PSED5112

NAME:
AQEELAH

SURNAME:
KAYSER

STUDENT NUMBER:
ST10138323

ASSIGNMENT 1

AUGUST 2023
Question 1

1.1. This essay looks to define the concept of self in terms of psychology and discuss
the concept of self as a multilevel system. Further points in this essay will expand and
differentiate between The Self as ‘I’ and The Self as ‘me’.

The psychological concept of ‘Self’ refers to the inner most develop of an individual’s
individuality and uniqueness. The concept of Self is subject to change or otherwise
experiences shifts in its paradigm according to its independent variables.
Philosophically, the concept of Self is said to be the soul that transcends the physical
being.

There are various psychological connotations connected to the concept of Self. In

essence these connotations express that the concept of Self is the overall personal
development of an individual’s self-improvement, self-esteem and self-identity.
However, the concept of the Self is subdivided into two abstract psychological
prospects, namely ‘I’ and ‘me’. The above-mentioned psychological prospects of Self
are further divided into two different psychological aspects, where ‘I’ is the subject and
‘me’ is the object. The concept of Self is constructed from a specific individual’s self-
concept and the manner in which they constructed it by analyzing their own social
interactions as well as personal experiences, Kendra Cherry (September; 2022). The
concept of the Self in psychological terms gives reference to the self as being a
multidimensional interface for both personal and external encounters subject to the
individual are experienced.

Moreover, further elaboration on the notion of the concept of self being divided into two
respective prospects, where ‘I’ is the subject and ‘me’ is the object. With relevance to
the construction of the concept of Self, ‘I’ acts as the subjective knower and ‘me’ is the
known objective. In other terms, the psychological prospect of ‘I’ is the active doer, it is
the part of the concept of Self that is mostly active social interactions and encounters.
On the other hand, the respective prospect of ‘me’ is depicted as the object of collective
stimuli which reflects the specified traits encountered or acknowledged by ‘I’. If these
traits are favorably desired or help the individual achieve a sense of self-satisfaction, it
will then form an integrated part of the ‘me’ as the reflective interface of the individual,
IResearch (2020).

Dr. S. Mcleod (2008) claims that the Self can exist as the categorical Self and the
existential Self. These are both perspectives of the self-perceived by the individual
themselves and specific assertations of an individual’s new experiences and
developments. Individuals grow and learn to see themselves not only as the subject –
the existential self – of their environment but as the object – the categorical self – as
well. Growth within the existential Self is realizing that one no longer must analyze
concepts fully, but to take or conform to those that relate to them the most. The
existential self involves the self-realization that one’s individual self is able to grasp
external opinions and standards and conform to them. The act of finding oneself
through self-observation and eternal interactions is accomplished by the Existential Self
as ‘I’. When an individual later conforms and values that information as a belief or
moral, we can now say with certainty that this has now become part of their categorical
self as ‘me’. The categorical self also serves as the object of learning for those who
observe it and is a constantly changing paradigm.

The concept of Self is effective on four different chemical levels within the mind. These
chemical reactions favor a string of chemical events namely, the molecular level, the
neural level, personal growth and social interactions. The molecular level looks at
unique personality traits to the individual as well as inherited personality traits. For the
successful chemical reaction on the molecular level, it magnifies into the identity of an
individual, P. Thagard (June; 2012). P. Thagard consecutively states that whilst on the
molecular level, we may see the interdependence of hormonal changes and
neurotransmitters on neural operations.

Messengers in our brain are called neurotransmitters and they allow us to have the
appropriate reaction toward an external stimulus. This is called an impulse.
Neurotransmitters are found on the second level: neural level. Here self-perceived
opinions interact with external bias and stereotypes in the environment. Whichever
intrigues the individual the most will be interacted with by the active psychological agent
‘I’ and reflected as a personality trait ‘me’.
As this continues to happen, it forms a pattern which is recognized by the
neurotransmitters. Taking on a norm, only relevant traits or experiences will reflect in
the objective self. The neural concept within the concept of self, is centered around its
logical functionality. Individuals utilize the neural concept when they observe and
experience. Once an individual has properly analyzed their experiences, they then use
certain aspects of it; specifically, those which they relate to, to define parts of
themselves. They make it part of their unique identity.

The psychological and social self are both levels embedded in the categorical self. With
reason, the psychological self, is the internal concrete basis of an individual’s
personality. It is inclusive of personal traits such as one’s ethnicity, sexuality, nationality,
religious beliefs and sexual preference. The social concept in relation to concept of Self
definitively predicts an individual’s social interactive choices such as their preferred
social circle to those they do not associate with. Being an active participant in the
system of social behavior, progressing and developing one’s social abilities is how an
individual establishes newer traits and characteristics. This is where we gather our
personality traits. The four levels are a continuous learning cycle from which we develop
ourselves as unique individuals. Hazel Rose Marcus says; “[Y]ou can't be a self by
yourself”. Therefore, the distinct variation among levels is connected to the concept of
self. The Self is classified as a multilevel system because there are constant
interactions, responses and reactions toward a stimulus or impulse aimed at ‘the self’.
Paul Thagard (2012) states ‘the self does exist- but as a highly complex multilevel
system of interacting mechanisms.
Question 2

A. Bandura (1986) defines self-efficacy as: ‘[S]elf efficacy refers to an individual’s belief
in his or her capacity to execute behaviors necessary to produce specific performance
attainments.’. The concept of self-efficacy reflects an individual’s self-esteem and
confidence within themselves and how it affects their levels of determination, behavior
and desire to interact in their social environment.

Self-efficacy is an essential component of the self-system. Self-satisfaction, being one

other psychological aspect derived from Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, can be achieved
with a strong self-efficacy. K. Cherry (2022) relays that the four main aspects for self-
efficacy are ‘[M]astery experiences, social modelling, social persuasion and
psychological responses.’ Mastery experiences is the term used to describe the effect
certain tasks have on our self-efficacy. Tasks that are achieved flawlessly strengthen
our self-efficacy and improve our confidence levels. On the other hand, tasks with which
we struggle affect our self-efficacy negatively and decrease our level of confidence. It
makes us doubt our ability to execute a task.

Social modelling is the observations made by an individual, where they use the success
of others in relation to them as motivation and affirmation to reach their own success. If
one observes the success of another, where the other person has similar traits to that of
themselves, that individual will feel confident in attaining their own success. Similarly,
social persuasion is an act of encouragement from external social factors. In A.
Bandura’s (1986) further study of self-efficacy, he explains that social persuasion
proves to significantly increase an individual’s determination and effort toward a task. Its
most common form is verbal affirmation. Other forms include physical support,
emotional support and acts of kindness. This helps erase any self-doubt and shift their
focus to the task at hand.

Lastly psychological responses are inclusive of an individual’s emotional and physical

reactions. These play a very important role in self-efficacy. An individual’s emotions,
physical reactions and stress levels all affect the way in which they respond to certain
situations. Consequently, if someone is feeling negatively about a situation, they will
weaken their self-efficacy. This will lead to poor results and a decreased confidence
level. However, if an individual is feeling confident about their task, they are more likely
to achieve higher results and a stronger sense of self efficacy.

As a teacher in the classroom, it is important to guide learners into building strong and
stable bases for their self-efficacy. The construction of a strong self-efficacy at a young
age, specifically in the age group pertaining to the intermediate phase learners, is
essential for the development of their cognitive abilities and the improvement of their
social skills. According to the case study, when Carl felt that he could not do the art
activity he became distant and was not consistent in his usual eagerness to learn and
receive information. Hence, keeping the learner's confidence at a constant all-time high,
they will not be exposed to the feeling of being an outcast or that they are unable to
complete activities delegated to them by their educator.

Teachers may do activities based around improving self-efficacy, such as

acknowledgment of peers or allowing for learner centered activities within the
perimeters provided by the educator. If the teacher has a literature rich environment,
he/she may put up posters that are encouraging to the learners, having positive quotes
on the walls. On the other hand, if the teacher has a print rich environment, he or she as
the educator may put up posters with the pictures of differentiated learners being happy,
or even the display wall with the learner's artwork to encourage appreciativeness of
other learners’ work. He or she may also put up occasional smiley faces to remind the
kids to always smile or upkeep the happy mood and atmosphere in the classroom.
Commonly among young children, they are very innocent minded, therefore verbal
encouragement will always be present among them.

Demonstrative lessons of tactful behavior toward their peers should be a repetitive

lesson in the class. The educator should allow for interactive learning amongst the
learners. If the learners' social skills are maintained and they are taught to be kind and
give acts of kindness, it will strengthen the sense of self efficacy. The teacher should
give motivation as well. The educator has to continuously drive learners to try and give
them the desire to want to try. Educators are also known to give verbal encouragement
to their learners. It should be a constant narrative inside the classroom walls to the
learners. It improves their confidence together not only as a whole class but as
individual learners as well, Margolis and McCabe (2004).
Question 3

ADHD is a common neurodevelopmental disorder. It is commonly found in kids and is

diagnosed in the early stages of childhood. Attention deficit and hyperactivity disorders
usually display interruptive behavior.

Children who are medically diagnosed with ADHD are often found to have a short
attention span and cannot concentrate for long periods of time. They are always
fidgeting whether it be with some part of their body or an object. The World Federation
of ADHD International Consensus Statement, TFADHDSICS (2022) states that the
possible causes according to their research show that ADHD is caused by: brain
injuries, premature delivery, low birth weight, exposure to environmental risk factors and
alcohol and tobacco use during pregnancy. Their statement also expands on the bias
associated with the colloquial causes attached to ADHD. The federation clarifies and
concludes that the belief that an increased sugar consumption or/or neglective home
environment is the cause of ADHD is completely untrue. However, it may worsen the
condition of ADHD depending on how critical the mental state of the child may be.

ADHD may present itself in one of three forms: Predominantly inattentive presentation,
predominantly hyperactive-impulsive presentation, or combined presentation. Each of
these presentations will display different symptoms, each with a different level of
severity. When the diagnosis is made by a medical specialist, they usually prescribe a
medication to tone down the patient’s hyperactivity and interruptive tendencies. Caroline
Miller depicts the different behavioral tendencies and how ADHD may present itself in
the classroom. She says that these kids who suffer from neurological deficit tend to
constantly disrupt the classroom. They blurt out questions when it's a collective group
assignment and not individual activities, they find it hard to concentrate on one
particular task at a time and rush through their work. If these learners are not
interrupting the teacher or the class, they tend to forget certain things or fidgeting within
the space of their designated area in the class. She further discusses that their
conditions can be categorized into two separate categories. The first being inattentive
behavior, which is the more subtle condition of ADHD. When a child is classified as
having inattentive behavior, they are more likely to be learners who forget and get
distracted easily. On the other hand, if they are not classified as inattentive, they are
most likely to have hyperactive behavior. These learners are known to do things
impulsively and physically. Hyperactive learners tend to run around, jump and shout
most of the time. Due to this condition, these learners miss out or are favorable to
incomplete tasks and activities. Therefore, adjustments need to be made or set in place
to accommodate for these learners to catch up.

Accommodation may take the form of allowing the diagnosed learners extra time on a
task, having custom instructions and rules centered around their differentiated behavior
and suited to their tendencies. The educator may also have their peers assist with
keeping the learner organized whether it be according to their appearance and or that
specific learner’s workspace. Giving the learner regular intervals after activities or at the
teachers scheduled times for the learner, prevents the learner from feeling restrained or
held back from actually doing what they wish. Consistent change within the classroom
environment may also help reduce the number of times the learner gets distracted.
Setting aside time for the learner to move around inside a provided space reduces the
hyperactivity. There are many things an educator can do to reduce the number of times
the learner gets distracted.

In conclusion, this is the crux of ADHD and how it can be dealt with in the classroom
environment as well as how it displays itself in the classroom.
References:
• Thagard. P, 2012 The Self as a multilevel system interacting mechanisms
Philosophy Dept. University of Waterloo
• Cherry. K, 2022 What is Self-Concept? [online] verywellmind.com
• Margolis. H and McCabe. P. P, 2004 Self Efficacy: A Key to Improving the
Motivation of Struggling Learners [online] researchgate.net
• Moore. C, 2016 Albert Bandura: Self Efficacy and Agentic Positive Psychology
[online] positivpsychology.com
• Mcleod. S, 2008 Self-Concept [online] commonlit.org
• The World Federation of ADHD International, 2021 The World Federation of
ADHD International Consensus Statement