ia0
1
Van = Ean − RIa1 − ω(Ls + Ms )Ia1
2
Van = −RIa2 − ω(Ls + Ms )Ia2

0
Van = −Ia0 [R + ω(Ls − 2M)] = −Ia0 Zg 0
1
Van = Ean − Ia1 [Ra + ω(Ls + Ms )] = Ean − Ia1 Z1
2
Van = −Ia2 [R + ω(Ls + Ms )] = −Ia2 Z2

where Zg 0 ,Z1 and Z2 are the zero, positive and negative sequence
impedances respectively.
 Ia1
a
Z1

+ Ean
−
n
E bn
n

− Ia1
Ec

− +
+ a
+
Z1
Z1

1 Va1
Z1

b Ib +
c Ean −
Ic1 −
n

Figure: Postive sequence network

 Ia2
a

Z2

n
Ia2
a
+
Z2

Z2

2
Z2 Va2
b Ib
c
Ic2 −
n

Figure: Negative sequence network

 Ia0
a

Zg 0

Zn 3I 0
a
n
Ia0
a
+
0
Zg

Zg 0
Zg0

n Va0
b Ib0
c 3Zn
Ic0 −
g

Figure: Zero sequence network

Sequence Circuits of Transformers

∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ Y
(a) (b) (c)

Y
(d) (e)

Figure: Different Connections

Positive and negative sequence currents do not need a connection
between the neutral and ground.

Z1 Z2

(a) Positive sequence (b) Negative sequence

circuit circuit

Figure:

Z1 = Z2 . It is the same irrespective of transformer connections.

Zero sequence circuits of Transformers
Z0

(a) (b)

Figure: Y-Y Bank. Both neutrals grounded

Z0

Y
(a) (b)

Figure: Y-Y Bank. One grounded

 Z0

∆ ∆
(a) (b)

Figure: ∆ − ∆ Bank

Z0

∆
(a) (b)

Figure: ∆-Y Bank. Y grounded

 Z0

∆ Y
(a) (b)

Figure: ∆ - Y Bank

Z0 = Z + 3Zn where Z is the zero sequence leakage impedance and

Zn is the impedance connected between the neutral and ground.
Sequence Networks
I In any part of the network, the voltage drop caused by current
of a certain sequence depends on only the impedance of that
part of the network to current flow of that sequence.
I The impedances to positive and negative sequence currents
Z1 and Z2 are equal in any static circuit and may be
considered approximately equal in synchronous machines
under subtransient conditions.
I In any part of the network, impedance to zero-sequence
current Z0 is generally different from Z1 and Z2 .
I Only positive sequence circuits of rotating machines contain
sources which are of positive sequence voltages.
I Neutral is the reference for voltages in positive and negative
sequence circuits.
I No positive and negative sequence currents flow between
neutral points and ground.
I Impedance Zn between neutral and ground is not included in
positive and negative sequence circuits but is represented by
3Zn in the zero sequence circuits only.
Power System - Example

T1 T2

G1 G2

Zn
∆ ∆ Y
 XT1 1 1
XLine XT1 2

XG1 1 XG1 2

+ EG 1 + EG 2
− −
Reference
(a) Positive sequence circuit

XT2 2 2
XLine XT2 2

XG2 1 XG2 2

Reference
 XT0 1 0
XLine XT0 2

XG0 1 XG0 2

3Zn
Reference

Figure: Zero sequence circuit

Single Line to Ground Faults
k
Ifa Zf

k
Ifb

k
Ifc

Figure: Single line to ground fault

The conditons at the fault bus k are

Ifb = 0 Ifc = 0 Vka = Zf Ifa

With Ifb = Ifc = 0,
 0   
Ifa 1 1 1 Ifa
I 1  = 1 1 α α2   0 
fa
3
Ifa2 1 α2 α 0

Ifa
Ifa0 = Ifa1 = Ifa2 =
3
Assume that the prefault voltage at all the buses is Vf .
0 0 0
Vka = −Zkk Ifa
1 1 1
Vka = Vf − Zkk Ifa
2 2 2
Vka = −Zkk Ifa
Since Vka = Zf × 3Ifa0 ,
0 1 2 0 1 2
Vka = Vka + Vka + Vka = Vf − (Zkk + Zkk + Zkk )Ifa0
3Zf Ifa0 = Vf − (Zkk0 1
+ Zkk 2
+ Zkk )Ifa0
Vf
Ifa0 = Ifa1 = Ifa2 = 0 + Z 1 + Z 2 ) + 3Z
(Zkk kk kk f

2
Zkk 0
Zkk
Ifa2 Ifa0
Ifa1
1
Zkk

Vf +
−

If
3Zf
3

Figure: Connection of the Thevenin equivalents for a LG fault

Example
A 3-phase power system is represented by one-line diagram as
shown in the figure below:

T1 T2
A B
Line
G1

The ratings of the equipment are as follows:

Generator G:15 MVA, 6,6 kV, X1 = 15%, X2 = 10% and X0 = 5%
Transformers : 15 MVA, 6.6 kV ∆ / 33 kV Y ,
X1 = X2 = X0 = 6%
Line : X1 = X2 = 2 Ω and X0 = 6 Ω
Find the fault current in Amp for a line to ground fault on one of
the bus bars at B.
 0.06 0.0275 0.06 B

0.15

+
− 1∠0◦
Reference
(a) Positive sequence circuit

0.06 0.0275 0.06 B

0.1

Reference
(b) Negative sequence circuit
 0.06 0.0826 0.06 B

0.05

Reference
(c) Zero sequence circuit

Figure: Sequence Circuits

 0.2975 0.2475 0.2026

+
− 1∠0◦

(a) Positive se- (b) Negative (c) Zero

quence circuit sequence cir- sequence
cuit circuit

Figure: Thevenin Equivalent Circuits with respect to B

0.2975 0.2475 0.2026

+ Ifa0
− 1∠0◦

Figure: SLG Fault at B

 1∠0◦
Ifa0 = = 1.3376∠−90◦
0.2975 + 0.2475 + 0.2026

Ifa = 3 × Ifa0 = 4.0128 p.u

15 × 103
Ifa = 4.0128 × √ = 1.05 kA
3 × 33
Line to Line Fault
k
Ifa

k
Ifb

Zf
k
Ifc

Figure: Line to Line fault

The relations at the fault point are

Ifa = 0 Ifb = −Ifc Vkb − Vkc = Ifb Zf

Since Ifb = −Ifc and Ifa = 0,
 0   
Ifa 1 1 1 0
I 1  = 1 1 α α2   Ifb 
fa
3
Ifa2 1 α2 α −Ifb

We get,

Ifa0 = 0
1
Ifa1 = −Ifa2 = (α − α2 )Ifb
3
The voltages throughout the zero sequence network must be zero
since there are no zero sequence sources.
Hence line to line fault calculations do not involve the zero
sequence network.
To satisfy Ifa1 = −Ifa2 , the thevenin equivalents of positive and
negative sequence networks are connected in parallel.

1
Zkk Ifa1+ Zf
+ Ifa2 2
Zkk

Vf + 1
Vka 2
Vka
−

− −

Figure: Connection of the Thevenin equivalents for a LL fault

To show that
Vkb − Vkc = Ifb Zf
 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 2
Vkb − Vkc = (Vkb + Vkb ) − (Vkc + Vkc ) = (Vkb − Vkc ) + (Vkb − Vkc )
= (α2 − α)Vka
1
+ (α − α2 )Vka
2
= (α2 − α)(Vka
1 2
− Vka )
1 2
Ifb Zf = (Ifb + Ifb )Zf = (α2 Ifa1 + αIfa2 )Zf
Substituting Ifa1 = −Ifa2 and equating both equations, we get

(α2 − α)(Vka
1 2
− Vka ) = (α2 − α)Ifa1 Zf
1 2
Vka − Vka = Ifa1 Zf
From the connection of the thevenin equivalents,
Vf
Ifa1 = −Ifa2 = 1 2 +Z
Zkk + Zkk f

For a bolted line to line fault (Zf = 0),

Vf
Ifa1 = −Ifa2 = 1 2
Zkk + Zkk
To find the fault current (If = Ifb = −Ifc ),
    0
Ifa 1 1 1 Ifa
Ifb  = 1 α2 α  I 1 
fa
Ifc 1 α α2 Ifa2

Since Ifa = 0 and Ifb = −Ifc = If ,

If = Ifb = Ifa0 + α2 Ifa1 + αIfa2

We know that Ifa0 = 0 and Ifa1 = −Ifa2 .

If = Ifa1 (α2 − α)
Example
A 3-phase power system is represented by one-line diagram as
shown in the figure below:

T1 T2
A B
Line
G1

The ratings of the equipment are as follows:

Generator G:15 MVA, 6,6 kV, X1 = 15%, X2 = 10% and X0 = 5%
Transformers : 15 MVA, 6.6 kV ∆ / 33 kV Y ,
X1 = X2 = X0 = 6%
Line : X1 = X2 = 2 Ω and X0 = 6 Ω
Find the fault current in Amp for a line to line fault on the bus
bars at B.
 0.2975 Ifa1 Ifa2

+
− 1∠0◦ 0.2475

Figure: LL Fault at B

1∠0◦
Ifa1 = = 1.8349∠−90◦
0.2975 + 0.2475
If = Ifa1 (α2 − α) = −3.1781 p.u
If = 834 A
-ve sign indicates the direction of the fault current is opposite.
Double Line to Ground Fault
k
Ifa

k
Ifb

k
Ifc

Zf
(Ifb + Ifc )

Figure: Double line to ground fault

The relations at the fault bus are

Ifa = 0 Vkb = Vkc = (Ifb + Ifc )Zf

The zero sequence current is

1
Ifa0 = (Ifa + Ifb + Ifc )
3
Since Ifa = 0,
1
Ifa0 = (Ifb + Ifc )
3
The voltage at the fault point is

Vkb = Vkc = 3Ifa0 Zf

Since Ifa = 0,
Ifa0 + Ifa1 + Ifa2 = 0
Substituting for Vkb for Vkc ,
 0   
Vka 1 1 1 Vka
1
V 1  = 1 α α2  Vkb 
ka
2 3
Vka 1 α2 α Vkb
1 2
Vka = Vka
0 0 1 2
3Vka = Vka + 2Vkb = (Vka + Vka + Vka ) + 2(3Zf Ifa0 )
1 = V2 ,
Substituting Vka ka

0 1
2Vka = 2Vka + 2(3Zf Ifa0 )
1 2 0
Vka = Vka = Vka − 3Zf Ifa0
 1
Zkk Ifa1+ Ifa2 + 3Zf Ifa0 +

Vf + 1
Vka 2
Zkk 2
Vka 0
Zkk 0
Vka
−

− − −

Figure: Connection of the Thevenin equivalents for a LLG fault

Vf
Ifa1 =  2 0 + 3Z ) 
1 Zkk (Zkk f
Zkk + 2 0
Zkk + Zkk + 3Zf
 0 + 3Z
Zkk
  2
Zkk

f
Ifa2 = −Ifa1 2 0
Ifa0 = −Ifa1 2 0 + 3Z
Zkk + Zkk + 3Zf Zkk + Zkk f

For a bolted fault, Zf = 0.

To find the fault current (If = Ifb + Ifc ),
    0
Ifa 1 1 1 Ifa
Ifb  = 1 α2 α  I 1 
fa
Ifc 1 α α2 Ifa2

If = Ifa0 + α2 Ifa2 + αIfa2 + Ifa0 + αIfa1 + α2 Ifa2

Since 1 + α + α2 = 0,

If = 2Ifa0 − Ifa1 − Ifa2

Since Ifa0 + Ifa1 + Ifa2 = 0,

If = 3Ifa0
Example
A 3-phase power system is represented by one-line diagram as
shown in the figure below:

T1 T2
A B
Line
G1

The ratings of the equipment are as follows:

Generator G:15 MVA, 6,6 kV, X1 = 15%, X2 = 10% and X0 = 5%
Transformers : 15 MVA, 6.6 kV ∆ / 33 kV Y ,
X1 = X2 = X0 = 6%
Line : X1 = X2 = 2 Ω and X0 = 6 Ω
Find the fault current in Amp for a double line to ground fault on
the bus bars at B.
 0.2975 Ifa1 Ifa0
Ifa2
+
1∠0◦ − 0.2475 0.2026

Figure: LLG Fault at B

1∠0◦
Ifa1 = 0.2475×0.2026
= 2.4456∠−90◦
0.2975 + 0.2475×0.2026
0.2475
Ifa0 = −Ifa1 × = 1.3448∠90◦
0.2475 + 0.2026
If = 3Ifa0 = 4.0343 p.u
If = 1.06 kA
Observation on Neutral Connection
a

+ E
Xn − an
n

E bn
n
−

Ec
+ −+

b
c

Let X1 , X2 and X0 be the positive, negative and zero sequence

reactances respectively.

X1 = X2 > X0
 X1 X0
X2
+ Ea 3Xn
−

(a) Positive se- (b) Neg- (c) Zero

quence circuit ative sequence
sequence circuit
circuit

Figure: Sequence Circuits

For a SLG fault on Phase a,

X1
Ifa
Ifa0 = Ifa1 = Ifa2 =
+ 3
− Ea
3Ea
Ifa =
X1 + X2 + X0 + 3Xn
Since X1 = X2 ,
X2
Ifa0 3Ea
Ifa =
2X1 + X0 + 3Xn
If the neutral is solidly grounded,
X0 3Ea
Ifa =
2X1 + X0
3Xn
For a three phase short circuit fault,

X1
Ea 3Ea
If If = =
X1 3X1
+ Ea
−

It is clear that
IfSLG > If3L

If the generator neutral is solidly grounded, SLG fault is more

severe than three phase short circuit.