IN THE P R E S S ,

BY T HE S A M E A U T HO R

RU MA NIZ ED J A PA NES E REA D ER .

PA R T I
.
— J A P A NE S E
T EXT .

II E NG LIS H T R A NS L ATI O N
.
—
.

PA R T III NO T E S
.
-
.

3 VO L UM D MY 1 6 ES , E M0 .

LO ND O N TR EB NER Co .

YO K O H MA A : K EL LY WAL S H , MT D
LI I E .
TR U B NE R S C O L L E C T IO N
’

OF
'

SIMPLIFIED GRA MMA RS

OF T HE PR N C P
I I A L

A SIATIC A ND EU RO P E AN L A NG U A G E S .

DT
E I E D BY

I
RE NHOL D RO ST , L LD
. . PH D . .

xv .

J A P A N ES E .

BY BA SIL HA LL C HA M B E LA IN R .
 YO K OH A M A
P R NT
I D
E A T T HE
“JA P NG
A TT E
A ZE
SIMPLIFIED GRA MMA R
O F T HE

J A P A NE SE L A N G U A G E .

( M O D ER N W RITTE N S TY L E )

BA SIL HA L L C HA M B ERL AI N .

A UT HO R OF

THE C L ASSI C A L P O ET RY O F THE (J A P A NE S E ,

ETC .

L O ND O N
‘
TR U B NEB 00 57 59, L U D G AT E HIL L .

YO O K H A M A K ELLY
: A ND WA LS H , No 2 8 , M A IN S TR E ET
. .
 PR E F A CE .

IN J ap an
as i th Ea ter co trie two di al ect
, n o eder s n un s, s ar e u s

si m l ta eo ly
u nf peaki g the ther f w iti g p
us , on e or s n , o or r n ur

p e The p ke
os s . c ll q i al di alect i that t wh i ch
s o n or o o u s o

c l m ercha t m i i a i e
on s u s , d the who b ghtn s, s s on r s, an o rs are rou

i t d ily relati o with the Jap e e m t d evote thei fi r t

n o a ns an s , us r s

efi t
'

Thei ext tep h l d be to acq i e the wr itte

or s . r n s s ou u r n

la g age witho t a k wle dge f whi ch e ve y b k eve y

n u , u no O r oo , r

n ew paper every p t ca d eve y adve ti sem e t eve y ti ce

s , os -
r , r r n ; r no

i a rai lway tat i o

n boa d a steam er rem ai a m y te y
-
s n or on r ns s r ,

eve whe t a lite ate d i to Rom a character Som e f

n n r ns r n n s . o

the differe ces a ffect the v cab la y B t the c ta tly

n o u r . u on s n

rec ri g diffic ltie are rathe i the gramm a

ur n u d m y be s r n r, an a

m a tere d i a few w ee k s by tho e t wh m the col l q i al i

s n s o o o u s

fam ili r The great ob tacle hithe t h bee the ab e ce f

a . s r o as n s n o

an y b k S pec i ally
oo d e v ote d to the el cidati f the m d er u on o o n

f m f the wri tte la g age M A t

or o adm i able t eati e
n n u . r. s on s
’
r r s

c ve a m ch wi de fiel d P re vio writer h d left Japa e e

o rs u r . us s a n s

gr m m ar a cha
a M A to bro ght l i ght d ord e i to i t
‘

os . r. s n u an r n s

every part B t m o t per o hav e eithe t im e

. u i cl i a s s ns n r n or n n

ti to i ve tigate eve y pa t Thei r c cer i

on n s t wi th r r . on n s, no

the Japa ese cla ic d philologi cal re earch b t with th

n ss s an s , u e

la g ag e
n u comm ly wri tte as w d t h e y w ea y f on n no an r o

se ch i g th o gh the page of a lea e d w k f t h ve y d y

ar n r u s rn or or e e r -
a

f rm whi ch alo e to them

o s, ef l Th bject f t he n a re us u . e o o

prese t li ttle boo k i t p t bef e ch per

n i i m pl s o u or su s on s , n as s e

a m a er as pos ibl e j t so m ch as Wi ll e able them to ead

nn s , us u n r
 VI P R EF A CE

c onte mporary l iterat ure c re po de ce All f rm that an d or s n n . o s

ar e o b lete p ely cl s i cal have bee m itted The eti c l

so or ur a s n o . or a

di c i
s u s s on s hav bee di pe d with ve i a few i t ce
e n s n se , sa n n s an s

( no tabl y the p i ve ve b ) w h e a
as sk w le d g e f the y
r i f , er no o or s, or

a f reig e th ly ad t c ct p acti c
o n r, e on ro o or re r e .

A w d t th h i t y ffi it i
or as o d wr i tte
e y tem f
s or , a n es , an n s s o

the Japa e e la g ge The e t f ki t Japa e e

‘

n s n ua . n e ar s o n o n s on

the m i la d f A i i K ea th t ct al e em bla ce
a n n O s a s or n, e s ru ur r s n

betwee th t w t g e eachi g d w eve t m i ti e f

n e o on u s r n o n n o nu a o

i di m o Th l i ke
. f the v cab la y i m ch fai te
e nes s O b t o u r s u n r, u

s till eal Wh t h b th J pa e d K e
r . e er t o be a n es an o r an a re o

c l a e d wi th the Altai c t g e m t d epe d the exact

ss on u s, us n on

e e gi ve t th w d Alt c J dge d f m th p i t
s ns n o e or ai . u ro e o n

of vi ew f y tax d ge e al t ct o s n th ey h ve
an n r s ru ure , a as

goo d a i ght t be i cl de d i th A lt g p M g l
r o n u n e aIc r ou as on o

or M a ch n T ace f the l w f att acti

u .
“r s b y wh i ch
o a o r on ,

the v wel f cce i ve yllable te d t

o s o su i f rm i ty
ss i s s n o un o , as n

t t hi f
o o os ,t t hi t h y ea bef e la t
or a o os p i t i the am e
, e r or s , o n n s

di ect i
r on .

If the term Alta c be held t i cl de K rea d Japa i o n u o n an n

ese the Japa e e a m e p i m e im p ta ce bei g by f

, n n s s su s r or n as n ar

the lde t li vi g ep e e tat ive f that great li g i ti c gr p

o s n r r s n o n u s ou ,

i t l i te at e a te d at i g b y m y ce t i e the m t a c i e t
s r ur n n an n ur s os n n

p d cti
ro u f the M a ch
on s o M g l T rk H ga i a n us , on o s, u s, un r ns ,

or Fi nns It ea l i e t exta t d c m e t g bac k i th i

. s r s n o u n s o n e r

p e e t h pe t the begi i g f the eighth ce t y f

r s n s a o nn n o n ur O o ur

e r a , an d i t l i te at e h s fl i h e d i te pte dly f m th at
r ur as o ur s un n rru ro

t i m e d w wa d o n J p e w itte r . w di ffe a h w v
an e s as r n no rs , o e er,

c ide ably f m t h la g age f t h eighth ce t y While

on s r ro e n u o e n ur .

th m g e
e ea ati v vocab la y h bee e ri ched by th
r n e u r as n n ou

s a d f w rd d phra e b wed fr m the m ore ex

n s o o s an s s o rr o o

p e
r ss i v e Ch i n e e m a y of t h s ld nat
, i v e ter m i at ino ns h av e e o n
 PR E F A CE VII

fall e i t di e O c q e ce f thi l g d v a i e d
n n o s us . ne on s e u n o s on an r

c e f th J p e e l g g i t h exi t ce at th p e t
ar e r o e a an s an ua e s e s en e r s en

d y fa
a o m be f t yle di t i g i h d b y t
nu l
g y r m a koe d s s s n u s e s ron r

p c li i ti e Le vi g a id p et y d a ce t i
e u ar s .
me t la n s e o r an r a n orn a n a

ki d f p
n e c l ti v t d ch i fly b y a f w S hi t o ch l
o ro s u a e e e n s o ar s ,

th f c t g i e f tyl i c mm
e r e ar e o ur i a e or s o s e n o on u s e , v z .

I Th S m i C l i c l Style di t i g i he d b y i t p ef re ce
. e e -
as s a , s n u s s r e n

for o ld tive w d d g amm ti c l f m The ta d d

na or s an r a a or s . s n ar

t l ti f th N w T t m e t i i thi tyle
r an s a on O e e es a n s n s s .

11 Th S m i C ll q i l St yle i t w h i ch t h l we cl
. e e -
o o u a , n o e o r ass

ne w p p s w i te a cc i lly f ll It phr e l gy av
er r rs o as o n a a . s as o o s o ur s

l g ly d i t g mm li ghtly f th pec l i a iti e f th

ar e , an s ra ar S , o e u r s o e

m deo c ll q i l di lect
rn o o u a a .

III The Chi e e Style S i i c Japa e e whi ch i replete

. n s , or n o -
n s , s

with Chi e w d d i di m It i f d e d the lite al

nes or s an o s . s o un on r

t l ti n f the C hi e e cl i c whi ch we e f m e ly th
r an s a o s o n s as s s, r or r e

text b k i ve y ch l Thi tyle i the di ary vehi cle

-
oo s n e r s oo . s s s or n

o f c te m p
on y te at re
l i o r ar r u .

IV The E pi t la y Style Alm t ex cl i vely C hi e e i

. s o r . os us n s n

ph a e l gy thi tyle h g am m ti c l pec li i ti e whi ch

r s o o , s s as r a a u ar s

are s o m ke d t ce itat t e tm e t i a epa ate c h apte

ar as o ne ss e r a n n s r r.

Th y t m f w i t i g t h t h
e s s e hi th t bee i O i Jap r n , a as er o n n us e n an ,

i
s an xt m ly c m pli cat d
e re em i ide g phi c d emi
e o e on e , s -
o ra an s

s y ll b i c af d e d t h i
, d e g ap hi
o unc w i t i g f t h C h i e e on e o r r n O e n s .

B t t h l g g m y a i l y be w i tte wi th R m a ch a ct
u e an ua e a e s r n o n ra e rs .

I de d the ge l i t d cti
n e f the R m a alphabet i
n e ra n ro u on o o n s

th q e ti
e f th d y A
u s ci ety e ti tl d the Rom ji K i
on o e a . so n e a a ,

or R m i at i oS ci ety h bee f m e d d i cl de
an z on o , as n or , an n u s

am g it m em be m t f t h lea de i ci e ce d i
on s rs os o e rs n s n an n

p li ti c A p ely ph eti c y tem f t a li te ti h b e

o s . ur on s s o r ns ra on as e n

ad pt d d h m t with cc pt ce b th am g ti v
o e , an as e a e an o on na es

an d f eig s T thi y tem bei g that wh i ch i likely

or n er . o s s s , as n s
 VIII PR F E A CE

to persede all others th pelli g of th f llowi g page

su , e s n e o n s

co f m
n or s .

I c cl i
n i t i m y plea i g d t y t ac k wl dg e m y
on u s on , s s n u o no e

obli g ti t M J C Hall Acti g J pa

a on s o r. Sec t y t
. .
, n a n ese r e ar o

H B M Legat i
. . . T okyo d m p ti c l ly t M E e t
on , , an o re ar u ar o r . rn s

Stw a o , H B M M i i te R e id e t at B gk k f
. . . n s r s n an o , or

a m be f val able gg ti
nu r o uM y th k lik e wi d
su es on s . an s a re se ue

t L i e te a t M Takata I J N f
o u n n . m t hi g w y c t i , . . or s oo n a a er a n

diffic l ties wi th regard to the p bli cati f th b k i J pa

u u on o e oo n a n .

B A SIL CHA MB E RLA IN .

TO K YO .

F e brua ry , 1 88 6 .

E R R ATA

8, lin e after k i sert

18 ; n
“an d
g .

5 2, the b ace h l d i te
r s ou un , n ot yuka z u an d y uka z a m , b ut
yuka za m an d y uka nu .

69, l i e 3 f m b tt m ; f Sectio
n ro o o or n 6 read Secti on 3 .

7 0, li e 1 4 ; for b ki read b hi
n es es .
 J A PA NE SE GRA M M A R .

C HA P T ER I .

H O NETIC S Y STEM TH E P .

1 LPH B T S EC . . A A E A ND PR O NU NO IA TIO N .

J P N S whe w itte wi th the Ro m a al phabet re qui res

A A E E, n r n n ,

the sam e l etters as E gli sh with the ex ceptio of l q dw

n , n , , v an .

The l etter occ rs o ly i the c ombi atio h whi ch is

0 u n n n n c ,

sou ded early like E glish h i ch rch

n n n c n u .

The vowel s are so ded as i Italia ; b t are al ways Short un n n u

u l ess mar ked with the S ig

n of l o g q a tity whe c are mu t n n u n , n s

b take to pro o u c e the m l o g th s

e n n n n , u

d a degr e do
o, a hall e , .

t m
“ to take ota m “
,to p ass through , .

M “ a stem ki i ki “the i
, , a r .

The o ly l o g vowel s of co mm o o currenc e are 6 d

n n n c an u.

They are fo d chiefly i words of C hi ese ori gin where they

un n n ,

repre e t s ch C hinese di phtho gs d a al sou ds as

s n u n an n s n ao , on,

a ny , t ong , e tc .

Whe preceded by a other vowel or by

n sou ds very n n, e n

n ae rly like y i like yi d like w Thus w k i d

e, , an 0 o . e, e n - n an

s hi are res p ecti v e l y pro o u c ed y k

o
y i d hiw n n u e, en- n, an s o.

The vowel s i d are sometimes i audi bl e or early so

an u n n

i
n the mo ths of T okyo s peakers as hi t havi g do e
u , s e, n n ,

pro ou c ed kt jimi ki h pro ou c ed jim i k h t ki th

n n a e s a, n n s a ; su , e

moon p ro ou c ed t ki t kw
, n much p ro no un c d t m ;
n s ; a an, , e a ax

Initial u is silent and

”
w t ku hi
a a I p ronounced w t k hi
s , , a a s .
,
 2 JA PA NE SE GR MM R
A A .

the foll owi g m do b led i the pro ciatio of the fo r words

n u n n un n u

m
co a , ho e m ki
rs
“tasty u m a
“ to be bor
, u a r ur u , n
f
wm e, pl m tree pro o ced mm mm ki mm
u -
,
”
n un mm a , a , a r uru , e .

B t these d e viati o s are S l i ght

u d ni m p rta t All the an un o n .

abo ve word will be der t od i f pr o ced w itte

s un s o o n un as r n.

The diphtho g s ch n s,i ii u call for sp ecial

a s ao , a u , e , , on, no

c omm e t as each v wel etai i t w proper o d

n , o r ns s o n s un .

The co s a ts are pro

n on nced appro xim ately as i E glish n o un n n ,

s bject to the f llowi g rem ark

u o n s

f is a t e labial
ru f t the E gl i sh lab i,o de
no tal n -
n .

9 e v er has th
n s di At the begi i g f a word it
e o un . nn n o

is p o o ce d ha d like the g i gi I the m i ddle of a

r n un r , n ve . n

word it has the s d of E gli h 9 i lo gi g Th s o un

“ n s 72 n n n .
”
u

K ig the am e of a place hym e alm t exactly wi th S ger

”
a, n ; r s os in

(
no t w i th “ fi ger The nwords g of d g t k i “l i ke a, ,
”
an o o , ,

al s take the g so d
o n un .

h before i s d ea ly like the G erm a h i mich

o un s n
“
r d n c n , an

som etim es pas es alm t i to h s os n s .

n at the d f a w rd i pro o ced half w y betwee a

en O o s n un -
a n

tr e u n d the F e ch
an asal No s ha vi g a fi al are
r n n n . un n n 73

m o t ly of C hi ese ri gi
s n o n .

y i a l
s ways a co so a t Th s the
n sy ll ab l e
n n m y i my. k u a n a u,

the p l se is pro
u ,
”
ced as syll ab l e li ke mi i the
n o un on e , a n

E gl i h wor d “ ami able C a e m st be take ”

n s t t . r u n no o

co f d it with the dissyll abl e i s ch words as miy k a

n o un n u a o,

c apital city .

z has almost the so d of d whe precedi g the vowel ; un z n n it

th s mi
u
“
zu ,wate i p o o ce d almost mid r, s r n un e n.

D o b l e c o so a ts m st be disti ctly so ded as i Italia

u n n n u n un , n n,

th s u

ki t e, havi g com e ki tt a ticket

n
“ e, .

k k o a,
“ an anc i ent p o em k kk “ hearth and home o a, .
 PHONETIO S Y STEM . 8

Gene rally s p eakin g

the J ap a ese pro u ciatio both of , n n n n

v owe ls d of co so a ts is le s b oad
an d hea vy tha that n n n s r an n

c e t i m o t E ropea la g ages
ur r n n d e pec i all y i
s u n n u , an s n

E gli hn Thi s rem ark appli es m ore pa ti c l a ly t the l etters

s . r u r o

c h j , h d t , T e ch as those f the C hi ese are

r, s , an s . on s , s u o n ,

e tirely abse t There is li ttle

n t ic acce t d o l y
n . or n o on n , an n

a very s light rheto i cal acce t ; that i t y that ll the r n s o sa , a

syll abl e f a w d d all the w d s f a se te ce are

s O or an or o n n

p ro o ced e q a lly or ea ly
n un St de ts m t bewa e f
u , n r so . u n us r o

im p rti g i t Japa e e the t g d c ta tly ec i g

o n n o n s s r on an on s n r ur r n

stre s by which we i E gli h i gle t

s yllable i e v ery n n s s n ou on e s n

word d the chi ef wo d s i eve y e te ce

, an r n r s n n .

A ll Japa ese word d e i the i a v wel

n i the s en r n o or n

co o a tns n The e n c m bi ati s of c

it . a t r ar e no o n on on son n s

ex cepti g t d the d bl e c n a t al eady m e ti ed

s an ou on s o n n s r n on ,

amo g whi ch m t be c te d h d t h ta di g for d ble

n us o un ss an c , s n n ou

d d ble h “ e lve peak B y ”

s h an i k hi ou t hé c , as n es s n, r so ze c , .

some very ca ef l peake a w i p o ced afte [gm m a y r u s rs s ron un r n

wo ds take f m th Chi e e Th kw i
r n ro Offi ci al e n s . us a nn n , an

Gw im h a the F rei g O ffice

us o ,
‘

B t the p ci ati o n . u r o n un on

c rre t i T okyo d i m st pa ts of the c try i im ply

u n n an n o r o un s s

k i G i m hé etc
a nn n , a us , .

2 L TT R C H NG S SE C . . E E -
A E .

“ m d dli g ame gi ve by the ”

1 Ni g i
. i i th or , . e . u n , s e n n

Japa ese t the b tit ti

n f s a ts f o The su s u on o on n or

c s a ts affected are
on o n n

ch
cha ge i t n n o j .

sh

f
In c n t o r ad i s t i n c ti o n t o t he so n n t l tt t h
a e e rs , e s urd l tt e e rs are
s ai d t o b e s um i , i e
“ cl e ar
”
Th t w ectg i o a e or e s t g th
o e er are
ing C hi n q i v l n t f “cl
. . .

t e r me d s e i d a ku -
s ei be t he e se e u a e or e ar
”
and
da ku f o r
,
“mud dled ”
.
,
 4 JA PA NES E G RA MMA R .

whi ch cha ge into n b .

changes g .

cha ges d t n .

N B .
— F . d h al so ofte cha ge i to p esp e cially i
an n n n , n

C hi ese comp o ds Th i s i call ed h

n
“ ig iun i “ half . s a n-n or ,
”
. e .

m ddli g
u n .

The rul e regar di g the ig i stated broadly is that n n or , ,

the i iti al surd of i de p e d e t word cha ges i to the

n an n n n n n

c orres p o di g so a t whe the wor d i

n n se d as the seco d
n n n s u n

mem be of a co m p u d th s
r o n , u

h i ji
un -
thro gho t the la d from k i d hi
i , u u n , un an c c.

w m j
a a practical joke
-
a re , w ki d h ,
a ru an s a re .

f une b -
all s rts of ves els
une , f m repeated o s , i e .

“ a ca i o s tooth m hi d h r u us an e .
,

h g k
on o u ,
“ ati ve cou try h n d k k n ,
”
o n an o u .

“ t di c ss
”
r one a m , od m s u ,
ran an su .

k a nzwm “ ti e d e, [ d t m
nn ,
ca n an su e.

h d t
on a e , a b ill of fare I d t t , con an a e .

The abov l i by m ea s absol te e ru e e pho y s no n an u on e , u n ,

an d som et i m e t h v aryi g capri ce of i di vid al s de ci di g i

s e n n u , n n

each case whethe the cha ge hall or shall t take place r n s no .

F d h howeve
an alway cha ge either i to b or i to 1 i f the
, r, s n n n 9

first m em be f the compo d e ds i the co so a t r o un n n n n n 71 ,

thus
mp na the so th wi d from m m d fi
u, u n , an .

m b “
sathree tim es -
en , d h ,
s un an en .

2 — As hown i the precedi g e x am pl es

. s cha g s in to m
n n , It n e

b efore a l abi al .
 PEONE TIO S Y ST EM . 5

3 . o owing c at gory of cha ges affe ct s a l arg

— The f ll e n e

number of c o mp o u d words of C hi ese origi d otab ly

n n n, an n

the umerals as combi ed with the a xil iary umeral s

n
“ n u n

h i t hé c for i hi hé
-
c
“
, c c , on e .

h t ha ah hi hd -
a eight , ac c ,

j it c ho , u c ho , te n
‘ '

j
-
.

f and h mi nfuku,
on e .

wi n hi ki ,

TOP “ 170 65, 7

“t en .

“hu dred
n .

tho sa d
u n .
 6 JA PA NE S E GR A MMA R .

“on e .

th ee r .

ei ght .

”
ten .

th o us n a d .

On e .

“ i e ght .

“t en .
”

on e .

ha t ts ii -
ha c hi le i i ,
—
e ig ht .

”
j i fa t en
‘

t ts i t-
a n, .

Sim il arly , as - s ei , ty a y ai m s ci , r nn .

i g
”
h l 75 h t k i
”

a t -
6 , a su c , ssu n .

k t m “ to es lve e s u su ,
r o .

4 . The J apa ese ca ot p

— ce all thei co so a ts
n nn r on o un r n n n

before all their vowels Thi leads to the f ll wi g e pho i c . s o o n u n

l aws d j
— d are co elate d i
, , an ch wi e th t d ta d ly
z rr n su s a s n s on

before the th ee v owels d r j ly bef re i d a , e , an 0 ; on o a, ,

0 , an u;

an d o ly bef e
z n App re t i eg la i ti e
or a, e, o, u . a n rr u r s

hereby c a sed i th co j gati o of m a y verb th s

u n e n u n n s, u

A ttr i buti ve
F or m . P resent .

ide , to go f rth “ o .

Oj i b m , to c e po d ea , o rr s n .

F d h are S im il arly c rrelated f sta di g

an l y bef re o , n n on o it ,

and h o ly before the th e f r v wels th

n o r ou o , us

h j m e.
“t pa a , o ss .

S d h are c orre l ate d

an s h sta di g o ly before i d ,
s n n n , an 3

o ly before the othe fo r vowels th

n r u , us

h hi as k ,
“ to l e d a s u, n .
 PA R TS OF S PEEC H .

T, ts , are correl ated t sta di g o ly bef re

an d c h ,
n n n o a, e, an d

o ts o ly bef re ; d h o ly before i
n o a dan th us o n a, , o , an i t,

Iad ef . A ti r i b . Neg a tive . Ca usa ti ve .

ta c hi ,
ta tsu ,
ta ta z u, ta ta s hi muru , to sta d n .

W is in serte d before
5 .
— a in v erba l term i atio s whe n n n

an other vowel precedes thus ,

wa m i , wa ra u, wa ra wa z a , wa r a was hi mur u, to l augh .

6 .
— Y i d sapp ears before e an d i, th s u

to melt ki yuru , .

7 A few m o osyllables
.
— d dissy ll ab l e of p re
n ativ an s u n e

o i gi e di g i cha ge the i to whe sed as the first

r n n n n e n e n a n u

m e m ber of a co mpo d th s un , u

ka na g
-
m eta l wor
a, k fro m k d y ,
”
a ne an a.

t m k
a- athe m e d as a pill ow
ura , t d m kar us , e an a ura .

w
u a za st wmi
-
“ o ter wrapper , an u dt t m i
u , e an su s .
*

C HA P T ER II .

CH T HE P A RT S O F S P EE .

The words f whi ch the Japa ese l a g age is comp osed

o n n u

fall i t tw great g p the i fl t d d the i flect d

n o o ro u s, un n ec e an n e .

The i fl t d wo d are I th o which be i des the

un n ec e r s e n un , , s

s b ta tive p pe ly calle d i cl d es th pro o

u s n ro r the so -

, n u e n un ,

nu m eral d m a y wor d correspo di g to E gli h a djecti v e ;

, an n s n n n s s

II the po tp iti c rrespo di g f the m ost part to the

s os on , o n n or

E g li h p ep it i
n s r os on .

9
In re a li t y
Joa na , ta , e t c are t he o rig i na l f m which h v or s, a e
c pt i c mp u d
.
,

bec ome sof t ene d Int o loa ns , te , e tc , e x e. n o o n s.

 [ 9 ]

U N IN F L E C T E D W ORD S .

C HA P T ER III .

T HE NO U N .

SEC . PROP RLY C L D

1 . T HE S UB S TA N T IVE E SO -
AL E .

1 ,The s b ta ti ve i i d cli able di ti cti

— u s fnm ber s n e n , s n on s o nu

an d ge d er be i g left t b g the e d f m the c text

n n d o e a r ro on , an

ca e elati b i g i E gli h i di c te d by i depe d e t

s r on s e n , as n n s , n a n n n

w d Th the b t ti ve hi i g i fie b ll
or s us ,
“ “ su s an us s n s u ,
”
ox ,
”

“ w
co b ll
,
“ xe “ cw u
“ cattle acc rdi g to
s,
”
o n,
”
o s,
”
, o n

c i c m ta ces I ch a phrase as hi w k it ge e ally

r u s n . n su as e au n r

s i g ifies to keep cattle I hi i w i t i g i fies to

n
“ “ . n as n ne s n

ri de a b ll if
on rider is all ded to d to ide
u
“ on e u , an r on

b ll s if several pe so s are poke of I hi w k it

u r n s n . n us o uu

sig i fies to eat beef I hi

n
“ hi hi it sig i fies cows .
”
n us no c e n
’

In the extrem ely rare cases i which it is absol tely n u

i di pe able t m e ti the sex of a im al thi

n s ns o n be
on an n , s c an

d e by p fi i g
on m e i d epe d e t w d
re x n ch as
so m ale n n n or , su o,

m e, fem al e Th hi.
“ ”
a b l l m hi a cow “
u s z— o a s -
u e us-
, .

What w call the i g l e m be i occa i all y i di c te d

s n u ar n u r s s on n a

b y the f the w d i hi “ Th i hi ”
us e o hi t t or c or o su , on e . us c -
nen ,

on yee t m hi t t
ar b ll a a o sa , on e a .

P l al i ty i
ur cca i ally i di cat d b y d bli g the w d
s o s on n e ou n or

( the ec s d half f
on the c m p d th s obta i
o e d s ally ta ki g
o o un u n u u n

the ig i n page th
or , see us

habé ,all ide everywhere fr m he side s s,

”
, o , .

kw i g in
“-
v ario us c o u tries f om ku i c ountry
un ,
“ n ,
”
r n , .
”
 10 JA PA NE S E G R A MMA R .

by p fi i g or ffi i g som e word c o veyi g the idea

Or re x n su x n n n

of m ber Th
nu . us

b k k
an a ll co tries
-
o i ter atio al from b
u, un ,
”
n n n an,

“m yr i a d d k k “co try ,
”
an o u, un .

h k
s
“ge tl eme
o -
from h all
un ,
“ d k “ge tl e n n s o, , an an , n
”
man .

eu n en ,
- “m a y years
n
”
; from 5 17 ,
“n um ber , an d own ,

“ year .
”

d es hi -
ta c hi di s cipl es fro
, m deshi , “ a di scipl e , an d mid ,

a word expressive of plurality .

o nna -
d omo , “ wom e n
”
; from onna ,
“ wom a n, an d t om ,

compa io n n .

s bjects we from hi s bject

s hi n Ta , -
u d a,
” “ s n,
“ u , an ia ,

word expressi ve of vague e n ss .

B t s ch l oc t i s
u u om ewhat ex cepti al di sti cti s
u on are s on , n on

of m ber t bei g dwelt p at e very t r by the Jap a e e

nu no n u on u n n s

as they by the Arya m i d ar e n n .

2 C ompo d s
.
-
v ery c m m o un d be f rm ed at
are o n, an c an o

will As i E gli h the fi t m em ber f the c m p d

. n n s , rs o o o un

ge erally defi es the seco d will be ee by the m e s

n n n , as s n nu ro u

exam ple thro gh t thi gramm ar O cc i lly the t w

s u ou s . a s on a o

m e m be are rdi ated

rs ki gi “ g l d d ilve
co o -
n , as n -
n, o an s r .
”

This co ordi ati s m etim e (i i m it ti o f Chi e e idi m )

~
n on o s n a n o n s o

a s m es a pec l i ar f m wh i ch h bee term ed the y the i

s u u or , as n s n s s

of co t adictori e
n r
g h o t “ l g h rt i “
s,le ”
gthe ;
. . c -
an, on or s o , . e . n
”

l
oa n d -
“ hot c ld i
e n,
“ tem pe at e or y
“ m o , . e . r ur na n n -
o, an

or wom a i yn, hi h i “
g
. de b .d i “
s ext h os -
as , oo or a ,
”
. e . e

m a l ch aracter
or f acti ; hi “ th e bei g o an on a i n na s
'
-
, re n or

t be i g “ th q e ti of the xi te ce f a thi g
” ”
no i n , . e . e u s on e s n O n .

Tw c t a i e th
o c m b i e d d d ty f a i gle E gli h
on r r s us o n o u or s n n s

ab t act word th s b
s r t ki “ the c ontext (lit th e
, u z— nn no a o sa -
,
.

after before ) of a p assage

-
.
”
 NOUN S . ll

Whe m e mber of the c o mpo u d is a v erb go v er i g the

n on e n n n

o ther it com e seco d if the word i of J apa ese origi

, s n d s n n, an

fi st if it is of Chi ese ori gi Th s f

r n hi a l a ch n . u nna - or os , un

k mi h
a -
mi hair c tti g (J p ) b t ki kyo ret r i g
a sa ,
-
u n a . u -
, u n n

to the capital o b uil di g a ship z -

shipbuil di g
s en , n ,
”
n

( C hi ese )
n .

Hyphe s are se d i R o m a i ed J apa ese for the sa ke

n u n n z n

of clear e i very l g com po ds d i those whose fi t

n ss n on un , an n rs

m e m be e d i r whil e the eco d c mm e ces with a v owel

n s n n s n o n

or wi th y g ,
“ the d aft of a doc m e t t to be
as en a n ,
-
r
”
u n , no

c fo de d with g
on un
“ a comm o m I the prese t
ena n , n an .
”
n n

w rk they
o e d a littl e m ore freely to ill strate the se se
ar e u s u n

an d deri v atio of m a y words n n .

2 NOUN U S D
S EC . . J CT V S D V RB S
S E A S AD E I E A ND A E .

1 .J apa e e has com parati v ely f w t e adjecti ves

-
n s d i e ru , an n

a great mber of case e o i tead j st as i E gli h

nu s us s n un s ns , u n n s

we say a g ld watch
“ “ a T k y carpet A ou m y do
o ,
”
ur e .
”
n n a

d ty for a djecti ve i three ways i

u an n , v z .

I As m em ber of a co m p o d th s
. un , u

B t ji n su
“ a B ddh t templ e from B ut u B uddh a
-
i , u “ s s ,

or B ddhi m u d ji “ a te mpl e
s an ,

E i k k ji -
“
o n E gli h m a
-
n, f om E i E g ; k k
an n s n r , n o a,
“l a d n dj “ pe so an ln, r n.

t i k ku
e -
“ o im perial co try
, an “ emp ir f om t i un ,
”
an e r e ,

“em peror d k k “ co t y an o u, un r .
”

t n -
“ rai y weather f o
en , m n “rai d t “ ky r a, n an en , s .

y k m
o o
j i “ E -
r pea o wr i ti
, g ; fro m
u o
y k “ c rossnw ise n
”
o e,

a n d m ji a writte character
o , n .

II F ll owed by the P ostp itio

. o of th s os n no , , u

g i k
a k ko i
o n no
“ foreig in ter c o rse
sa , l it “ i ter c o urse n u . n

of for i gn c o untri e s
e .
 12 JA PA NE S E G R MMA A R .

hori mono no ts ukue , a c arved tabl e li t . a tabl e of

c arvi n gs .

III F oll owed by the attrib tive form of of the te ses of

. u one n

the verb to be th s
na r n , , u

k ens o mi hi na r na steep road ; lit a steep es bei g

c , . n s -
n

road ; d k no o a t ki ge i al weather li t ge i ali ty

na r a en , n , . n

bei g weather
n hi t i hi hi t “ a ki d pe o lit
s ns e s n na r s o, n rs n ,
”
.

ki d e ha vi g bee pe
n n ss n -
n r s on .

2 .Wo d f thi thi d cla c e p d to E gli h adverb

— r s o s r ss o rr s on n s s,

if the p tp iti i (m e a ely t ) i s b tit te d f the

os os on n or r r o s u s u or

verb th teeply ge ially ;

na rn , k i “ u s z— d k i
e ns o n
“ s no o a n n
, ,

shi t
s en at rally
o n u .
”

3 .M a y words correspo di g to E glish adverbs are

— n n n n

form ed by red plicati g o s as t bi t bi ofte from u “ n n un , a -

a , n,
”

t bia , a tim e M a y s ch red p licated words are

.
”
n u u

on o m t p a o simil ar to the E gli sh di g do g

es ,
“ “ pell n n -
n ,

m e ll etc , Th s g g .
g u g repre e
as a ti g -
a r t l i
asa o rg os o - os o , s n n us n

so d ; t b t b desc iptive f the totteri g tep of

un o o -
o o, r ld o n s s an o

cro e O ccasio ally they are de ived from a djecti ve stem as

n . n r s,

su o sn o ,
g g
-
d escr i pti v e of low p i i t fr m g k i “ i ll at ea e s r s, o su a , s .
”

4 . A ll C hi ese wo ds are t eated

-
n by the Japa e e
r r as n o un s n s ,

bei g ed either I s b ta ti ve pr per g ki g ld

n us . as u s n s o , e . . n o
”

j i t “
s u, tr th k t u
“ d ec i
”
i h t m ie s u, d i c ve y s on a sn e , s o r ,

“i v e t i
n n or II adjecti vely acco di g t
on , . ther of ,
r n o on e o r o

the th ee m eth d j t m e ti e d g ji t b t
r o s us a ge i e n on , e . . su -
u s u, nu n

articl e ji t hi su a t e d oct i ena ra osIII e, ru r n or .

adve bially by ffi i g i or t g ji t i tr ly
r , su
“ x n IV
n o, e . . su n u or .

as v e bs by fii i g m to do g I m to decide ;
r ,
“ su x n
“ su , , e . . ces su -
,
”

h t m i
a sn m e
“ to discover ; to i ve t ki w to
su ,
“ “ ”
n n ,
”
nz a ,

forbid ; or V as ”
m t p g. k i k i s pp o ed to
on o a o es , e . . a -
a , u s

represe t the v oi c e of the ighti gal e ; ya ya des c ri ptive of

n n n -
,

the c alm app earanc e of the di stant h av e ns e .

 PRO NO S NS . 18

CHA P T ER IV .

T HE P R O NO U N .

P R ON L PRONOUN SSE C . 1 . E S A .

The Japa e e w d cor esp di g t the per al pro

n s or s s r on n o so n n o un

of E pe la g age
ur o an i m ply n wh e i gi al
u s a re s n o un s os or n

s ig i fi ti
n ca i m t ca e pe fectly clea
o n s ar e n d wh i ch os s s r r, an a re

i dee d ti ll ft e sed with th e ig i fi ti

n s o n u They a wer os s n ca on s . ns

t os ch E gli h expres i o
u n
“ yo r h m bl e serv a t
s s ns as u u n

( m ea i g
n n Se l f depreciatory ter m s are at ra ll y -
sed n u u

to rep e e t what we sho l d call the fi t perso

r s n d u rs n, an

c ompli m e tary term s to rep rese t th se c o d p erso th us

n n e n n,

b k “o serva t
u, n
"

h the awkward p erso

s es - s a ,
n

hi s
“ s bject
n, u

ho is
“ sm all bor
-
se ,
“ yo g n,
"
un

h i
sor e a s
g
“ a certa i pers , n on

w ( origi
a re , a l m ea i g certai ) n n n un n

w t k hi a a
“ e lfi h e
ns , s s n ss

y ( ety
o,m o l ogy certa i ) un n

etc etc . .

Hi k “
e be eath the tep f the
-
a , n s s o

th e (t he idea bei g that a

r on n

s bject doe t dare to ad d e s

u s no r s

the o vereig directly b t o lys

Y o ur Maj esty
n , u n
.

prostrate his p etitio at the Im s n

perial F eet)
K kk a b e eath the cou cil cham
-
a, n n
Your Exc e ll e ncy
-

.
ber
 14 JA PA NE SE G R A MMA R .

K i ka ,be eath august ess

-
n n

K i mi “ pri c e , n

ji (be liev ed to hav e origi ally

na n , n

m ea t re ow ed n n n

hh sc
“ be eath the feet
-
a, n

et c etc . .

NB . Som e of these are al so used as titl es fii d to other

.
— su xe

o s Th s T o H i k Hi M ajesty the Emp eror

n un . u — enn e a, s .

P ostpositio s be fli d to the abo ve as to y

n c an su xe , an

other o s Th n un g hi . of m my h
us z— s ore a s
g i no , e,
”
s or e as

n o,
“m I stead of e. w
" “ of m n
“ my the form a re no , e,
”
,
”

w g ( for w
a a g ) is i comm o a re a n n use .

The pl al s ffix es are m ore ofte sed with the q asi

ur u n u u

p erso al p ro o s tha with

n y other
n c l
una s of o s n an s n un .

Th s u h d m
— hi m w
s es s a - m ( or w wo
) w
o, st k h i n -
, a re - a re - a re , a a us

d m ( som et i m es al so sed for the si g l ar) y “ ”

o o w ; u n u , o ra ,
-
e

ki mi t hi -
kk t hi
ac j,
i so
“
y I soa m -
e cases
ac p l ra l,ityna n ra , ou .
”
n u

is otherwise exp ressed g by the term w g h i lit “

, e . . a a a , . our

compa y the s al e quiv al e t for th E glish editorial

n ,
”
u u n e n

we .
”

The o ly word cl osely corresp o di g to pro ou s of th

n n n o ur n n e

thi d perso is l m that P e iphrases s ch as k hi t

r n a e, .
”
r , u a no o,

that perso (i he or n are s m etim es em pl oyed

. e . o ,

as are also the h ifi desig atio s m e tio ed above as on or c n n n n

eq i v al e ts for the seco d perso

u n Very oft e the word n n . n s ono ,

which properly mea s that (F re ch ) is sed to sig ify

“ n n ce , u n

hi “s,her its th s
” “ ”
h h ,
“
”
his m other , u — s ono a a , .
”

The word ( p l ra l )
“ se l f m
o nore
y be of n y u onor e r a -
, , a a

p ers ; b t it is m ost comm o l y m t with i the se e of I

on u n e n ns .
”

The q asi perso al pro ou s are very littl e used the

u -
n n n ,

info mation they might supply b i g l ft to b gath r d f om

r e n e e e e r
 P RONO U NS . 15

the c ontex t In n in ety ni n e case s out of a h un dred i n which -

person al pron oun s woul d be used by the s p eakers of Europ ean

to g es
n u .

R FL PRONOUN S SE C . 2 . E E " IVE .

The o s corre po di g to reflexi ve pro o s are y b

n un s n n our n un i an,

ji hsi “ self ;
n , on or e ,
g
“ w w g prope ly my ”
ono a, o n a a, r ,
”

b t al o ed m re ge e ally i the se e of w o es ” ’
u s us o n r n ns o n, n

o w They are comp arati vely littl e sed

n . u .

3 D MON T R T V
SEC . N T RROG T V PRONO N S
. E S A I E A ND I E A I E U .

The word a sweri g to u dem o strati v e

s d i terrogati v e
n n o r n an n

p ro s
n o un are

k “ thi (L ati hi F re ch l i i ll i i )
or e , s n e, n ce u -
c , ce e c
-
, c ec .

“that
s or e, i t l i ld ll ld l ) s e, ce u -
ce e -
ce a .
, ,

“he “she “i t L ati i ll F re ch ” ” ”

( , , , n e, n ,

c e lni - la, c ello -

la, e ela .
)
who
ta re ,
“

i “ what ?
na n ,

i whi ch
za re ,

The f egoi g are the s bsta ti ve form s bef re l ea vi g

or n u n , o n

whi ch the t de t ho l d ote the pl ral k s u

“ the e n s u n u s or e r a , -
s

( c ea se Ci , -
c e lZe s ci -

) , s o r e Ta -
an d ka r e r a -

( c ea se -
la, c elles -
ld ) .

The a djective form s i those that are em pl oyed t defi e , . e . o n

n o uns are ,

h “this (L ati hi F re ch )
one , n e, n ce .

“that
s ono , i t ) s e, ce .

k “that i ll
a no ,
) e, ce .

The fo m k d k
r al d d ty f k
s ono , s o no , an e no so o u or o re no ,

f th i
o d h s f th t f wh i ch they
s o re n o an e re n o , o a , o a re

c tract i o s Th s k k i thi co try k t m i

on “ n . u ono un ,
s un on o a e n ,

“f the ke f thi
or S al o f eq e tly m ea hi
sa
“
o s.
”
ono s r u n ns s,
"

“h “its
er , The ld forms
”
d a
”
c ca io a ll y o an o s n
g .g so a l a
 R ELA TIVE S . 17

a thi g which shoul d be ke pt secret (l it

hi s u beki ko to , n .

a sho l d keep sec et thi g

u r n

As ee by the e exam pl e the ve b or adjecti ve of the

s n s s, r

rel ati ve cla e m t be p t the attri b tiv e form If there

us us u In u .

are everal el ati ve cla e the o l y the ve b adjective of

s r us s , n n r or

the la t cla e take the att ib tive f m all the p ecedi g

s us s r u or , r n

cla ses ha vi g the verb adjectiv e i the i defi ite

u n or n n n

Th us

K o kor ozas hi t ess ehi wo i d a ki , gi wa s os e ts u wo a z a mu ki , fubo

s a is hi wo m o o n no ta me n i en r i s hi , hi s s hi wo i ss en ni hi wa mes hi

g us hi s hi -
t e e he e h e dete m i a
j u s hi c hi -
ni n , F or y s v n ro s , w -
os r n

ti w on i as wh e ev tas r on ,be d am ped by os d o i o n wa s n o t t o

di ffic l ty wh f thei l d k e h d left father d
’
u , o or r or s sa a an

m t h e wi fe
o r, d chi l d e d wh h d re l v ed to sacrifice
an r n, an o a so

thei r li ves i the attem pt n .

”

Here id ki m ki d hi are the i d efi i te f rm s of the

a ,
a za u an s n n o

verb i d ks m h d
u u , a za m whi l e hi w m hi i the t t i b
u u an su ,
a es s a r u

tive form of the fi t pa t te se f kiw m rs s n o a ur u .

O cca io ally the Japa e e eq i vale t of E g li h re l at i v e

s n n s u n s n s

c l a es appear am bi g o
us Th mi hi hi t li t “ the w
u us . us - /
s o, . sa

per m y sig i fy e i ther

s on ,
“ the pe
a who saw or the
n
“ r s on ,

pe wh m I (y he etc ) w i d t k lit the

r s on o ou ,
“
, . sa a su o or o , .

e d pl ce m y be eithe the place wh

s n a
“
,
”
a m et h i g i r enc e so n s

e t
s n , t h place t whi h
or m eth i g i
e e t B t a gla ce o c so n s s n . u n

at the c text g e ll y le ve
on d bt t the m ea i g
e n ra a s no ou as o n n .

F ori t ce n s an m i hi w k c t m ea the ea whi ch

, sa o o s a e, an n o n r s on

th ght
ou ch a c ll c ti f w d w l d hav e
so, as s u o o a on o or s ou no

s en s e It . l y be i t p ete d t
c an o n i g i fy “ th a f n er r o s n e re s on or

whi h I (he th ght S im ila ly h tt t '

c ,
hi t l
ou so . r ,
s u a s u s es o n c an

on ly m ea th t im e wh I (he etc ) t ted A ee b y the

n e en , , . s ar s s n

F or lp n t i n d ill t t i n f t h
an ex a a
y mp t t
io an u s ra o s o e se v er o r an
t ch ic l t m ch p VII d b gi nn ing f h p VIII
e n a er s se e a . . an e o c a . ,
 18 JA PA NE S E G R A MMA R .

abov ex ampl es the prepositio s which oft en a cc omp ny

e , n a an

E glish re l ati v e p
n o t expre sed i J p r on fiun a re no s n a an es e
"

Note t that the E gli h pas ive i s ch co texts is alm o t

oo n s s n u n s

i variably repl aced by a J apa ese active l c tio

n n o u n.

N t i fre q e tly the w rds t k

o n u n
( m re rare l y a l o e ) o o or o no o no n

are i se ted betwee the attrib ti ve d the o as mi hi

n r n u an n un , s

t k
o orohi t i tea d of the sh rter mi hi hi t
no o ns “ the m I o s o, an

saw d i m hi f
su e n d i
n a hi after
u no n oc , or s u e n nur er u no c ,

it had al eady bee d e The e circ m loc ti o s dd othi g

r n on .
”
s u u n a n n

to the e e Their ori gi ate d i the im itatio f C hi e e

s ns . u se n n n o n s

i di m oS m et im e howeve
. o legitim ately repre e ts the
s, r, no s n

E gl i h elat i ve t h
n s r h hi h k ,
“ the vari
u s z— o n a na s no en en , o us

m atte m e t i e d by y
rs
( li
n t “ theon m atter m atter f ou .
-
o

the h ableon o u r g o y b i hi “ the char m i g o z o no n, n

p e e t y ha ve se t m (lit the bea tif l articl es of the

r s n ou n e . u u

a g t
u us

C HA P T ER V .

T HE N U M ER A L .

RD N L NU B R S SEC . 1 . THE CA I A M E .

There are two sets of m eral s of ative d the other nu , on e n an

of C h i e e o igi nThe ative set is w obsol ete ex cept f

s r n . n no or

th fi t t
e um bers which are as f llo w
rs en n , o s

1 . hi to ts u . 2 .
f uta ts u . 3 . n zi ts n . 4 .
yto s u.

5 i ts uts u 6 ni uts u . 7 n a na ts u. 8 a ts u
. . . . .
y .

9 . ho kono ts u . 1 0 to . .

5
C E g i s h e x p re s s i o s as
o m p are s u c h nldi i g r o om , s i g i y i g n nn -
nf n
a r o o m i n whi c h e
p po e d i e
“s h a i g b ru s h l n
”
s i g i y i g
“a vn -
nf n
lp l v
, ,
”
b rus h wi th whi c h y ou he y o urse f t o sha e , e t c .
 N MR U E A LS . 19

These umeral s m y either be sed as i dep e de t word s

n a u n n n ,

or compo ded with b ta ti ve Whe ed i depe de tly

un su s n s . n us n n n ,

they m y either sta d q i te alo e or f ll w or (ve y ra ely)

a n u n , o o r r

p ecede a s bsta tive or sta d i

r u att ib tiv e relati to
n , n n an r u on

the s bsta tive by m ea s of the po tpo itio

u n Th n s s n no . us

f t t
u a s u i “there are two
ar h k ,f t t or f t t o h h a o u a s u, u a su n a o,

“two bo x es .

Whe com pou ded they i variably precede the s bsta tive
n n , n u n .

I this case the fi st i e drop the sy ll ab l e t

n which is r n n s u,

p rope l y a s ffi x r d l o g t o beco m es short t

u Th s
, an n o. u

fuat t -
ki “two
su m o ths ,t t ki “ t m o ths n o -
su , en n .
”

The set of m eral s borrowed fi m th C hi ese is

nu ro e n

1 i hi ( or i t )
. c 20 m g sa . .
-
u.

2 . ni . 21 . ni -

j i t i c hi-
.

3 . sun . 22
4 . s hi .

5 .
go .

6 . ro k u
( or riku
) .

7 . etc et c . .

8 . ha c hi . 1 00 hga hu, . or ip p ya hu
-

( l it .
“one
9 . kn ( or hy )
u .

10 fit . . 2 00 . ni -
hya hu .

1 1 ju i c hi
.
-
. etc etc . .

1 2 gu .
-
nt . or i
s en , s sen
-

( l it .
“on e thou
18 j . u san.
-

14 .
j iZ s hi .
-
ma n, or b an, or i c hi - ma n
(l it .

etc etc .
, . on e

These um eral s ca ot be sed i depe dently b t m t

n nn u n n , u us

always precede a o formi g a sort f compo d with the n un , n o un

l atter Th i i i
h .
“ perso it t ( for
us c i hi t )
“-
n n, on e n -
en c -
en , on e

p oi t
n As seen by these ex ampl es the ou s with which
.
, n n

the C hinese numeral s c o mbine are almost always of C hin ese

 20 JA P A NE E S GR MM R A A .

o i gi Sim il a ly Japa e e d C hi e e m eral ca t be

r n . r , n s an n s nu s nn o

us ed t geth r S hi f o
“ i h wev
e . ft epl ced by g , o ur , s o er o en r a o,

the ative J apa ese w d i j y

n
“ f rtee perso ;
n or , as n u -
O ni n ,
-
ou n ns
”

n i j iZ g kh
- -
the 24th d y f th m th
o a, a o e on .
”

2 U L RY N M R S SE C . . A " I IA U E AL .

A i lia y m e al i the am e gi ve to a certai cl a

ux r nu r s n n n ss

of o with which the C hi e e m e al co ta tly m

n un s n s nu r s ns n co

bi e They have E gli h a l g e i

n . ch exp e i as n s na o u s n su r s s on s

“a h d ed h d of cattl e
un r
“ ma y p
ea f gl a b t are
”
so n a n es o ss u
,

m ch m ore exte i v ely

u ed Th war ve sel is g
ns us . us on e -
s un

han i o s s soldier i h i hi i hi m i (or i hi i ) ;

-
on e
“ ”
s e s c -
e c -
n n on e

pen i f d ip p ( lses f e q
u ee t l y i o g h-
i h
oni i s r u n ss no un an , c -
n n no

h i hi
e s The fo ll owi g are the m ost imp orta t auxiliary
, n n

n um era l s

ho f v arious thi gs with ha dl es s uch as too l s mu kets

c , or n n , , s ,

an d ji n i i his h as .

f for l
it , etters .

f h for sc ll s sip of tea d whifl of tobacco

'

u u, ro , s , an s .

h i for c pf l
a , d gla f ls u u s an ss u .

hi ki f m o t l i vi g creat res except h m a bei gs

, or s d n u u n n an

bird ; a l o f certai q a t i t i e of c l oth

s s or d s m of m o ey n u n s , an u s n .

h f c yli drical thi g s ch

on , or sti cks t ee d fa s
n n s, u as , r s , an n .

h h f th i g ge e a ll y that ha v e
a or o, or a xiliary nume al
n s n r , no u r

specially appr p iated to them o r .

km for b i l di ng, u s .

m i a flat thi g generally

, n s .

mi e h m an bei g
, u n s.

in n, h m an bei gs u n .

tu
sa s v o l m es , u .

os , ship s .

as doc ument s
, .

w a, birds .
 NU MR
E A LS . 21

NB . .
— F or the e ph i c cha ges which these a xiliary
u on n u

n um e l ra s un de g i com p iti wi th the m eral pr pe

r o n os on nu s o r,

see p ge a s 5 an d 6 W s ff the f ll wi g i rreg la cha ge

. a u e rs o o n u r n s

sam -
ba Top -

p a
jip p a -
hya p p a -
s em- ba

By the Japa e e them sel ves the am e f weight d n s n s o s an

m ea e s ch ki
s ur s ,
“ a po d are i cl ded i the sam e
u as n, un n u n

categ y Th i h hi
or . po d ; hg k hi a h dred
us : -
n, on e un
”
a -
n, un

p d
o un s .

F m erly there e xi ted m a y

or ative J apa ese a xi liary s n n n u

nu m erals whi ch we e ed i combi atio with the ativ e

,
r us n n n n

nu m erals pr per The l y words of this c l ass that hav

o . on e

rem ai e d i c mm on are n o n u se :

som for sets of thi gs

e, n

ji
su rope like thi g ;
,
-
n s

t m i
o
“ godow s ( g d o m t m i si x m d go
a ,
“ n
”
e . . oz u o -
a , u

d the iso l ated expres io s hi t i

an “ perso s n ar , on e n

f t
u ar i “ two pe
, s d g t t i “fo ur perso s which
r on s an o ar , n ,
”

ofte repl ace i hi i i i

n dy i Th s if fut i
c -
n n, n -
n n , an o -n n. u su u ar ,

two seam e n.
”

The ative a xiliary m eral s s ffer e phonic cha ges

n u nu u no u n .

3 OR D N L NUMB R S SE C . . I A E , E TC .

J apa ese has neparate f rm for what we term th no s o s e

ordi al S m etim e the ca di l m ber d d ty f them

n s. o s r na nu s o u or ,

th M iji ju k
u s z—
“ the i etee th year of M eiji i A D
e -
u nen , -
n n n , . e . .

1 886 At th e tim es the w rd d i serie is prefi xed

.
“
o r o a , s,
”
,

or b mm ufii d t the cardi al m bers as d i i hi or

a e s xe , o n nu , a -
c

i hi b mm
c a the first O bserv e s ch l o c tio s as
e, .
”
u u n

ca nd -
thrice
o, .

sa nd m -
the third ti me
o e,

c a nho m
-
t third street e, .

san -
i m
n n
“ p ortio s for three as , n .
 22 J A PA NE SE GR A MMA R .

sa m -
bu no i c hi , on e th i d
-
r .

sa m -
bu th ee p ce t
r er n .

ca n wa ri thirty per ce t n .

mi ts u

222123; three at a tim e

zuts u,
“

etc .

an d simil arly with the other n um eral s .

C HA P T ER VI .

THE P O ST P O S ITIO N .

PO ST PO S T ON
SE C . 1 . T HE S IMPLE I I .

J apa ese postpo itio

n correspo d for the m ost part to
s ns n

E gli h prepos i t i
n s B t som e wor d wh i ch we h ld call
on s . u s S ou

a dverbs d co j ctio s d thers f which E gli h has

an n un n , an o or n s

no e q ivale ts are i cl ded i th i s category Whe m d

u n n u n , n su xe

to a verb or adjective po tpo i ti o re q ire s ch verb or , s s ns u u

a djective to be i of the attrib ti ve f rm s a ge eral r l e

n on e u o , n u

which i s bject to exceptio s me tio ed i the course of th

s u n n n n e

p rese t chapter
n .

P ost p o itio s are of two ki ds si m pl e d com p o d

s n n , an un .

The chief sim pl e postpositio s with their m ost u ual n , s

signi fi ti ca are on s ,

G a, I of or the possessive case Oi hi g f h hgu

“
,
”
: s a u us ,

Oi hi s rev nge ; “ the s ke of II ”

s
’
t m ie f a e u , or a . .

G is also used e s pec i all y in l ow cl s writings who e phr ase

a ,
-
as s
 S IMPLE P O STPO S T ONS I I . 28

ol ogy approxi m ates to that of the c ll q ial as a sig of what o o u , n

we h ld call the m i ative ca e S gi S hi g hoh i

s ou no n s : u ura a s a uo
'

ju o
g
“M S
s u, gi ra di t i b ted rthe. pr i e u III W he u s r u z s.
”
. n

su ffi d to the att i b t i ve f m f a v e b at the

xe r d f a cl a e
u or o r en o us ,

it h adver ative f ce ge e lly be t e dere d b y y t

as an s or n ra s r n e ,
”

“b t u
“ t il l”
p efixed t the f ll wi g cla e ( See
or s
"
r o o o n us .
,

n o, which i p eferred b y g o d write t g i ch c texts )

s r o rs o a n su on .

K i te gati ve part i cle ge e ally c e p di g t

a , an n rr o , n r o rr s on n o o ur

p oi t of i terr gati
n b t n m et i m e o l y to exp e i fon , u so s on an r s s on o

un certai ty A k I the e ? N i h S m eth i g or

“n : ru a , s r an a, o n

o ther ; S ”
d d m t m i hi t h
ono s it
-
k dan no a o ar s o a n e, on o

“A agreem e t havi g
n i t w l d eem bee a i ve d at
n n , as ou s , n rr ,

they w ar e n o Whe epeated h lly c rre p d s -

n r , a u s ua o s on

to
“ either F ll we d b y w at the d f a or . o o e en o

se te ce h expre e a m e ely het ical q e ti o S hi k mi

n n , a ss s r r or u s n : a no

h w a
“ I it a,ly i “O f co
s e it i t ly so Whe
on so . e. , ur s s no on .
— n

s ffixed as it occa i ally i to a ge d k combi e wi th

u s on s r un ,
a n s

t h ge e di al te m i atio t to i g i fy
r un d o btle
r beca e
n n e s n u ss us ,

“p obab ly r acc t of Th on S if m k k o uni mi . us — e u o o o n ru

to hor o mi te ha , ho nj i ts u no ha n r ei r a nn a i ni a r u g o to hu to ri
s hima ri -
kis o hu wo ni o kera re ta r i ,
‘

The g ver m e t t d bt o n n oo , ou

les s havi g certai i ew n n v s on the bject h d aw p

su ,
as r n u

reg l ati
u as m y be see i
on s , a n n the ffici al c l m of to
o o u n o ur

d ay i e
’
s s su .

K “ f om
a ra ,
“ i ce h h m he cef ward
r
“
,
”
s n o re a ,
n or .

K a h i gh ly em ph ati c part i cle c e p di g to

os o , , or r s on n an

ally t g em ph a i i E gli h
un u s u s ro n to i ve i s s n n s , or an n rs on

wh i ch p t at t h b gi i g f t h E gl i h e te ce t h
u s e e nn n o e n s s n n e

w d t whi ch the w it d e i e t d w atte ti

or o I r er s r s o ra n on . n

cl ical J pa e e each of the i di cat ive te e f ve b d

as s a n s n ns s o r s an

adjective h a peci al f m i s ascall d b y M A t thes or n e, e r . s on

“p erfe c t whi ch is u e i ste d of the o cl si v i defi it e
s d , a c u e n n or n n
 S IMPLE P O STP O S ONS ITI . 25

m ea s to arri ve at a pl ace is g i g to
n
“ M li kewise on e o n o

se ves t f m the hyp th eti c l c ce ive m d f verb

r o or o a on ss oo o s.

m repeate d i g i fie b th M k hi m
“ o s n s o u as o

im m a
“ B th i a c i e t d m de t i m es
o, o n n n an o rn .

M tt a the ebye, d th See w m tt page 3 7

r ,
”
an us .
”
o o e, .

i g i fie “j t it i “ wi th t ”
N g a fli dt
a ra , s u xe o n o un s , s n s us as s, ou

cha ge t l q l th M d o g
n
“
,
”
e T di ue it i, us : en na a ra , e ous a s s,

th gh a b e M e fte it f ll w ve b ( alway i the

ou or .
”
or o n o o s r s s n

i d efi i te
n t i the tt i b t i ve f m )
n , no d th n h the e e a r u or , an en as s ns

of wh ile d i g th y ki g
“
,
”
wh i le g i g
ur n , us u -
na ara , o n .

“ “ i t “ a g t m ber f
” ”
Ni i , t
n, Ni h n o, o as re a nu o

i di m ati c e f which the f ll wi g

o us s , th m t o te o o n ar e e os no

w rthy I What i E gli h i c lle d the bject f

o — . n n s s a su o

a e te ce i ft m a k e d by i f ll wed b y w
s n n s o it
en r n o o a or a e.

Thi give the xp e i

s s h i fi t i ge wh i ch i ge eral
e r s s on an on o r c n , s n

ly em ph i e d b y p tt i g the v b i t h p te t i l f rm i t
as z u n er n e o n a o ,

bei g c ide ed m p lite t y that ch d ch a

n on s r or e o o sa su an su

thi g i bl t h p p i pe
n s a tha bl tly t e t that
e o a en n a r s on , n un o ass r

the pe di d i t
r s on Th K ig ky o i w mi kh
. us : m
a un u a sa nn ur u a

ki ky o t i “ t h M i i te
’
s e ra re a i fM i t ed t T okyo
, e n s r o a r n e re ur n o on

the 3 d i ta t II With a p ive ve b i c rre p d

r ns n . . as s r , n o s on s

to by d e ti g , i t d e t h pe b y wh m the act i
no n i
as o s e r s on o on s

pe f m e d Z k i bi y h
r or : T be c e d b y th i eves
o u n o a a s a rur u , o s ar .
”

III Wi th a c ati ve v b i d e ote the pe

. au s wh i er , n n s r s on o s

c d t p f m th ct i th Ii i h t w gi hi m
au s e o e r or e a on , us : n n o o o s es uru ,

T ca e t h c m m i tte t d l i be ate p a m tte i ”

o us e o T e o e r u on a r, . e o

leav m tt t th c m m ittee t d li b te p
e a a er oIV e o o e era u on . .

F ll wi g t h
o o tt i b t iv f m f ve b t t h d f cl e
n e a r u e or o a r a e en o a aus ,

u i erve t i di cat a c t a t
s s di ff e ce bet w ee t w
o n e on r s or er n n o

c ec ti ve acti
on s u t te Wh e p “
on s or s a s . er u on or on ,
”

p efi x d t the f ll wi g cl e i t h m t lite l E gl i h
r e o o o n a us , s e os ra n s

re de i g th s S t
n r n t h w hi t
, u g hi i l u ron no a ss a o s e sa ura s es n , n i na n
-
 26 JA PA NE SE G RA MMA R .

i c hi j
-
o no s hi ha baneThey c a sed search to b wo hi ki -
a
g e ta r i , u e

m a d e b y c m pete t di ve whe e p the b di e f t w m

o n rs , r u on o s o o en

an d w m a w ere rec ve e d
on e B t m e f eq e tl y i i
o n ch o r . u or r u n u n su

co text m t be e de ed by b t th e bei g ha dly y

n s us r n r u , er n r an

di ffe e ce betw e i t d w im il ly placed th Z ji t

r n e n an o s ar , us : en su

og o bi y ho
ji ts u hOu
u na r i s hi ni , ho no hi n o ni i wa hi n r a i ma r e na r u

koten ki n i ts ,the d y bef e d th d y after B o th a or an e a

we e rai y ; b t
r thi d y o ly w the weather fi e tha
n u on s a n as n r n

alm t y w have h d f late d

os an e V Ni fli d a o , an so . su xe

to m et i m e m ea s
n o un s s o
“ d be id e “ d s VI Ni n an s s,
”
an .
”
.

som etim e f ll w a wo d wh i ch cc di g to E gli h

s o o s r a or n n s

i dea h ld be i th acc ati ve ca e

s s ou Hi t
n i Toe us s , as : o n an,

m eet a pe VII S ffi d t the i d fi ite form f the

”
rs on . . u xe o n e n o

v e b i s i g ifies i order to
r , n
“ “nto T i i y k To g n
” ”
: or n u u, o

t fetch
o .

Ni t ( o m et i m e c rr p te d i t d ) I by mea s of by “ ”
e s s o u n o e . n , ,

wi th K it hi b hi It m y be hereby k w
o re n e s ru -
es , a no n .

II i “
.
“ t O k
n,
”
it at O k
a
”
: sa a n e, sa a .

NB Th p tp i t i
. .
— it m te t be c
os fo ded with
os on n e us no on un

n it the i defi ite f rm of the v erb m which si g ifies

e, n n o na , n
“be i g n .

N f o the p ess ive ca e th s Toky

o , or g m os s s , u : o no u tn,

the i h b it t f T oky o ; b k
n a an s ji y i
“
o m y h m ble
"
o u no z o n or , u

o pi i n on; k i
”
m m k nun
“ the diffi c l ty f
no os a u no o na n , u o

g ve i g th c t y ; ki h
o rn n t uko
e m “
oun r th p i g
”
s a no s su , e ass n

o f th t i e
“ the t i pa i g I xam ple lik t h
ra n ,
”
ra n ss n .
”
n e s e e

l t th w d f ll wed b y
as , e or lm t c m t c e p d
o o no a os o es o o rr s on

to m i t i ve
o ur acc ati v th t h t
no na org i us e ra er an o o ur en

ti ve c d th as e , t wh i c h i t i
an ffi d m t ft
e n o un o s su xe us o en

be t r ed i t t h bj ct f cl e i E gli h T h
u n n o e su e o a au s n n s . us

W g h ia a t i th
a t no m h s un e i “ It i a
n an o su to or o na r , s

thi g whi h we co ta tly egret T t

n c d mp o ns ki t m n r .
”
o s uzen e no a
 S IMP LE P O ST PO S T ONS I I . 27

mi A telegram s dd l y came (li t S dde l y there was

, u en . u n

th c m i g f a
e o n Hi t o w hy o w ki h o no o nore o s ur u o u,

T h a the t lk ab t e elf While al ways retai i g ”

o e r o rs a ou on s . n n

a t c f it p p m i g f f
ra e o
“ s i ro ed i t w ther
er e an n o o , no s us n o o

no tew rthy idi m ti c m e s I B etwee tw

o o a s i an n r — . n o n o un n

app it i I k ju i i hi
os on : i hi y obi
s sa The d y before
u -
n -
n c no n c ,
”
a

y e t d a
s ery S d y t h t w elfth II
un E i th r
a i l i e of e or .
”
. e n u ,

su ffi d t xe the the p tp i ti o, i t be i g a r l e that o

o r os os on s , n u n ne

of the m e x cept d g h w the elati bet wee two

no an a c an s o r on n

n o un s with t the i terve ti f ve b Th s a Japa es

ou n n on o a r . u n e

sa y K s : i i k m i
on o u ra u The e i a po d t the bac k f
e this , r s n a o .

B t he m t if the v b be m i tte d say K

u us ,
m ik er The o ,
o no u no e,

p d t (li t f ) the bac k f th i

on a . S im ila ly K i
o o s . r : an- n no

kyii h j o so A re ti g pl ce f the ffici al E i R h k i

u , s n -
a or o s -
o no an e ,

The elati b tw E gla d d R i a I the f llowi g

r on s e een n n an us s .
”
n o n

i t ce i fli d to the the p tp iti

n s an s no s su H khi y i
xe o r os os n
o s —
z o n or

no d mp o “
e a teleg am from P eki g ; t i yo t hi hyu t k
,
r n
”
a o c o no an

hi e
“the relati betwee the
,
d t h ea th
on s Sim il arly n s un an e r .
”

whe t m the se e of that or f i ve ted comm as is

n o
“ ns
”
o n r

f ll wed t by a ve b b t by a o
o o , no m t be i serted r , u n un , n o us n

aft er i t Th Hy k b
. ih k i hi k
us z— t k k g a u- un — en n s uz u o no a u en

ar i There i a g lde sayi g t the effect that heari g

, s o n n o n a

h dred tim e i t
un goo d seei g ce ( See also
s s no so as n on .

rel ative pro ou s page 1 8 d com p ou d postposi ti o s p ag

n n , , an n n , e

3 5 et seq) .

I that (the c j ctio ) or i verte d com mas or

To , .
“ o n un n , n ,

t f ll we d by the i fi itive Th
o o o A hi t m “ I n n . us z—
'

as o o o u,

thi k that the e

n e (T ever like the E gli h
r ar e n on . o c an n , n s

w rd that be om itte d i ch c text ) I mm

o
“
, ji hi t n su on s .
'

o
’

a sa no sa

na ri t ii t t o
“It i t adi ti ally ai d to be a tograph of
-
su a u, s r on s an u

Y im or
( li t [
as athey ] ha d d ow the sayi g it .is n n n n
‘
a

auto g a p h of r I hi d i t i t hi u u h t A flag c -
a a o s r ser a a,
 28 JA PN
A E E S GR MM A AR .

with the i cripti F ir t R egi m e t

ns I the sem i C h i
on e s n
’
n -
nes

style t i fte f d t t h d f e te ce i th e
, o s o n o un fa e en o a s n n n e s n se o
“i t i i d that “ he th ght etc m e ch v b i ”
s sa , ou , .
, so su er as n,

onzo u , o r hi h be i g d e t d fte i t
u S m t im e
n unf th r s oo a r . o e s on e o e

v e bal f m i k
r or iw k “s ai d n a m h “ th ght
u, a s u u, s o o e ra
'
u, ou ,
”

i place d at the com m ce m e t f t h

s e te c whi ch e d en n o e s n n e n s

wi th t Th the ab ve exam ple m ight be abb e vi te d t

o . us o r a o

Y im or j i hi t
asa i tno F th -
ke f e m pha i
sa na i o . or e sa o s s,

to i cca i ally f ll we d by the em ph ti c p ti cle

s o s on o o a ar so .

T o, i th i i t fir t e e i
n s ally p ec ded t b y
s s s ns , s us u r e , no an

att ib t ive b t by a c cl i v e ve b djecti ve

r u , u ee i on us r or a , as s n n

the ab ve exam ple ( i t

o ) The ea i that na r it , no na r u . r s on s , as

s im ply c re p d t i ve te d c m m a place d after a cla e

or s on s o n r o s us

or se te ce c m plete i i t elf it d e t i
n n o y way g n s , o s no n an overn

the precedi g w d If that w d i n i t ge e ally m t be

or . or s , as n r us ,

a ve b a djective i the c cl i ve f rm that f rm em ai

r or n on us o , o r ns

un affecte d by the p e e ce f t B t the fact that the r s n o o . u

p tp siti ge erally
os o on spreced ed by att i b tive verb
n ar e an r u or

a djecti ve has i fl e ced the gram m a f t i s ch wi e that

, n u n r o o n u s

m a y wr i ter
n b tit te the att ib ti ve f the c cl i ve f rm
s su s u r u or on us o

whe t f ll w Thi h ppe e peci ally i the

n o o o s . of s a ns s n c as e

the first p st who e att ib ti ve term i ati hi c ta tly

a , s r u n on s on s n

replace the c cl i ve hi bef e t Th

s on K obus i to h h or o. us — e n c a u

ses hi ( f hi ki ) t i
or
“ It i aid th at they have arri ve d at
s o n, s s

K obe II Th gh etai i g m ewhat f it f rce f t hat ”

. . ou r n n so o s o o ,

m t fte be t h wi e e d ere d ( g by t “ “ i to
”
to us o n o er s r n e . . o, n ,

alt gethe d pped i E gli h th A w

or o r ro n n s , us : ar e na r u

i
as s a ni a t i H fell i t
o na rer piti f l pli ght O
, t e n o a u . i ur u
'

hi t hi h
os A u, w al i gh te d (m e li t
s so o n a s
“ t get he wi th e or . o r

alighti g M m t i i Tw c ti g m y d a ghte
n us u e o n -
n n, o o un n u r.
”

III “. d I this e e i t is li ke the L ati q

an .
”
n ge erally s ns , n ue , n

rep eat ed aft er a c h of the words um erated

e en .
 S IMPLE P O STPO S T ON S I I . 29

a com po d f t that
To te , d t the term i atio of
un o o,
“
, an e, n n

the ge d that i t lite ally i g ifie

run , so i g that It is r s n s n .

used eq i v le t f t i i t
as an
“ ayi g that t m i t
u a n o o e, s n o o o e,

“th i ki g th t t it a ki g whether d of S i m il ar
” ”
n ; t
n a o o s, s n , an

ge di al ph a e Th F
r un t i k
r t t w k
s s . us : u r us a o n a era n o e, a a re

no i “ H ba d e a di e
n, y g that he w
i e g i g h me u, sa n as o n o .
”

Ve y f eq e tly t t f ll w a ve b i the c di ti al m ood

r r u n o e o o s r n on on .

It d t h c di ti al t m i ati b the t gether sig i fy

an e on on er n on e a n o n
“beca se u aid (th ght beli eved etc ) to be s
“ ou .
”
on
, , ,

the t e gth f ( m ethi g ai d d e

s r n o th s
so n s on or u :

H i to to s hi e t mi zuha r a i -
s ho hu j wo hy u
-
it s um wa ha ta hi ko t o

ni a ra z u . K e no ko to wo n a s oba to t e , a et e ho hor u behi -

ni ar a zu ,

“ It i t a di ffi c l t thi g f a h m a bei g to provid

s no u n or u n n e

him elf wi th cl thi g f d d shelter H m st t dar

s o n , oo , an . e u no e

to be pro d the st e gth of hi d i g so

u on r n s o n .

W o i gi ally I a
a, r si g ifyi g thi g ; that which
n
“ “ . n o un n n n
”
,

“he she or they who i w chiefly sed H ,

”
s no u as an
, , .

em phati c or epa ati ve part i cle c rre p di g t the F re ch

s r o s on n o n

qua n t a whe, repeate

or , d t the G ee k m d
n d With , o r en a n e .

regar d to far as i c cer e d

,
”
so i t m t exp l icit s on n , are s os

E gli h eq i v al e t
n s B t i t f ce is ge e ally s fficie t ly
u n s . u s or n r u n

i di cated i
n E gli h tra lat i
n anby em pha i the
n s ns on an s s on

wo d t whi ch it i fli d d by the placi g f that word

r o s su xe , an n o

at ea the begi i g f the e te ce E xam ple f I T i

or n r nn n o s n n . s o e n

Th th i g he h l d i hi ha d
”
t o
a zus r u w a, K t
e h w n o s n s n . o a e- eru a,

“ H a we e d “the th i g he a we e
e ns
( li t r , d . n ns r ,

E am ple
x f II Ni hi w F j i hi m
s o T k b
. i To s a u , an su u a na r ,

the we t ta d F iy m t the th M t T k ba
s s n s us a a, o n or o un su u .

K ji k
a no w b t en i g hod o i t a C ce i g this
e su n o a s a zu , on rn n

m atter I e d peci al i f rm ati ”

s n K
no s hgom i w n o on . o no en u a

h h h
s u us o s e i m i w h gi i hi t t m b hi e O this side othi g
o a r s a a u -
es , n n n

mu t be written b ut th
s ame d ddres s S t urn e n an a .
aran o t
 30 JA PN
A S
E E GR MM R A A .

to ki wa , Whe ab t t depa t n ou o r . S o no j i n i n wa -
nen n en -
ka n
ni o i te he r e no ch ye
s a d a ni u , Th e n um be r is fi xe d ea ar

b y the a th i t i e “ be l th at
”
( li tu f or m y s y i . as or nu r, e ar n

the ffici al [th y] fi x i t

o A
s, h w i t h la t xam ple
e s s o n n e s e ,

it i fte c v i e t t
s o n d e the on f ll we d b y w
en n o ren r n o un o o a

as a m i ati v i E gli h ; b t i t i eve

no n e mi a n n s u s n r a no n

t i ve p pe ly call d i th J p e e c t cti
ro r so -
It i e n e a an s o n s ru on . s

sim ply a w d i late d d ge e ally pl ced t the h ead f th

or so an n r a a o e

cla e f the ake f em pha i T e m i ti ve

us or s bjects
o s s . ru no na s or s u

are ra e i Japa ese m t se te ce bei g bjectl e s

r n n , os n n s n su s .

( See Sy tax p n , ar .

W I A Sig0. f what i i E
. pea la g age am ed
n o s n ur o n n u s n

the acc sati ve ca e K mi

u hi T beli eve [i ]
s : a a o s n z u ru , o n

G d o K
.
g w m t
a ze no na T a wai t the gett i g c lm f u o a su, o n a o

the wi d i “
n t w ai t t i ll t h wi d g e d w
,
”
. e . II Whe
o e n o s o n .
”
. n

S ffix e d t the attri b t i v e f m f v e b

u o adjective at u or o a r or

the d f a c l a e w h
en o adve at i ve f ce whi ch i
us ,
o as an rs or , s

ge e ally be t re de ed by y t
n r s b t S i yo h i
n r e or u e -
z u ur no

mi ho mi na vi s hi wo , hond o a r a t a me t e Ni hon -
zu huri to s a d a ni er a ru ,

“ It h d bee i te de d to b ild [the palace] i E pea

a n n n u n ur o n

style b t i t h
, u w bee d ec i d e d t e ect a Japa e e b i l d
as no n o r n s u

i g i tead
n ns O cca i ally t h a d ver t i ve f ce i
. fte ed s on e sa or s so n

t a m ere i t i m at i
o f di i m ila i ty bet wee t w
n cce i ve on o ss r n o su ss

states acti or d the w m t be e d ere d by

on s , a n d n o us r n an so,
”

or d B t th i
an had i m o e ofte i di cate d by
. u s s e s r n n

the of i I fe i r wri te f ll wi g the age f the

us e n . n r o rs , o o n us o

c ll q i al
o o eithe g
u , i f
us e w i all the ca e i cl d ed r a or no u or e n s s n u

un d er II The c cti betwee th t w chi ef e f w i

. o nn e on n e o us s o o s

f d i the f ct that thi p tp iti w i gi ally thi g

o un n a s os os on a s or n no n

more tha i te ject in ane vi g i t we e t i te pt the

n r on s r n , as r , o n rr u

se te ce d draw particul ar atte ti to the w rd to whi ch

n n , an n on o

i t was ufii x d F o the sam reaso it i s not at ta ch ed to

’

s e . r e n,
 S IMPLE P O STPO S T ON S I I .

e very o which acc di g t E r pea ideas of gramm ar

n un , or n o u o n ,

i i s the acc at ive c e th

n M hi k t ki
us
“ Whe as , us : es uu o , n

eati g i ce n wh r t ki g m e l B ef re the ve b
,
”
en a n a a . o r s ur u ,

“t d o i t i g e ll y b
o, t th H y k s
“ To en ra a sen , us : on -
a u sur u ,

m k a t a l ti t t l te U de I m y be cla e d ”
a e r ns a on , o r an s a . n r a ss

so m e app e tl y a m l ar n f w b y wh i ch the t d e t no a ous us e s o o, s u n

i ofte g atl y pe plex d

s n T h ey
re 1 S ch ph e r e . ar e . u ras s as

T o H ih
en n h jim t t m t m i
e a F m Hi Im pe i a l
uo
'
a e -
a e a s
‘

,
ro s r

M aj ty d w w d es He e t h l i te al e de i g w l d be
o n ar s .
”
r e r r n r n ou
“ e pectf ll
r s pl c i H i uM je t t h E m pe r at the
a n a s e ro
y g y s

b gi i g a c t cti whi ch w h ld call acc ativ e

e nn n ,
”
on s ru on e s ou us .

2 S ch p h a e
. u W b k w i i t r m b s s as Th i k a o u o r nd i o a oe a n

i g that peace w l d be
n He e the l i te a l
ou r r

re de i g f the Jap e e c t cti i thi ki g [ f]

n r n o
“ an s on s r u on s n n o

peace i t wi ll be d v tage
,
‘
W b k i theref e a an ous .
’
a o u s or

really acc ati ve th gh e d e e d i E gli h b y a m i

an us , ou r n r n n s no

n ati ve 3 Th . f w fte what c e p d t the

. e us e o o a r orr s on s o

su bject f E gli h pa i v ve b T h M i mi i mi g m
o an n s ss e r . us na n u

shi m w O hi m a t i
o
“ The i la d Vi i bl t the th i
s a o n, s n s e o s ou s

calle d O h im a I all c h e te ce the Japa e e

s . n su s n n s n s c on

t cti i e lly act i ve

s ru on the p e e t ex m ple i g i fyi g
s r a an on e , r s n a s n n

li t llye ra
[P e pl ] call t h i la d ly i g t the
, th
o e e s n n o s ou

O hi m as
( S l t h. m k the at e f t h
ee a so J pa e e e re ar s on n ur o e a n s

p i ve ve b C h p VIII Sect
as s r 4 W , t th d fa a .
, . . 0 a e en o

e te ce I ch c e th e e i
s n n . i ve i
n f the
su al as s r s an n rs o n o us u

c t cti th ve b bei g pl ce d t th b gi i g f the

on s r u on , e r n a a e e nn n o

cl e i te d f t th d f th ke f m ph i d i
a us ns a o a e en , or e sa o e a s s an n

im it ti f C hi
a on idi m Th K y p h
o h k hi
n e se o . us : ou o u u no s o uns

wa d a i -
s hi k d
y g o ha m ei a ra n ko to wo ( fo r Yo ya hu no . . . . ho to
no ho w) , We t t th t ge tl e
ru s a n e m n wi l h s n to l a te d d the i a r

n am e s to th e li t f b c ibe
s o su s r rs .
”
5 S ch ellipti cal
. u

p h a e sras s K a mp i s ei wo mei zer a re ta i i , lit [ They ] .ha v e

 S IM PLE PO T PO S T ION
S I S . 33

c onclusi v e in stead of by the att rib uti v e fo rm o f the v erb or

adjective e specially in the c a s e o f the pre s en t ten s e of adje c
,

t ive s , the p e e t te e f the ve b

of r s n t be c( cl i ve
ns o r a ru , o on us

mi ) ,d f the p e e t te e f the egat i ve v i ce f ve b

an o r s n ns o n o o r s

an d adject i ves i g e l Thi happe chi efly whe the n en ra . s ns n

q e ti
u s a ked i a het i cal
on s i the exam ple f m
s r or on e , as n ro

the N w Te tam e t the previ page ( co l

e s n on for ou s no . na r az u

attrib .
) The fi a
na r a za ru l v e b or a d jective
. of a e te ce n r s n n

c tai i g y i als ft e p t i the co cl i ve co t a y to

on n n a s o o n u n n us , n r r

the ge eral l e whe eby i te gati ve wo ds g ver the fi al

n ru r n rr o r o n n

v erb adjective i the attri b ti ve f rm The excepti o is

or n u o . n

m re appa e t tha real

o it occ s alm ost excl i vely i
r n n , as ur us n

case whe e y i t p pe ly i te gati ve b t has of

s r a s no ro r n rr o , u on e

the m ea i g gi ve above d er hea di g II d III wh

n n s n un n s . an .
, er e

an ex am ple wi ll be f d (co l b h f attrib b k

o un no . e a r a zu or . e a ra

za r u ) I TV. the C cl ni v e i a l w ays e d on us s us .

Y “ te, l e ofte “ t ward s

o, m etim es
ss
“ at Tokyo
n o ,
”
so

y e k “ to
uru, co m e t T o k y o Y k h m y to oh k m “ to o o a a e c a u su ,

a ri ve at Y k ham a
r o o .
”

Y i “ fr m
or
“
, i ce “ tha
o ,
”
B ih k y i s n
“ from ,
”
n e o u or ,

Am e i ca S k g t y i i ce ye te day T ki h y i
r . a u i su or , s n s r . su a na or

t k hi ki w
u s u us ki i There i thi g m e bea ti f l
a na na r , s no n or u u

tha the m n d the fl we Y i al ways m ea s

oon a n si ce o rs .
”
or n n
”

whe i t i ffi d to a ge d The Japa ese ofte u

n s su xe r un . n n se

y ori i the se n e f f o m where Ensgl i h i

o di m es “ i
r n s o us n,
”

at ,
”
by dr ps all p ep i t i
on , or th G , or o r os on s , us oz en

h hi g y mi k ijo
ac -
i lit F rom f re a ei gh t O clock pe
, . o n oon
’
o n

pl ce i
a
“
, T Ope at 8 . e . cl ck the idea bei g that the
o n o
’
o n

place will be pe f m 8 cl ck till m e ther h o n ro t o

’

o so o o ur n o

m e t i ed
n U on No ko m ko y i t
. n un -
t i S ch d s -
us or a ss era r e a r , u an

such a thi g h bee tified by (lit fr m the D epart

n
“
as n no . o

m t of A gri c l ture
en d C omm erce u P re c d ed by a egati v e
an . e n
,
 84 JA PA NES E G R MM R
A A .

y ori sometime s m ea ns unl ess ,

” “ xc p e e t by ,
”
without
K ms hi ki a ru ni a ra zaru
yo ri wa , kesshi te ta i ko ke hkyo no i seki
t o mi tomuru wo They are re d ce d t ch
eza ru -
beki ni i ta reri , u o su

a tate that i t woul d be q ite im p ibl e except f

s expertu os s , or a n ,

to rec g i e i them the rem ai f ve y a ci e t cave

o n z n ns o r n n

d welli g Whe th use d y i i alm t alway tre gthe ed

”
n s . n us , or s os s s n n

by the a ddi ti of w on a .

Z 0,e m phatic part icl e less i te e tha k b t best

an n ns n os o , u

re dere d i E gli h by either of the m ea m e ti ed der

n n n s ns n on un

k page 2 3 I clas i cal Japa e e the fi al verb adjective

oso , . n s n s , n or

of y cla se e te ce i whi ch occ i p t i the t t i

an u or s n n n so ur s s u n a r

b ti
u i tea d of i
ve ns the c cl ive f m Exam ple of thi n on us or . s s

c t cti
on s r u cca i ally m t with i the m der wr itte
o n ar e o s on e n o n n

style th K , us : ji t i k i hi Yo p p
ore s o i it g h m su n o nn c ro a n o o a u on

no oi i hi mp n s
y ( f the c
o s er u cl i ve w i )
uen na ru It i or on us n , s

thi which i really the ca e of the g eat pr gre

s s f us r o ss o

sci e ce i E pe at t h pre e t d y
n n ur o e s n a .

2 C OMPOUND PO ST PO T ON
SE C . . T HE SI I .

I M a y f the po tp i t i
.
— n o be c m bi ed i rder t s os on s c a n o n , n o o

part i c l i e e m pha i e th e e
u ar z or m d i ti l f
s z e s ns , as a e n ,
un ,
”
or

m d a ti ll y i m ev th
e, W or i ch g d i t
o, en an .
”
0 an s an e n o

w b d i
o a , an e d t d te a p ti c l arly em ph ti c acc t ve
s us o eno ar u a us a i ,

th us : W m hog i hi
a re w b mi o i st m jia
“ I ilk nu o a u i na o u -
a , n s

wi ll I t eve array m y elf all m y li fe l g I ch m

oo n r s on .
”
n su co

b i ti
na on s i t w
a s no n a , ell ip i m t b ppli e d
no n ,
o a , an s s us e su ,

th us Y ki hi t g t i o w t h o
[ ha t ] k
an n h i t o asu ur u n o o o na, ess e

waga ta me uo
'

ha ha r i t e s uru ho to ni n a a r a z a s u na r i ,
'

li t . A s

for the act f a g d m a helpi g th i t i ce tai ly t

o oo n s
’
n o e rs , s r n no

a thi g he d e calc l ati g hi w i te e t i

n o s Wh a u n s o n n r s , . e . en

g d m h lp th e h ve d e
oo an e t f g d t hi
s o rs , e ne r o s s o ou o re ar o s

ow i te e t
n nT t [i m
r s
] W
. hat i c al l ed hea v e
e n o n on o na, s n,

What is m ea t by the term heav e n n,

 C OMPOUND PO STPO S T ON S I I .

II The e i a l a ge cla s f c mp o d p tp iti s f m

.
-
r s r s o o un os os on or

e d f m ro by p fi i g n o un s
( le fte g ) d ge erally
re x n no ss o n o , an n

su fii i g ix n Th n . us

h g
no i a behi d (lit i the ha d w f
e u
“
, n . n S o o

no h w i i a i tead f i ret f
ar n , compe sa
ns o ,
”
n u rn or ,
”
as n

ti f the the ha d
i

”
on or , on o r n .

no t m i “afor th ake f by
e n , e s o , .

no w i ab ve (lit
e u ,
“ the t p f o b . on o o on ,
”
e

id es after i elati o to ” ”
s , , n r n .

y i
a ue n ove d abo,v e be id e r an ,
”
s s .
”

Ex am ples Iw h g ( i) B eh i d th ck U m
a no a e u , n e ro s . a no

T be kic ked by a h e Z g hy u k ”
t m i k
a e n era ruru , o or s . an i so u

no no, Afte a h t e t Iy g r i O the t p f

s or r s . a a ue n , n o o on e

a other Ever m e d m e After ve b the chi ef

n
“
,
”
or an or .
”
r s,

mem ber of these c m p d p o tpos iti s is om etim e ed o o un s on s s us

al o e witho t either or i as Ei i t to t m I
n , u no u , : ch u su ru a e, n

order to ha d i t dow for e ver n n .

”

III There i a cl a of compo d p tp iti s f rm ed by i

. s ss un os os on o u

or w d a verb the verb ge erally appeari g as a ger d

o an , n n un

or el se i the i defi ite form The m ost im po ta t p tp i

n n n . r n os os

tio s of this cl a s are

n s

i it
u oi “e,
“ at Thi c m p d p tp sitio
n,
”
on ,
”
. s o o un os o n

oft e serve t de ote what we h ld cal l the s bject of the

n s o n s ou u

se te ce (c f i ) Ni i t w s m etim es ig i fies i the

n n on . u . o o a o s n n

e ve t of if th Shi S if i i t h w hod k
n ,
”
,
’
us u na e un o o o re o s a u seza r

ui it w
a
“ I the e v e t f the C h i e e go v er m e t
e a, n t n o n s n n no

c o se ti g If the C h i ese g v er m e t ho ld t c
n n n , e t n o n n s u no on s n .

( I n thi e t ce tsh fir t i
s n en i t e ves t m a k the word e s n o e s r o r

whi ch c rre po d t the E gli h m i ati ve wh ile the seco d

o s n s o n s no n , n

me s an Ni i t w y at the f a e te ce has a v ery c e o a o s n n

s tr g ex clam at ry force It is ge erally preceded by i w y

on o . n an a

at the beginn ing of the s ent enc or cl ause and sh oul d be e ,

 36 JA PN
A ESE GRA MM AR .

re dered accordi g to circ m ta ces by how m ch m ore

n , n u s n , u

or h w m ch le
“ o Th J iji w k t m uk t ss . us : a a aru o na o a su

ga hus ha no ho mbun ni a ra z u ; i wa n y a jiji wo o hona u ni c i e t wa

y a " e to di c rse p
“Ev ge e t
n the pr per
s ou on a s sin v n s i s n ot o

occ pati o of a cholar ; how m ch l e s i it f him t direct

u n s u s s or o

p a i g e ve t "
ss n n s

i k
n i
o er u ,
“ positio i “rel ati s with compared
n,
” “ n n,
”
on ,
”

with E i ”
1 d
: i k g g t h no
“ L ik e E gla
n od s n a eru a o a u, n n
’

po iti i I dia
s on n n .

i hi t
u
“
s bei g “ as
e,
“ i the capacity of G i k k n ,
”
,
”
n a o u

gin n i hi t “As a foreig er It i al

s e, e d i m a y co text n . s so us n n n s

whe e it m st be tra lated by a dve b or adve bi al phra e

r u ns an r r s

S i w i i hi t
a a
“ fort ately
n sji i hi t
e,
“ After a littl e un za n n s e,

whi l e .
”

i t hi
n
“ with refere ce to
su ,
“ owi g to gi i n
”
n
”
: no n

t ki
su
“ With refere ce to the m atter of
, n

i y i
n
“or wi g to “ beca se f by m ea of
o n
”
u o ns

i y tt I accordi g to
, , ,

n
“ o e Hi i y i
’
Accor di g to prece n e n ar , n

de t n , as s al K i y t t O acc t f thi
”
u u .
”
or e u o e, n o un o s .

t hi t
o s as Sh i t hi t A a t ke of gratit de
e, a re o s e, s o n u .

w m tt (lit “havi g hel d “ thro gh “ by with “ ” ”

a a e, . n u , , ,

by m ea s of “ wi g to beca se T g mi w m tt
n
“
,
”
o n
”
u e a a a e,

by l etter S i h .k i hi w m t t O wi g
a nt/nan no en r a n o or s o a e, n

to the occ rre ce of di t rba ce l a t yea u n S m etim es w s u n s s r.

”
o a

m t t si ks i t bei g a m ere S i g
a e n f what we sh l d term the
n o n n o ou

acc ativ e case

us I H h w m tt T k h Z , kas : no ue a n a a e a u u en en

D i hi t
a s hi “ App i ti g C t I e
o na s Special o n n o un n ou as

E v oy Pl e ipote tiary
n M t t wi th t w ge e ally i g ifie
n n . a e ou o n r s n s

“ d thereby
an d th s B t b th w m tt
”
d m tt m yan u . u o o a e an a e a
,

oft e be gl ected i tra sl ati g tho gh s me trace of th ir

n ne n n n , u o e

pr per mea i g ge erally li ge i the igi lJ p

o n n nth s n rs n or na a an e se , u

Gu d n an uomdh m t t h hh ‘
h g W i e tro p to
e, a e o a ua
'

a a s u, e ra s o s
 C OM OUND PO T PO
P S SI I T ON S . 37

[thereby] protect ative la d Chi yoj h w m tt o ur n n . n a u o a e

mid i i t i t o w t gi
ar u aS cceedi g y g d feeble
o su u n , o un an as

We t the g eat i he i ta ce f O
ar e , o A ce tr H h d
n r n o ur n s or s . a na a a

m tta
“ very Im m tt
e,
“ w “ d w t the p e e t
a a e, no ,
”
o n o r s n .
"

W m tt
0 p pe ly m ea
a e s uru , t b t it
ro fte be
r ns o us e ,
”
u c an o n

d r ppe d i t a l t i g W g h i
o n mi
r ns a t h w m tt n :i a a a no r u a o ra a a e s uru n ,

“L ki g at i t f m
oo n p i t f vi ew (lit U i g the eei g
“
ro o ur o n o
”
. s n s n

place f c m pa y o W m tt
o ur i m ea s
o
“ it i beca e
n 0 a e na r n s us

o f . W hi t with a ca sati v e v e b serv e t de te the per o

”
0 s e, u r , s o no s n

who is ca ed t perf rm the acti o Th s Chi w hi t

us o o n. u : n 0 s e

hi mi -
ta ru mic hi wa us hi n a wa s hi mur u nomi na ra z a , s hi t aga tt e Tess a

no tenka wa us hi na wa s hi mur u l y t m ak e
na i i , Thi s is n o t on o

U t et O
s un ru o ur d ty
u S ve ei g b t to m ake U s l e the
as o r n, u os

Em pi e ha d e d d w by O a ce t O cca i ally the o

”
r n o n ur n s or s . s on n un

co e po di g t
rr s n n o the E gli h m i ati ve i m a ked by the
n s no n s r

additio of w hi t n o s e: M oshi h ai r i hu '

un -

yu n o a ri s a ma wo t
s hi e ,

Ifthe tate f m
k a ku no goto huf uka nzen naru ho to na humba , s o co

m i ti
un c a by d la d were
on s t im pe fect they are
s e a an n no so r as .
”

w y a t a g exclam ati
a, ea ly a we i g t the E gli h
s ron on , n r ns r n o n s

coll oq i al why I ( t why ?

“ u
“ S hi t i w B i hi no
”
n a a ur sson s

i ma da Na i ha hu wo sas hi ki s ez a r u ma e ni oi t e s ud e n i wagi wa
ha ts ugen s hi , F u ts utei hare ni oji te kowa no gaga ku wo hattai

s hi a rut Why " the C hi e e g ve m e t had al eady

wa ya " n s o rn n r

m ade v ert e of peaceo d the F re ch g v er m e t had

ur s , an n o n n

sig ed a p eli mi a y t eaty f fri e d hip bef re M o i eur

n r n r r o n s o ns

B ri f m e d hi cab i et " (D o t co fo d this w y

s s on or s n no n un o a

with the m e al i i t or y ) us u n a e ao a .

Note al s the foll wi g o m po d p tpos i tio s

o o n c un os n

y m awh e ther
o, m y ( m i ght ) t a no
”

y am hi u bok s
“We ca
r ot
-
tel l whether
e a ra zu , it m y t nn a no

re lt i su n

y i this
a no c m bi atio n
y has its origi aol i terrogati
n v e n a n n
 38 JA PN A E E S GR MM R A A .

se se d serves to Show that the whol e cl a se prece di g

n , an no u n

it i the object of the f ll wi g verb N i g y i f w

s o o n : an a ue u uru a

za r si hi y w ji kyi i a o i li t
n O i ve tigati g [thi s
s ur u n , . n n s n

thi g beca se f what did it t exerc i e i fl e ce ? i

n u o no s n u n
”
. e .

O e q i i g i t the easo s f i t wa t f s ccess

”
n n u r n n o r n o s n o u .

NB . The ge eral r l e acc rdi g to which po tpositio s

.
— n u , o n s n

m t be prece d e d by the att i b t i v e f rm f the v e b

us dj r u o o r or a ec

ti ve adm its of a few ex cepti o s i speci al loc ti o s be ides

, n n u n , s

those oticed ab v e de h i t etc Th s i m m

n o un r a, u , o, . u ar no a a

( for m m
a ru
)
“j t as
a itais , te l q
use l hi i ( f hi
,
”
u na s n o r na

n i), witho t ; d s ch idi m s

u anf i m d u f iw o as ur o se e or ur a

d
s e e,
“ t rai i g ;
no h w hi h w
n n I[ ] k ow t
u as u a zon zez u , n no

e x a ct ly where the i d efi i te f rm prece des m

,
”
n dwn o 0 an a.
 IN F L E C T E D W ORD S .

C HA P T ER VII .

THE A ECTIVE
J D .

S EC . 1 . PR M R Y
I A A D J E CTIvE F ORM S .

The i flectio s of Japa e e adjectives do t l ike the i fl

n n n s no , n ec

ti s of E gli h adjecti ve e ve to di ti g i h the degree of

on n s s, s r s n u s s

com pa i Ne i the d they

r son . i F e ch i di cate m ber r o , as n r n , n nu

or ge de As h bee state d i the chapter

n r. o s m
as n n on n un , nu

ber d ge der are co ide ati to whi ch the J apa e e g am

an n ns r on s n s r

m t i l y te m pay li ttle or
a ca s hee d The bject f the
s s no . o o

i flect i
n f J pa e e a dject i ve ( d ve b ) i p i m a i ly to
on s o a n s s an r s s r r :

sh w wh ether the f ce f the adjecti ve ( ve b ) i attrib tive

o or o or r s u

or p e di c ti ve i defi i te c cl i ve d sec dly t m a k

r a , n n or on us an on o r

di t i ct i s f te e
s n d m d
on Al l adjecti ves c tai the
o ns an oo . on n

v e b t be i m pl i c i tly Th
“r o U mi f h hi “ the sea [i ] . us u as , s

d eep .

I i t s i m ple state a J apa e e a dject i v e has f r form s

n s , n s ou ,

vi z : .

I The . S t em wh i ch i s us ed o nl y in c m po d
o un s an d o cca
s i o n a lly in exclam t i a on s , as ha ta gi , -
h dw ar -
o od has a
n ag o ki , n a wl g
rr o -
on , i . e . l
s end r e ; y o s ug u
-
r u , to be t oo

goo d f
’

H Th e Ind efi ni te
. or A dverbi a l F a rm, wh i ch i btai ed by s o n

addi g h t th te m It i
n u o e s . s us ed i n t wo di ti ct m a er i
s n nn s, v z .

1 To q a lify a v erb : B u as y hu hun t ,

“To c ome ui c kl ”
. a a
q y .
 AD JEC TIVES . 41

the cl ause hi to a ru mo hi ha i na shi to fi d the adje ctive (verb )

n

c orrespon din g to na hu . The a m of the seco d cl a se has n u

to be pa e d over ss .

III The C l i F m which is obtai ed by addi g hi

. on c us ve ar , n n s

to the tem It i ed ly as a p di tj at the d of a

s . s us on re ca y e en

se te ce i the ca e f k hi i the fi t exam pl e give

n n , as n s o sa a na s n rs n

i the p ece di g pa agraph

n i the f ll wi g exam ple
r n r , or as n o o n :

Oman ni c hi ( ha hi na i j ha to ma sa n i s hi ns a hu hoc ho
-

a s a hu , i no

su -
behi mono reflectio it is ee that
s u huna s hi to s ez u,
“O n n s n

the i ter val i ce the re torati is Sho t d that t a

n s n s on r , an no

little em ai t be i gi ate d r re ga i e d i the i te al

ns o or n or or n z n n rn

a dm i i t ati n s r
( I th i exa m p l e all th onee i fl ect i. f the n s r n on s o

a djective ee h b hi ar e h hi N te too that

s n , — a sa u, e , s u una s . o

h
su una s hi i at the d of a e te ce g am m atically peaki g
s en s n n r s n ,

the w d t li t
or d t co i d e that
s o bei g a ther
sez u , . o no ns r ,
n no

s h rt e te ce er i g t i tr d ce the fi t after the m a er

o s n n s v n o n o u rs nn

of a q tati ) uo on .

NB Th e a dject i ve wh e tem e ds i hi or g d t
. .
—
os s os s n n s t o no

a dd a th e hi to f m t h co cl i ve t h
no r s hi be i g or e n us , e on e s n

held t ffice Th o m su hi h co cl i ve m . hi us — ez ur as u, n us ez ur as ,

t a ge
s r n m gih c cl i ve m ji “ sh l d t
a ru- a
'

u, on us a ru -
a , ou no

be Thi except i i m etim e di ega ded by i g a t

. s on s so s sr r n or n

write ; d ch gram m ati cal f m

rs an hi hi (f
su hi ) un or s as a s s or a s ,

b d a the ef e cca i ally m t wi th

, are r or o s on e .

IV Th A tt i b ti F m whi ch i btai ed by addi g hi

. e r u i e
'

ar , s o n n

t th
o tem It i e d i th ee di ti ct m a e i 1 T
e s . s us n r s n n n rs , v z . . o

q ali fy a
u Y hi hi ho
n o unA g d m eth d A m ji ki
, as a ro s , oo o ru -
a

h t
o o A thi g th t gh t t t be (li t
, n g h t t t a b ou no o . an ou -
no -
o -
e

thi g ) 2 Whe th adjecti ve i f ll w d b y p tp i

n
”
.
i t
n e s o o e a os os

t i th Ha y hi hi i y i (c ll q hi h t g y hi i
on , us : no o ra s n ar o o . s a a a a ros

ha ra
) O w i ,g t t h excelle ce f the n m et h d S i to h i e n o o .
”
an -
s u na

”‘vF xc p t i n ch p t VI
or e e o s se e a er .
 42 JA PA NESE GRA MMA R .

wo yos u, o e must be all owed to get l ost (lit [

“N n .
“ the

a thorities] re q ire the abse ce of l i g

u u U n os n n n u na s u
-

b hi h t t
e
“ H a ke d whether he h ld d
a o au , e d s s ou o so an so .
”

It will be ti ce d that the at t i b ti ve f rm f the adjective

no r u o o ,

whe th s e d cease to be adjective acc rdi g t E r pea

n u us , s an o n o u o n

ideas d c e p d s rathe to E gli h ab t ct b t

, an o rr s on r an n s s ra s u s an

tive t , adjecti ve p ece de d by th ve b t be Th

or o an
“ r e r o .
”
e

abst act b ta tive i

r c mm i the c ll q ial
su s n s n sa , so o on n o o u , ar e

alm t alw y epl ace d i the wri tte la g age b y the tt i b

os a s r n n n u a r u

tive adjecti ve f m m hi f m “ the c ld 3 At

or , a s sa u or sa usa , o . .

the d f a cl e en e te ce whe
o f the p ece di g
au s or s n n , n on e o r n

w d f t h cl e
or s o e te ce i e i te g ti ve the
a us or s n n s an n rr o a or

em phati c pa t i cle th N g t mi y
r t i t
za , us : an i no su u r us a r u o n o,

ahi t m
e a
y t i t h u h y e hi ? Wh
o t hne i i t ea i e t
o, s a re a asu e r s s r o

sa y Thy ,
i be f gi ve thee s ns
; t y R i e p d w
oral k n or o sa s u an

Thi si ar ly m t wi th i m de b k except i the

u se s r e e n o rn oo s, n

sem i cla i cal tyle

-
ss s .

NB O i gi lly there w
. .
-
a fifth f m btai e d b y addi g
r na as or , o n n

h (
e ref h ) t the or te m T h
as h y h
a re b h o See s . us a a e re , e ere .

un d e he di g h r pag e 2 3 a n os a , .

The p di gm f th p im a y f m f adjective i
ar a o e r r or s o s s as

f ll w
o o s

S T EM. C O NC L U SIV E A T T R IB U T IVE

F O RM . F O RM .

h a y a s hi ha y a ki
go t o s hi ya fa ki
bes hi b e ki

n a s hi n a ki 0 0 0 0 0 0

y or os hi y or as hi ku y o r o s hi
y oro s hi hi

m agi m agi ku
 A DJ EC T IVE S . 43

NB . .
— There are i wr tte Japa ese n i n n s ch f rm s as the
no u o

c ll q i al
o o u ha ga i , y aros hi i , ha y o, etc . Thei e q i v al e ts
r u n ar e

ha y as hi or ha ya ki , yoras hi or y or as hi hi , h y h
a t
a a ccordi g to
u, e c .
, n

ci c m sta ce
r u n s .

MOOD H D J C T V
SEC . 2 . TE N SE A ND IN T E A E I E.

B e i g of the at e f a v erb the Japa e e a djectiv e is

n n ur o , n s

i flecte d t i di cate te e
n o d mo d n The c cl sive d ns an o . on u an

att i b tive f m explai e d ab ve m y be te m e d i t prese t

r u or s n o a r s n

te e while t he i defi ite f rm is f te e i part i c l ar

ns ,
n n o o no ns n u ,

s ervi g i t d e t n pe d the m ea i g t il the d of the

as o s o sus n n n un en

se te ce be reache d
n n .

The m em y will be a i te d by oti g that m ost of the

or ss s n n

te e of the a ffi m ati ve v i ce d all the te se of the

ns s r o an n s

n egative are f m e d by aggl ti ati g th va i i flectio s

or u n n e r o us n n

of the ve b m to be to the i defi i te f m (h y h )

“ r a , , n n or a a u ,

the v owel f the l atte be i g d ppe d

u o d the v wel r n ro , an o a

o f the f rm er bei g i o m e te ses cha ge d i t ; f the n n so n n n o a ur r

m re that b h
o b hi b hi the ffix f m i g the p te ti al
e u, e , es , su or n o n

m od is it elf
o , a djective reg l a ly co j gated thro gh
s an u r n u u

most of the te ses n .

3 C OMP R ON DJ C T
SE C . . A IS OF A E IVE S .

C mpari o i J p e e i m re ofte i m plic i t tha exp li cit

s on n a an s s o n n .

Th whe referri g t t h lati ve height f F iy m d

us , n n o e re o us a a an

A sam y m a J pa e e wi ll t y F iy m i the
a a a, a n s no sa us a a s

hi ghe b t im ply F iy m i high ( F ji t h hi )

r, u s us a a s u na a as ,

i
v z i com p i
.
, n wi th the the m tai m e ti ed I dee d
ar so n o r o un n n on . n

eve i E gli h the called p iti ve i fte a c m pa ti ve

n n n s so -
os s o n o ra

b y i m pli cat i ; f whe w say f on i ta ce that S ch

or n e , or ns n , u

an d ch a per i ld we m ea that he i lder tha m o t

su son s o ,
”
n s o n s

other people C om p ari o m y however be m ade expli cit

. s n a , ,

in J a p a ese by usi g th p ostpositio y i “tha

n
( p ro p ernl y e n or , n
”
 46 JA PN
A E E S GR MM R A A .

fr om Th us — F uj i wa A s a ma y am or A m ta kas hi , sa a

y o ri
( )
wa F uj i wa ta ka s hi , li t . as for F ji tha A a m a i t i
u , n s , s

high ; i ”
. e h i gh
. F u SIy am a i s as c idere d from the
on s

sta dp i t n f A m y m
o n o Agai A m w sa a a a .
”
n — sa a a

( orh d ) t h h o o f a A aa m it i
a ra z u , t h i gh as or s a, s no as

c i de ed f m th ta dp i t f F ji i
on s r ro A am a i
e s n o n o u , . e . s s

le high tha F iy m
ss If three m e m tai
n us a a . or or o un ns

we e sp k e
r f w o h ld have wh at i E gli h i term ed
n o , e s ou n n s s

the pe lati ve the Japa e e i di m rem ai i g the am e

su r , n s o n n s .

He e is a ther exam ple

r no T h w w i h y i Oi
— en a no a za a ar e ai

na r u w hi a The e i na s greate m i f t e tha

,
r s no r s or un n

thi (lit wo l d s m isfort es thi s tha great bei g

s
” “ . r
’
un , n, -
n

thi g i t n s no
-

Wh e t im ply i m pli e d or expre sed by y i the

n no s , s or ,

c m pa ti ve d pe lati ve m y be i di cated b y p fi i g t
o ra an su r a n re x n o

the p it ive m e ch w d os so till m re i t ttsu or as na o , s o a e

“ ext em ely i g e tly

”
h b “ ve y The r a s u a ur u , r
”
r ; oi n , .

su pe l ti ve i al s m tim e i di cated by ffi i g the wo d

r a s so o e s n su x n r

sem b -
“ a th a d m y i ad ; th K i d h mb
an , o us n r s us : na a u se an,

I expre i bly rry

n ss so .
”

Exce f q ali ty i li ke the c m pa at i ve

ss o a u d perlative s, o r an su ,

ge erally de ted by th adjective i it im ple f rm Th

n no e n s s o . us ,

Thi i t hi gh wil l be i J p e e im ply T hi i hi gh

s s oo n a an s s s s
’

( K w
ar e t h hi ) ai b y
a i m pl i c t
as i h i g h e , thv z i t o ght
. t , a on , r an u o

be The exp i m y be e d e d m e expli ci t by ffi i g

. re ss o n a r n er or su x n

the ve b g t th a djective tem t h g lit t

r s u ur u, o e s , as a a s u uru ,
-
. o

g pa
o t i h e isg ht Then w r d m i “ exc . i
”
v e m y also be o a ai , ess a

us e d p efixed to the im pl adjecti ve th A m i t k hi

, r s e , us : ar a as ,

Alt gethe t hi gh b t thi i a e

o r oo u s s r r .

NB R e m em be that v a t
. .
— m be f the word we are
r s nu rs o s

ob liged to re der i E gli h by adje ctives are in reality

n n n s

no u s as e xpl ain ed
n , p age 1 1 on .
 47

C HA P T ER VIII .

T HE VER B .

N TRODU C T ORY R M R S SEC . 1 . I E A K .

The f ctio f the J apa e e verb differ i s m e importa t

un ns o n s n o n

re pect f om th e of the ve b f E pea l a g ages

s s r os r s o ur o n n u .

D i t i ct i s of pe
s n don m be tte ly f rei g t it r s on an nu r ar e u r o n o .

O th n ther h d m a y f the t e have tw f m

e o an , n o en s s o or s, — an

attrib ti ve d a c cl i ve while th e e i a ge e al i defi ite

u an on us ,
— r s n r n n

f m whi ch d e d ty f ll th t
or fi T
o s V RB u or a e en s e s
"
HE E A ND

A DJ C T V THU CL O LY R MB L
E I E C H O TH R ;
S SE E SE E EA E A ND IT IS

I MPO BL UND R T ND
S SI EGR MM R OF
To V RB UNL S E S A T HE A A T HE E , ES

T HE C ON D R T ON DV N C D
SI E C H P T R ON D J C T V
A I S A A E IN T HE A E A E I ES

H V B N TH OROUGHLY
A E EE T R D MA S E E .

To recapit l ate briefly what h there bee t forth

u as n se

I The i defi i te f m ta d at the d f each m em ber of

. n n or s n s en o

a t f cl e excepti g the fi l m em be ; d the te e

se o au s s n na r an ns

or m d b y wh i ch i t h l d be e d e e d
oo l y be k w s ou r n r c an o n no n

whe t h ve b
n adjecti ve f that fi al cla e is eache d
e r or o n us r .

Th us —N t hi t i h y h S
a sum m e c m e d p i
arg , a ru u u, u r o s an s r n

ge o s H e t h i d efi i te f m hi t i m t be e d e e d b y
. er e n n or ai us r n r

t h p e e t beca e t h fi
e r s n l ve b y h i i th pre e t
, us e na r u u s n e s n .

The i defi ite f m f ve bs i li kewise d t f m c m po d

n n or o r s us e o or o un s

n
it
n g iv t h n m f t t t h i n d fi n i t f m
M a y g ram m ari a s e e a e o r oo o e e e or
o f th v b Ae h w ver t h l tt i b t f v l i n fl cti n
s, o e e r, e a er s u o ne o se e ra e o s,
li k c nf h mi n m
.

th y d p ti
e or an d by rac ce It i ar e a e o u se s uc a s o er s
nv ni n t t “ t m t d ig n t t h t p t f t h
.

”
co e th e d o us e e w or s e o es a e a ar o e
v b ( dj t i v ) w hi h ff
er or a lt t i n d t w hi h ll t h
ec e c su e rs n o a e ra o an o c a e
t mi n ti n t hi t m c i ncid w i t h t h
,

er ffi d
a S m t im
o s are s u xe o e es s s e o es e
l t l M “ ft n
.

”
re a m th
ro o t m f m as s a t g w e s e o sa ur u , o ro c oo o re o e

l ng th n d f m
.
, ,

it i s a e m th t m f m
e e t m k or
I
as sa as
,
e s e o sa as u, o a e
CO O L
 VE RB S .

homeru, i r eru, or sugi r u. These are repl aced acco di g to ,

r n

circum s ta ces by
n ,

hamu , homur u,
i r u, C on c lusi v e i rur u , Attr b t ve i u i .

s u u, s ugu r u ,
g
Whe there n t w Ve b de i ve d f om the am e ste m
ar e o r s r r s ,

s ch i
u as t g i ru , di ( C ll q i
o al i o ) to p t
n an r ur u o o u r er u , u

in, belo gi g t the fir t c j gat i

on e n d the other
n o s on u on , an

to the eco d the co cl i ve form f the p e e t te e is

s n , n us o r s n ns

therefo e i de ti cal i b th Th s i
r n t the d f a n o . u ru , a en o s en

te ce m y i g i fy ei ther goe i or p t i acc di g

n , a
“ s n
“ s n
”
u s n,
”
or n

to c irc m ta ce I the ca e f the att i b tive f rm there

u s n s . n s o r u o

is am big ity i t i i
no u goe i i the fir t co j ga
, as s ru , s n, n s n u

tio di
n , an p t i i the eco d
r ur u , u s n,
”
n s n .

N te al o fr m the ab ve exam ple of hi t

o s o d fro m the o a r er u an

ex am ple gi ve pages 1 6 d 1 7 how the e xi te ce of the

s n on an , s n

attrib ti ve f rm f ve bs ( d adjecti ves ) s ppli es the abse e

u o o r an u nc

of relative p o s r n o un .

The reg lar co j gatio s f r i

u m bern u n ar e ou n nu .

2 C ONJUG T ON OF V RB SE C . . A I E S .

All the i flecti s a dde d to the tem whi ch i it el f

n on ar e s , s s

i va iable S m e f the i flecti c i t of a i gle v wel

n r . o o n on s on s s s n o ,

wh e i gi al m ea i g i ob c re as y hi y h y h B t
os or n n n s s u , u , u u, u e . u

b y far the greate m ber are obtai ed by aggl t i at i g

r nu n u n n

f agm e t f ld a xili a y ve bs d i som e few c es

r n s o o u r r , an n as

po tpo iti
s s d a dject i ves t
on s the s i gl e vowel f rm
an , o n o s,

th y hi hi y hi hi y h b hi y h b It i f thi rea
us u , u s , u u -
es , u e a . s or s son

th at gram m i a have give to the sim pl e v wel f m d

ar ns n o or s an

to on e o r t w other the am e f o B e The pa adi gm

s n o as s r s

o f the v e b l f m i com m writte

r a or are f ll ws n on n us e as o o s .

N te that m m y be o m i tte d f o m the term i at i o

o o a f th r n ns o e

vario s c onc essiv e form s th s y h d for y h d m

u , u u e o
,
u e o O.
 VE B S R .

FI RST REGU LA R
Yuhu, “To t m Y k
g o ( S e u )
I fi n i t e F orm
. .

nd e f or all
Te ns e s
C nc
0 0 0 0 0

v
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
} yuki

P nt
r e se
A tt ib
l
t iv
o us i e
y uk u [ y
I,
o u h e ,
s he
,
w e , y o u , t he y g o
i t ,

y uk u
nt ] v
r u e
C nc iv
.

P f ct
l o us e y uk e ri [ L e c ]
t we na e
ti v n h d g n
,
.

er e
A tt i b r u e y u k e ru
g o e , or a o e

C n
“t P “ A tt i b l n v
.

i o c us v e y u ki k i [ ,
I t
e c ] w t h e a e

t iv n h dg n
,
.

S a
r u e y uk i s hi
go e , or a o e

C n l iv n v
.

E t
S c nd P t
o c us e y uk i t a rl
[1 , t
e c ] w h e a e

t iv n h d g n
,
V
.

e o dS
I A tt i b r u e y uk i t a ru g o e, or a o e
C n l iv n v
.

T t h
o c us e y u ki t ar i k i
[ I e c t ] w e a e

A tt ib t i v n h d g n
A Th d P t ,
.
,
lr dS
r u e y u ki t a r i s hl go e or a o e

n v
.

C nc l iv [ ,
I t ] w t h
t h P “ A tt i b t i v
e c e a e
y uki nu n h d g n
,
.

o us e
F o ur d
r u e u ki n ur u g o e, or a o e
y a w ay .

Co n c lus w e y uk an y uki
[ I e tc ] s ha ll p ro
F ut ure v yuk u l
.
,
n a n , or
A tt ri b u t i e
n n
ar a
b ab y g o .

P re s e n t C n d i ti n l
o o a
y uk eb a
as , si nc e, or whe n
go
nc n
.

a s , Si e , or w he [ ,
I
P as t C n dit i n l
o o a e tc ] we nt ha v e
y uk It are b a n
,
.

g o e or ha d g o ne .

y uk e b a
P re se nt Hyp o t he t i c al y u ki n ab a if [ ,
I e t c ] g o
n
. .

y u k u a ra b a

P as t Hy p th t c l o e i a
y
y
u
n
ki
k
t a rab a

i s hi arab a n
i f
go e
I ,
e t c h ad

n
.

tiv c l
.

Op t a e uk a b a y a o h t ha t I o u d g o "
y
n t A t l C n iv k d t h h [ I e tc ]

}
y u e o m o o u g
P re se
ll
,
.
‘
c ua o c e ss e
uk u t o i e d o m o d o a c t ua y g o
y
n t H y p t h ti l C
.

P re s e
c es s iv e
o e ca on y
y
u k u mo

u ki t e m o
e e vn
i f [ I, e t c ] g o . .

y u k i s h i k ad o

mo
y u ki t a re d o m o t h o ug h I e tc
,

n v n
.

y u k i t a ri t o i e w e t h a e g o e,

n
,

P a s t C o nc e s s i v c dom o o r h ad g o e .

uk i s hi t o i e
y
d om o
u k i s hi m o
y
uk e
y go "
vn
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

[ b y ] ha i g g ene ,
by ] g o i g
[ n .
 VE RB S.

C ONJ UGATI ON .

A ffi m t i V i
r a ve o ce .

Ind fini t e e F orm y uk u -

b e ku
i h all, ll
[ ,
I ]
etc w ,
s.

P re s e
C nc i
n t A tt ib t ivo lu s v e .
y uk u -
b e s hi w o uld , s h o uld , m a y ,
l
uk u b e ki m i g ht , c an , c o u d ,
r u e y
-

m u s t , o r o ug ht t o g o .

Cn c lu s i v y uk u -
b e k arik i
[ ,
I e t c ] s ho u d , l etc

v n
e ,
.

o
b e k a ri
.

k
t iv
.

u u
tt rib u y ha e g o e
A e .

s hi

uk u b e k c re si n ce, [ I e tc ]
C n dit i n l y as ,
ld
.

o a
o
ba s ho u e tc , go
l
‘
. .
,

s ho u d ,
k b eku if [ ,
I e tc ]
H yp t h t ic l y u u .

o e a
b e tc
( )
m a .
, g o .

u k u b e k e re
y
-

e
dom o t ho u g h I, e tc
Ac t l C n v
u
ld
.

q
ua o c e ssi e
i
uk u b e s hi t o s ho u etc go
y
- .
,
.
l ,
b
O ie d o m o
H y p th t ic l C nc es e vn e i f [ I, e t c ]
l
o e a o .

k b e ku m o
iv
y u u -

s e s hou d , e tc , g o . .

In d fi n t e i e F o rm y uki -
t ak u
C n l iv
o c us e y uk i -
t a s hi
[ ,
I ] etcn t t wa
A tt b t v
g o o
P re s e nt
.
.

t a ki
.

uk i
n
ri u i e y
-

P as t
C n l iv
o c us e .
y uk i -
t ak ari k i [L t ] w e c t d t . a e o

A tt r Ib ut Iv e u ki t ak a r i s hi g o
in h n [I
y
-
.

ki t ak e re w
C n di t i n l u as , s c e , or e

t ] w nt t g
y
o o a
ba e c a o o

t ] w nt t
.
.

u k i t ak u ( m ) if [ I
H y p th t ic l y
e c a
-
.
,
o e a
ba g o .

u k i t ak e re
y
d om o t ho ug h [ I e tc ] w an
C c iv o n e ss e
y uk i t a shi t o to go .
,
.

i e d om o

Cn v [ ,
I ] nt h av
I
c lus i y uk i ke ri e tc we
n n
o e -

t iv
.

A tt rib u e u k i k e ru go had g o e
e , or
y
n n
- .

a s , s i c e , o r w he [1
C n d it i n l y uk i e tc w e t , hav n
o o a
n n
.

o e o r h ad g o e
g ,
.

t ho ug h [ I, e t c ] w e n
k e re d o
v n
.

uk i
C c on e s s i ve
y
mo
ha e g o e , or ha
o n e,
g
 VERB S .

F I RST REGU LA R
Yuku, “To ”
t k
go .
( S e m Y u ) .

P re s e
C nc l iv
n t A tt ib tiv o us e
nkaz u
uk az a ru
[ I, y o u,
he ,
s h e, it,
w e , y o u, t he y ] do
u
nk n
,

r e
a u n ot 0 .

C ncl iv [ I e t c ] d id n ot g o ,

v n
lfi
k
.
,
o us e u a zar

A tt i b t iv r u e
y
y u
i
w arm fiI
ha e n o t g o e , as
h ad n o t g o e n .

C ncl iv o us e
y uk az aran or

y u k aji
[ ,
I e tc
] s ha ll n ot o
g .
A tt i b t i v
k
.

y u az aran or
r u e
y uk aji
P re s e n t C n diti n l
o o a
y u k azar e b a as, si nc w he n
e, or

y u k ane b a [ ,
I e c t ] d
o n o t g o

in
. .

uk az ar i s hi as , s c e , or w he n
y
P as t C n di t i l
o ona
k ab a
y uk az ari s hi ni
[ ,
I e t
v
c ] d i d
h a e n ot g o e , o r
n ot g o ,
.

n
y ot te ad n o t g o e n
H y p th t i l
.

P re se n t o e ca uk a z u ( m b a
) . if [ I, e t c ] d o n o t g o .

P as t H y p t h t ic l
o e a
y
y
u
uk
k a z ar s e b a
i
a zari s hi
u
if [ I e tc .
] had n ot

n
a ra b a
g o no

y uk az are d o m o
Pre se nt A c t ua l Co n c e s s i v e y u k a ne d o m o t houg h [ I ’
e tc .
] do
y u k az u t o i e d o n ot go .

mo
n t Hyp
P re s e o t he t i c al Co n e vn
e if [ ,
I e tc ] do
c iv k azar u m o
.

y u
o es e n ot go .

uk az ar i s hik a
d om o
y uk a z a ri s hi t o thoug h [ I e tc ] did
,

v
.

Pa s t C nc i v
o e ss e
y u
ie d om o
k az ari s h i
not

go n e,
g
or
ha e

h ad
o, not

n ot

n ar e d o m o
go n e .

y u k a z ar i s hi

mo

y uk az are

y u k u n a k are

Imp e ra t ive y u k u na -

g o n o t ,
do no t go
y u k u koto na

k aI e

y uk azu

Ge mnd y uk az u n i
[ y]
b n o t ha i g g o vn n e,
n
0 0 0

y uk a z u S hi e t [ y]
b n o t g oi
g .

uk ad e
y
 R
VE B S . 53

C ONJ UGATION .

N g t iv V i
e a e o ce.

Ind fi n it e e F o rm k
y u
u -
b e karazu

Cn v [ ,
I ]
e tc w i l s ha l, l l
c lus i k b e k a ra
l
.
,
o e y u u -

P re se nt zu
w o n] I, s hou d , m ay ,
m ig ht , c a n , c o uld ,
A t t rib ut k b e k ara
'

ve y u u -

m us t , or o ug ht n o t
z a ru 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

to, go
C n l iv
.

o c us e y uk u -
b e k a ra
z ariki
[ ,
I e tc ] s ho u ld no t ,
A tt i b t iv v n
.

r u e y u k u-
b e k ara e tc .
,
ha e g o e .

z a ri s hi

y uk u b e k ar a
-
as or s in ce I [ e tc ]
ld
.

z a re b a s ho u no t , e t c go .
, .

y u k u h-
e k ara if S ho uld n o t ,

e
.
( )
z u In b a e tc .
, g o .

u
y u k u-
b e k a ra
q
z a re d o m o
t ho ug h [ Ie t c ] should
i
l
b
O Ac t l C nc iv
ua o ess e y uk u b e k ara
-

not etc , g
o
.

zu t o ie d omo
. .
,

H y p th t i l C n
o e ca o c es y u k u-
h e k a ra e vn
e if [ I e t c ]
iv l
.
,

s e z aru m o s ho u d , e tc , no t g o
In d fi n t F m
. .

e i e or y u k u-
m ajik u

Pre s e
C n l iv
n t IA tt ib ti v o c us e .
y u k u m aji
-

u e u ku
r
y
C n l iv o c us e .
y uk u m ajik a
-

r i ki

A tt ib t i v r u e y u k u m ajik a
-

ri s hi

.
C n diti n l
o o a y u k u m ujik e
-

re b a
e
u
i
l
q
H y p t h ti l
o e ca y uk u m aji ka
-

( ) a
m b
b
O
C nc i v
o e ss e y u k u-
m ajike

re d o m o

Cn o c lus i v e y u k a z ar ik e ri - [ I ,
e t c ] d i d no t
.
g o,

n
A tt ri b ut ive y uk a z ar i k e ru -
ha v e n o t g o e , o r
ha d n o t g o e n
n n
.

as , s i c e , or w he

C nd iti n l
o o a
y uk a zari
re b a
ke [ I,
e tc

v ] d i
ha e n o t g o e , or
d n o t o
g ,
.

n
n
0 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0

ha d n o t g o e .

t ho ug h [ 1 , et c ] d id
v
.

Cn
o c essi v e
y u k az ar i

re d a m o
ke n ot

n g o , ha e n o t
g o e , o r ha d no t
g o e n .
54 VE RB S.

SE OND C REGU LAR

Ho mur u, “To p rai s e .
”
( St e m ham ) .

In d fi n it
e e F o rm f or a ll
Tne se s

322315335 [ ,y
1 ho m u I o u ,
h e ,
s h e , it, w e ,
1 8 h o m u ru o
y ,u t h e y] p r a i se .

Altitt tf
‘ ho m o k i [ I e t c
] p ra i s e d ,
F i rs t e h o m e s hi
,

v
ha e o r ha d p rai s e d
.

n
Se c o d P a s t
3333155255
1 1 7

.
ho m e t a r i
ho m e t a ru
[ L e
v
t c ] p se d ,
ha e o r ha d p rai s e d
r a i .

T hi d P
r as t l
giliyj y
lc

r
l sl

ut e
h o m e t a r ik i
ho m e t ar i s hi
I, e t c
v p rai s e d ,
ha e o r had p r ai s e d
.

p
.

[ , ]
fiftiliiiii
i ie ho m e n u I e t c r a i s e d
F o ur t h P a s t r ve ho m e n ur u h a v e o r ha d p r a i s e d
.
,

n
.

ho m e , ho m e
] ll
fizzfijj ji f
ls v
[ 1 e t c s ha p ro
F ut ure n a n , 0 r ho m u
,

l p i
.

u e
ru n n
ura
b ab y r a se .

i nc n
P re s e n t C n di t i n l
o o a ho m ure b a
{[
as

I,
s
e c t ] p
e, 07

r ai se
: w he

i nc wh n
. .

as , e, e
‘
s 07
P as t C n dit i n l
o o a
h o m e s hi k a b a
I ,
e tc .
p ai s e d
r

av e o r had p r ai s e d i
ho m e b a

P re s e nt Hyp o the ti c al ho m e n ab a
lIo q ru a ra n if [ ,
I e tc .
] p rai s e .

ba

H y p th t i l
h o m e t a ra b a
n if I e tc h ad
Pas t h o m e s hi a r a
p
.
,
o e ca
ra i s e d
ba
.

O pta t iv e ho m e b a y a oh t hat I c ould p rai s e

ho m u re d o m o
P re s e n t A ct l C n i t h ou g h [ I e t c ] do
a c t uall y p ra i s e
ho m u t o i e d o ,
.

ua o c e ss ve
.

In o

P re s e n t H y p th ti l C
o e ca on ho m uru In o e vn
e if [ I, e tc ]
p i
.

c e s s iv e ho m e t e m o ra s e .

ho m e s hi k a d o

h o m e t a re d o m o t ho ug h I e tc
Cn v h v
, .

P as t o c e s si e h o m e t a ri t o i e p r a i s e d , a e p ra i s
dom o e d , o r ha d
p ra i se d .

h o m e s hi t o i e
do mo
( ho m e s hi
hom e y o p ra i s e
[ b h a i g vn
{
y p rai s e d
ho me t e
b
[ y r ai s ipg n .
 VE RB S .

C ONJ U GATION .

A ffi m t iv V ic
r a e o e .

In d fi n it e e h om u b e ku -

[ I, etc ] w ill, ll S ha

C n l iv l ld m y
.

o c us e h o m u b e s hi -
w ou d , Sho u a

nt ld
.
,

P re s e m i g ht , c a n, c o u
A tt i b t i v nnb
,

r u e bo i -
e ki m us t , o r o ug ht t
r aIs e
p
C n l iv
.

A tt ib t i v
o c us e ho m u b e k ari ki
-

[ I e tc
] s ho u ld e tc
ho m u b e k a
v p
. .
, ,
r u e
ha e rai s e d
r i s hi
.

h o m u b e k e re si n [ ,
I :
iif I t
-
as , o r ce etc
ba ls ho u
d t e c , p
ra se i
ld
.
,

ho m u b e ku [ ] e c s ho u
p i
, .

( )
m b a t e c .
,
r a se .

hom u b e k e

Ac t l C nc iv re d om o tho ug h I, e tc
ld p
.

ua o e ss e
ho m u b e shi s ho u ,
e tc .
,
rai s e .

t o i e d om o
Hy p t he t ic al Con hom u b e k u vn if [ I,
}
o e e e tc

l p
.

L c e s si v e mo s ho u d, e tc .
,
rai se .

In d fi ni t
e e ho m e t ak u -

C n l iv
n t A tt ib ti v o c us e h om e t a s hi -

[ I, e tc ] w ant t
P
p
.

re se
r u e h o m e t ak i -
rai s e

C nc l iv
.

P t as
A tt ib t i v
o

r
us
u
e

e
ho m e t ak ariki
ho m e t ak ari
-

- [ ,
I e tc .
] wa nt ed t
p r a Ise
s hi
.

E
V t ak e re as , si nc e, or w ho
I
T C n di ti n l
o o a
ho m e
be
-

[L e tc .
] wa nt t
A p r ai s e .

R
.

u
e

H yp t he t i c al ho m e t aku i f [ I, e t c ] w a nt t
E
p
.

q o
i
l
m
( ) b a r ai s e .
b
h o m e t ak e re
O
C c v d omo t h oug h [ I etc ] w an
e s si
p
.
,
on e
h o m e t a s hi t o
-
to rai s e .

i e d om o

C ncl i v h
o us e om e -
ke n
I,
v p ra i s e d
e tc .

A tt i b t iv l ha e p ra i se d , o r b e
r u e ia me -
ke ru
p ra i s e d
n n
.

I as , s i c e , o r w he [ I
E
V C n dit i n l
o o a ho m e k e re b a-
e t c ] p ra i s e d , h av
p
. .

e
I u or h ad r a i se d .

T q
A
i
l t houg h I, e t c
C c iv ho m e k e re d o
.

b -

L i d av e or b e
O on e s s e p r a s e
L mo
p
,

rai s e d
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
I .
 VE RB S. 57

C ONJ UGATION .

N g ti v V ic
e a e o e .

In d fi ni t e e F orm homu b e k arazu

-

C ncl iv [ ,
I etc ] wi ll s ha ll
ho m u b e k a r a
l ld ,
.

o us e -

P re s e nt zu
w ou d , m ay
m i g ht , c a n , c o uld
s ho u ,

A tt i b t i v r u e ho m u b e ka ra
-

m u s t , o r o ug ht n o t
z aru
p
t o , r ai se
C ncl iv
.

o us e h o m u b e k a ra
-

z a r iki
[ ,
I etc ] s ho u ld n ot

A tt ib tiv v p i d ,
.

r u e ho m u b e k a ra
-
etc .
,
ha e ra s e .

z ar i s hi

C n di t i n l
o o a h o m u b e k a ra
-
as i nc
or s [ I t e, e c ]
h ld
.
,

z a re b a s ou t t p i no e c ra s e

H y p th t ic l i f [ I t ] h ld
.
,
.
,

o e a h o m u b e k ar a
-
e c s ou not ,
p i
.
,

(
zu m) b a t
e c .
,
ra se .

hom u b e kara
-

Act l C nc iv z are d o m o t houg h s ho u ld

ua o e ss e
ho m u b e k a ra
-
n ot, e tc .
,
p rais e .

z u t o ie d om o

v n if
.

H y p th t ic l C nc
o e a o es ho m u b e k -
ar a
e e
h ld
: [ I, e tc .
]
iv
s ou etc n ot
Z fl I ll m o
p i
.
‘ , ,
s e
ra s e .

In d fi ni t F m
e e or ho m u m ajl k u
-

P r e se
C n l iv
n t A tt ib t iv o c us e ho m u m aji -

r u e h o m u m ajik i
-

C n l iv o c us e h o m u In ajik a
-

r i ki

A tt i b t iv r u e ho m u m ajik a-

ri s hi

C n diti n l
o o a h o m u m aji ke
-

re b a

H y p t h t ic l
o e a h o m u m aji k u
-

( )
m b a

C nc iv
o e ss e h o m u m ajike-

r od o m o

h o m e zar i k e ri e t c ] di d n o t p ra i s e
-

[ I
v p
.
, ,
h o m e z ar i k e ha e n o t ra i s e d , or
h ad no t p ra i s e d
n n
.

as , s i c e , o r w he ,
C n di ti n
o o al ho m e z ar i ke [ I e t c ] d id n o t
v
, .

re b a p r a i se , ha e not
o r h ad n ot p r ai s e d .

C nc iv
o e ss e h o m e z ari ke
t ho ug h [ I, e t c ] d i d
n o t p r a i s e ha e n o t v
.

red o m o
,

or had no t rai se d
p .
58 R
VE B S .

THIRD REGU LA R
S ug ur u, To p ass .

I nd e fin ite F orm f or all

Tne se s

nt [ , y ,
I h h i
i
o u e s e t
P re se , , ,

w e , y o u, t he y ] p a s s
v
.

F i rs t I
[ , e t c ] p a s s e d , ha e
.

o r h a d p as s e d

v
.

n
Se c o d P a s t [ ,
I e t c ]p a.s s

or ha d p a s s e d
e d , ha e

v
.

Thi d r P as t [ ,
I e t c ] p a.s se d , ha e

or h a d p as s e d
v
.

a s se d , h a e
F ourt h P as t [ ,
I e t c ]p .

o r ha d p a s s e d a w a y .

F ut ure [ I e tc ] s hal l p ro

l p
.
,

b ab y as s .

P re se n t C n di t i n l
o o a
as n si ce, or n
w he
[ I t ] p e c ass

in wh n
. .
,
as , s ce, or e
Pas t C n dit i n l
o o a
s ug i s hi kab a
[I t ] p e c a ss’ h v a e

h d p
s ug i t a re b a ’

ar da as se .

s ug i b a
P re s e n t Hy p o t he t ic al s ug i n a b a if [I t ] p e c as s
n
.
,
.

s ug ur u ar a b a

H y p th t i l s ug i t a r a b a if [ ,
I ] h d p
j
e t c a as s
Pas t
.

o e ca
s ug i s hi n a r a b a ed

tiv l
.

Op t a e s ug i b a
ya o h t ha t I c o u d p as s I
s ugu re d o m o
P re s e n t A t l C n iv t ho ug h [ I e t c ] do
a c t ually p as s
t o Ie d o
.
,
c ua o c ess e S ti g

rn s .

P re s e n t H y p th t i l C
o e ca on s ug ur u mo
e v n if [ I
e etc ] p as s .
c e ss iv e s ug i t e m o
,
.

s u i s hi k ad o
g
mo
s ug i t a re d o m o .

t ho ug h [ I etc ] p as s ~

C nc iv s ug i t a ri t o i e
v
.
,

P as t o e ss e e d, ha e or ha d
d om o
p as se d
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

s ug i s hi t o l o
.

s ug i s hi mo

s ug iy o p "
as s

b y ha i g vn p as s e d ,
s ug i o t ooooooooo
E b y p a SS n .
 VE B S R . 59

CONJ U GA TION

( Ste m S ag .
) A ffi m t iv
r a e V o ic e .

In d fi ni t e e F o rm s ug u -
be ku
[ ,
I e tc ] wi ll ll
s ha
Cn v l ld
.
, ,

o c lu s i e s ug u b e s hi w o u d , s ho u m y a

nt
-

c ld
, ,

P re se m ig ht , c an , ou ,
A tt ri b ut i v e s ug u -
be ki m us t , o r o ug ht t o
p as s
C n l iv
.

o c us

A tt i b t i v
e s ug u -
b e k arik i
[ I e t c ] s h ou d, l e tc
b e kari
v
. .
,
r u e s ug u
ha e p a s s e d
s hi
.

j n
C n dit i n l b e k e re or s i I
[ , etc ]
-
St u ce
a
g
as ,
g} ld t
.

o o a
s ho u e c p a s s

ld
. .
, ,
Z
H y p th t c l o e i a
Sl gl
g
z bk
b
rn a
b Gk u
n “
;
if [I
te cp
t ]
.
,
,
e c
as s .
. s ho u ,

s ug u e e re

ct l C d om o t h o ug h [ I, e tc
]
A onc e s s w e
ld p
.

ua
s u g u b e s hi t o
-
s ho u ,
e tc .
,
as s .

i e d om o
Hyp o t he t i c a l Co n e vn e if [ I, e tc ]
b e ku m o
l p
.

s ug u -

c e s si v e s ho u d, e t c , . as s .

In d fini t e e F o rm
C n l iv o c us e [ I, e tc ] wa nt to
A tt i b t i v
P t
.

’ e se n
r u e p as s
C ncl iv nt
.

ed
P t
o us e [ I e t c
] wa to
A tt i b t i v
.
,
as
r u e p a s s

n n
.

as , si c e, or w he
C n diti n l
o o a [ ,
I etc .
] wa n t to
p as s
g w nt
.

3 4 H yp o t he t i c al
i f [ I,
as s
etc .
] a to

13 p .

Q
C c iv t ho ug h [ I e tc ] wa nt
p
.
,
on e s s e
to as s .

C ncl iv
o us e s ug i ke -

[ ,
I e tc ] p a s s e d v ha e
A tt ib t i v
.
,
r u e s ug i k e r u -
or h a d p as s e d
nc wh n
.

as , si e, or e
C n di t i
o o nl a s ug i -
k e re b a I etc p d a s se

h v
.
, ,

a ha d p a s se d
e or .

t houg h [ I, e t c ] p as s
s ugi he re d o
v p
.

Co n08 s s iv e e , h a e o r ha d a s s
mo
e g
 60 VE RB S.

THIRD REGU LAR

S uguru To p as s .
’

C ncl iv
o us e s ug i zu
[ y
I,
o u,
he ,
s he , i t,
w e , y o u , t he y ]
A tt ib t iv
r u e
{
s ug i z aru
s ug i n u n ot
p as s .
do

Cnl i
o c us v e s ug i z a r i k i [ ,
I e t c
v] d id n ot p as s ,
.

A tt i b t iv
ha e n o t or ha d n o t
r u e s ug iz arl s hl
p
as se d
C n l iv
.

o c us e s ug i zar an or
[ ,
I e tc . ] s hal l no t

A tt ib ti v
r u e
s ug i ji
s ug i za ra n or
p as s .

P re s ent C n d i ti n l s ug i z a re b a as, si nc e, or w he n
o o a
s ug i ne b a
[ ,
I e ct ] d o no t p as s

i nc
. .

s ug i z a ri s hi k a as , s e, or w he n
[ I, e tc ] did n o t ,
P a s t Cond l t l onal
v
.

s ug i z a ri s hi ni ha e n ot , or h ad
y o t t e n ot p as s e d .

P rese n t Hyp o the t ic al s ug i z u ( )

m b a
}
if
p [
ass
I,
e
.
t c ] . do n ot

s ug i za ri se b a
if
P as t Hyp o the tic al s ug i zari s hi n a
p [I ,

as s e d
e tc .
] had n ot

ra b a
.

s ug i z a re d o m o
t houg h [ I ]
Pr e se n t Ac t l Cua o nc e s s w e
s ug i z u t o i e d o not p as s .
,
e tc . do

mo

P re s e n t Hy p o the t i c al Con e vne if [ ,

I e tc ] do
s ug i z ar u mo
p
.

c e s si v e no t as s .

s ug i z ari s hi k a
d omo
s ug iz a r l s hi t o though [ I ] did e tc .
P as t C c iv
on e s s e i e d om o
,
v
n o t , h a e n o t , o r ha d

s ug i z ari s hi n a n ot p
a s se d .

re d om o

s u g i z a ri s hi m o

s u g i z are
s ug uru n
a k a re

I mp e rat i ve s ug u r u n a-
p as s n o t , do not p as s "
s ug u ru ko t o
n a k a re

s ug i z u

Gerund
s ug i z u n i [ y]
b n o t h a i g p as s vn
s ug i z u s hi e t e d , b y n o t p as s i ng
[ ] .

Su id e
g n ou n -o
 VE RB S. 61

C ONJ U GATI ON .

( S te m S ug) N e g at i.e V o i v c e

r
In
d e fi i t e F o rm n s ugu -
b e karaz u
C ncl
‘

[ ,
I etc ] w il l s hal l
us i v e b e k ar a
l l ld
.
,
o s ug u

P re s e nt zu
w ou d , ,
m a y s ho u

l
A tt rib ut ive s ug u b e k ara
m i g ht c a n c o u d
m u s t , or o ug ht n o t
z a ru
t o , p as s .

s ug u b e k a ra
s h o uld n o t ,
z a r i ki
[ ,
I etc ]
v
.

s ug u b e k a ra e tc , . ha e p a s s e d .

z a ri s hi

a s , or s i nc e [I e tc ]
C n di ti n l b e k ar a
ld
.
,
s ug u -

o o a s ho u n ot , e tc
z are b a
,
.

p a s s

ld
.

Hp y o t he t i cl a
s ug u

( )
zu m ba
b e k ara
-
if [ ,
I
n ot , e tc ,
e tc
. p
.
]
as s
s ho u
.

s ug u b e k ara
t ho u g h ]
’ ‘

[ I, e tc

Act l C nc iv z a re d o m o
ld
.

ua o ess e s ho u n ot etc
b e k ara ,
.
,
S ug u -

ass
z u t o i e d o mo p .

H y p th t i l C nc s ug u b e k a ra vn if I,
i
o e ca o es e e e tc
iv
.

s e z a ru m o

( In d fi n t
e F m i e or s ug u m aji k u
-

C n l iv
e .

v
i
t

a P n t A tt i b ti v
re s e
o

r
c us

u
e

e
s ug u m a J i
-

s ug u m aji ki
-

C n l iv
c

s u g u m aji k a
i

d o c us e
n
I P t
as r i ki

A tt i b t i v r u e s ug u m aji k a
r i s hi

e
.
C n di ti n l
o o a
s ug u m aji k e
re b a
u
i
l
b
q
H y p t h t ic l
o e a
s ug u m a iku

( ) ha
11 1
j
O
C nc iv
o e ss e
s ug u m a i ke
re d om o
j

[I e tc ] d id no t p as s,
s ug i z ari k e ri ,

v
.
-

ha e no t o r ha d n o t
S ug i z a ri k e ru -

p as s e d
n n
.

as , si c e, or w he

C n d it i n l
o o a
Sl

é
g
a
i z ar i k e r e -

[ ,
I e t c ] d
v
i d no t p a s s ,

h a e n o t o r ha d n o t
.

p as s e d .

t ho ug h [ I, e t c ] d i d
v
°

s ug ] z a ri ke re
.

Co nc e s s 1 v e n o t p a s s , ha e n ot
domo
o r had no t p a s se d
.

.
 VE RB S .

F O U RT H REG U LA R
M iru To se e .

I nd e fi ni te F orm f or all
Tn e se s

P nt
re s e
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
[ , y ,
I
y
o u
o u, t he
h
y]
e ,

s
s

e
h
e
e ,
i t,

v
.

s a w , ha e
F i rs t [ I etc ]

n n
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 .
,

s e e , o r ha d s e e

v
.

n
Se c o d P a s t [ ,
I
se e
e t c
n ] s a .w ,

o r ha d s e e
h a e
n
v
.
,

Th i d r P as t [ I ,
e t c ]
n
s a w , ha e
.

s e e , o r h ad s e e n
v
.

F ou rt h Pa s t OOOOOOOOO [ ,
I e t c ] s a w h a e
n ,

n
.

s e e , o r ha d s e e

ll
.

e tc ]
F ut ure [ I ,
s ha.
p ro

b ably s e e .

P re s e n t C n diti n l
o o a m i re b a
as, nc si e, or n whe
[ I t ]
e c se e
in wh n
.
,
.

as , s ce, or e
P as t C n di ti n l m i s hi k ab a
w h v
[
n ]
o o a I t e c sa a e
m i t a re b a
n ,
.
,

s ee or 1a d se e .

miba
P re s e n t Hyp o t he t ic al n
m i ab a if [ ,
I e tc .
] s ee .

m i ru

P as t H y p th ti l
o e ca
m i t ar a b a
m i s hi ara b an if [ ,
I e tc .
] had see n .

Op t a t iv e m i b ay a oh t ha t I c ld ou se e
m i re d o m o
P re s e nt A t l C n v t ho ug h [ I e t c ] do
ac t ually s e e
c essi m i ru t o i e d o ,
.

c ua o e

mo
.

P re s e n t H y p th t i
o e c al Co n mi ru m o
e v n if [ I
e etc ] see
c e s siv e m it e m o
. .
,

m i s hi ka d o m o
m i t a re d o m o
m i t a ri t o i e d o t ho ug h [ I e tc
] s aw ,

C nc i v v n
,
.

Pas t o ess e mo ha e see or ha d

m i s hi t o i e d o s ee n .
,

mo
m is hi m o

see "
vn
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

[ b y ] ha i g se e n
n
.

[ y]
b s e e i g .
 VE B S R . 63

CONJ UGATI ON .

( Ste m Mi .
) A ffi r m a t i v e V o ic e .

Ind fi n it e e F o rm mi ( ru) b e k u -

[ ,
I e tc ] w ill, s ha ll
Cn l
.

o c lu s i v e mi ( ru) b e shi -
w ou d , s ho uld ,m ay
P re se nt mig ht , c an , c o uld

A tt ri b ut i v e m i ( r u) m us t , o r o ug h t t o
se e
C n l iv
.

o c us e m i ( ru) b ek a
[ I e tc ] s ho u ld e tc
A tt i b t iv v n
,
.
,
.
,

r u e mi ( r u) -
b e ka ha e se e .

r i s hi

C n d it i n l
o o a m i ( ru ) b e k e a s , or s i nc e
'

[ ,
I e tc . ]
re b a s ho u ld etc see

H y p t h t ic l ld
. .
, ,
s ho u
o e a m i ( ru ) b e k u -
if [ ,
I e tc .
] ,

( m) ba e tc .
,
see .

m i ( r u) b e k e

A c t l C nc iv
ua o ess e
re d o m o o r t ho ug h I ,
e tc .

m i ( ru ) b e s hi s h o uld , e t c .
,
se e .

t o ie d om o
Hy p o t he t i c al Co n m i ( ru) b e ku e vn
e if I, e t c
l
.

c e s siv e D 10 s ho u d, etc , see . .

In d fi ni t F m
e e or m i t ak u
C n l iv
-

P n t A tt i b t iv
re s e
o c us
r u
e

e
m i t a s hi
-

m i t a ki
- [ ,
I e tc .
] wa nt t o see .

P t
C n l iv o c us e m i t ari k i [ ,
I e tc ] w nt d a e to
A tt i b t i v
-
.

as
r u e m i t a r i s hi
-
see
n n
.

C n diti n l
o o a mi
as ,

[ I e t
si
c ] w
c e,
a t t o se e
or

n
w he

n
. .

H yp th t ic l o e a m i t ak u( m ) b a
-
if
[ I,
e t c ] w a t t o .

se e .

m i t a k e re d o
-

C nc i vo ess e
mo t ho ug h [ I ,
etc .
] wa nt
m i t a s hi t o ie
-
to se e .

d om o

C n l iv
o c us e m i k e ri
-

[ ,
I e tc ] s aw , ha v e

A tt i b t i v n n
.

r u e mi k e ru
-
se e ,
or had see .

as , si n ce, or w he n
C ndit i n l
o o a m i ke r e b a ooo [ I, e tc ] s aw , ha v e

n hd n
‘
.

se e ,
or a se e .

t h ou gh [I t e c ] s aw,

C nc i v v n
.
,

o ess e mi ke re d o mo
-
ha e se e or h ad
n
,

se e .
 R
VE B S . 65

C ONJ UG A TI ON .

( S t em Mi .
) Ne g a t i v e V o ic e .

In d fi ni t e e F o rm m i ( r u) b e k araz u
-

C n l iv m i ( r u) b e k a [ ,
I etc ] W l ll, ll s ha
ld m y
.

o c us e - ,

P re s e nt ra z u I w o u ld , s ho u

c ld
,
a ,

A tt i b t iv r u e m i ( r u ) b e ka
- t m i g ht , c a n, ou ,

m us t , 07 o ug ht n o t
“
raz at a l
J t o, see .
C n l iv o c us e m i ( ru) b e k a
-

r a z ar iki
[ I, etc ] s hou ld n ot
A tt i b t i v v n ,
.

r u e m i ( ru ) b e k a
-
etc .
,
ha e see .

r az a ri s hi

C on di t i n l o a m i ( ru ) b e k a in [ ,
I etc ]
i
-
a s , or s c e,
ld
.

ra z are b a s ho u not , e t c see

Hy p th ti l
. .
,
m i ( r u) b e k a if ]
} [I
o e ca etc s ho uld
-
.
,

n o t e tc se e .
,
.

m i ( r u ) b e ha
-

ra z are d o m o thoug h I, etc

c t l C nc i v ld
.

A ua o e ss e m i ( ru) b e ka s ho u n ot
,
e tc .
,
raz u t o i e d o se e .

me
H yp th ti l o e ca m i ( r u) b e k a e vn e if I, e t c
l
.

i c ess ve r a z a ru m o s ho u d , e t c , not s ee
In d fi n i t F m
. .

m i ( r u) m aji ku
e e or
]
C n l iv
-

m i ( ru ) m aji
P n t A tt i b t iv
re s e
o

r
c us

u
e

e
-

m i ( r u) m aji k i
C n l iv
-

o c us e m i ( r u) m aji
k ar iki
A tt i b t i v r u e m i ( r u ) m aji
k a ri s hi 60

C n di ti n l
o o a m i ( r u) m ap "
a)

2 T5
k e re b a g g
H y p th ti l o e ca m i ( r u) m aji i
a

ku( m ) b a ggE
LC i m i ( r u) m aj i o
o n c e ss v e
( 53 8 h
k e re d o m o

C n l iv
o c us e m i z a ri ke n [I ,
e tc

v
.
] d id n ot

n
see ,

A tt i b t v
-

ha e n o t s e e , o r
r u i e m i z a r i k e ru
-

had n o t s e e n
n n
.

as , si c e , or w he

C n d i ti n l
o o a m i z a ri k e re b a
- [ , e tc ] di d n ot s e e ,
I
v
ha e n o t s e e , o r
.

n
h a d n ot s e e n .

t ho ug h [ I, e t c ] d id
C nc iv mi z ari k e re
v
.

o ess e not see , ha e n ot

d o mo
or had not s e e n.
 66 J A PA N E E S GR MM R
A A .

R M R ON H P R D GM SE C . 3 . E A KS T E A A I S.

I The 1 t z d d 8 d c j gati i c l de v erbs of y

. s , u , an r , on u on s n u an

nu mber of yllable k “ t ki ll l t c j gat i s ; s, as or o s u , o , s on u on

amt m m a
“t ecti fy 2 md c j g ti ; h b m t
u ,
“ o r , on u a on o ro u , o

pe i h 3 d c j gati
r s , The 4 th c j gati c i t f the
r on u on . on u on on s s s o

f llo wi g t di yllabi c ve b l y
o n en ss r s on

hi m t d y i the , o r n s un .

”
hi m , t o w1 nn ow .

to ee e hi m , sn z .
”

im “ t h t with a bow d arrow , o s oo an .

im t f e ca t m etal , o us or s .

im t d w ell ” , o .

“ t we “to t “to have ”

u on ,
”
p o ar , on .

“ t l k
”
mi m t , o oo , o s ee .

mm t e emble ’

, o r s .

im t b il n , o o .

“ t l k bac k “ t co i d e f ll ws ”
NB K . i mi m .
— a er , o oo , o ns r, o o

mi m f m whi ch i t i c m p
ro ded K k m m ( c ll q i l s o o un . o o ro u o o u a

k k o mi m )
or o
“ t te t th gh al de i ve d f m mi m
, o s , ou so r ro ,

f ll ws the 3 d c j g t i
o o r on u a on .

II Jap e e ve b h ve
. i fi itive p pe ly calle d
an s r s a no n n ro r se -
.

The p e e t te e d ch exp e i
r s n y k k t “ t h
ns an su r s s on s as u u o o, e

act f g i g ; y ki hi k t
o the act f ha vi g g e
o n
”
u s o o, o n on ,
"

supply i t b e ce s a s n .

III The . f th i d efi i t f rm i explai e d us e o e n n e o s s n on

page 4 7 I t h g ti v v i ce the ge d ppli e the

. n e ne a e o r un su s

ab e ce f i de fi it f m
s n o an n n e or .

IV Th f dam t l d i ti cti betwee t h i di c ti ve

. e un en a s n on n e n a

an d the bli q e m d i th at each t e f th i di cati ve

o u oo s s en s o e n

c t i a c cl ive f m wh i ch i ed t te m i te
on a n s on us or s us o r na

se te ce
n d a att ib t i ve form which i
n s, an ed li ke n r u s us an
 VE RB S . 67

adj cti v pre fi xe d t

e e
( page whereas bl i
o n o un s q e se e no o u

m d oo d e te ce
c an enbe p efixe d t a o a s n n , or r o n un .

In f ct the bli q e m d
a ve b p e d im pl
o u oo s ar e r s ur an s e,

wh e e t h te e
r as f t h i di cat i ve m d
e ns f the at e
s o e n oo a re o n ur

o f pa t i c i ple r The ge d lik the bli q e m oo d s i ve bal

s . r un , e o u , s r

on ly ; d the a m e f pa t pa t i c i ple applie d to it by s m e

an n o s r o

gramm i a i a m i m e ar ns s sn o r .

V The J pa e e
. the p ese t te se m e c mm ly
a n s u se r n n or o on

tha w d N t l y d they em pl y i t f ge e l a er
n e o . o on o o or n ra ss

ti b t th ey f eq e tly de te by i t pa t eve t
on s , u r u nle t h no s n s, un ss e

f ct f ch eve ts bei g pa t i the m t otew thy thi g

a o su n n s s os n or n

ab t the m
ou F t e ev e t . l som etim es i di cated by
u ur n s ar e a s o n

the pre e t te e if there is do bt as to the certai ty of

s n ns , no u n

thei occ rre ce r u n .

VI Th fi t pa t i the o igi al d t e past t

. e rs s s r n an ru en s e ,
>< i

expres i g it d e pa t tim e d thi g m re The ther

s n , as o s, s an no n o . o

pa t whe a aly e d
s s, f d t be c m p d f rm e d by
n n s , ar e o un o o o un s o

m ea f a xi l i a y v erb
ns o a t ace f wh e p pe ig ifi
u r s, r o os ro r s n ca

t i o ti ll r i ve Th y ki t i i f y ki t i li t is
n s su v s .
“ us u ai s or a a ar , .

havi g n Y ki t i ki i the me y k i t i w
u ith the ar s sa as u ar ,

sig f the fir t pa t te e adde d B th the e

n o s ge erally
s ns . o s are n

be t e dere d b y the E gli h pe fect b t m etim e by the

s r n n s r , u so s

pre e t th s n C hi hi m i t i
, us :
“ H i l ike h i fathe c
’

n ar , e s s r .

Ig n n t w it
‘3‘
o rapt t th tt ib t i v f t h c ncl i v
r e r s a re a o use e a r u e or e o us e
f m f t hi t n
or o g y k i h t th
s d f
e se , n t nc w h e lt s l a e en o a se e e, e re
c c t g m m q i y h i hi
. .

o rre ra ar r e u re s u .

1 D '
t nf nod i t w
noi t h h coll q i l f qou n t t i v f m t e co o u a re ue a e or s
i t i
n arch i i k i t i w i t h t i m t b t
su as tta r t ar or ar ta a re a , e c c o n ra c
ti n f t ffi d t n n
, , , .
,

o s i o m o b t ar to a Th m t to a re a, e c su xe o ou s e os
l n d in g f t h l tt f m i t h v b t b b t t h y “
,
. .
, ,

li t e ra re er o e se a er or s s e er o e u e

are f t n b “t m i tt d f m Engl i h t l ti n Th G i k i
o e es o e ro an s r a ns a o us : a
m y c n t it t m b ly
.

ta ra n m Th wh o no , ( li b ) th
ose o a o s u e t e e as se
"

i th f t
.

“
,

i e Th m m b e e C hi hi hi hi te rs t i t m
n 1 e u ure c c c a ra zu o n o o, 00
E n if f th d
. . .

m tt k t
a e mb m b h
o a ra zu a u t -
t i a a r d a n, ve a a er oe s no ac n
a f th ly m n hi c hild m t t f il t t i fili l m r
a er a ne r, s us no a o ac n a a anne
"
.
 68 JA PN
A E SE G MM R
RA A .

In n an d i n um , th e te r m in a ti on s o f the f th pa t
o ur s , ar e them
s elve the p e e t f
s ld rb ig i fy i g
s n g w y o an o v er s n n
“t o o a a .
”

The f the f
us e o th p t t he ef e i di c te th at th cti
o ur as r or n a s e a on

o f the ve b i c m pletely fi i h e d
r s d d e wi th
o Th gi n s an on . us s u

m me “ pa e d w y The l y ve b f t h ”
nu it h an s as ss a a . on r s o e

f th c j gati whi ch p e the f rt h pa t

o ur on u on hi m o s s ss ou s ar e ,

“to wea i m “ t b
r i l
”
d i
n m “ t re em bl o o an a o s e
”
; , , .

Som e ve b f m the f th p t b y m ea f the te m i a

r s or o ur as ns o r n

ti mon s m ; the by m ea of t t m
i , nu wi ll be
o rs ns au , sa , as

see by refe e ce t th p a di gm A f w ve b tak e ith r

n r n o e ar s . e r s e e

se t of term i at i i di ff e tl y th
n h m m
on s h m t m n er n , us o en u or o e su ,

I[ ] have p ai e d D t c f r d m the c cl i ve
s — o no on o un e, on us

term i ati n f the f th pa t with

on o the att ib ti ve o ur s , nu r u

term i ati o f the egati ve p e e t The

n n o bei g n r s n . on e n c on

e lus i ve d the othe att i b tive they

an ev cc py the r r u , c an n er o u

sam e place i the se te ce I the fi t c j gati the

n n n . n rs on u on

t w are f rther di t i g i h ed b y the p ece di g v wel wh i ch

o u s n u s r n o ,

i i i the f rth past

s n d oui the egati ve th y ki an a, n n , us : u n u,

“ we t away “ d
”
t g Th pe fect whi ch
n ; y k u a n u, o no o . e r ,

exi t ly i ve b f the fir t co j gati

s s on n d i the
r s o s n u on an n

i eg l ar v erb m t d replace the pa t d m e

rr u
“ su , o o,
”
s s , an so

t i m e the p e e t whe the acti m e ti ed i pecific

s r s n , n on n on s a s on e .

VII The calle d f t e i di cate

. so t -
m ch f t i t y u ur n s, no so u u ur ,

a s un ce tai ty d m y the ef re be e d i pea ki g eve

r n , an a r o us n s n n

fp e e t pa t eve t if they d btf l th J h h ‘

o r s n or s n s ar e ou u , us : ir -
a

k n n en
-
m k t m “
a e noIt m t have bee som e eightee
o o na n, us n n

or i etee yea g
n n n rs a o .

VIII The co diti al d hyp theti cal whi ch

. n on an o , ar e c on

f ded togethe i th m d c ll q i l di lect f T okyo

o un r n e o ern o o u a a o ,

are sharply di ti g i he d i the w i tte la g age Th the

s n u s n r n n u . us

co ditio al phra e K h k y k
n n b y o mi t ki
s b hi a ra c i s u o a a na r a a , e Si t -
es

m ns A he is rob ust he will do for th work ; where

ea s , e
”
as
 VE RB S . 69

the hyp theti cal K o am da s u ho y a ka na r a ba , y o ml t e ki Sic -

bes hi
me “ b t he wi ll d f the w k The ”
an s If h i e s ro us , o or or .

h yp t h et i c l m d
o i am et i m e e m pha i e d b y t h
oo s so f s s z e u se o

th w d w hi
e
“
or if pe ch ce
h s pl ced at the begi i g f
, r an , a nn n o

the cl The c diti al f ll we d by i m ea

a us e on
“ it ion o o na r ns s

bec e T h A w mi m m w i w i i
au s . us : a re a o no a sa a na r : s o no

hi t o ua a w ‘
mi w b k a re b i B le e d
e u the m e ci f l
-
e ere a, na r , ss ar e r u

for ( li t i t i beca . e ) the y s hall bt i m e c

us y s o a n r .
”

IX Th c ce ive m d i m etim e m pha i d by the

. e on ss oo s so s e s ze

f the w d t t i eve th gh at t h b gi m g f ”
us e o or a o , n ou , e e n n o

the cl e O cca i lly th c ce i ve w d s t i d m

a us . s on a e on ss or o e o o ar e

us e d i the e f eve if eve i th B mm i k k

n s en s o n ,
”
n n, us u e o u

t i d m
o e o im d o, g i w ma k m m t
a s o no w “ E v ea i e a nu
'

u a a a z u, n n

ci vil i e d c tri es [pe ple] c t e cape it avage

z o un , o ann o s s r s .

X The p te ti al d pr hi bit ive f m s c m m ly repl ace

. o n an o or o on

the f t e d the i m pe ati ve Th y k b hi I wi ll

u ur an r . us : u u -
es ,

go,
’ 7
athe tha
r y k r
y k b k m n
y k mg
u an ;
y u u- e a zu , or u u -
a i , ou

m t rathe tha y k ”
us t g no o, g t r n u a z a re , o no .

XI The d e i de ative f m
. s ed i t w lightly
r or s ar e us n o s

d iffe e t w ay
r n Th while y ki t k m ea s I wa t t
s . us , u -
a u n n o

g o,
”
i d on t k m ea I w
e na s a r e a t y t g u W he ns an ou o o . n

su ffi d t xe h i fi ve b the te m i t i
o an o n or t k alway c r , r na on a u s

refe t the w ite while the verb it lf ef to the pe

rs o r r, se r er s r s on

add e e d Whe
r ss . ffi d t a h m ble ve b the e tire
n su xe o u r , n

c m p d r fe t the write I ther ca e a gla ce at

o o un e rs o r . n o s s n

the c text ge e ally h w whethe t k h ld be referred

on n r s o s r a u s ou

to the bject tsu th bject T h G m i t k

or o e o . us : o r h o re

ar it k a m hi t t m t m i o o
u ac
“ -
I m waiti g re pectf lly
a e a s -
s r , a n s u ,

wi hi g f y
s n g t pp ach i
or o ur “ I h pe y will
au u s a ro ,
”
. e . o ou

c m e S al C hapte IX Secti ii 3
o . ee so r , on .

XII The ill ati v e te e have bee so de ig ated becaus e

. ns s n s n

th ir distinc tive termi atio h t was ori gi ally the p erfect of

e n n ea n
 70 JA PN A ESE GR MM R
A A .

the irreg l ar verb h m to c e S c a w

u u , om . u h or d as mi ker i -

the ef e lite ally i g ifie I h ve c m e havi g e

r or r s n s a o n s en
”

(j i w
e v e s d i ) d c e p
o co r d ex ctl ,y t an t h c ll q i l
o rr s on s a o e o o u a

mi t ki m hi t
e The f m s i k i m y p acti cally be
as a . or n ei a r c on

sid d t be eq i v le t
ere o f t h fi t pa t pa t c di t i al
u a n s o e rs s , s on on ,

an d p t c ce i ve e pect i v l y
as on ss r s e .

XIII B e ide the m e . s l ve b l f m gi ve i the

s or u s ua r a or s n n

pa a di gm the e m y s m etim e be m t with

r s, r a o s e :

Archaic ve bal f m i k whi ch r ed t i tr d ce

or s n a u, ar e us o n o u

q tati o
uo Th i w k ns . he
[ ] a y us :
( m et i m e bett
u u s s so s er

re dered by am ely
n i mk [he] aid b th f m t
n e u, s ,
”
o ro u,
“t o sa
y ; m k
”
I
[ ] tho ght f
o era m m u,
“ to thi k ou , ro o o u, n .
”

A k i di cate the pre e t m k the

u n s s n , e u I
,

P te t i al f rm
o n ch i o ok mfs sub hi d e ived as a r nu a uu -
es r

f m a f rth pa t wh i ch i t i t elf i
ro ou s , They d t s no s n us e . o no

diff i er m ea i g f m the
n di a y p te t i al
n n ro m b hi or n r o n s ri -
es ,

“m t be us c h m b hi “ m t be me u -
etc es us nu r ou s ,
”
, .

F t re f m e d b y a d di g m t the attrib tive pre e t as

u u s or n u o u s n ,

a mm hall be mi m m
u, s h ll n s a see .
”

A t of periph a ti c f t e de ti g i te ti
s or r s bei g u ur no n n n on or n on

the p i t f perf rm i g
o n o acti f m ed b y fii i g the
o n an on , or su x n

w rd t m t the f t re p per Th y k t m
o s o su , o u u ro . us : u an o su ,

“ t m a ke t “t be the p i t f
”
g i g t be “ ”
o g o o, o on o n o o n , o

ab t to g
ou t m o
“ t be ab t t d
s on o su S m th , o ou o o .
”
u , us

us ed m y be i flecte d th gh m t f it t e
, a n y k t r ou os o s e n s s , as u au o

s eshi “ w ,ab t t d y k t hi t bei g b t t d

as ou
“ o o, u an o s e, n a ou o o,

etc O cca i ally thi pe iph a t i c f t re i c pte d i to

. s on s r r s u u s o rru n

on e word d i the e ily m i take f a eg ti v th

, an s n as s n or n a e, us

y k u a uz u y k ( f or y k t m
u a zu
) S t i ll m e c
or r r pt u an o su . or o u

f rm of the sam e are y ka

o s d y ka m They occ r l y u z u an u zu . u on

i the sem i colloq ial style

n -
u .

F orms in dicati g si m lt eity by me ns of t t u uffi d n u an , a su s s xe

 RR G
I E U LA R VE RB S . 71

to the i defi ite form as y ki t t

n n whil e goi g mi t t , u s u s u, n s u s u,

“whi le l ki g oo n .

F eq e tat i ve i mi th
r u n ki mi w i mi
s N w c yi g
n , us ua a ra , o r n ,

w la gh i g
”
no u n .

F m i t or d e i v e d f m the eco d pa t
s n a ra n d rearly ro s n s , an n

c rre p di g t the E gli h f t e pa t th s y ki t m

o s on n o n s u ur s , u u a n,

wi ll p bably have g e ro on .

S ch c m p d exp e i s y k
u o o un d m f y k m r s s on as u un na r e o o, or u u o,

the hyp theti cal c ce i ve o on ss .

S ch egative p te ti al expre i o s y k m b hi f
u n o n ss ns a u a za -
es , or

y k
u u b k m -
Y k e a m b hi lea
zu . m e t the e e of
u a za -
es ns or o s ns

m y at g tha t th the e e f the p te ti l

no o n o e o r s ns s o o n a .

S ch exp e i
u y k m b m b k
r s s on s a s m “ ca ot b t u azu u a -
e a zu , nn u

m t g e d t c vey the e e of ece ity ”

us o, us o on s ns n ss .

4 R GU L R V RB S SE C . . IR E A E .

I Appa e t i rreg la iti e

. r n c e d i la ge m ber f u r s ar e au s n r nu s o

ve b b y the i bil i ty f t h Japa e e t p

r s na ce t i i o e n s o r o n o un c er a r

c t b f ce t i v wel d b y the e ph i c cha ge

on s on an s e o re r a n o s , an u on n s

e lti g f m thi i bil i t y Th fr m the tem t t t

r su n ro s na
“ . us o s u , o

t d w h ve t t t hi i te d f t t t ti F a li t
s an , e a a s u, ac , ns a o u u, a . or s

o f th e i m p t t
es ph i c ch ge or an p ge 6 eu on an s , see a .

II S ch ve b f t h 2 d c j gati
. u r sk t y mo
“ to e n on u on as o a u ,

a w ; t y m t d ec y m tly c t act thi t

ns er
“”
o oro u , o a ,
”
os on r s a

t ib ti
r u p e e t i t k tom t om
ve r s n d the c cl i ve
n o o , o or , an on us

p e t i t k to t
re s n n o o , o oro
'

III V b f th l t c j g ati wh e tem e d i

. er s o e s on u on os s n s n 3,

su ch kas
“ t l av no ; t k w
os u ,
“ t d o em e
”
su a a s u, o sen ,
”
a re s o e

t i m e c j g te d i ce tai te e
s on u a if t h e y w e n m r n ns s as re co

p d f the i g l v b m t d
o un s o
“ rr e Th we c m e
u ar er su , o o . us o

ac ch f m
ro s s s u k hi f ork hi hi s a s uo o ses o r uo os s .

IV C oll q i al co tracti o
. o ch as tt for m i t bei g
u n ns , su a e e, n
 IR E U RG LA R VE RB S .

an d i flected reg l arly thro gh all the m oods d te ses

n u u an n ,

th s ki t i ki t i ki ki t i tmi etc etc

u : a rer , ar ,
ar , .
, .

N m a
“ t be i defi ite f m d ge d i t p e e t
, o ,
”
n n or an r un n e; r s n

c cl i ve i (i te d f m ) N pe fect te e O the
on us na r ns a o na . o r ns . r

wi e c j gated eg la ly accor di g t l t co j gati

s on u r u r n o s n u on

fr m tem
o s D t c fo d the i eg la v e b
na r . m t o no on un rr u r r nu , o

be with m t bec m e whi ch l tte i a eg l ve b

,
“ nu , o o ,
”
a r s r u ar r

of the l t co j g ti s They e i ly di t i g h d
n u a on . ar e as s n us e , as

nu m “t be i eve p ecede d by
o the f the p t
s n r r on e or o r o os

p i ti
os i d t
on s u whereas m m t bec m e i al way
“an o, , o o , s s

so p ece ded th s
r , u

H jo m t fan
“ a pr per s t w m re lit a p o
na
“
o u, os ou o n o . r s

pe tow i
rs
“ a t w whi ch p pers (This i the
n,
”
. s . o n ro s . s

att ib ti ve f m f m t
r u or o nu , o

H y a n o ui m tf a t w whi ch i bec m i g pr pe
na o u, o n s o n os r

ous .
( Att
”
i b t i ve f m f m rt bec me u or o nu , o o

T f h jo o u m i “ the t w i p pe
an no ( C cl i ve , o n s ros r o us . on us

f m f m t be
or o
“ na , o .

Tf h jo i m m
o u
“ the t w i bec m i g p o pero s
an u , o n s o n r s u .

( C cl
on i ve f mus f m t bec m or) o nu o o e
”

S hi k m “ t be t h
u B ei g a c t ct i
, o of hi k m us . n on r a on s u a ,

it i c j gate d like m The lik

s on u di g hi k m “ t a . e s o un
-
n s a , o

sc l d i a eg la ve b of the l t c j ga t i
o , s r u r r s on u on .

S hi m “ t di
nu p e e t att i b t i ve hi m (f hi )
, o e, r s n r u s nu or s nu .

O t h e wi e c j g t d eg l a l y acc di g t l t c j g t i
r s on u a e r u r or n o s on u a on

f m tem hi It i t m ch e d the C hi e e eq i v l t
ro s s n . s no u us , n s u a en

s hi m be i g p efe e d
su n r rr .

So e r C h apte X
, see r .

S m u t d , c j gate d acc di g t th 3 d c j g ti
o o, on u or n o e r on u a on ,

except i th f ll wi g t e Affi m ti ve c cl i ve p f ct
n e o o n en s s r a on us er e

s ari att ib tive pe fect m c cl i ve fi t pa t h

; r u r so on us rs s s es i

fut ure p ast c o di tional

s en hi k b or hi t b p e e t n s es u a s a re u ; r s n
 74 JA PA NE SE GR MM R A A .

hyp othetical seba or

ptati ve b y pa t co ce i ve sena ba ; o se a a s n ss

ses hi k d m a hi t i d m
o o , s es etc i m pe ati ve y N gati ve
o e o o , . r se o. e

al l the te es d w to fir t f m f im pe at i ve h ve i tead
ns o n s or o r a 6 ns

o f i th , us m s ezu , etc ; f th im pe ati ve

soz a , se n u , . o ur r s u na -

ill ative f rm s al o h ve f i
o s i k i etc I m y
a 3 or , as s ez a r -
er , .
— n an

c m p d m i ig i d ( p ge th at i t y that
o o un s su s n or
’
e see a s o sa

s is cha ged i t n d h i t j th n o gh t the wh le

z, an s n o rou ou o

co j gat i th
n u on , m “ t di c us : i de fi i te ji
r on zu , o s us s n n ron

co cl i ve pre e t
n us perfect s n i d etc
r o nz u ; r o nz er an r o nz e r u, .

Do t c f d the i eg l a ve b “ with ”
no on o un m t d rr u r r su , o o, s uru ,

which i a reg l ve b f th l t c j gati

”
t o rub , s u ar r o e s on u on .

U t get
ru , c( ll q i al m ) It le i eg l ity i that
o o o u e . s so rr u ar s

it h (i appea a ce at l t )
as n tem th real tem bei g
r n e as no s , e s n

the i gle lette y whi ch h va i h ed It c i t f the

s n r , as n s . on s s s o

m ere term i at i f t he pa a di g m f the 2 d c j g t i

n on s o r o n on u a on

give n p g e 5 4 t 5 7 th
on a s i d fi it f m pee t
o , us : n e n e or a ; r s n

te e ns d m etc
u an It m t t be c f de d wi th m
u , . us no o n o un u ,

t ell whi ch i a reg l v b f th fi t c j g ti

o s ,
”
s u ar er o e rs on u a on .

U y r
“ to g i eve i d fi ite f m
o ru , r i tt i b
,
"
n e n or a re a o r ure ; a r u

tive p e e t yom c cl i ve p e t yo p t ti l te e
r s n ur on us r sen ur ; o en a ns s

ur y a b k -
t e O t h e
u, e c wi e i t i. c j g t d eg l a ly a ve b r s s on u a e r u r as r

o f the 2 d c j gat i n f m the tem

on u on ro s ur o .

5 P V SEC PO T N T L V RB
. . A S S I E A ND E IA E S .

The Jap e e l g ge h an s peci al c j gati f the

an ua as n o s on u on or

pa i ve v i ce All call d pa i ve ve b b l g t th
ss o . so -
e ss r s e on o e

s ec d acti ve c j g ati
on d on u i fl cte d cc di g t th on , an ar e n e a or n o e

pa a digm gi ve
r p ge 5 4 t 5 7 T h y de iv d f m h
n on a s o . e ar e r e ro t e

c p d i g active v b cc di g t th f ll wi g le
o rre s on n er s a or n o e o o n ru

I v bn f th l t c j g t i
er s o dd m m
e i th s 2 d on u a on a u , n e n

c j g ti
on u a m i th 3 d i m m
o n e ra ru d i the 4 th
,
mmn e r ra , an n ra

t the t m
o Th us i the l t c j gati n
s e . n s on u o
 PA s e E VE RB S . 75

“to c ut
“t o be ( mo re li t
”
.
, to
g e t ) c ut .

“t o w a i t ma ta m ru , ted f
t o g e t wai or .

to la gh u wa ra u a m m '

, to get la ghe d at
u .

In the 2 nd, 3 rd , an d 4 th c j g ti
on u a on s

ho mum “t o r i s pa e ho mera m m , “t o get p i e d ra s .

t h te d
,
“t o h a e um mi m m m ,
“t o e t
u ra ni um g a .

get see
,

ni i m to see ni i r a m m, “t o n .
”
,

( The c rre p di g c llooq ial for m are k

si on n o u s ra r o m, ma ta mru ,
u a ra wa r e m
'

The f llowi g pa sives (or pote ti al

o n s n s
) in comm o n us e are
form ed ir eg la ly r u r :

k mmm ofr m k m , o u , t o om c e .

m , (o r ) t o do
"
s c ra m s a i ur u s um
'

.
,

s hi na m m , s hi n um
“t o di e .
,

T h gh f m d i r eg la ly f m th ei tem they are

ou or e r u r ro r s s, c on

j g t d reg l ly li ke ll ther pa i ve
u a e u ar d p te t i a l as
, a o ss s an o n s,

v e b f the 2 d c j gat i
r s o n on u on .

A gl ce at the i gi f the J p e e pa ive wi ll f r i h

an or n o a an s ss u n s

the t de t with a k y t all the di ffi c lti e c ected wi th it

s u n e o u s o nn .

P pe l y peaki g th
ro r s calle d pa i ve i t a pa ive at all
n , e so -
ss s no ss ,

b t i m ply
u s acti ve i di g i e S ch a f m t m m f
an n s u s . u or as u a , or

i ta ce w
ns n i gi ally
,
hi i m as lite ally p ible
or n uc ar u , as r as oss

“ t get be i g be t ing
o i e “t getn b ti g a
“ t get . . o a ea n
”
or o
, ,

beate nH ce i t place i t h
. 2 d act i ve c j gat i o
en s n e n on u n

al g with th ve b m t get ; d he ce the fact that

on
“ e r u , o
”
an n

i t i t i ve v e b
n r an s have pa i ve f m r Oi t k
s c an i hi ss or s , as e o u s na

ru m y i k or hi ki hi “
a na sThe e i th i g sadd er th u a na s ,
r s no n an

t h v chil d di whe The Japa e e ”

i ld ( i d i m
’
o a e on e s e n on e s o . n s o

ii“
c nc
F o r s u h e up ho i c ha g e s a s t he o m i s s i o o f t he n n 8 i n ma ta m m
and t he i ns e rt i o n
o f t he w i n wa ra wa m m , s e e p ag e 7 .
 76 JA P A NE SE GR M AM AR .

s ee m at fi t ight t be
s rs s e ch l He ce
o
“t o he d i e d b o n s
y i d
’
. n

t oo the freq e t the p tp t

u n th the e
us e of os o s i i o n wo wi s so

c lled pa i v e ve b Th S hi F t ji k i t m hii
a ss r s . us : n -
u su en u a as a o

b w
u a t
a re e, Thei r wh le atte ti bei g b bed b y t h o n on n a s or e

F a co C hi e e c m pl i cat i m e l i te ll y “ H vi g g t ”
r n -
n s o on , or ra a n o

thei wh le pir it ab be d etc I thi d all im ila

r o s s or , .
”
n s an s r

c text whe e pa ive ve b

on s r e d wh t i the bject
ss r s ar e u s , a s su

o f t h t e E gli h p
e ru i ve i the object f the J pa e e
n s as s s o a n s

q a i pa i ve The se t ce m y m y t have a the

u s -
ss . n en a , or a no ,
no r

su bject exp e ed G e e ally r ss he e i t h . t few n r , as r , as no ,

J pa e e e te ce f y
a n s s n t havi g bj ct p ope ly s
n s o an s or n su e s r r o

called ( See Sy tax ect 6 d al page

. n . s . an so

The wo d by i E gli h pa i ve phra e i exp e ed i

r n n s ss s s s r ss n

J apa e e by i thn s I i hi u k i t k mm
, us :T be nu u as a o u -
su a , o

bi tte i the l eg by a d g m re litera lly To get o e s leg

n n o , o , n
’

bitte by a dog
n .

T the origi
o f the pa i ve verb i n active f rm
o ss n an o c an

li kewi e be trace d the alte at i v e

s f the pa i ve a rn u se o ss as

p te ti al Take f i ta ce mi m m lit t get a eei g

o n . or ns n ra , . o s n .
”

Thi f m is at rally cept ible f t w ha de f m ea i g

s or n u sus o o s s o n n ,

whi ch either I t get a eei g fr m s m e el e i

ar e
“ o s n o o e on s , . s .

“t get ee
o II t get a eei g e elf i
s
“ n or
“ t be o s n on s
”
s . o
, .

able to see S im ilarly wi th m m m the pa ive f the

.
”
se , ss o

i eg l r v e b m t d
rr u a
“ r S ig i fyi g igi lly t get
su ,
“ o o .
”
n n or na o

d i g it m y m ea either t have m ethi g d e to

“
”
a o n , a n o so n on

t be ab l e t d
”
on e , or o o o .

F r m it o a p te ti al the
s us e as f the pa i ve o n us e o ss as an

h on or ifi i b t a te p i t be i g
c s t ally c ide e d m e
u s , n n a ur on s r or

p ol i te t i n t i m ate
o th t exalte d pe g e i bl t pe f m
a an r s on a s a e o r or

a ce tai act i than bl ntly t a e t that h d i t him elf

r n on , u o ss r e o es s .

This h ifi i the co mm e t
on or c us e of the f rm der s on s us e o s un

c o sideratio
n Th s W g if n. h S hi u i/ i : a a se u ua
'

a na ra zu na se
”
u n
 I N TR N S T VA I I E VE B S R . 77

ts ui te hare wo yahya s e ra m ru ( for su m) There i

ui s ai nas hi ,
“ s

n ot the lighte t do bt b t th at
s s u u o ur g ver m e t wi ll dem a d
o n n n

thi f the C hi e e g ver m e t

s o n s o n n .

Alter ati ve m eth ds of exp e i g pote ti ali ty

n by o r ss n n ar e

p fi
re i g the
x ni d efi i te f m ffi i g nthe vari s i n or , or su x n ou n

fl t d f m “ t o get e d i th e e f t be “ ”
ec e f m or s o u , , us n e s ns o o

able Th .
”
iw ii “
us : I ca t y S m e
e a z u, or -
ez u , nn o sa . o

t im e i e d q i te i d pe d e tly
s u ru s us K m u n e n n , as a nz ez a a o ezu ,

“W ca ot b t feel a t i he d li “ We get
e nn ( t d u t t s on s . o no no

ko to a o on y ,
a Can on e

The Verb t be able i ffi d t the att i b tive

a a u,
“t o
,
”
s su xe o r u

pre e t f other ve bs t expre p te ti ality ( i it

s n o r o ss o n , or , n s

n egative voice im po ibility) y k t w ,

“ ca t g ss as u u a a a zu , nno o .

The verb k m to be able is ffi d t the i defi ite

a nu ,
un ,
”
su xe o n n

form to express imp os ibility y ki k m ca ot go s , as u -

a nu , nn .
”

6 ON C R T N T R N T V V RB S
SE C . . E AI IN A SI I E E .

There i a large cla s f verb whi ch i t i ge e ally

s s o s s n r c on

i t t tra late b y E gli h pa i ve

ven e n o ns p te ti al i di m n s ss or o n o s,

b t wh i ch
u p pe ly i t iti ve i Japa e e d m t be
ar e ro r n ra n s n n s , an us

ca ef lly di ti g i hed f m pa ive p te ti al Eve i

r u s n u s ro ss s or o n s . n n

E gl i h we feel a di ffere ce bet w e t w

n s , ch a e ti o n e n o su ss r n s as

The g ld i m elti g i the f ace d The g ld i bei g

o s n n urn , an o s n

m elte d i the f r ace n I the fi t ca e the act i

u n i p . n rs s , on s re re

se ted a p ta e
n as ; i th sec d ca e it i explicitly
on n ou s on e n e s on s , s

the wo k f m e te age t Th verb f the f rm er

r o so ou r n . e o o

c rre p d t the Japa e e t l m t m elt (i tr i tive) ;

o s on s o n s a cu , o , n an s

that f the latte t t k m m (pa i ve t get m elte d

o
“ r o o a ss o ,
”

de ive d f m the t a iti ve t k

r ro t m el t S im i r ns o u, o .

l a ly the i t
r . i ti ve miy m “ t be vi ible
n ran s d s u , o s , an

o bi y m “
u to start with fright c e p d very early b t
,
”
,
”
o rr s on n , u

n t quite to the p assi v e p ote tial s mi mm “to get ee ‘

o ,
-
n ra , s n
 78 JA PN A E SE GR M R AM A .

or be able t
“t o d bi y k mm t g t f i gh te ed
o s ee , an o a asa , o e r n

b
( y m e
so S ch i
on e t a i t i ve . e v e ed
u h ifi ll
n r nsy s ar e n r us on o r ca .

7
SE C ON TR N T V
. . N TR N T V P R OF RB
A S I I E A ND I A SI I E AI S VE S .

I E gl i h the am e w d c m m ly d e d ty b th as a
n n s s or o on o s u o

t a it ive d
r ns i t a i t i ve ve b
an asTh “t
an m lt n r ns r . us o e ,

“t b o
“t
ur n , ta d m y b eith r t iti ve i t i
”
o s n a e e r an s or n r an s
,

ti ve acc di g t the c t xt I Japa e e the tw m ea i gs

or n o on e . n n s o n n

a re expre ed by differe t ve b d e i ved fr m the sam e

ss n r s r o

root th , us
In t ra n si ti ve '

to dry
to be ina r ow .

to f g t ed
b e r i h en .

to ce
de s n d .

to xe
be fi d .

to receive .
”

to sta d n

to m ve o

to b ur n

Tr a nsi ti ve .

( 1 s t t o dr y ( ns
) tra .

( 2 nd
“ t o ut in
p row
”
a .

to f g te ( l st
“ ri h n

l er l st t o ow .

fix ( 2 nd to .
’

g ve 2u d to i .

2n d t o s e t up .

y k
n a a su ve t a l st “t o m o
( r ns .

y k
u u br ta
( l st to u n ( r ns .

The de i vati f the e pai f ve b f m the sam e t

r on o s rs o r s ro r oo

f ll w fi xe d le b t th tem f the t a iti ve f eq e tly

o o s no ru u e s o r ns r u n

e d i
n s M a y J pa e e i t a i t i ve ve b m t be t
n s. n a n s n r ns r s us ran s

l ted b y E gl i h reflecti ve v e b
a n b s
“ t am e r s, a s as o u, o us on e

self j i t m t kill sa s u s u lf m k m ,
“to o on e se a nzo u su , c on

te t o e elf Th J ap a ese l a g age has reflecti v v rbs

n n s .
”
e n n u no e e .
 CA US A T IVE VE B SR . 79

SE C . 8 . CA U SA TIVE VERB S .

C aus at i v e v erb s
are de i ve d f m r ro t a itive or i tra itive
r ns n ns

v e b cc rdi g t the f ll wi g l e
r s a o n o o o n ru

I ve b n f th l t c j r dds hi m m io the 2 d c j
e s on . a as u , n n on .

eshi m m i the 3 d i hi m m
u , d i t he 4 t h
n hi m m t the
r s u , an n s es u o

stem th , us :

tg } fro to m a ke
( C
“ o
mg i fi
t h hi m m
s u u ra s
f mt k m
u , su u , .

“t ca e ( c ll q m t m
]“tt eecak e lc mll )q tt kikm
o us o o o o
m t m him m m t m m
.

a a es u , “
4 a o u , ”
o s ,
e , o s ee .

( ) o us o o . su

t ki hi m m
su s t c m et u t k m, t c me t o o o su u , o o o an
”
d d an e n , en .

ki hi m m
s es
t c u
e hi m to wear o a us
.

to
, ,

ca ati ve
A ll c j g ated acc di g to the paradi gm f
us s ar e on u or n o

the 2 d c j gat i n d like ther verbs

on u cepti ble
on , an are , o , s us

o f the pa i ve i flect i s ss t m hi m mm t be ca
n on , a s nzo o es er a , o us

e d t eek o s .
”

The e i alte ative w y of f m i g the ca a t i ve f

r s an rn a or n us , o

whi ch the f ll wi g exam ple t k o m m t m

o n m ar e s s u ur a s u , a o es a s u ,

t ki
su m ki
sa s u m T h e alte ative f m
, s a su chi efly . se rn or s ar e

us ed i the p ive t ca ati v p per b t h ifi

n as s , no as us es ro , u as on o r c

su b ti t te f th im ple i t a i tive t a i ti ve ve b f m
s u s or e s n r ns or r ns r s ro

whi ch they d e i ve d “ ”
g m m f m
ar e t b ; r . e . . a r a s er a or a , o e

t mm f
a z un es a s er a t m “ t e q i e et or a zuna , o n u r , c .

Th c ative f h m hi m d m
e au s k hi m m
s O u , s nu , an su ar e o s as u

( or ko s as um ) , s hi na s hi m ui u
( or s hi na s ur u
) an d s es hi mum ( or
'

)
s a s um e pec t i vel yr s .

C ative v b
au s f rm e d f m adject i ve by a ddi g
er s ar e o ro s n

hi m m to the ste m
a ra s u h y k hi m m t ca e t be , as a a a ra s u , o us o

early f m h y ki ea ly
,
”
ro a a , r .
”

C a ativ e are forme d fro m egati v e v erbs

us s d a dje c ti v es n an
 O RNA M ENrA L '
VE B S R . 81

Ima yar i san j nen

-
u z en ui a r as hi mur eba , l it If ca sed
. on e u

it tobe thi ty year befo e w i r s r no , . e .

“S ppo i g it had
u s n

happe e d thirty yea g

n rs a o .
”

S ch tra i tive verbs

u bi y h
ns
“ to fr ighte t t m as o a as u , n a su ,

“t t o p etc
se m e t i
u o e d i , Sec 7 m t t be .
, n n n .
, us no c on

f de d wi th the c e p di g d alm t sy o ym
o un orr s on n an os n n o us

ca ati ves bi hi m m t c e t take fri ght ; t t hi

us
“ o es u , o a us o
”
a as

“ t ca e to sta d p etc The tra itiv es d t ”

m m
u , o us n u , . ns o no

take the postpositi o w hi t d ever sed h ifi lly n e s e , an ar e n u on or ca .

9 OMPOUND V RB SE C . . C E S .

M a y co m plex as ert i s are m a d e by m ea s of com po d

n s on n un

ve b wh i ch c e po d ei ther t the p ep it i o al v erb of

r s, orr s n o r os n s

E pea la g ages or t whol e phrases th s

ur o n n u , o , u

“t o t o p ut t hroug h ( b y )
m i tOs u,
-
lo o k t hr oug h , mor e li t n
s e e in
.

t t m ug h ( b y )
g
“t o thrus t throu h
(C
t
g , fiff
l s t i rl

“t o thrus t t o d e at h ,
“t o ki ll ( y)
b t hr us t

in

“t o t d p
o e ar t ( by ) fly
fly aw a
y, "
i ng .

A see by these exam ple the fi t ve b i p t i th

s n s, rs r s u n e

i d efi i te form
n n d ge e ally t d i n , a dve b i al elati t
an n r S an s an r r on o

th c d whi ch al e i i flected Ve y a ely the t w

e s e on , on s n . r r r o ar e

othe wi e elated as k i m d
r s r t b y ,d gi ve bac k i a -
o os u , o u an ,
”
. e .

t ret o
( a th i g ) afte
ur n b y i g i t y ki kn m t g d r u n u -
ae , o o an

com back e .

S m e c m po d v b c i t f m e th a t w m em be
o o un er s on s s o or n o rs ,

as t bi gm i m
o -
a t fly w y i -
sa p w d di ct i
, o a a n an u ar re on

me hi g t t
s -
ta i e e
e -
I h av e t h h
a ent a s ui t tt -
s r , e o n o ur o s a e .

10 ORN M N T V RB S EC . . A E AL E S .

Ma y v e bs are u e d o am e tally that i to

n r
y w i thost rn n , s sa u
 82 JA PA NE SE GR A MMA R .

regard to their proper i g ificatio d as m ere mbe ll i h s n n, an e s

m e ts of styl e
n Th s hi m i m . d m h i y k u uo -
e u, a -
su u, an a ar -
u u

m ea m ore tha the s i m ple ve b m to m ile ; m ”

n no n r s e u, s su u,
“to co m e t a co cl i o d y k to g the p efixe
u s on
”
an u u, o,
”
r s
; n

bei g m ea i gle i m der

n n n age S im ilarly whe
ss n o n us . n an

or am e tal ve b i fii d i i t hi m i t hi
n n r s su
‘
f xe , as n as -
e , or as or

it “
a cu , to d ; me hi g mi m e e f me [ I have
o
” “
s -
a e n
-
se - s r , or s u,

the ho o r] to y ; hi m me f hi
n u sa
” “ to i f rm
s se -
su, or s ras ui u,
'

n o .
”

The verb t m properly to gi ve to i feri or i m parts

a a u, an n ,

an h ifi t i ge to the prece di g v erb th

on o r c n m n , us : es a s era re

t m
a for m
a u,
“ to m m es u , e d whe speaki g f the su on , us n n o

M ik ad ( lif
o. i the i defi i te f
es a se ra r e r m f the p te t i als n n o o o n

of the ca at ive f m us ed h ifi lly ) The ve b

o es u, us o n or ca . r

t t m t m
a e a su p perly t gi ve t a pe i
“
, ro i ed a o o su r or ,
”
s us as

respectf l s ffi x e peci ally i letters th g hi t t m t i

u u , s n , us : as -
a e a s ui

6 6
3 7
“I beg to offer m y h m bl e c grat l ati o
, u on u ns

N i (the c cl i ve p e e t f
ar on m usto be i the m t r s n o na , s os

s al am e tal ve b i t bei g co id ed lega t t b

u u o rn n r , n ns er e n o su

stit t f
u e the co cl i ve f rm f ve b
or d a dject i ve a
n us o s o r s an s

pe iph a i co si ti g f the c re p di g attrib ti ve form

r r s s n s n o or s on n u s

foll owed by i e g na r , . .

am na r i , for a ri .

heir/ ( r a za r u na ri , beka m z u .

mi s hi n a ri ,
na m n m i , na m
'

s o r e na i i, '
s o re .

s um na r i , su .

t a ts u n a i i , ta ts u ( l s t
t a ts uru n mi , ta t su ( 2n d c o nj
y e /ci na i i ,
'

y e s hi .

Th B i hu hi k g mi t i b ki i They m y
us a ns a c s n no a a o a -
e na r ,
“ a

be te m e d a m i
r f l y alty f all age
rror
( B k i o i i o or s .
”
e na r s

m ch um re e l ega t tha
o the p l ain co ncl ns i v e b hi wo l d b
n ) u es u e,
 S UB T N T V
S A I E
‘

VE RB S . 83

SEC R OU UB ST N T V V RB S
. 11 . T HE VA I S S A I E E .

The f ll wi g a li t f the J pa e e verbs i moder

o o n is s o a n s n n

w itte
r c rre p di g t the E gli h to be
n u se o s on n o n s

A m ig ifi e s t be n whe it f m pa t of adjective as
s o n or s r an ,

m ez ur a s hi l mi hi
was t a ge ; m m hi h d m tho gh
a ,
“ s r n
”
ez u s er e e e , u

i t i stra ge
s The adjective prope d the verb m are
n . r an a

o cca i ally writte eparately th

s on m hi h
n si hi , us : ez ur a s u ai ,

m ezuras hi k d m u I a lm o t all other cases m cor

ur e e a. n s a

r po d t there i
es n
“ s o
“ there are “ there were etc s,
”
,
”
, .
,

th Ni h 3 There are two ki ds

us :
“ -
s u (1 17 , as ertio to n — an s n

be cr p lo ly di t i g i hed from Ni h
s u u us i s They are
n u s -
s u na r ,

t w (i o di ffe e t ) ki d
. e . S im ilarly
r n
( ge erally n how s . a r e zu n ,

ever repl aced b y the egative adjective hi ) sig ifies there

, n nas n

whil e i g i fie
” ”
is no t , ( )
i t i t
na ra z a s n s s no .

A mm
r a s er a the p te tial ca ative fo m of m i sed
, o n -
us r a , s u

ifi lly b th for m “ t go whe the ”

h o n or ca d f y k o a , an or u u, o , n

acti of ex alted per o age are m e ti o ed

on s s n s n n .

G a a the am e a a b t m re h ifi
-
aza s y , s as S r , u o o n or c .

“ t d well “ li v e “ be (i the se se of” ”

Im , t o . t , o , o n n

li vi g) ; he ce o ly ed whe peaki g of livi g creat res

n n n us n s n n u ,

e pec i ally h m a bei g It m y ofte be om i tted whe tra s

s u n n s. a n n n

l ati g Th n . Y k h m i i m g i k h ji
us : “ the foreig ers
o o a a n a o u -
n, n

[ d w e lli g ] i nY k ha m a n o o .
”

N m i the a al eq i vale t f the c p l t be th s

s us u
“ u n o e u a . o , u

J k a i k w J ye
u no n h k
u i The fle h of the weak i
a o no s e u na r , s s

f d f the t g It i ed t t
oo or s ron i t adject i ves
.
”
s us o urn n o un s n o

( p . d al ve
an y f eq e tl y
“so a m e tal r v e b r u n as an or n n r

(p . O cca i all y the c i c m l c t i s on i m it m r u o u on u a or n e a

is e d i tea d of m T h T ki i m d ag
us ns na t ki i . us : o a a on no o n

a r az a
( f ) It i
o r n ara z u t yet the g lde age, I ch s no o n . n su

ca e i i t prope ly the po tpositi i b t

s s u s no ld i d fi
r s on n , u an o n e

nite for m of t be w a l m t di sed Ni t is th

m “ na o
”
no os su . e e
, ,
 84 JA PN A E SE GR MM R A A .

ger d f m un o na ,
“t o be . In s om e ca e s s n am ta d f s n s or ni

( the p tp i t i os os on in an d a m , an d m us t th e be e de n r n re d

by “ in or
“ ”
us : O s a ka at . Th na m
( fo r ui am
) D ai

J u s hi c hi K e kuri ts u G i n ka,
-
“ v the Se e tee th Nati al B a n n on nk

[ wh i ch i ] at O a k a s s .

Na ku, na s hi , na ki ( s m o etim e called the egative s

“n ad e c j
ti e
v ) ” “ therei s n ot ,
” “ S at there was t etc th s no ,
”
.
, u :

na s hi
“ there is
, no u do bt .

0m sam e as i m , .

Sa a ( C h pter X ) whe
r se e ed al e i eq ival e t t
a , n us on , s u n o

both m am M re freq e tly it i

an na or am e tal ffi x
. o u n s an n n su

to other verb d to a djective s an s .

S m pr pe ly
u
“ t d
, s m etim e m ea
o r
“ t be i o o, o s ns o , as n

0t m
e su There i a i e I b k hi t k
, b h s no s . n -
e u s e, e e na u -
e a r a z u,

l it .
“ B ei g that m y talk
n d that m y t d
on e a , an on e a no o,
”

i . e
“ It m y be talked f b t i t ca t be do e Y k
. a o , u nn o n .
”
u a zu

s hi t f y ke, [be
or i g ] t g i g
u a zu ,O fte i the la t n no o n .
”
n , as n s

of the e i sta ces it i m t c ve i e t to l k it

s n n , s os on n n oo on as on

expl eti ve Ni h j i hi t B ei g a Japa e e M o t f

.
“ on i n n s e, n n s . s rs

q e tly m sim ply serve to v erb li e

u n su s as s a z n o un ,

i m
a suto l ove , from i l ove a , .

hi sm to di
su , d eath e .

k ik m
a t be ci vil i e d
a su k ik
, ci vi li ati o
o z a a, z n.

The re lti g ve b see by the e i ta ce i m et im e

su n r , as n s ns n s, s so s

a ctive m etim e e te , so m et i m pa i ve ge al e
s n u r, so es ss , us a on

d ecidi g i each ca e whi ch i t hall be

n n T btai seq i s . o o n an u

Vale t f the active v erb t ci vili e w m t the

“ o us use
n or z , e

ca sative form k i k hi m m S m m eti m e m ea

u a
“ to
a s es u .
— u so s ns

be abo t t as S t m I m ab t to do Som
u
“ o,
”
: en o su , a ou .
”
e

tim es it m ea s to co sider as K i ya i t m To
“ n n ,
”
: n- na r o su ,

c o sider imp ort a t

n n .
 VE RB S U D SE Eo PTIO NA LL Y . 85

SE C RB S U D O TH R P R TS OF P C H
. 12 . VE SE A S E A S EE .

S m e few verbs (m o tly i the ge dial form ) are sed

o s n r un u as

p tp iti
os os Th on s [ ]
i i t .
( i t ta
us : d f ki t
u a e, e e s n s or e e,

ge d f k t place
r un
“ o o [ ]
wu, m tt “ b
o y m ea f e a e, ns o
”

( m tta ta d
e s f m n hi t ge s d f m t
or
“ t eo O the
e, s r un o o su , o r

c rresp d t E gli h adverbs adverbi al phrases or

o on o n s , , c on

j cti o s th s
un n u
n
,

g d f h y m m e ru o a i u
h ji m t
a e e, f th fi t ti m “t b i n
or e rs e ,

g o e
n
.

m t m t
o o e e, p p g on“t
d f m t m m
ur ose
k
e ru
o se e
o
”
e a u ,

n
.

g n t ly
g d f hi y m e ru o s a
“t
ur e ,

p o re s s

n
.

ne k m e z u,wi t h t xc pti n ll ; “t m i n g g d f
ou
k m
e e o ,
a
ne .

o re
e ru

a
o
”
ne e ,

c n di t i n l
.

b
sa re a ,
“ th t b in g th n “t b t h
a
f
e
m
s o,
” ‘i
e
o
o
o

e
a

us
o su ,

f m 6 th “
.

d ro 8 us , an
h vi g d n nd f m
,
”
s o hi ts e, hi t g
a n o e s o, s e, e ru o su ,
t o
s hi b k hi t
a ra
“u sf t littl whil e, a er a e e,
” n

th c n t
”
s hi k hi t
a ra zu s y e, on e o rar .

The att ib tive fo m f the pre e t t e se i som etim es

r u r o s n n s

d ble d d e d ad verbi ally Th s k g

ou an us
“ ver . u : a es u - a es u, o

d v er aga i f mk “ t t ove ”
an o n , ro mi m mi m a es u , o ur n r -
,

bef re e ve y eye f m mi m to
o on
’
s r s, ro , s ee .

The att i b tive f m of verb d adjecti ve foll wed or t

r u or s s an s, o no

by k t fte corre p d t E gli h ab t act

o o, o n s s on to o n s s r n oun , or

E gli h i fi i ti
n s n p e e t pa ti ciple Th hi mp m
n ve s o r r s n r s . us : s o su ,

or s hi mp m k t o su pr g e s t pr g e o o, m aki g p o r s
”
o o r ss,
”
n ro

gre ; ki k t or i the p t te e k i hi k t
ss
”
na o o, n as ns na ai s o o,

“ab e ce s n S hi mp .
”
m m w l d m ea “
o a thi g (
su o no ou n n or

per ) that pr g e se ; ki m
s on
“
o r s ab e t thi g s
”
na o no , an s n n
”

S o s hi te i s us e d o y t o
0 nl c nn c t vo e e rb s , no t n n ou s . Nouns are

c nn c
o e t e d b y to , or s i m y pl pl d b ac e eside ea ch o t her w i t hout an
y
word s i gni y i ng and
"
f .
 86 JA PN A E SE GR MM R
A A .

( or pers
) th g h b t
onh k t d
. m F or ou o o o an o no a r e t li t r
m os e

ally de e d b y th E gli h w d th i g
ren
“
r e n s or n , k t al way
o o s

refe t b tract thi g fact a ff i m tte

rs o a s n s, s, a rs , a rs , etc whil .
, e

m g e e ally refe s to act al ta gi ble Object

o no n r r u n s, an d eve t n o

pe o s
rs n .

C HA P T ER IX .

S Y NT A " .

1 The f d am e tal r l e of Japa e e c t cti i that

.
— un n u n s o n s ru on s

q li fyi g w ds prece de the w r d they q l ify Th the

ua n or o s ua . us

adjecti ve ge i ti ve p ece de the o whi ch i t de fi es t h

or n r s n un n , e

ad ve b p ecede the ve b d expla at y cla e p ece de the

r r s r , an n or us s r

p i ci p l cla e The bject likewi e p ece de the ve b

r n a us . o s r s r .

The ve b ( predi cativ e adjecti ve ) f each cla se i pl aced

r or o u s

at t he d of that cla e the chi ef ve b (or pre dicative

en us , r

a dject ive) di g ff th e t i e se te ce
r o un n o e n r n n .

NB By
. excepti whi ch i m erely appare t p t
.
— an on , s n , os

p iti f ll w i tead f precedi g the wo d whi ch they

os on s o o , ns o n , r s

d efi e nS im i la ly the i terrogative part i cle foll ow the w rds

. r , n s o

wh e e e they m dify
os s ns o .

2 M t e te ce
.
—
s bjectles the ve b expre i g
os s n n s ar e u s, r ss n

rath e a c m i g to be wi th f
r o t m e per
n tha r e er e nc e o so s on , n an

act expli citly decla ed to be perf m ed by hi m Sh ld the e r or . ou r

be a bject i t i g e ally placed at the head f the e te ce

su , s en r O s n n .

M e f eq e tl y t h w d whi ch it i wi he d t lay tres

or r u n is e or s s o s s on

i l t d b y w d h ea d the se te ce
so a e e an s n n .

3 The p edi cat ive ve b a djective f the fi al cla e f a

.
— r r or o n us o

e te ce i p t i the c cl ive f m ( bject t a f w p

s n n s u n on us or su o e ex c e

ti on s ca d by the p e ce f i t gati ve w d d
us e re s n o n e rr o or s an

of ce ta i p tp iti
r nwhile the predi cati ve ve b
os os on s r s or

S p g
ii‘
24 34 4 2
ee d 48a es , , an .
 SYN TA " . 87

adjecti ves of all the prece di g cla es m ea t to exp e the n us n r ss

am e t e m d the ve b f th fi l cla e
s en s or oo
p t i as r o e na us ar e u n

t h i d efi i te f m
e n S i m ila ly i the c e f a t f cl e
n or . r n as o se o aus s

havi g tt i b t i ve c dit i l hyp th ti cal ge di a l

n an a r u , on on a , o e , or r un

i g i fic t i
s n it i a ly the v b f the l t cla e f the t
on , s on er o as us o se

that appea i t h att ib t ive c diti al hyp theti c l

rs n e r u , on on , o a , or

ge di l f m all the p ce di g ve b bei g p t i t h

r un a or , re n r s n u n e

i de fi ite f m
n n or .

The f ll wi g exam pl e will erve t il l t ate r l es 1 2

o o n s s o us r u , ,

an d 3 ( al page 1 7 d
see so s an

T i ki
er t na k m i “ The bat of a vi llage Witho t
sa e no
‘

e er , u

bi d r s .
”

“ Pe o s f b i es
“
M yo a m im b k no li t o no -
e a ra z u , . rs n o no us n s

m y a t e te no i N a dm i tta ce except
n r, b i e
. e . O n on us n s s .

( M ionathe s bject s d efi e d by m g/5 wh i

u ch accor di gl y , n u ,
n

p ecede )
r s .

F n i u ta hi kor e we yi seba , fuka n a m bes hi t o t e , ts ui n i sane me i -

ui s k i t age n , e e
“ be g c a thi g
He n d d b y o yi n th e om m n d , n ki n

that w l be p per
i t ou d im ro ef e g
fo r hi m t o r u s a a i n
”
( N0 s u b .

j t ) A h e h w th cla e f m i g a J pa e e e te ce
ec . s er s o n, e us s or n a n s s n n

m t fte be t a late d i i ve e d e E gl i h c
us o n r nst cti n n rs or r, n s o n s ru on

ge e ally p efe i g t place the chi ef tatem e t fi t d the

n r r rr n o s n rs , an

expla at y ph a e afte i t Th ab ve i lite ally T wi ce

n or r s s r . e o s r

thi i f [ I ] ef im p pe wi ll b thi ki g th at [h ] at la t
s r us e , ro r -
e n n -
, e s

that c m m a d bey (
o S hi t g h i to
n i c p e e toi tea d f s .
”
a au, s r r s n , ns o

pa t hi t g i ki beyed )
s s a a , o
”

K ei r e we heg e ki s hi , F ukus hu we a r a s hi , Ta ns ui we seme , N ei ha

we e sei , To n ki n n o s a ka i we ke e t e , K i s ei
r ui s em e i -
m , J u o m un i n
no c hi
y g we g b
y m
ukub d d K e l g a a t e s hi ,
“ Ha vi n o ar e e un ,

rav age d F ch w i ve te d T m i attacke d Ni gp

oo o d , n s a su ,
n o, an

c ed th f t i e f T q i [the F re ch] p e d f wa d
ro s s e ro n rs o on u n, n r ss e or r

i to Kwa g i
n d se eme d to march i e v ery dire c tio th
n s , an
gh n n ro u
 S YNT A " . 89

[it] by m ea s of faces wi ll t ui t i n The di ffi culty of no s , . s .

k wi g the hearts of m
no n ca t be solved by appeal to en nn o an

their face s .

O the fo ll owi g ta ke fro m the otice board f a team er

r n , n n -
o s

G h ji
e s e hi b ji g i i
no s na t k oe an Pa e o n a r a s era re -
a u s r
“

, ss n

ger s re q e te d t be ve y c ef l f thei r effect li t

a re u s o r ar u o s, .

Art i cle f a g t p e i eve ythi g

s o u us wa ti g to be
os s s s o n , r n ar e n n

ab l e t C a e t be a g t ca e He e t h ve b m bel g
o us o u us r . r e r a on s

t y aj i
o care ; the ca ative p te ti al term i at i
n,
”
us -
o n n on a s er a r e ,

h i fi lly
on o r e d i di cate e pect t wa d t h pa ge
ca us , n s r s o r s e s sen rs ,

wh h wever
o o t exp li c i tly m e t iar e ed ; t k f t
no n on a u re er s o

the m a age f the team h ip c m pa y al o t m e ti e d

n rs o s s o n s no n on ,

an d o e i a m e el y o am e tal
s r s fli r rn n su x .

C m p ehe i
o r f ch c t cti o which
n s on o c mm
su on s r u ns , ar e o on

i the epi t l y t yle wi ll be fac i l i tate d b y

n s o ar s ti g that i th
,
no n , n e

ca e f h ifi ve b wi th th d e id e tive te m i at i
s o an on o r c r e s ra r n on

t k t h ve b i t elf l w y refe t the h

a u, e r s e d pe
a da s rs o o n ou r r s on , an

t h te m at i
e r t the wri te
in Th O i d k d
on o t k r . us n e u a sa r e -
a u s o re

m ea li t
ns I
[ ] m w i h i g [y w i ll ] c dae ce d g t s n ou on s n au us

c mi g i e I h pe y will c m e S a a i ch
o n ,
“ . . o ou o . r n su c on

text i fte m i tte d f b evi ty s ake

s s o n o or r
’
s .

A the c m m c tr cti vi lati g E r pea r le i

no r o on on s u on o n u o n u s s

that i whi ch a q tati i b th p efac d d

n uo d e d ff by
on s o r e an r o un o

so m e ve b m ea i g r
“ t y t h I w
n n k o sa , us : u u

to i n ui , i . 8 . He sa id wa s wha t he sa i d

an d t he r eup on To m k ae e e s ns in En g i s h , we m us l t s up

p e ithe the fi t
re s s id r ec rs sa , or t h e s on d .

4 A i the ca e f ve b
.
—
s n ly th fi l ve b f th s o r s on e na r o e s en

te ce i p t i the c cl ive f m
n s u l i th c
n f on us or , so a so n e as e o

i t i o l y t h la t f a
n o un s , st of nth at t k th p t e s o se n o un s a es e os

p it i c mm t the wh le t T h T ki y ki h
os on o on o o se . us an , u ,
a na n o

na a
g m The sight
e, of the m th e s ow n d the blos m e an , n , a so s.
”
 90 JA P A N E E S GR MM R A A .

5 egatives destroy ach other

.
— N i E glish th e , as n n , us

K i mye t i w b k o We
[ ] ca
a z a ru - ot b t call
e i t t a
a ra z u ,
g e nn u s r n ,

It m t be all we d to be t a ge O
us o f k w h i s r n . no re no us a a e s

mb
ra z u b k a
[ O
a ru -
] m t t fa i l
e a r a z u, to k w o e ne us no no n
’
s

w d eficie cie
”
o n n s .

6 Japa e e h
.
— egat i ve pro o or adve b like the
n s as n o n n un s r s,

E gli h w d “ e “ either “ ever Their ab e ce ” ” ”

n s or s n on , n , n . s n

is su pplied by the egative f rm f the verb c m bi ed with n o s o , o n

po itive p
s d adve bs Th f the E gli h I
r o n o un s an
“ r . us , or n s

k own othi g a Japa e e wi ll write N i m hi

n n ,
“ I n s an o s ra z u,

k w t eve yt hi g m e li t ( the g amm at i cal

”
f
‘

no -
no r n , or . so ar as r

exp e i i c ce e d) I i g e eve ythi g Th f ll wi g

r s s on
“ s on rn , n or r n . e o o n

exam ple will h w h w the v a i ki d f E gli h egati ve

s S o o r o us n s o n s n

or q a i egati ve e ti
u s -
n exp e e d i Japa e eas s r on s ar e r ss n n s

Kit m k t a hi H i t t bi m ki t
o o na s
“
,
H eve or a -
a e a ra z u , e n r

c meo The fi t f m m ea lite lly C om i g th i g i

s .
“ rs or ns ra n n s

no t the eco d i Eve ce c m e t s n s n on o s no .

K i t m t ki m a i or K i t m k t m
e ie
“ H o m eti m e
ar , a o o e ar , e s s

c m e ; m o e li te ally The e
o s
” “ r al ti m e wh e [h ]
r r ar e so s n e

com e There i al o ch a th i g [hi ] com i g

s,
”
s s su n as s n .

t e ki “ He
K i ta ra za m me m i , or K i ta r a z a m ke t e me a ri ,

s om etim es d e o s n ot com e ,
”
i . s . He d o e s n ot alway c m e s o .
”

“I d ow at all
M a tta ka s h r a za
i , o n ot kn ,
”
li t .
Qui te
kn ow n ot .

K uwa s hi ku wa s hi r a z u ,
“ I do n ot qui te kn ow , lit .
“A s

for m i n u tely [I] , kn o w n ot .

S hi m hi to n a s hi , No on e kn ows lit , .
“ h T ere is no t a
kn o wi n g pe r so n .
”

S hi m hi to s a ka n a s hi , F e w kn o w , li t .
“K n owin g pe ple o

are few .

S hi r a za m hi te me very ar i, “E on e does n ot kn ow , li t .

There are al so peopl e who k ow n n ot .

”
 S YN T A " . 91

The diffic lty f i g eg ti ve c tr ct i o c orrectly wil l

u o us n n a on s u ns

d i pp a i f i t i b
sa e e i m i d th t i Jap e e the egative
r, s orn n n a n an s n

an d th v b e t c ceiv d f t w epa ate i de

er ar e n o on is e o as o s r as , as

m tl y t h
os c e i E gli h b t a i gle i dea Eve i
e as n n s , u as s n . n n

E gl i h h weve the e
n s , o ple ty f pa ll l to thi Japa
r, r ar e n o ra e s s n

ese i di m Th o i capable
. f us , t capable “ to
n or no

di l i ke t t l ike ; diffic lt f t ea y If ”
s f , or no o u , or no s .
,

for i ta ce i tea d f e deri g m tt k hi

ns n , ns by oId r n n a a a s r a zu o

t k w t all e de it b y I m e ti ely aware

no no w a
“ e r n r a n r un
”
, ,

t h J pa e e co t ct i
e a n cea e t appear ab rm al
s n s ru on s s o no .

O cc i all y a eg t i ve i l i m i te d by
a s on ffi i g w or hi m
n a s su x n e s e

(s hi i a m eas i gle expleti v e ) th

n n K sski t , us a n ar a zu a r a zu ,

H cert a i ly wi ll
e t c me n b t K hi m ki t
no o u a na ra zu s e a r a z u,

H i e t certai t co m e
s no n o .

7 . I te r gati i m arked t i E gli h by i ver

— n r o on s , no as n n s an n

i f the co tr ctio b t b y the of i te gative part i cle

s on o ns u n, u use n rr o s

(see h page 2
e 3 , d y page The , c ancl i ve f m af , on us or o

t h v e b i i i ter gative e te ce
e r s, n n cha ge d t the tt i b
ro s n n s, n o a r u

t ive f rm ( page 4 2 d
o see I a h to ical q e t i s an n r e r u s on ,

where a eg tiv e reply i expecte d the w d i i placed at

n a s , or an s

the begi i g of the e te ce d y at the d th A i

nn n s n n , an a en , us : n

h k
a a ra n
y
“ W l d a ya, e pp e ? ou
( i O f co
n r e on su os so . s . u s

no o n e w ld h ve ppo e d
ou a su s

8 Tl
.
— ca ty ie f bject wi th the verb d the
s n us e o su s , an

ab e ce f pe
s n i the v erb
o m de g d t
r s on s n m e exte t by , ar e a oo o so n

an ab da t un f h m bl e n d h ifi
us e o xpress i o s th su an o n or c e n , u

m y fathe “ the t p i d f ther

” ”
g f
u u, li t r, s u a

my h e the awkw rd h e
.

se tt k a
“u, o us
”
, a o us
the br d w fi m
.

”
h i h
e s a , fi m o ur k r , o en -
o n r
r f t e the t ve e able father
.

mp “ h
zt ,
“ ou r,
g o so
y g a au us n r
yo r h e the h rable ho e
.

” ”
on t k a u, u ous , o no u us
your fi m the exalte d fi m
.

” ”
ki h s a , r , r .

These d other h ifi expre sion tho ugh naturally

an on or c s s,
 SYN T A " . 93

occa i ally by p fi i g s m e s ch expre i as m k

s on re x n o u s s on a oer a u

I th ght i i k m w
ou f what he s i d [i t w ]
-
e a, as or a , as

10 V bs.
— m et i m e
er m i t t d at the
ar e s o d of a se te ce s e e en n n ,

e peci ally i the h i gher C hi e e style They m t be p

s n n s . us su

pli e d f m th c text th
ro e on , us

Tab hi kyugy o [ ]
n no uc
u
“ Cl se d for the pre e t su o s n .

K hi kas i it k t e uk i [
u i] li taru
“ M y g i g thereo o s a na r , . o n

[ w ]aseve a l t i m e s i Seve
r l t i m es di d I gs,the e . e . ra o r .

R en ohe ku we ma tte s e i ka we en t o ts ute mum ui y a

[ am
] ?

[Is ipe cha ce that they

t ] r e deav i g to obtai a
n ar e n o ur n n

r ep tati f m derate charge ? After the w rd mi

u on or o s o no ,

“ l
yon the fi al
,
”
v e b i i ge e all yn th o m i tted as r na r s n r us ,

N i an b ki ye k
no na su t k m -
mi [
e i] “ It na u, a ns a u su no na r ,

ca t be helped d all I
nn o do i s to igh m ore l it
, an c an S ,
”
.

“ There i way that m do d it is o l y

t y s no y [
an ] on e a , an n

s ighi g n .

11 P assiv e co str ctio s are v ery rarely sed

.
— n They u n u .

are alm o t always replaced by the s bjectl e active

s t u ss c on s ruc

ti expl ai e d pp 88 d 3 1 The gramm ar of the p a si v

on s n on . an . s e

i pec li ar
s See p 7 5
u . . .

12 I a im ate bject are rarely if ever p erso ified It

.
— n n o s , , n .

i har dl y perm is i b l e e v e t
s the am e f i a im ate
s n o use n o an n n

o bject the s bject f as acti ve verb Th s a Japa ese

u o an . u n

will t y write The rai de layed m

no sa or b t “ I hav
, n e u e

becom e l ate acco t of the rai A m on t m i hi k kun n, e no a e n c a u

13 a g age di ffer greatly i the degree of i t egratio of

.
— L n u s n n n

thei se te ces Th s C hi e e d Pi dji E gli h im ply

r n n . u , n s an n n s s

p t
u a e t i s id
ss r e by i d e lik e
on sst e witho t ce m e t as s , on s u n ,

H bad m
e My li k e he an O u m ore sy thetic E g
. no s . r n n

l ish woul d ge erall y s bordi ate nof s ch a coupl e f u n on e u o

a ssertio to th o th er as I do t like him b c a us he is a

ns
“ e , n
’

, e e
 94 JA PN A ESE GR MM R A A .

b a d m an the m t e t i l ch a cte i ti c f
. No w on e of os e ss n a ra r s s o

th J p e l g age i th ext em deg e t wh i ch it

e a an e s an u s e r e r e o

p he the y th eti c te d cy i th t ct e f t c
us s s n n en n e s ru ur o se n e n es .

E xc pt whe m d i fi e d by C h i e
e n th e f i g i fl e c
o n se or o r ore n n u n e,

J p e al w y t i e to i c p te th wh l f t te
a an e s a s r s n or or a e o e o a s a

m e t h w ve c m plex i t m y be
n , o e d h w ve
r me o a , an o e r nu rous

i t p t wi th i the l i m i t
s ar s , f a i gle e t ce wh e m m
n s o s n s n en , os e

be all g am m ati cally i te pe de t I fact the m al

rs a re r n r n n . n n or

Jap e e e te ce i a pa agraph
an s s n ( to y)
n g i m s r , or so sa an o r an s ,

as m ch m o e c m pl i cate d tha the t yp i c l E gl i h e te c

u r o n a n s s n n e

j t q te d
us the E gl i h se te ce i m e c m pl i cate d
uo , as n s n n s or o

tha the C hi e e the Pi dji E gl i h F thi rea i t

n n s or n n s . or s s on

i diffi c lt t t a late l i terall y i t E gl i h

s u o r ns t Sh w n o n s , so as o o

what i m ea t The f ll wi g m t ffi ce

s n . ext em ely o o n us su as an r

i m ple exam ple It i f m a t y fi the he f whi ch p "

s . s ro s or ro o ei

s ua d h i wi fe to ki l l thei i fa t ch i l d i
es s d e t have m e r n n , n or r o or

a m ple m e f pp t i g h i wan s age d m t h eo actsuf or n s o n o r ,— an o

fili al pi ety whi ch heave rewa d by th gift f a g l de pot n r s e O o n .

I di ary E gli h the passage w l d

n or n th n s , ou r un us

S i d he Wh t thi k y f b r yi g
a : ch ild alive i
a n ou O u n o ur , n

or de t h ve am pler m ea of m aki g m y m the exi te ce

r o a ns n o r s
’

s n

c m f tabl
o or Hi wi fe bei g fili lly m i ded
e ? him lf s , n as a n as se ,

rai ed s bjecti no o So they carried t th i pla with tear on s . ou s n s,

an d d g a h le ud i i t the y f d a g l de pot
o , an n o un o n .

The J ap e e e te ce i f llows an s s n n s as o

Ika ui me bin na ki t
ko o n aga ra , ke we uzume -
sute t e , ha ha no
”
y a s hi na i we ke ke re ye ku s en wa i ka ni f to a m ui , ts uma me
en a j i ku kos hi n na ru ma ne n ar e ba , i s a s a k a i n a mu ke ke re na ku ;

n aku na ku -
ke re ui s hi tag a i te , to me ui a na we Imri kem ya , hi ta ts u
-

no ke ga ne no ka ma we hari -
t
o a ri .

9
Bo rr w d fo e rom t he C hi nes e .
 E IS P T OL RY A STYLE . 95

as literall y m y be
i . e .
, as a

O hi ayi g Whi le ever pite a thi g h w w l d

n s s n so o us n , o ou

it d ha vi g b i ed ch ild t m ke m y m th e
o, n ur i h o ur , o a o
’
r s n o ur s

m e t c m f table
n the wife
o h tor w a pe ?f . , as S e oo as r s on o

fili al hea t t (i h dr t b t
,
t h i d yi i t fno m . e . a no u , as e n t
‘
n e or

is us e d , t he t e n se ti l t he v erb of t he n e rt c la us e
c a nno t be kno wn un ,

t o whi c h i t i s g ra m/ra d i c a lly s ubo rd i n ate d i s r ea c hed the s l i ghte s t ,

i n te n t i o n o f r efus i n g ; t h e y havi n g fo llo w e d t h i s pl an wi t h ,

tea rs , t gethe
o r d ug a h le o , w he e p r u on ( t he wa r d r end e red

whe reup o n i s i n t he o ri g i n a l t he p a r i c le g a t a tta c hed t o t he

p rec ed i ng c la us e in s uc h wi se as to s u bor d i na e t i t to wha t fe llo w }

they btai e d b y di ggi g a g l d e p t

o n n o n o .
”

G am m t i cal i t p d
r bet wee cla e i ec e d
a n er en en c e n us s s s ur

chi efly by t h appli cat i f l e 3 f y t x b y the i p

e on o ru o s n a , n c or o

ra t i f q t ti
on i
o the ab ve exam ple by the
uo a on s as n o , us e

o f th c di t ie l d c ce i ve m d
on d b y the
on a fan on ss oo s, an us e o

t h c relat i g pa t i cle g
e or i d w n ffi d t v b r s a, n , an e su xe o er s .

I t a l t i g a J p e e e te ce i t i di m t i c E gl i h
n r ns a n a an s s n n n o o a n s ,

i t i ge e ll y
s ce a y t b e k i t at eve al f the e b i /
n ra ne ss r o r a s r O s a t es ,

as they m y pe hap be te m ed a r s r .

C HA P T ER X .

T H E E P IS T O L A R Y S T Y L E .

The epi t la y tyle it am e i di cat i that m

s o r s , as s n n es, s e

pl y d i lette
o e d d e patche
n It i t h w v
rs an s s . s us e s no , o e er,

l im it d t t h e
e It i f eq e tly m t with i ti ce d
o se . s r u n e n no s an

a d v ti em e t
er d cca i ally i
s b k d ew p p
n s, an o s on n oo s an n s a e rs .

I t h l tte i t c hi efl y
n e ppe a a c ve t i l b ti t t
r a ar s as on n on a su s u e

for the c ll q i al that i t y th t i t i e d wh e i t i

o o u , s o sa a s us n s

d i ed t
es r ep o d ce exactly m y be th act l w d
o r r u , as as a , e ua or s

sp ke b y som e pers q oted To give the e wor d i t h

o n on u . s s n e
 EPI ST OLA RY STYLE .

IT L
EP S O A R Y C ONJ UGATION .

Ita s u, “To d o .

I fini t e
nd e i t a s hi
P re se n t or P as t
“

i t as hi S ON) [ r d id

]
-
I d o o
Fut ure o r P o t e n t i al l
.
,

i t a s u b e k u s 6 r6
-
I
[ s hal d o
C o n di ti o n al
.

i t a s hi s Orae b a -
as
[ ] o
I d
Hyp o the tic al
.

i t a s hi s Ora w a b a
-
i f [ I] d o
ll
.

A c t ual C o nc e s s i v e i t a s hi -
s b rae d o m o
t ho ug h [ I] ac t ua y
do
H y p othe tical Con
.

c e s si v e
t
i a shi S arnt e -
mo e v n if I d
e o .

Ge r un d i t as hi t e h v in g d n d i n g
a o e, o
v n
. .

D e s i d e rat i i t as h i t ak u s Ort) [ ]
I w t d
‘

e -
t a o o .

Ind fi ni t e e F orm no t d ing t h vi n g

o no a
G nd i t a s az u
d n
,

e ru o e .

P re s e n t or P as t i t a s az us b r f) [ I d t d o no o
ll
.

F ut ure i t a s u m aji k a s 0 ro [ I h s t d a no o
C o n d i ti o n al
-
. .

i t a s az u s Ora e b a [ ]
as I d o n ot d o

H y p o t he t i c a l
-
.

i t a s a z u s Or a w a b a i f [ I] d o n o t d o
A c t u al C o n c e s s i ve
-
.

i t as a z u s é ra e d o m o t ho ug h [ I] d o n ot d o
H y p o t he t ical Con
-
. .

c e s s iv e
i t as a z u s OrOt e v n if I d t d me . e e o no o .

O f th e c j gati o f on u n O adjecti ve the f ll wi g ex am ples, o o n s

m y a ffi ce
su

P e e t h i ku b i
[ ]t i goo d
‘

r s n
:

y e res s ra , s .

C ce ive y
on ss hi k a d m th : gh [it] i go d
or os u s ra e o e, ou s o .

Sa a i r fte d ppe d afte a djective peci ally after t k

s o n ro r s, es a u

an d b ku eTh . S he i h tt t m b i ky k
us : i t hi t k se s u a su ae a a u as -
a u

[
s ro e] i t kiu
“ A I m de i o s f elli g it before m y
su , s a s r u o s n

d epa t re
r u .

The C hi e e o s whi ch are verbali ed by m ea f m

n s n un , z ns o su

i
n th edi or
y t y le f b kn ar d e w pape s i the o oo s an n s rs , ar e n

epi t la y tyle m tly v b li ed b y m

s o r s f i t hi o e
os er a z e an s o as -
s r ,

or f th m e p li te t k m t
o e i b d f
or the fi t pe o su a a s ztr -
s r or rs r s on ,

an d k d b e
u a sa r e s r e f -
th sec d Th or na s a r e s er -
or e on . us

Ta h k i t hi e ]
c a u te h k
as k t wi b e
-
s nI ( , me
or c a u ts u a ni a s -
s r , or so

oth e h mble pe o ) have arri ved ; G ta h k k d ”

r u rs n e c e u u a s a re
 98 JA PN A E E S GR MM R
A A .

s ore , Y ou ( or
om e other h o rab l e perso ) have arrived s on u n .

C f H on ifi . p g 92 on or cs, a e .

S m et i m eo a e i ffi d di ectly t s oc witho t the

r s su xe r o n un s , u

i t v ti
n er f it en m on Kik b id k
o ue “ I hav e
a su o r su , as an a a a s r ,

h d the h t pe e y lette ”
a o n o ur o r us o ur r.

2 P C UL R PH OLOGY SE C . . A E IA R A SE .

B e i de i t act l co j gati al f rm
s s s o e co m bi es with
ua n u on o s, s r n

a m be f nu t f m pec li ar i di om The e d
r o n o un s o or u s . s an

o th ch h
er s , s u t d h k will be f d i the
as e re a r an e re na u, o un n

li t f idi m give at the d f the p e e t a th r R m a

s o o s n en o r s n u o
’
s o

i d Japa e e R ead e
n ze d e the hea di g
n s f id d g i r, un r n s o a a , an , ,

j k t k h t d t k P li te e l re q i e
‘

g oza , o, a a, ore , a e , an o or o . o n ss a s o u r s

th c e ta t epeti ti f h ifi
on s n d f r am e t l ve b on o on or c s an o or n n a r s .

L ette alway pe with s m e ch p lite ph a e S h k

rs s o n o su o r s as a en

w m t t k ij a i t hi o e
e a e I have t h h r t add e y
e as -
s r , e on o u o r ss ou

by lette ; ip p i t k ya r
“"
e pectf l t ke f the p su ei , on e r s u s ro o en

h ik i
a
“ I beg t state
a ,
i epli e O t g m i k h o or , n r s, n e a ra us u

t k m t mi e a
su a Y r ho
a s rable lette i t h d k k
-
s r , ou n ou r s o an a an

h ita [ t k
en m t m i a e] I
suha v e ope
a e d y r
a s fl we y ep i tle -
s r n ou o r s

t
e c t .
, T h e ( t l t i p i vate lette ) com e e te c
e c . n a e as n r rs s a s n n e

i wh i ch t h c
n e p de t i co grat l ated th g d health
e o rr s on n s n u on e oo

wh i ch he e j y twi th ta di g the a dve e tate f th

n o s no s n n rs s o e

weathe th i d e pite f the fact that t h w iter p bably h

r, -
s, s o e r ro as

no i f r m at i n o t h s bject Th s R i ki i t i a a
on on e u . u : e a -
s una r -
s r

t k e m
e re m , g if u kasuk i g t t -
m t m i
a su e
“ I beg t o se u e a a e a s -
s rh , o

c g at late y
on r t h perfect way i wh i c h y
u ou on keep y r e n ou ou

h e lt h twi th t a d i g the i creasi g c l d e f th ea ”

a , no s n n n n o n ss o e s s on .

Th l bject f th letter i the i t o d ced b y t h w d

e re a su o e s n n r u e or s

c hi w n hi k b a f wh i ch
or s the li t f i di m al eady
a re a , or see s o o s r

r ef re d to S m etim e e peci ally i po t ca d th i t

er . o s, s n s -
r s, e n ro

d t y c m p l im e t
uc o r s perse de d by som e s ch p l geti c
o n s a re u u a o o
 EPI ST OLA RY ST YLE . 99

p hrase as Z enrya ku g o kai ye kudasa ru -

beku s aw, “ I omit m co

p li m p ay e x c e
e n ts ; r us m e fo r so doi g n . L etter s are cl ed os

by m e ch phra e
so su s as K ano d a n kii e -
ta ku , or M igi mes hi -
a
g e

ta ku , ka ku no gI beg t bri g the ab ve

o to ku g az e s or e na ri ,
-
o n o

t yo r fav rable ot i ce
o u O k t
ou k t g t ki i
n e e I take n o ae aa a a e- s r ,

the occa i of thi eply t bri g the ab ve t y fav ble

s on s r o n o o o ur o ura

n oti ce To the e m e ch exp e i

. s t h so
“ Ib w su r s s on as an s u, o

m y head k t k t “ carel e ly w i t te f g
e s u-
“
o s u, i f ss r n u u, n su

fi i t
c en i ,ally adde d s us u .

I fli i l de patche
n o the i trod ctory phra es d w t
c a s s, n u s , o n o

shi k b hi
a re a or c i cl ive m y be f eely re de e d by I
n an n us , a r n r

have the ho o to i f m y n ur i the ca e f

n or ou or , n s O

a we s by I have the h o t ack wl edge the recei pt

ns r , on ur o no

of yo r c mm icati f the
u o i ta t
un d to state i
on o ns n ,
an n

reply that S ch E gli h pa aph a es of the pe i g

u n s r r s o n n

w d m y al so be held t i cl d the e m pti ve fi al ph a e

or s a o n u e r su n r s

K d
an e ki i t k whi le t h k t k t
an e- a etc m y be
u, o ns u, e su -
o su, .
, a

pa aph a e d b y I have the h r t be etc

r r s Wi t h on o u o , .

ob vi li ght cha ge the am e re m ark apply t the tra

o us s n s, s s o ns

lati o f pri vate l ette

n o rs .

Som e of the di ffi c l ti es f par i g which are peci ally u o s n , s

prom i e t i the epi t lary style will be f d explai e d

n n n s o , o un n

on page 8 9 .

T HE E ND .

R NT
P I E D A T T HE
“J A PA NG A Z E TT E ”
OFF C I E
Y K HAOO M A ,
JA PA N .
,
 I N D E " .

Ab t ct N
s ra o uns
A cc n t e
A dj c t i v
e es
A dj c t i v
e hi es i n s a nd y z

A dj c t i v
e ( N n es ou s u s e d as )
A dv bi l F mer a or
A dv b er s

A i
A k ( T min )
u er .

A k (V b)
u er

A lp h b t a e
A lt i a c

A r as e r a ruru
A r i nu b e s hi-

cl
A r ti e s
A ru
A t au
A t aw azu
A tt r a c t i o n
A tt ri b ut i e F o rm v
l
A ux i i a ry Num e ra l s
B as e s
B e k u , b e k i , b e s hi
C a us at i e s v
C n
hi e s e W o rd s
C lll
o o q ui a i s m s

C n
om p ou d s
C n
o m p o u d Ve rb s 81
C n v
o c e s s i e M o od 69
C nc v
o lu s i e F o rm 4 i , 4 s, s e
C n nl
o d i tio a M o o d as
C n n
o jug a t i o s 49
C nj nc ti n
o u o s 8
C n t cti n
o s ru o
D m n t ti v P n n
e o s ra e ro ou s 15
D ides tiv F m
e ra e or s 69
1 02 D
IN E " .

D ome
l
D o ub e Ne g at i v es
E ( Pote ti a ) n l
E ( L e t t e r)
ll
E i p si s
En y a
Ep is t o la ry S t y e l
E ra k u
Ez u
Cn n
F ir s t o jug a t i o
Cn
F o urth o jug at i o n
n v
F re q ue t a t i e s
F ut ure
Ga
Ge n de r
G e run d
G oz a s Orf)
Ho no ri fi c s
Ho n o r i fi c P o t e nt i als

H m bl E
u e x p re s s i o n s
Hy ph n e s
Hy p o t he t i c a M o od l
Ie rak u
ll
v
I a t i e F o rm s
v
Im p e ra t i e
nn
I d e fi i t e F o rm
nn n n
I d e fi it e Pr o ou s 16
n
n v
I fi i ti e
n c n
I t e rje t i o s 8
n v
I t e r r o g a t i e W o rd s
n
n v
I t r a s i t i e Ve rb s
I l
rr e u a r Ve r b s
g
Iru
Iw uk u
Iw a y a n
Ka
K a n a ra z u
K a n uru
K a ra

K are
K ar u

K e ri , K“ n ( S fli )
ei u x

K e r u, t o k ic k .

K o k oro m u r u
K e no
 D
IN E " .
1 03

K o re a n
Ii oso

Ii o o t
K ur u
K y ot C ll q o o o ui a
L tt C h n g
e er a es

Lit t e r a ure

M ad e
M ah o s hi k i
M ak ar i
Mi
MO
Mo o n
M o tt e
Na g a ra
Na k u, ak i , as hi n n
Nar e d o m o
Na ri
Nar u, “ to be
Na ru , “ t o b e o me c
Na n
Ne g a t i e s v 90
i
Y

Ni ar u
Ni O ite

Ni o k e ru

Ni t s uk i
Ni y o r i
Ni y o t t e
Ni g o r i
Ni t e
Ni te a ru 83

Nu
Nu b e s hi -

Numb e r
Num e r a s l
Nur u
Nz u
O bli q ue M o o d s
O no g a
n
O o m at op e e
n
O o re
 IND E" . 1 05

n
S y t ax
n Cn
S y t he s i s o f o t r a d i ct o ri e s
c
T a hi
T ag a
T ak u, t ak i , t a s h i
T a m au
Tara n
T ari
T ar u ( S uffi x )
T a r n ( Ve r b )
T a t e m a t s ur u
T hi rd Cno j ug a t i o n
To
To , “ t hi s
To i n
T o s hi t e
T o s u ru
T ok o ro n o
n
To e s
Tot e
T n v
r a s i t i e V e rb s

Ts u
T s u ru
Ts ut s u
U c hi
U n i n fl e c t e d W o rd s
U ru
U r y é ru
Ve rb s

W ag a
VVO
Woba
W e m o tt e
W e s hi te
W e ya
W ri tt e n Ch c t a ra e rs
Ya
Ya m o
Ya wo
Ye
Y o ri
Z ar u b e s hi
-

Z o
Zu
Z um b a aru b e k araz u
-