CHM 304 Biophysical Chemistry (2 Credit)

Outline:
- Dr O. S. Ayanda
Anatomy of the nervous system, smooth and voluntary muscles. Introduction to
autonomic pharmacology. The endocrine glands – its function and roles. Components of
blood and coagulation.
- Dr S. O. Olusanya
Ventilation, The gastrointestinal system. Excretory organs and their functions. Homeostasis,
urine formation, acid-base balance, role in the maintenance of blood volume
and pressure.
- Dr. A. Adeniyi
Introduction on pharmacology. Origins and classification of drugs administration to drug
receptor theories, dose response curves antagonism, principles of drug metabolism and
excretion. Drug screening, bioassay, drug toxicity

Part 1 Compiled By:

Dr Olushola S Ayanda
FUOYE, Nigeria.

Compiled by Dr OS Ayanda
 Anatomy of the nervous system
The nervous system controls all the major functions of the body. It is divided into:
1. central nervous system and
2. peripheral nervous system.

The peripheral nervous system includes:

1. The somatic and
2. Autonomic nervous systems which control voluntary and involuntary functions respectively.

Somatic: “voluntary” system

Sensory Organs Brain
Sensory Organs: eyes (vision), ears (audition & vestibular), body surface (somatosensation), tongue
(taste), nostrils (smell).

Fig 1.2 The brain

The autonomic nervous systems controls the vegetative functions of the body. These include functions
like circulation, respiration, digestion and the maintenance of body temperature. The autonomic nervous
systems is subdivided into two major sub-divisions; this classification is based on both anatomic and
physiologic grounds; the two subdivisions are:

1. Sympathetic (thoracolumbar) and

2. Parasympathetic (craniosacral).

Autonomic nerves are actually composed of two neuron systems, termed preganglionic and
postganglionic, based on anatomical location relative to the ganglia. A preganglionic neuron has its cell
body in the spinal cord or brain.

The sympathetic nervous system arises from the thoracic and lumbar areas of the spinal cord and the
preganglionic fibers for the parasympathetic nervous system arise from the cranial and sacral nerves. The
postganglionic neurons send their axons directly to the effector organs (peripheral involuntary visceral
organs). Autonomic innervation, irrespective of whether it belongs to the parasympathetic or the
sympathetic nervous system, consists of a myelinated preganglionic fiber which forms a synapse with the

Compiled by Dr OS Ayanda
cell body of a non-myelinated second neuron termed post-ganglionic fiber. The synapse is defined as a
structure formed by the close apposition of a neuron either with another neuron or with effector cells.

In terms of function, the parasympathetic nervous system is concerned primarily with conservation and
restoration of function. In contrast, the sympathetic nervous system is concerned with the expenditure of
energy, i.e., it has almost opposite functions with parasympathetic nerve stimulation and it is usually
associated with arousal or in emergency situations, i.e., prepares the body for fight-or-flight responses.

Fig. 1.3 Autonomic Nervous System: Sympathetic (Red) and Parasympathetic (Blue)

Autonomic drugs
There are several drugs affecting the autonomic nervous system which, for a better understanding of
specific drugs, are classified into groups.
1. Drugs acting on the sympathetic nervous system
a) Sympathomimetics or adrenergic drugs: are drugs that mimic the effects of sympathetic nerve
stimulation.
b) Sympatholytics: are drugs that inhibit the activity of sympathetic nerve or that of sympathomimetics.
2. Drugs acting on the parasympathetic nervous system
a) Parasympathomimetics or cholinergic drugs: are drugs which mimic acetylcholine or the effects of
parasympathetic nerve stimulation.

Compiled by Dr OS Ayanda
b) Parasympatholytics: are drugs that inhibit parasympathetic nervous system activity or that of
cholinergic drugs.

Endocrine System
The endocrine system consists of glands which secrete hormones into the bloodstream. Each hormone has
an effect on one or more target tissues. In this way the endocrine system regulates the metabolism and
development of most body cells and body systems. To be more specific, the Endocrine system has sex
hormones that can activate sebaceous glands, development of mammary glands, alter dermal blood flow
and release lipids from adipocytes and MSH can stimulate melanocytes on our skin. Our bone growth is
regulated by several hormones, and the endocrine system helps with the mobilization of calcitonin and
calcium. In the muscular system, hormones adjust muscle metabolism, energy production, and growth. In
the nervous system, hormones affect neural metabolism, regulate fluid/electrolyte balance and help with
reproductive hormones that influence CNS development and behaviors. In the Cardiovascular system, we
need hormones that regulate the production of RBC's, which elevate and lower blood pressure. Hormones
also have anti-inflammatory effects and stimulate the lymphatic system. In summary, the endocrine
system has a regulatory effect on basically every other body system.

Compiled by Dr OS Ayanda
Fig 2. Anatomical location of major endocrine glands in the body. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland are in
the brain, the thyroid and parathyroids are in the neck, and the adrenal glands and pancreas are in the pelvic cavity.
The gonads include the ovaries in females, located in the pelvic cavity, and the testes in males, located outside this
cavity in the scrotum. Not shown is the pineal gland, located in the brain.The thymus gland lies within the thoracic
cavity.

Compiled by Dr OS Ayanda
 COMPONENTS OF BLOOD AND COAGULATION

Blood is a fluid or semiliquid connective tissue present throughout the body. It is reddish in colour and
forms an important circulatory medium of body. Blood is useful for the process of respiration. Red
coloured body fluid that flows throughout the closed vessels except the lymphatic vessels is called as
blood. Blood is an extracellular red coloured body fluid. Blood is viscous fluid, it flows 4.5 to 5.5 times
more slow than water because of its viscosity. Human is homeothermic 'or' warm blooded animal so
blood is with constant temperature about is 38°C. Blood is slightly alkaline and pH of blood is ranges
from 7.35 to 7.45. Salt concentration of blood is 0.90%. Blood constitutes about 8% of the total body
weight and volume of blood in human male 5 to 6 litre and female 4.5 to 5.5 liters.

Compiled by Dr OS Ayanda
Branch of science concerned with the study of blood, blood forming tissues and disorders associated with
them called at hematology. Blood is reddish in colour due to presence of red coloured iron containing
respiratory pigment haemoglobin.

Blood is composed of two major components.

1) Blood plasma
2) Blood corpuscles.

Blood plasma contributes 55% of total blood.

Cellular content in blood is blood corpuscles contribute about 45% total blood.

1) Blood Plasma
A straw coloured liquid remains when cells in blood removed is called as blood plasma. In blood plasma
following organic and inorganic constituents are present.
a) Water- Liquid portion of blood plasma is water, about 90 to 92% water is in blood plasma. Water in
blood plasma acts as solvent and suspending medium for solid components.
b) Solutes- These are the suspended organic and inorganic constituents in blood plasma, about 8 to 10%
solutes are present in blood plasma.
i. Proteins - Proteins present in blood plasma are serum albumin globulin, fibrinogen and
prothrombin.
Albumin and globulin proteins maintains viscosity blood. Globulin protein involved in formation of
immunoglobulin’s. Prothrombin and fibrinogen proteins are useful for clotting blood at the place of
wound.
ii. Nutrients - Digested and simple food absorbed by absorptive cells of small intestine are
nutrients. Nutrients are glucose, fructose, galactose, amino acids and fatty acids.
iii. Minerals - Minerals are the inorganic constituents in blood plasma. Minerals are present in
the form of chlorides, phosphates, sulfates and bicarbonates of sodium, potassium, calcium and
magnesium. Minerals in blood plasma maintains osmotic pressure, of blood.
iv. Hormones - Hormones are the chemical messengers secreted by ductless endocrine glands
and transported through blood plasma towards target organs.
v. Metabolic wastes - Metabolic wastes are nitrogenous metabolic wastes in the form of
ammonia, urea, uric acids, creatine, creatinine, etc. Some bile pigments and excess hydrogen ions are also
metabolic wastes.
vi. Respiratory gases - Respiratory gases are oxygen and carbon dioxide Oxygen combined with
pigment haemoglobin while carbon dioxide is closely associated with blood plasma to form carbonic acid
and bicarbonates.

2) Blood corpuscles
Cellular content in blood is called as blood corpuscles about 45% of total blood composed of blood
corpuscles.
In human blood three kinds of blood corpuscles are present
a) Erythrocytes or Red blood corpuscles.
b) Leucocytes or White blood corpuscles.
c) Thrombocytes or Blood platelets.

a. Erythrocytes
Erythrocytes are Red blood corpuscles in blood denoted as RBCs. Erythrocytes are spherical, biconcave
and disc like cells in blood. Mature erythrocytes have average size about 8jum in diameter. RBCs are
enormous blood cells about 4.5 to 5.5 million per cubic mm of blood. Erythrocytes are produced in bone

Compiled by Dr OS Ayanda
marrow in the marrow cavity of long and spongy bones by erythropoiesis. Life span of RBCs in blood
about 120 days, dead RBCs are destroyed by macrophages in spleen and Kupfers cells in liver. RBCs are
nonnucleated in human blood.

b. Leucocytes or WBCs
Leucocytes are white blood corpuscles in blood also known as defensive cells in blood. Leucocytes are
less numerous than erythrocytes ranges from 5000 to 9000 per cubic millimeter of blood. Leucocytes are
also produced in red bone marrow and lymphoid tissues in body by leucopoiesis.
Increased number of leucocytes in blood is called leucocytosis, while abnormal decrease in the number of
leucocytes in blood called as leucocytopenia. The life span of leucocytes in blood from few hours to few
days.
Leucocytes are nucleated cells in blood nucleus is surrounded by cytoplasm, According to the presence or
absence of cytoplasmic granules, leucocytes are of two types.

Types of WBCs :
A) Granular leucocytes
B) Agranular leucocytes

Granular leucocytes - .
Leucocytes in which cytoplasmic granules are present. According to the type of stain for staining
cytoplasmic granules, three types of granular leucocytes in blood
a) Acidophils or Eosinophils
b) Basophils
c) Neutrophils

Agranular leucocytes :
Cytoplasmic granules are absent in these leucocytes. There are two types of agranular leucocytes
a) Lymphocytes
b) Monocytes

COAGULATION OF BLOOD
Coagulation means clotting blood gets clot at the time of wound. Blood within circulation in blood
vessels cannot clot because of the presence of heparin as anticoagulant.

Clotting of blood of the place of injury prevents excess loss of blood. Blood gets coagulate within short
time after exposure to air in 3 to 10 minutes. Microscopically blood clot consists of dead cells in blood
and thread like fibres.

According to the Best and Taylor's theory, four chemical substances are required for coagulation of
blood prothrombin, thromboplastin, calcium and fibrinogen. During wound when blood come in contact
with air two reactions occur to stop the bleeding or for clotting of blood. First reaction closes the blood
vessel the damaged platelets release serotonin which brings about vasoconstriction to stop the blood loss.
Second reaction involves actual clotting of blood i.e. Formation of clot by means of various chemicals
known as coagulation factors.

Clotting of blood is a complex process divided into three stages.

Stage-1: Platelets in blood at the place of injury release thromboplastin 'or' thrombokinase.
Stage-2: It involves the conversion of plasma protein prothrombin into thrombin. This conversion is
completed in the presence of high quantity of Thrombolastin.
Stage-3: Fibrinogen is plasma protein get converted in to fibrin in presence of thrombin. These fibrin
form small threads at the place of injury in presence of calcium.

Compiled by Dr OS Ayanda