HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

CHAPTER-1

1. INTRODUCTION

Energy is a requirement that is endlessly and exhaustingly utilized the world over. With the
increase in the rate of various developmental activities around the world the energy being
consumed is also increasing with the result that conventional energy resources are fast getting
depleted and even hydel reserves are proving less than sufficient to satisfy the growing energy
demand. As a result consumers around the world have to bear the brunt of increasing power cuts
and power costs. Hence for the future power independence is fast becoming a vital requirement.
The concept design therefore formulates a system which provides internally generated energy for
homes and also integrates a sub system into the household such that the dependence on the
electricity board is eliminated.

HYBRID GENERATING UNIT

The generating unit for the proposed design utilizes a hybrid power source as a
means of powering the household loads. The hybrid power source combines wind and solar
energy to service the household requirements. Hybrid system for home is a combined system of
wind and solar power generation system. Aero turbines convert wind energy into rotary
mechanical energy. A mechanical interface, consisting of a step-up gear and a suitable coupling
transmits the energy to an electrical generator. The output of this generator is connected to the
Battery or system grid. The battery is connected to the inverter. The inverter is used to convert
DC voltages to AC voltages. The load draws current from the inverter.

Dept of ECE, SBIT 1

 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM
The apparatus involved for the windmill section are:

 Generator

 Main shaft with Leafs

 Gear Wheel Arrangement

Wind power ratings can be divided into three convenient grouping, small to 1kW,
medium to 50 kW and large 200 kW to megawatt frame size.

Solar energy implies the energy that reaches the earth from the sun. It provides daylight
makes the earth hot and is the source of energy for plants to grow. Solar energy is also put to two
types of use to help our lives directly solar heating and solar electricity

Solar electricity is the technology of converting sunlight directly in to electricity. It is

based on photo-voltaic or solar modules, which are very reliable and do not require any fuel or
servicing. Solar electric systems are suitable for plenty of sun and are ideal when there is no
main electricity

FIG : 1.1 HYBRID SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAM

MULTI-BLADE
(LEAF) MAIN GENERATOR
SHAFT

BATTERY
INVERTER

LIGHTING LOAD SOLAR

(OR) GRID
PANEL

Dept of ECE, SBIT 2

 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

1.2 CONTROL CENTRE

The control centre has been designed integrated within the household. The entire
system shall be wireless based. However against contemporary systems already in the market,
the proposed design shall be based on an Wi-Fi network which shall be circulated by a laptop or
system based transponder. Thus the designed control centre shall have the advantages of being
wire free as well as based upon an easily available apparatus, that is a laptop or a system which
can be found in most households.

The design is aimed at replicating all functions performed by a normal

energy control centre:
 Each room supply control
 Shutdown, start ,restart control
 Dimmer control
 Breaking control
All the above systems shall be integrated to develop a power efficient system
for the future

Dept of ECE, SBIT 3

 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

CHAPTER-2

HYBRID GENERATING STATION

Hybrid system for home is a combined system of wind and solar power generation system. Aero
turbines convert wind energy into rotary mechanical energy. A mechanical interface, consisting
of a step-up gear and a suitable coupling transmits the energy to an electrical generator. The
output of this generator is connected to the Battery or system grid. The battery is connected to

the inverter. The inverter is used to convert DC voltages to AC voltages. The load is drawn
current from the inverter.

 Generator, Main shaft with Leafs, Gear Wheel Arrangement

Wind power ratings can be divided into three convenient grouping, small to 1kW,
medium to 50 kW and large 200 kW to megawatt frame size.

Solar energy means all the energy that reaches the earth from the sun. It provides
daylight makes the earth hot and is the source of energy for plants to grow. Solar energy is also
put to two types of use to help our lives directly solar heating and solar electricity.

Solar electricity is the technology of converting sunlight directly in to electricity. It is

based on photo-voltaic or solar modules, which are very reliable and do not require any fuel or
servicing. Solar electric systems are suitable for plenty of sun and are ideal when there is no
main electricity.

2.1 WIND ENERGY INTRODUCTION

Dept of ECE, SBIT 4

 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM
Wind result from air in motion. Air in motion arises from a pressure gradient. On a
global basis one primary forcing function causing surface winds from the poles toward the

equator is convective circulation. Solar radiation heats the air near the equator, and this
low density heated air is buoyed up. At the surface it is displaced by cooler more dense higher
pressure air flowing from the poles. In the upper atmosphere near the equator the air thus tend
to flow back toward the poles and away from the equator. The net result is a global convective
circulation with surface wins from north to south in the northern hemisphere.

It is clear from the above over simplified model that the wind is basically caused by the
solar energy irradiating the earth. This is why wind utilization is considered a part of solar
technology.

It actuality the wind is much more complex. The above model ignores the earth’s
rotation which causes a coriolis force resulting in an easterly wind velocity component in the
northern hemisphere.

There is the further complication of boundary layer frictional effects between the moving
air and the earth’s rough surface. Mountains, trees, buildings, and similar obstructions impair
stream line air flow. Turbulence results and the wind velocity in a horizontal direction markedly
increase with altitude near the surface.

Local winds are caused by two mechanisms. The first is differential hating of land and
water. Solar isolation during the day is readily converted to sensible energy of the land surface
but is partly absorbed in layers below the water surface and partly consume in evaporating some
of that water. The land mass becomes

hotter than the water, which causes the air above the land to heat up and become warmer than the
air above water. The warmer lighter air above the land rises and the cooler heavier air above the
water moves into replace it. This is the mechanism of shore breezes. At night, the direction of

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 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM
the breezes is reversed because the land mass cools to the sky more rapidly than the water,
assuming a sky. The second mechanism of local winds is caused by hills and

mountain sides. The air above the slopes heats up during the day and cools down at night, more
rapidly than the air above the low lands. This causes heated air the day to rise along the slopes
and relatively cool heavy air to flow down at night.

Wind turbines produce rotational motion; wind energy is readily converted into electrical
energy by connecting the turbine to an electric generator. The combination of wind turbine and
generator is some times referred as an aero generator. A step-up transmission is usually required
to match the relatively slow speed of the wind rotor to the higher speed of an electric generator.

In India the interest in the windmills was shown in the last fifties and early sixties. A part
from importing a few from outside, new designs was also developed, but it was not sustained. It
is only in the last few years that development work is going on in many institutions. An
important reason for this lack of interest in wind energy must be that wind, in India area
relatively low and vary appreciably with the seasons. Data quoted by some scientists that for
India wind speed value lies between 5 km/hr to 15-20 km/hr. These low and seasonal winds
imply a high cost of exploitation of wind energy. Calculations based on the performance of a
typical windmill have indicated that a unit of energy derived from a windmill will be at least
several times more expensive than energy

derivable from electric distribution lines at the standard rates, provided such electrical energy is
at all available at the windmill site.

The above argument is not fully applicable in rural areas for several reasons. First
electric power is not and will not be available in many such areas due to the

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 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM
high cost of generation and distribution to small dispersed users. Secondly there is possibility of
reducing the cost of the windmills by suitable design. Lastly, on small scales, the total first cost
for serving a felt need and low maintenance costs are more important than the unit cost of
energy. The last point is illustrated easily: dry cells provide energy at the astronomical cost of
about Rs.300 per kWh and yet they are in common use in both rural and urban areas.Wind
energy offers another source for pumping as well as electric power generation. India has
potential of over 20,000 MW for power generation and ranks as one of the promising countries
for tapping this source. The cost of power generation from wind farms has now become lower
than diesel power and comparable to thermal power in several areas of our country especially
near the coasts. Wind power projects of aggregate capacity of 8 MW including 7 wind farms

projects of capacity 6.85 MW have been established in different parts of the country of
which 3 MW capacity has been completed in 1989 by DNES. Wind farms are operating
successfully and have already fed over 150 lakes units of electricity to the respective state grids.
Over 25 MW of additional power capacity from wind is under implementation. Under
demonstration programmer 271 wind pumps have been installed up to February 1989. Sixty
small wind battery charges of capacities 300 watts to 4 kW are under installation. Likewise to
stand-alone wind electric generators of 10 to 25 kW are under installation. The main planetary
winds are caused in much the same way: Cool surface air sweeps down from the poles forcing
the warm air over the topics to rise. But the direction of these massive air movements is affected
by the rotation of the earth and the net pressure areas in the countries-clockwise circulation of air
around low pressure areas in the northern hemisphere, and clockwise circulation in the southern
hemisphere. The strength and direction of these planetary winds change with the seasons as the
solar input varies.

Dept of ECE, SBIT 7

 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

2.2 CONVERSION PRINCIPLES BLOCK DIAGRAM

The main planetary winds are caused in much the same way: Cool surface air sweeps
down from the poles forcing the warm air over the topics to rise. But the direction of these
massive air movements is affected by the rotation of the earth and the net pressure areas in the
countries-clockwise circulation of air around low pressure areas in the northern hemisphere, and
clockwise circulation in the southern hemisphere. The strength and direction of these planetary
winds change with the seasons as the solar input varies.

FIG: 2.1 CONVERSION PRINCIPLES BLOCK DIAGRAM

Dept of ECE, SBIT 8

 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

2.3 The Nature of the Wind

The circulation of air in the atmosphere is caused by the non-uniform heating of the
earth’s surface by the sun. The air immediately above a warm area expands; it is forced upwards
by cool, denser air which flows in from surrounding areas causing a wind. The nature of the
terrain, the degree of cloud cover and the angle of the sun in the sky are all factors which
influence this process. In general, during the day the air above the land mass tends to heat up
more rapidly than the air over water. In coastal regions this manifests itself in a strong onshore
wind. At night the process is reversed because the air cools down more rapidly over the land and
the breeze therefore blows off shore.

The main planetary winds are caused in much the same way: Cool surface air sweeps
down from the poles forcing the warm air over the topics to rise. But the direction of these
massive air movements is affected by the rotation of the earth and the net pressure areas in the
countries-clockwise circulation of air around low pressure areas in the northern hemisphere, and
clockwise circulation in the southern hemisphere. The strength and direction of these planetary
winds change with the seasons as the solar input varies.

Despite the wind’s intermittent nature, wind patterns at any particular site remains
remarkably constant year by year. Average wind speeds are greater in hilly and coastal areas
than they are well inland. The winds also tend to blow more consistently and with greater
strength over the surface of the water where there is a less surface drag.

Wind speeds increase with height. They have traditionally been measured at a standard
height of ten meters where they are found to be 20-25% greater than close to the surface. At a
height of 60 m they may be 30-60% higher because of the reduction in the drag effect of the
earth’s surface.

Dept of ECE, SBIT 9

 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

2.4 WIND POWER

The power in the wind can be computed by using the concept of kinetics. The wind will
works on the principle of converting kinetic energy of the wind to mechanical energy. We know
that power is equal to energy per unit time. The energy available is the kinetic energy of the
wind. The kinetic energy of any

particle is equal to one half it’s mass times the square of its velocity, or 1/2m V 2. The amount of
air passing in unit time, through an area A, with velocity V, is AV, and its mass m is equal to its
volume multiplied by its density  of air, or

m=AV

(m is the mass of air transverse the area A swept by the rotating blades of a wind mill
type generator).

Substituting this value of the mass in the expression for the kinetic energy, we obtain,
kinetic energy = 1./2 AV.V2 watts.

=1/2 AV3 watts

Equation tells us that the maximum wind available the actual amount will be somewhat
less because all the available energy is not extractable-is proportional to the cube of the wind
speed. It is thus evident that small increase in wind speed can have a marked effect on the power
in the wind.

Equation also tells us that the power available is proportional to air density 1.225 kg/m 3
at sea level). It may vary 10-15 percent during the year because of pressure and temperature
change. It changes negligibly with water content. Equation also tells us that the wind power is

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 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

proportional to the intercept area. Thus an aero turbine with a large swept area has higher power
than a smaller area machine; but there are added implications. Since the area is normally circular
of diameter D in horizontal axis aero turbines, then A = /4 D2, (sq.m), which when put in
equation gives,

Available wind power P = ½  /4 D2V3 watts

= 1/8  D2V3

2.5 PRESSURE AND VELOCITY GRAPH

FIG: 2.2 PRESSURE AND VELOCITY GRAPH

Dept of ECE, SBIT 11

 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

The power extracted by the rotor is equal to the product of the wind speed as it passes through
the rotor (i.e. Vr) and the pressure drop p. in order to maximize the rotor power it would
therefore be desirable to have both wind sped and pressure drop as large as possible. However,
as V is increased for a given value of the free wind speed (and air density), increases at first,
passes through a maximum, and the decreases. Hence for the specified free-wind speed, there is
a maximum value of the rotor power.

The faction of the free-flow wind power that can be extracted by a rotor is called the
power-coefficient; thus

Power of wind rotor

Power coefficient =

Power available in the wind

Where power available is calculated from the air density, rotor diameter, and free wind
speed as shown above. The maximum theoretical power coefficient is equal to 16/27 or 0.593.
This value cannot be exceeded by a rotor in a free-flow wind-stream.

2.6 Maximum Power

The total power cannot be converted to mechanical power. Consider a horizontal-axis,
propeller-type windmill, henceforth to be called a wind turbine, which is the most common type
used today. Assume that the wheel of such a turbine has thickness b. Let pi and Vi

are the wind pressure and velocity at the upstream of the turbine. V e is less than Vi because the
turbine extracts kinetic energy.

Considering the incoming air between I and a as a thermodynamic system, and assuming
that the air density remains constant (since changes in pressure and temperature are very small
compared to ambient), that the potential energy is zero, and no heat or work are added or
removed between i and a, the general energy equation reduces to the kinetic and flow energy-
terms only:

Dept of ECE, SBIT 12

 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

2.7 Wind Energy Conversion

Traditional windmills were used extensively in the Middle Ages to mill grain and lift
water for land drainage and watering cattle. Wind energy converters are still used for these
purposes today in some parts of the world, but the main focus of attention now lies with their use
to generate electricity. There is also growing interest in generating heat from the wind for space
and water heating and for glass-houses but the potential market is much smaller than for
electricity generation.

The term “wind mill” is still widely used to describe wind energy conversion systems,
however it is hardly adopt. Description any more. Modern wind energy conversion systems are
more correctly referred to as ‘WECS’, aero generations’, ‘wind turbine generators’, or simply
‘wind turbines’.

The fact that the wind is variable and intermittent source of energy is immaterial of some
applications such as pumping water for land drainage – provided, of course, that there is a broad
match between the

energy supplied over any critical period and the energy required. If the wind blows, the job gets
done; if it does not, the job waits.

However, for many of the uses to which electricity is put, the interruption of supply may
be highly inconvenient. Operators or users of wind turbines must ensure that there is some form
of back-up to cover periods when there is insufficient (or too much) wind available. For small
producers, back-up can take the form of:

(i) Battery storage,

(ii) Connection with the local electricity distribution system; or
For utilities responsible for public supply, the integration of medium – sized and large
wind turbines into their distribution net work could require some additional plant which is
capable of responding quickly to meet fluctuating demand.

Dept of ECE, SBIT 13

 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

2.8 Turbine Tower System

As stated earlier, the horizontal axis wind turbines are mounted on towers, and there are
wind forces on the tower. Both upwind and downwind locations have been used so that tower
design is an essential aspect of the overall system design.

Vertical-Axis Machines
Vertical – axis rotors can be either drag-or lift-based. The cup anemometer is an example
of a drag-based, vertical axis wind device. The drag on a cup is greater when its concave side
faces the wind which causes the device to rotate. Lift also plays a small part: the cups crossing
the wind experience a small lift because their convex surfaces deflect the wind and causes a
pressure reduction. The main virtue of the cup anemometer is that it tends to rotate within a
narrow range of TSRS under all conditions, so its rotational speed is closely proportional to wind
speed. However, it can not carry a load with any efficiency; it has never been constructed on a
large scale for use as a wind turbine. The Savonius rotor works on a principle similar to that of
the cup anemometer but is adopted to produce shaft power. It also takes advantage of the lift
generated as the curved outer surfaces of its scoops cross the air flow. There are also a variety of
so-called Panamones; there are pure drag devices, in which one side of the rotor carries blades or
sails square to the wind, while other side produces reducing drag by shielding or furling the
blades. Because drag devices tend to run at TSR below unity (since their tips can not readily
travel faster than the wind), they are inevitably less efficient than lift-dependent devices. In
addition, their high solidity makes them more material-intensive in relation to the wind area
‘seen’ by the rotor.

Hence following are the three distinct advantages of vertical axis wind turbines over
horizontal axis ones:

(1) They will react to wind from any direction and therefore do not need yawing equipment
to turn the rotor into the wind.
(2) They can require less structural support because heavy components (like gear box and
generator) can be located at ground level. This configuration also eases installation and
maintenance.

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 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

(3) Since the blades do not turn end over end, the rotor is not subjected to continuous cyclic
gravity loads. (Fatigue induced by such action is a major consideration in the design of
large horizontal axis machines).

Properly the single biggest disadvantage with vertical axis machines is that far less is
known about them than horizontal axis ones. This handicap is rapidly being removed.

Advantages of such WEC system are:

1. The major advantage of this design is that the rotor blades can accept the wind from any
compass.
2. Another added advantage is that the machine can be mounted on the ground eliminating
tower structures and lifting of huge weight of machine assembly, i.e. it can be operated
close to the ground level.
3. Since this machine has vertical axis symmetry, it eliminates yaw control requirement for
is rotor to capture wind energy. A dual purpose and relatively simple shaft axis support
is anticipated as well as ground level power output delivery due to presence of vertical
shaft. This may in turn, allow easier access and serviceability.
4. Airfoil rotor fabrication costs are expected to be reduced over conventional rotor blade
costs.
5. The absence of pitch control requirements are synchronous operation may yield
additional cost savings.
6. The tip speed ratio and power coefficient are considerably better than those of the S-rotor
but are still below the values for a modern horizontal-axis, two-bladed propeller rotor.

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 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

Disadvantages

(1) Although a Darrieus machine has many directional symmetry for wind energy
capture, it require external mechanical aid for start up. Tests indicate that, with small machines,
the problem can be solved by attaching S-rotors at the top and bottom of the vertical (rotational)
axis. This approach does not appear to be feasible with larger machines, but if the wind power
system connected to a utility grid, the generator can serve as a motor to start the turbine. The
(alternating-current) load can also provide a means for controlling the speed of the rotor
regardless of the wind speed, so that variable-pitch blades are not required. At very high speeds,
stalling occurs and the rotation stops automatically.

(2) Rotor power output efficiency of a Darrieus wind energy conversion system is also
somewhat lower than that of a conventional horizontal rotor.

(3) Because a Darrieus rotor is generally situated near ground proximity, it may also
experience lower velocity wind compared to a tower mounted conventional wind energy
conversion system of comparable projected rotor disc area. This may yield less energy output.

(4) Because a Darrieus rotor encounters greatly varied local flow conditions per
revolution, greater vibratory stresses are encountered which will affect rotor system life? High
tension cable it down of tower-shaft may require large extensive bearing for support.

(5) Finally since a Darrieus rotor cannot be yawed out of the wind or its blades feathered,
special high torque braking system must be incorporated.

Dept of ECE, SBIT 16

 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

TABLE 1:WINDMILL SPECIFICATION TABLE

2.9.SOLAR ENERGY UTILIZATION

2.9.1 DIRECT METHOD

2.9.1.1 Photo Voltaic Method
2.9.1.2 Thermal Method

2.9.1 DIRECT METHOD OF UTILIZATION OF SOLAR ENERGY:

The most useful way of harnessing solar energy is by directly converting it into electricity
by means of solar photo-voltaic cells. Sunshine is incident on Solar cells, in this system of
energy Conversion that is direct conversion of solar radiation into electricity. In the stage of
conversion into thermodynamic from is absent. The photo-voltaic effect is defined as the
generation of an electromotive force as a result of the absorption of ionizing radiation. Energy

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 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

conversion devices, which are used to convert sunlight to electricity by use of the photo-voltaic
effect, are called solar cells.

In recent years photo-voltaic power generation has been receiving considerable attention
as one of the more promising energy alternatives. The reason for this rising interest lie in PV’s
direct conversion of sunlight to electricity, the non polluting nature of the PV widespread are of
PV generation has been hampered by economic factors. Here to force, the low cost of
conventional energy sunlight has obviated the development of a broad-based PV technology. At
the present time, PV generation can be justified only for special situations mostly for remote sites
where utility lines on other conventional means of furnishing energy may be prohibitively
expensive and is one of the most attractive non-conventional energy sources of proven reliability
from the micro to the Mega-watt level.

Like other energy system this system also has some disadvantages

(1) Distributed nature of solar energy,

(2) Absence of energy storage,
(3) Relatively high capital cost.
2.9.2 PHOTOVOLTAIC PRINCIPLES:

The photo-voltaic effect can be observed in nature in a variety of materials that have
shown that the best performance in sunlight is the semiconductors as stated above. When
photons from the sun are absorbed in a semiconductor, that create free electrons with higher
energies than the created there must be an electric field to induce these higher energy electrons to
flow out of the semi-conductor to do useful work. A junction of materials, which have different
electrical properties, provides the electric field in most solar cells.

Dept of ECE, SBIT 18

 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

FIG.2.3 p-n junction base

FIG.2.4

Dept of ECE, SBIT 19

 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

FIG.2.5 light to electricity convention

Dept of ECE, SBIT 20

 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

FIG.2.6

To obtain a useful power output from photon interaction in a semiconductor, three

processes are required.

1) The photon has to be absorbed in the active part of the material and result in
electrons being excited to a higher energy potential.
2) The electron hole charge carriers created by the absorption must be physically
separated and moved to the edge of the cell.
3) The charge carriers must be removed from the cell and delivered to useful load
before they loose extra potential.

For completing the above processes a solar cell consists of:-

(a) Semi-conductor in which electron hole pairs are created by absorption of

incident solar radiation.
(b) Region containing a drift field for charge separation
(c) Charge collecting fronts and back electrodes.

Dept of ECE, SBIT 21

 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

The photo-voltaic effect can be described easily for p-n junction in a semi-conductor. In
an intrinsic semi-conductor such as silicon, each one of the four valence electrons of the material
atom is tied in a chemical bond, and there are no free electrons at absolute zero. If a piece of
such a material is doped on one side by a five valance electron material, such as arsenic or
phosphorus, there will be an excess of electrons in that side, becoming an n-type semi-conductor.

The excess electrons will be practically free to move in the semi-conductor lattice. When
a three valence electron material, such as boron dopes the other side of the same piece, there will
be deficiency of electrons leading to a p-type semi-conductor. This deficiency is expressed in
terms of excess of holes free to move in the lattice. Such a piece of semi-conductor with one
side of the p-type and the other, of the n-type is called p-n junction. In this junction after the
protons are absorbed, the free electrons of the n-side will tends to flow to the p-side, and the
holes of the p-side will tend to flow to the n-region to compensate for their respective
deficiencies. This diffusion will create an electric field from the n-region to the p-region. This
field will increase until it reaches equilibrium for V, the sum of the diffusion potentials for holes
and electrons.

Dept of ECE, SBIT 22

 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

CHAPTER-3
COMMISSIONING

The panel is mounted over the top the pole with a help of a clamp at an angular distance
11º south of equator, so it is able to collect the solar energy at the maximum level then the frame
with light is mounted at a height of 125º from the pole. Then a metal box with the LDR control
and a charge controller and with the 24V battery is mounted over the pole, at a height of 2m from
the ground level.

The connections are made as per, first the panel is connected to charge controller and
then to the battery and to an inverter, then the connection is given to the light with LDR control.

3.1 POLE DATA:

Galvanized steel pole

Pole diameter = 10cm

Height = 5.5m

Thickness of the pole = 3mm

3.2 CONCRETE:

Cement

Sand

Aggregate (40mm size)

Cement, sand and aggregate ratio = 2:4:8

Water cement ratio = 0.5

Dept of ECE, SBIT 23

 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

Then a trench of 1 = b = h = 1.5m is made and the cement mixture made is filled upto
1.5m in the trench and the pole is mounted inside the trench upto 1.5m from the ground level.
The pole is mounted inside the trench and the trench is filled with the cement mixture and made
to set. And brickwork is done above the ground level of 1.5m with 1:3 ratio and plastered with
1:4 ratio of cement and sand.

3.3 SOLAR PANEL COMMISSIONING:

During the day time the battery gets charged and when the intensity of light decreases,
the LDR makes the light to gets ON and the light glows by using the stored charge in the battery.

If electrical contacts are made with the two semiconductor materials and the contacts the
connected through an external electrical conductor, the free electrons will flow from the n-type
material through the conductor to the p-type material (figure 2). Here the free electrons will
enter the holes and holes and become bound electrons thus both free electrons and hole will be
removed. The flow of electrons through the external conductor constitutes an electric current,
which will continue as long as move free electrons and holes are being formed by the solar
radiation. This is the basis of photo-voltaic conversion that is the conversion of solar energy into
electrical energy. The combination of n-type and p-type semiconductors thus constitutes a
photo-voltaic cell or solar cell. All such cells some rate direct current that can be converted into
alternating current it desired.

The photo-voltaic effect can be observed in almost any junction of material that have
different electrical characteristics, but the best performance to date has been from cells using
semiconductor materials especially all of the solar cells used for both space and terrestrial
applications have been made of the semiconductor silicon. Future cells may use such materials
as the Semiconductors like Gallium arsenate, copper sulphate cadsulphide etc.

3.4 Safety Systems

Safety systems of the wind turbines comprise the following features:

(i) The computer. The wind turbine is controlled by a computer which monitors the most
important gauging instruments and compares the results. If errors are found the wind turbine is
stopped.

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 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

(ii) Emergency stop. If a situation arises which calls for the wind turbine to be stopped
immediately, the emergency stop is used. The wind turbine will stop in few seconds by
feathering the blades directly into the wind. It can not be stated again before what caused the
emergency stop has been rectified.

(iii) Revolution Counters. To prevent the rotor from racing, two revolution counters
have been mounted on the shaft. These operates quiet independently and activate the emergency
stop if the revolutions of the turbine exceed 24 rpm which is maximum.

(iv) Wind Velocity. This is measured and controlled by the computer in two ways. First
gusts of wind are registered and if they are too strong the turbine is stopped. Then average wind
speeds are measured over periods of 10 minutes, and the wind turbine is also stopped if there are
too high.

(v) The Parachutes. Each blade tip has a parachute, which is activated if the rpm
exceeds 28. An iron plumb bob, otherwise held in place by a magnet, is released from the blade
trip, the centrifugal force exceeding the force of the magnet pulling out the parachute. This
decrease the speed of the wind turbine considerable enough to stop it from racing. The parachute
is an extra safety device should other fail. Till now they never had been used.

(Vi) Lightning Rods. The tree blades and the mill or wind turbine cap are protected from
lighting by these rods going from the tip of each blade to the ground.

3.5 Environmental Aspects

Wind turbines are not without environmental impact and their operation is not entirely
risk-free. Following are the main effects due to a wind turbine.

(i) Electromagnetic interference. Interference with TV and other electromagnetic

communication systems is a possibility with wind turbines as it is with other tall structures. TV
interference is most likely in areas where there is a weak signal because of the distance from the
transmitter, where existing reception is none too good due to the surrounding hills and where the
wind turbine is exposed in good position to receive and scatter the signals. Dispensing with
aerials and sending TV signals by cable in areas that would otherwise be affected can overcome
interference.

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(ii) Noise. The noise produced by wind farms falls into two categories. The first type is a
mechanical noise from the gearbox, generating equipment and linkages and the second type of
aerodynamic in nature produced by the movement of the turbine blades. One component of the
latter is the broad band noise which ranges upto several kilo hertz and the other is a low
frequency noise of 15-20 Hz. Revolving blades generate noise which can be heard in the
immediate vicinity of the installation, but noise does not travel too far.

(ii) Visual Effects. Megawatts power generating wind turbines are massive structures
which would be quite visible over a wide area in some locations. Variety
characteristics such as co lour pattern, shape, rotational speed and reflectance of blade
materials can be adjusted to modify the visual effects of wind turbines including the
land scape in which they are installed.
(iii) implementation is seen in mobile communication alone. However the GSM network
protocol can be applied to power systems too subject to some modifications in its end
usage. GSM is a cellular network, which means that mobile phones connect to it by
searching for cells in the immediate vicinity. GSM networks operate in four different
frequency ranges. Most GSM networks operate in the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz bands.
There are five different cell sizes in a GSM network—macro, micro, pico, femto and
umbrella cells. The coverage area of each cell varies according to the implementation
environment. Macro cells can be regarded as cells where the base station antenna is
installed on a mast or a building above average roof top level. Micro cells are cells
whose antenna height is under average roof top level; they are typically used in urban
areas. Picocells are small cells whose coverage diameter is a few dozen meters; they
are mainly used indoors. Femtocells are cells designed for use in residential or small
business environments

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CHAPTER-4

CONTROL CENTRE

The Energy Control Centre (ECC) is the constituent of the electricity board which maintains
and regulates all aspects of energy distribution to a specified area of charge. To implement a
household power system which is completely independent of the electricity board a control
scheme has been designed which replicates the features of a regular control centre and
implements it as per the requirements of the household. For the operational programming of the
control centre a energy utilization analysis centred upon the household in question is utilized.
Corresponding to the requirements of power at various times in a day and the general patterns of
load variations observed the prime control system, wireless control MODEM can be
programmed for controls extending to the following:

 ON/OFF Control

 Load Shedding Controls

 Appliance Specific Control

 Monitoring Controls

The system during implementation is in all likelihood to be utilized by

an average common person. Hence to make the system understandable and easy to use, all
controls have been conceptualized in the form of GUI’s or Graphical User Interfaces. As such by
simple visual supervision with a few control keysets the entire power system could be controlled.

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 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

FIG.4.1: IMPLEMENTATION OVERVIEW

RP TP HAN RP
MODEM
CONTROL
DRAWING CENTRE KITCHEN
ROOM

DINING ROOM
BEDROOM

RP RP

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 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

FIG 4.2 DESIGNED CONTROL GUI’s

ROOM 1 S MANUAL OVERRIDE

ON OFF
UG
ROOM ON OFF
ROOM 2 ON OFF 1
P U
ROOM 2 ON OFF
ROOM 3 ON OFF P I
ROOM ON OFF
L 3

TIME: 5:00 pm AUTO MANUAL

TIME OF USE: 2 hr:15 min

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 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

4.2.1 MONITOR GUI

OUTLETS OVERVIEW

ROOM 1:

ROOM 2:

ROOM 3:

ROOM 4:

UNITS GENERATED : 557.00 WATTS

UNITS CONSUMED : 330.87 WATTS

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 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

4.2.2 GENERATION MONITOR GUI

WIND VELOCITY : 3.5 m/s D S H U T DOWN

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 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

4.3 CONTROL CENTRE PRINCIPLE

The control centre is based around a system or laptop for providing a human
machine interface and a wireless control MODEM to provide for the control interface. Based on
a Home Area Network the MODEM could be utilized alongwith pre-fed programming modules
to actuate the control and monitor functions. The network is a home network which can be
created with the laptop or the system acting as the central transponder. The MODEM is plugged
in via a USB port. Interfacing with individual transponders it extracts the input data for actuating
control as per the pre written programs. The MODEM in use can be a GPS network MODEM or
a GSM MODEM, depending upon the controlling network being used. Under the current
implementation of the project since an internal network is being utilized, a GSM MODEM
suffices for the actuation of control.

4.4 G.S.M

4.4.1 GSM INTRODUCTION

( Global System for Mobile communications: originally from Groupe

Spécial Mobile) is the most popular standard for mobile phones in the world. Its most explicit
implementation is seen in mobile communication alone. However the GSM network protocol can
be applied to power systems too subject to some modifications in its end usage. GSM is a
cellular network, which means that mobile phones connect to it by searching for cells in the
immediate vicinity. GSM networks operate in four different frequency ranges. Most GSM
networks operate in the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz bands. There are five different cell sizes in a
GSM network—macro, micro, pico, femto and umbrella cells. The coverage area of each cell
varies according to the implementation environment. Macro cells can be regarded as cells where
the base station antenna is installed on a mast or a building above average roof top level. Micro
cells are cells whose antenna height is under average roof top level; they are typically used in
urban areas. Picocells are small cells whose coverage diameter is a few dozen meters; they are
mainly used indoors. Femtocells are cells designed for use in residential or small business

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 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

environments and connect to the service provider’s network via a broadband internet connection.
Umbrella cells are used to cover shadowed regions of smaller cells and fill in gaps in coverage
between those cells. Indoor coverage which is the requirement of the particular control structure
is supported by GSM and may be achieved by using an indoor picocell base station, or an indoor
repeater with distributed indoor antennas fed through power splitters, to deliver the radio signals
from an antenna outdoors to the separate indoor distributed antenna system. The modulation used
in GSM is Gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK), a kind of continuous-phase frequency shift
keying. In GMSK, the signal to be modulated onto the carrier is first smoothed with a Gaussian
low-pass filter prior to being fed to a frequency modulator, which greatly reduces the
interference to neighboring channels (adjacent channel interference

4.4.2 STRUCTURE OF GSM NETWORK

implementation is seen in mobile communication alone. However the GSM network protocol can
be applied to power systems too subject to some modifications in its end usage. GSM is a
cellular network, which means that mobile phones connect to it by searching for cells in the
immediate vicinity. GSM networks operate in four different frequency ranges. Most GSM
networks operate in the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz bands. There are five different cell sizes in a
GSM network—macro, micro, pico, femto and umbrella cells. The coverage area of each cell
varies according to the implementation environment. Macro cells can be regarded as cells where
the base station antenna is installed on a mast or a building above average roof top level. Micro
cells are cells whose antenna height is under average roof top level; they are typically used in
urban areas. Picocells are small cells whose coverage diameter is a few dozen meters; they are
mainly used indoors. Femtocells are cells designed for use in residential or small business
environments and connect to the service provider’s network via a broadband internet connection.
Umbrella cells are used to cover shadowed regions of smaller cells and fill in gaps in coverage
between those cells. Indoor coverage which is the requirement of the particular control
structurethe base station antenna is installed on a mast or a building above average roof top level.
Micro cells are cells whose antenna height is under average roof top level; they are typically used
in urban areas. Picocells are small cells whose coverage diameter is a few dozen meters; they are

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 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

mainly used indoors. Femtocells are cells designed for use in residential or small business
environments and connect to the service provider’s network via a broadband internet connection.

FIG:4.3 structure of GSM

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 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

A common GSM network invariably consists of the following:

 the Base Station Subsystem (the base stations and their controllers).
 the Network and Switching Subsystem (the part of the network most similar to a fixed
network). This is sometimes also just called the core network.
 the GPRS Core Network (the optional part which allows packet based Internet
connections).

The above descriptions pertain to a general overview of GSM. However specific to the project
design at hand the same has been modified to replicate the features of power system control
centre. For the application of the GSM modem to the area of power system control programming
modules have been used along with incorporation of power system equipments.

4.5 PROGRAMMING PLATFORM

The programming of the modem is performed relative to a energy utilization datasheet

which is drawn out by studying the energy usage pattern observed during any normal operational
day. Based on the timing ranges for which maximum power is required, time of use of power in
individual sections of the household an operating schedule can be developed based on which the
control centre can be programmed.

4.5.1 INTERFACE PROTOCOLS :MAX 232 SERIAL COMMUNICATIONS

Electrical signal characteristics such as voltage levels, signaling rate,

timing and slew-rate of signals, voltage withstand level, short-circuit behavior, and maximum
load capacitance. Interface mechanical characteristics, pluggable connectors and pin
identification. Functions of each circuit in the interface connector. Standard subsets of interface
circuits for selected telecom applications. The standard does not define such elements as
character encoding (for example, ASCII, Baudot code or EBCDIC) the framing of characters in
the data stream (bits per character, start/stop bits, parity) protocols for error detection or
algorithms for data compression bit rates for transmission, although the standard says it is

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 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

intended for bit rates lower than 20,000 bits per second. Many modern devices support speeds of
115,200 bit/s and above power supply to external devices.

Details of character format and transmission bit rate are controlled by the serial port hardware,
often a single integrated circuit called a UART that converts data from parallel to asynchronous
start-stop serial form. Details of voltage levels, slew rate, and short-circuit behavior are typically
controlled by a line-driver that converts from the UART's logic levels to RS-232 compatible
signal levels, and a receiver that converts from RS-232 compatible signal levels to the UART's
logic levels. The original DTEs were electromechanical teletypewriters and the original DCEs
were (usually) modems. When electronic terminals (smart and dumb) began to be used, they
were often designed to be interchangeable with teletypes, and so supported RS-232. The C
revision of the standard was issued in 1969 in part to accommodate the electrical characteristics
of these devices.

Since application to devices such as computers, printers, test instruments, and so on was not
considered by the standard, designers implementing an RS-232 compatible interface on their
equipment often interpreted the requirements idiosyncratically. Common problems were non-
standard pin assignment of circuits on connectors, and incorrect or missing control signals. The
lack of adherence to the standards produced a thriving industry of breakout boxes, patch boxes,
test equipment, books, and other aids for the connection of disparate equipment. A common
deviation from the standard was to drive the signals at a reduced voltage: the standard requires
the transmitter to use +12V and -12V, but requires the receiver to distinguish voltages as low as
+3V and -3V. Some manufacturers therefore built transmitters that supplied +5V and -5V and
labeled them as "RS-232 compatible."

Later personal computers (and other devices) started to make use of the standard so that they
could connect to existing equipment. For many years, an RS-232-compatible port was a standard
feature for serial communications, such as modem connections, on many computers. It remained
in widespread use into the late 1990s. While it has largely been supplanted by other interface
standards, such as USB, in computer products, it is still used to connect older designs of
peripherals, industrial equipment (such as based on PLCs), and console ports, and special
purpose equipment such as a cash drawer for a cash register.

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 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

Because the application of RS-232 has extended far beyond the original purpose of
interconnecting a terminal with a modem, successor standards have been developed to address
the limitations. Issues with the RS-232 standard include:

The large voltage swings and requirement for positive and negative supplies increases power
consumption of the interface and complicates power supply design. The voltage swing
requirement also limits the upper speed of a compatible interface.Single-ended signaling referred
to a common signal ground limits the noise immunity and transmission distance. Multi-drop
connection among more than two devices is not defined. While multi-drop "work-arounds" have
been devised, they have limitations in speed and compatibility.

Asymmetrical definitions of the two ends of the link make the assignment of the role of a newly
developed device problematic; the designer must decide on either a DTE-like or DCE-like
interface and which connector pin assignments to use.

The handshaking and control lines of the interface are intended for the setup and takedown of a
dial-up communication circuit; in particular, the use of handshake lines for flow control is not
reliably implemented in many devices.

No method is specified for sending power to a device. While a small amount of current can be
extracted from the DTR and RTS lines, this is only suitable for low power devices such as mice.
While the standard recommends a 25-way connector and its pinout, the connector is large by
current standards.

4.5.2 Role in modern personal computers

Today, RS-232 is gradually being superseded in personal computers by USB for local
communications. Compared with RS-232, USB is faster and uses lower voltages, and has
connectors that are simpler to connect and use. Both standards have software support in popular
operating systems. USB is designed to make it easy for device drivers to communicate with
hardware. However, there is no direct analog to the terminal programs used to let users
communicate directly with serial ports. USB is more complex than the RS-232 standard because
it includes a protocol for transferring data to devices. This requires more software to support the
protocol used. RS-232 only standardizes the voltage of signals and the functions of the physical

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 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

interface pins. Serial ports of personal computers are also often used to directly control various
hardware devices, such as relays or lamps, since the control lines of the interface could be easily
manipulated by software. This isn't feasible with USB which requires some form of receiver to
decode the serial data.

As an alternative, USB docking ports are available which can provide connectors for a keyboard,
mouse, one or more serial ports, and one or more parallel ports. Corresponding device drivers are
required for each USB-connected device to allow programs to access these USB-connected
devices as if they were the original directly-connected peripherals. Devices that convert USB to
RS 232 may not work with all software on all personal computers and may cause a reduction in
bandwith along with higher latency.

Personal computers may use the control pins of a serial port to interface to devices such as
uninterruptible power supplies. In this case, serial data is not sent, but the control lines are used
to signal conditions such as loss of power, or low battery alarms.

4.5.3 Standard details

In RS-232, user data is sent as a time-series of bits. Both synchronous and asynchronous
transmissions are supported by the standard. In addition to the data circuits, the standard defines
a number of control circuits used to manage the connection between the DTE and DCE. Each
data or control circuit only operates in one direction, that is, signaling from a DTE to the
attached DCE or the reverse. Since transmit data and receive data are separate circuits, the
interface can operate in a full duplex manner, supporting concurrent data flow in both directions.
The standard does not define character framing within the data stream, or character
encoding.Diagrammatic oscilloscope trace of voltage levels for an uppercase ASCII "K"
character (0x4b) with 1 start bit, 8 data bits, 1 stop bit.The RS-232 standard defines the voltage
levels that correspond to logical one and logical zero levels. Valid signals are plus or minus 3 to
15 volts. The range near zero volts is not a valid RS-232 level; logic one is defined as a negative
voltage, the signal condition is called marking, and has the functional significance of OFF. Logic
zero is positive, the signal condition is spacing, and has the function ON. The standard specifies
a maximum open-circuit voltage of 25 volts; signal levels of ±5 V,±10 V,±12 V, and ±15 V are

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 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

all commonly seen depending on the power supplies available within a device. RS-232 drivers
and receivers must be able to withstand

CHAPTER-5

CONCLUSION

Accreditation on various resources of renewable energy that could ensure energy supply
sustainability by meets the load demand continuously. Adoption of the solar energy
systems that have efficiency with reliability as an alternative resource of conventional
energy contributes to reducing emission and conventional energy. This paper seeks to
identify the suited hybrid system t for general applications by studying a different type of
hybrid system. Adopting hybrid solar/wind could meet the required loads but it has a little
complicated regarding their components (non-linear properties) with the assistance of computer
software that has an important role to design safe energy systems. Using a hybrid
solar/geothermal system has great performance comparing with separation systems and
efficiency depends on system components which is complexity with the high initial cost.
However, hybrid solar PV/Generator with battery more suitable option economically that
could meet the load demands for rural areas but it does not evacuate from certain value of toxic
emissions result by using it with little effects of the battery. While Hybrid solar PV/thermal
system experiencing significant growth with improvements at his parts to increase the overall
efficiency of the system by use PCM, nanofluid or a mix of PCM-nanofluid as cooling the PV
panel to keep the efficiency of the solar cells and increase thermal energy.Utilizing a hybrid
solar/thermal system has proven effective to meet the required loads of electric energy and good
capacity to provide thermal energy simultaneously without toxic emissions with a little
complicated component

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 HYBRID SOLAR SYSTEM

CHAPTER-6

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[1] Makbul A. M. Ramli, Ayong Hiendro, Ssennoga Twah, Economic analysis of PV/diesel
hybrid system

with flywheel energy storage, Renewable Energy, 78 (2015) 398-405.

[2] Tripti Gupta and Swapnil Namekar, Harmonic Analysis and Suppression in Hybrid
Wind & PVSolar

System. International Conference on Electrical, Electronics, doi.org/10.1063/1.5031987.

[3] Yashwant Sawle, S.C. Gupta and Aashish Kumar Bohre, PV-wind hybrid system, A
review with case

study, Cogent Engineering, (2016) 3, 1189305. DOI: 10.1080/23311916.2016.1189305.

[4] K.H.M. Al-Hamed and I. Dincer, Investigation of a Concentrated Solar-Geothermal

Integrated System

with a Combined Ejector-Absorption Refrigeration Cycle for a Small Community,

International

Journal of Refrigeration, 106(2019)407–426.

[5] Rajesh Ka, D Kulkarnib, T.Ananthapadmanabha, Modeling and Simulation of

Solar PV and DFIG

Based Wind Hybrid System, Procedia Technology, 21 ( 2015 ) 667 – 675.

Dept of ECE, SBIT 40