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Control Engineering Practice 7 (1999) 1043}1059

Control of jet engines


H. Austin Spang III *, Harold Brown
GE Research and Development Center, Box 8, KWD 220, Schenectady, NY 12301, USA
Gray Fox Technologies, 11 Diplomat Drive, Cincinnati, OH 45215, USA
Received 6 November 1997; accepted 8 March 1999

Abstract

Feedback control has always been an essential part of jet engines because they operate at or near their mechanical or aerothermal
limitations. In this paper, the basics of controlling an engine while satisfying numerous constraints will be reviewed. The emphasis will
be on commercial engines though most of the material is also applicable to military engines. In the "rst part, a simpli"ed theory of
engine operation is discussed in terms of the basic principles and limitations for each component. The second part of the paper
discusses overall control requirements and typical sensors and actuators. Finally various control strategies are presented. It is shown
that much of the complexity of the control comes from the need to operate the engine as close as possible to its limits. In a commercial
engine, this results in a series of single input single output controllers. The case for multivariable control can be more strongly made
for military engines especially those with additional #owpath geometry actuators such as a variable cycle or advanced short takeo!
and landing engines.  1999 Elsevier Science ¸td. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Jet engines; Control applications; Computer control; Aerospace control

1. Introduction when they can be operated at or near their mechanical,


thermal, #ow or pressure limitations such as rotor
In one form or another, jet engines power all but the speeds, turbine temperatures, internal pressures, etc.
smallest airplanes and helicopters. They produce propul- Controlling at but not exceeding a limit is a very
sive thrust from the thermal energy of jet fuel. As dis- important aspect of engine control which must, therefore,
cussed in Smith (1955) Sir Frank Whittle is credited with provide both regulation and limit management.
developing the "rst jet engine during the 1930s. It was Minimum control requirements include a main fuel
similar to the turbosupercharger that had been de- control for setting and holding steady-state thrust with
veloped in the 1920s which also used a single stage fuel acceleration and deceleration schedules to provide
centrifugal compressor, a combustor, and a single stage limit protection. More advanced controls schedule
turbine. Apparently unaware of Whittle's work, a jet engine geometry and augmentor fuel, provide fan and
engine was also patented in Germany by Hans von booster stall protection, control variable parasitic
Ohain and Max Hahn in 1936 (see Casamassa & Bent, engine #ows, improve integrated engine-airframe perfor-
1965; Constant, 1980). The subsequent German develop- mance, and provide engine health monitoring and
ment led to the JUMO 109 engine that had many design diagnostics.
features of more modern engines such as a multistage It should be noted that only recently have electronic
axial compressor, turbine blade cooling, and an exhaust computers been used to implement engine controls. This
nozzle whose diameter could be changed. Unfortunately, is primarily due to the inherent need for safe operation
it was limited by available materials to an operating life and the harsh temperature and vibration environment in
of about 10 h. which the computer operates. Many engines in use today
Feedback control has been an essential part of a jet are controlled by a hydromechanical controller com-
engine from the beginning. Engines are most e!ective monly referred to as an HMU. These are ingenious
mechanical computers which implement the desired con-
trol strategy in terms of cams and mechanical integrators.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: #1-518-3876490; fax: #1-518-3875164. Of necessity, the implemented control strategies must be
E-mail address: spang@crd.ge.com (H. Austin Spang III) fairly simple. A drawing of a typical HMU is shown in

0967-0661/99/$ - see front matter  1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 6 7 - 0 6 6 1 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 7 8 - 7
1044 H. Austin Spang III, H. Brown / Control Engineering Practice 7 (1999) 1043}1059

Fig. 1. Hydromechanical controller } Hamilton Standard JFC25.

Fig. 1. More detailed discussions of their operation can The turbojet was the earliest form of jet engine and is
be found in Treager (1979). the simplest of the three. Its major components include
The changeover to electronic controllers began in the a compressor, combustor, turbine which drives the com-
1980s as rugged integrated circuits became available and pressor, and exhaust nozzle. It produces a relatively high
as the need for improved performance led to increased speci"c thrust de"ned as thrust per kilogram of air#ow. It
functionality and tighter control. Pratt and Whitney calls is the best type of engine for high subsonic and super-
its controller a Digital Engine Control (DEC) while Gen- sonic #ight speeds.
eral Electric calls it a Full Authority Digital Electronic The turbofan has as its `corea a compressor, combus-
Control (FADEC). These are highly customized com- tor, and a turbine which drives the compressor. In addi-
puters whose complexity depends mainly on the number tion it has a fan in front of the core compressor and
of sensor inputs and actuator outputs. Such electronic a second power turbine behind the core turbine to drive
controllers result in higher engine operating e$ciencies the fan as shown in Fig. 2. The #ow capacity of the fan is
by allowing tighter engine control through the use of designed to be substantially larger than the compressor
higher loop gains and improved strategies to reduce so that the excess air can be bypassed around the core
transient overshoot or undershoot. It also allows imple- and exhausted through a separate nozzle. The bypass
mentation of control algorithms which would be di$cult approach reduces engine speci"c thrust but increases
to implement mechanically. propulsion e$ciency thereby reducing fuel consumption
and is the engine of choice for subsonic commercial
1.1. Basic engine types airplanes.
The turboprop or turboshaft engine includes the tur-
Three basic types of jet engines are in current use: bojet core and power turbine but has no fan. Its power
turbine can drive an external propeller or helicopter
E turbojets, rotor through a gear reduction unit. The rotor or propel-
E turbofan engines, ler further increases total engine air #ow, decreases speci-
E turboprop/turboshaft engines. "c thrust, and increases propulsion e$ciency. The
H. Austin Spang III, H. Brown / Control Engineering Practice 7 (1999) 1043}1059 1045

Fig. 2. Pratt & Whitney PW4084 turbofan engine.

Fig. 3. Engine station locations.

turboshaft is the best type of powerplant for helicopters 2. Simpli5ed engine theory
and small, lower speed aircraft.
Variations of the above basic engine types can in- The most common form of jet engine is the high bypass
clude: ratio turbofan. It will be described in this article. More
detailed discussion on engine design and operation can
E dual rotor core engines containing two compressors be found in Oates (1988) and Cohen and Rogers (1996).
and two turbines, A turbofan engine bypasses a substantial fraction of the
E turbofans with a booster or low pressure compressor inlet air around the hot section or core of the engine in
between the fan and core compressor for supercharg- order to achieve a high propulsive e$ciency. A simpli"ed
ing the core, diagram of such an engine is shown in Fig. 3.
E mixed-#ow turbofans which mix the bypass and core The numbers in Fig. 3 refer to standardized engine
discharge #ows and exhaust both through a single station locations (see Oates, 1988; ARP 755A, 1974):
nozzle,
E turbojet augmentors, turbofan fan burners, and mixed 0 freestream ambient air conditions,
#ow augmentors for increasing engine thrust for better 1 inlet entry,
takeo!, transonic acceleration, or combat capabilities. 2 fan entry,
1046 H. Austin Spang III, H. Brown / Control Engineering Practice 7 (1999) 1043}1059

Fig. 4. Pressure}volume and temperature}entropy (TS) diagrams for turbojet.

25 high pressure compressor entry, Alternative options which include the turbojet, turbo-
3 high pressure compressor exit, shaft, and turbo-augmented cycles will not be discussed
4 burner exit/high pressure turbine entry, but can be determined from similar techniques. The fol-
45 high pressure turbine exit/low pressure turbine entry, lowing sections describe each of the turbofan engine
5 turbine exit, processes in more detail.
8 nozzle throat,
9 exhaust nozzle exit. 2.1. Inlet compression
Double digit numbers 12}18 are used for bypass #ow
Air #ow is supplied to the engine by the inlet which
stations from fan tip entry (station 12) through the bypass
compresses the inlet air. Assuming that the ambient air
duct to the bypass nozzle (station 18).
pressure, P , and temperature, ¹ , are not moving and
Reciprocating automobile engines operate on a four-  
the inlet air is moving at the #ight mach number, M, the
stroke Otto cycle. Their internal combustion process
total pressure and temperature at the inlet is given by
achieves extremely high pressures through constant

   
volume combustion which results in a high power per c!1 I
P "g P 1# M , (1)
kilogram of air #ow.  P  2
Conversely, the jet engine operates on a continuous

   
#ow Brayton cycle which ideally involves isentropic com- c!1
¹ "¹ 1# M , (2)
pression and constant pressure combustion. It operates   2
at a substantially lower maximum temperature and pres-
sure than the Otto cycle. Fig. 4 shows pressure}volume where P is pressure, ¹ is temperature, M is #ight Mach
and temperature}entropy (TS) diagrams for the ideal number, c is the speci"c heat ratio of air (constant pres-
Brayton cycle. It is the basis of the turbojet engine and sure speci"c heat/constant volume speci"c heat), k is the
ratio (c!1)/c, and g is the ram recovery (actual total
the core of the turbofan. It contains the following P
thermodynamic processes: pressure/ideal total pressure) which is approximately
1 for subsonic #ight.
E 0}2 isentropic compression in the engine inlet,
E 2}3 isentropic compression in the engine fan, 2.2. Compression system
booster, and compressor,
E 3}4 constant pressure heat release in the combustor, The turbofan compression system consists of a fan,
E 4}5 isentropic expansion in the high pressure and a booster, and one or more compressors. Operating char-
low pressure turbines, acteristics of each are a function of their respective inlet
E 5}9 isentropic expansion to atmospheric pressure in total temperature and pressure, rotational speed, and
the exhaust nozzle. discharge pressure. It is convenient to normalize #ow and
speed with respect to inlet temperatures and pressures.
The actual cycle involves near isentropic compression
These corrected parameters can be used to represent
and expansion processes, a pressure loss in the combus-
operating characteristics independent of the actual inlet
tor, and an incomplete expansion to near-atmospheric
temperature and pressure levels:
pressure in the exhaust system. Total temperatures and
pressures are used for all internal engine conditions.
E corrected #ow (=(h /d ),
? ?
E corrected speed (N/(h ),
?
 Isentropic refers to the fact that it occurs without energy loss. E pressure ratio (P /P ),
@ ?
 Total temperature and pressures include the energy of the moving air. E adiabatic e$ciency (g ),
A
H. Austin Spang III, H. Brown / Control Engineering Practice 7 (1999) 1043}1059 1047

where the subscripts a and b refer to inlet and discharge the compressor and the engine. Fan stalls can be caused
conditions, respectively, for the fan, booster or compres- by operation with too small a fan duct nozzle area,
sor. = is the #ow rate, h is the inlet temperature divided booster stalls by a throttle reduction to a lower engine
?
by the ambient standard sea level temperature, d is the rotational speed, and compressor stalls by a rapid
?
inlet pressure divided by the ambient standard sea level throttle increase. The engine and control system must be
pressure, N is the compressor rotational speed, and g is designed to avoid surge/stall with su$cient design mar-
A
the compressor adiabatic e$ciency. gin to o!set the e!ects of altitude, increased tip clearan-
Operating characteristics of a typical compressor are ces, component deterioration, and engine/air#ow
shown in terms of the above corrected parameters in the operation at high angles of attack.
compressor map in Fig. 5. Given measured corrected
speed and pressure ratio one can determine corrected 2.3. Combustion system
#ow and e$ciency (not shown in Fig. 5). Exit temper-
ature and required work can then be obtained from: Fuel is burned in the combustor at a slight pressure
drop and the resulting products of combustion are ex-
 
(P /P )I!1
¹ "¹ 1# @ ? (3) panded in the turbines. The required fuel #ow needed to
@ ? g
A obtain a given high pressure turbine temperature can be
HP"= C (¹ !¹ ) (4) determined from the energy balance equation:
? N @ ?
where HP is the work required to drive the compressor = Q g "= C (¹ !¹ )#= C (¹ !¹ )
D D D D ND  D  N  
and C is speci"c heat of air at constant pressure. This
N where = is the fuel #ow rate, Q is the higher heating
work is expended in compressing the air from P to P . D D
? @ value of the fuel, g is the combustion e$ciency and ¹ is
Compressor characteristics must be obtained from exten- D D
the temperature of the fuel. The subscript 4 refers to high
sive testing of individual stages, the full compressor, and
pressure turbine inlet conditions. Thus the required fuel
sometimes the entire engine.
#ow is
Stable compressor operation is limited to the region
below the compressor stall line shown in Fig. 5. Two = C (¹ !¹ )
modes of instability can occur: surge which is a longitudi- ="  N   . (5)
D Q g !C (¹ !¹ )
nal #ow oscillation over the length of the compressor and D D ND  D
turbine, and stall which is the lack of pressure rise be- Depending on the combustor pressure, the combustor
tween the compressor blades. Often stall occurs at low will operate only in certain regions as shown in Fig. 6.
rotor speeds and surge at high rotor speeds. Both surge The high temperature blowout region is referred to as
and stall generate violent axial oscillations of the internal `rich blowouta and the low temperature region is refer-
air column which can cause substantial damage to both red to as `lean blowouta.

Fig. 5. Engine compressor map.


1048 H. Austin Spang III, H. Brown / Control Engineering Practice 7 (1999) 1043}1059

Fig. 6. Combustor blowout limits.

Fig. 7. Turbine map.

The total gas #ow downstream of the combustor is the


sum of the air #ow and the fuel #ow. The speci"c heat of
the gas mixture can be obtained from the equation determine corrected #ow and e$ciency. Note that the
turbine inlet #ow is choked at a constant value over
C #f ) C a large part of the operating range.
C " N? ND. (6)
NE 1#f The temperature ratio across the turbine can be ob-
tained from the required work of the compressor (for the
Other mixture properties such as enthalpy and entropy high pressure turbine) or the work of the fan and booster
but not c can be obtained by a similar process. (for the low pressure turbine):
A signi"cant amount of air is required to cool the

 
combustor liner, but it is returned to the gas stream prior ¹ !¹ HP
? @ " (7)
to the turbine. ¹ = C ¹
? E? NE ?
2.4. Turbine expansion where HP is the work delivered to the shaft, = is the
E?
gas #ow at the inlet, and C is the speci"c heat of the gas
NE
The turbine expansion system provides the power to at constant pressure derived in Eq. (6).
drive the compression system. The high pressure turbine
drives the compressor through the high pressure shaft 2.5. Bypass duct
and the low pressure turbine drives the fan and booster
through the low pressure shaft. The operating character- A fraction of the fan discharge air is bypassed around
istics of each turbine are de"ned in terms of the following the engine core and exhausted through either a
corrected parameters: separate bypass nozzle or mixed with the core stream and
exhausted through the core nozzle. In either case, the
E corrected #ow function (= (¹ /P ), bypassed air improves the propulsive e$ciency of the
E? ? ? engine and makes it the preferred approach for the
E corrected speed (N /(¹ ),
? ? world's large commercial #eet. The bypass ratio is
E temperature ratio ((¹ !¹ )/¹ ),
? @ ? de"ned by
E adiabatic e$ciency (g ).
R
Bypass Air Flow
The subscripts a and b refer to inlet and discharge BypassRatio" . (8)
Core Inlet Air Flow
conditions respectively for the high pressure and low
pressure turbines. Operating characteristics of a typical It represents a major turbofan engine design para-
turbine are illustrated in terms of the above corrected meter. The bypass duct operates with a slight pressure
parameters in the turbine map shown in Fig. 7. Given drop of about 5% of the fan discharge pressure and no
measured corrected speed and temperature ratio one can loss in total temperature.
H. Austin Spang III, H. Brown / Control Engineering Practice 7 (1999) 1043}1059 1049

2.6. Exhaust system combustion is essentially a constant pressure process, the


increase in P results in an increase in turbine pressure,

The core and bypass streams are expanded through P and hence an increase in P moving the engine operat-
 
core and bypass nozzles to the pressure of ambient air. ing line closer to stall. From Eq. (7), the increase in
A converging nozzle can be used for exhaust #ow which P also produces less work from the turbine which will

is either subsonic or sonic and a converging}diverging reduce core rotor speed. The control system will increase
(C}D) nozzle would be required for supersonic #ow. The main fuel #ow to keep rotor speed constant resulting in
throat or minimum area of the nozzle will regulate the increased temperature of the turbine. Thus A must be

amount of #ow that can be exhausted through the nozzle. opened to maintain a constant P to avoid compressor

Using the compressible #ow relationship, = " stall and overtemperature of the turbine.
E
o < A where o"P/R¹ is the density of the exhaust gas
  
and <"M(cR¹ is the axial velocity, one can obtain 2.8. Engine trade-ows
the necessary throat area for a desired core #ow:
Engine operating characteristics are set predominantly
A "= (¹ /P /u N (9) by four interacting design variables: (1) bypass ratio, (2)
 E    
turbine inlet temperature, (3) overall pressure ratio, and
where u is the sonic #ow function and N is the ratio of (4) fan pressure ratio. The best design choice will be
 
#ow to sonic #ow: dependent on the intended application or mission, the
level of technology available, the degree of subsequent
u "(cR/((c#1)/2)A>A\ (10)
 growth capability required, and expected competition
from other engines.
c#1

 
A>A\ Bypass ratio will have the most dominant e!ect on
2 engine performance. High bypass ratios of 4}8 are used
N "M (11)
  c!1 for most large commercial engines. Increased bypass
1# M
2  ratio will improve (decrease) speci"c fuel consumption
(SFC) at cruise and decrease speci"c thrust (thrust per
c"1.4 provides a good approximation to actual gas kilogram/second of air #ow) at takeo!. Ultra high bypass
over the range of operating temperature. ratios of 10}20 have been considered for improved cruise
The throat Mach number must be 1 if the nozzle performance but would require an unducted fan
total-to-static pressure ratio is greater than the critical (Mordo!, 1986) or reduction gears between the fan and
value of about 1.8. If the pressure ratio is less than low pressure turbine. Lower bypass ratios of 1}3 provide
critical, the throat Mach number will be less than 1 and improved thrust for #ight Mach numbers of 1}2 and are
can be obtained from the relationship used for military "ghters and bombers. A pure turbojet
has a zero bypass ratio and would be used for supersonic

 
2 transport.
M" [(P /P )I!1]. (12)
c!1 2  High turbine inlet temperature leads to improved
speci"c thrust and a lighter engine but requires more
The exit area will e!ect the thrust output of the engine. expensive turbine materials and a more complex turbine
Similar equations can be used for the bypass or mixed cooling system which reduces cruise performance. The
#ow streams. proper balance will depend on the relative importance of
speci"c thrust which sets engine size and weight and
2.7. Augmentor cruise performance which sets fuel requirements. Military
applications will tend to demand higher temperatures to
Military engines generally have an augmentor either achieve a lighter engine weight while commercial ap-
behind the low pressure turbine or in the bypass duct. plications will place a stronger emphasis on cruise perfor-
Augmentors are sometimes referred to as `afterburnersa. mance.
They are used to increase engine thrust for selected seg- Overall pressure ratio which is the compressor dis-
ments of the #ight such as takeo!, climb, acceleration to charge pressure divided by fan inlet pressure will e!ect
supersonic speed, or combat. Augmentation is a relative- both takeo! and cruise performance. Optimum pressure
ly ine$cient approach for generating thrust. This penalty ratio tends to increase with increased turbine inlet tem-
can be minimized by maintaining the engine at its max- perature but decreases as #ight Mach number increases.
imum non-augmentation setting thereby minimizing the Pressure ratios of 40 and 50 : 1 could be e!ective with
thrust increment provided by the augmentor. moderate temperatures at takeo! but should be limited
Augmentation requires a variable exhaust nozzle. The to the 10 to 15 : 1 range at supersonic speeds. Extremely
reason can be seen from Eq. (9). For a "xed A , an high pressure ratios would require the use of high alloy

increase in ¹ must be o!set by an increase in P . Since steel or titanium at the rear of the compressor and
 
1050 H. Austin Spang III, H. Brown / Control Engineering Practice 7 (1999) 1043}1059

specially cooled cooling air for use in the high pressure


turbine.
A high fan pressure ratio improves takeo! perfor-
mance but increases exhaust noise. The achievable pres-
sure ratio will be dependent on the work available from
the low pressure turbine. Both will be dependent on
turbine inlet temperature and overall pressure ratio. Fan
pressure ratios of 2}3 can be achieved on low bypass
military engines but would be limited to the 1.6}2.0
regime for high bypass commercial engines. Mixed-#ow
turbofans would also require the use of fan pressure ratios
which produce duct pressure levels roughly equal to the
turbine discharge pressure in order for mixing to occur.

3. Control requirements

The overall function of an engine controller is to pro-


vide thrust in response to throttle position. It must Fig. 8. Engine limits.
achieve the requested thrust with the lowest speci"c fuel
consumption. It must also insure that the following limits
are not exceeded: until the required thrust has been achieved. Similarly,
one would like to operate at the fan and compressor stall
E maximum fan speed, limits and the turbine inlet temperature limits. However,
E maximum compressor speed, none of these parameters can be measured directly in
E maximum turbine temperature, #ight. Thrust can only be measured in a test cell where
E fan stall, one can establish a stationary reference. Likewise stall
E compressor stall, margins are established in test rigs by actually stalling the
E maximum compressor discharge pressure, fan or compressor. Thus one must select practical
E minimum compressor discharge pressure, measurements which are related to the ideal measure-
E lean burner blowout, ments. These practical measurements must also be rela-
E rich burner blowout. tively immune to engine to engine variation due to
manufacturing tolerances and engine deterioration. Gen-
For an aircraft turbine engine, it is necessary to achieve erally monte-carlo simulations are performed to establish
maximum thrust with minimum engine weight. This the appropriate selection.
means that all components operate at mechanical or Various thrust setting parameters can be used to set
thermal limits for at least one of the engine's critical thrust indirectly. GE uses fan rotor speed, Pratt and
operating conditions. At other operating conditions, op- Whitney uses core engine pressure ratio (EPR), and Rolls
eration at only one or more of the above limits may be Royce uses an integrated engine pressure ratio (IEPR)
required. Fig. 8 shows the operating regions where the which is a #ow weighted average of the core and bypass
major engine operating limits occur. The control must duct pressure ratios.
directly or indirectly control each limiting parameter and Commonly selected basic sensors are:
limit engine thrust so that none of the limits are exceeded.
Engine operation at maximum power will, consequently, E N fan speed,

require operation at one or more of the engine operating E N core speed,

limits. Part power engine operation should occur below E EPR engine pressure ratio"P /P ,
 
all limits and at the lowest speci"c fuel consumption for E = /P fuel #ow divided by compressor exit pressure,
D 
the thrust requested. E ¹ low pressure turbine inlet temperature.

The "rst two are required for the direct determination
4. Sensors and actuators of the critical overspeed. Because of the need to shield the
thermocouples, the ¹ measurement has a slow re-

The pilot controls aircraft speed by setting the throttle sponse time and is not particularly good for control
position to a thrust which will permit operation at the purposes but necessary for the direct determination of
desired speed. One would like to run the engine directly over temperature limits. Either EPR or = /P is used to
D 
to the required thrust by modulating engine fuel #ow control the engine.
H. Austin Spang III, H. Brown / Control Engineering Practice 7 (1999) 1043}1059 1051

= /P is very commonly used and is a natural control implemented using a hydromechanical controller. With
D 
parameter. To see why, note that using the compressible electronic controls, more accurate control of thrust can
#ow relationship, = "o < A where o"P/R¹ is the be obtained through control of fan speed or engine
E   
density of the gas and <"M(cR¹ is the axial velocity, pressure ratio while satisfying the same set of engine
the #ow through the turbine is constraints. It generally is not possible to control core
and fan speed independently since they are tightly
P K K
= "  (M(cR¹ )A "P P (13) coupled. In a variable cycle engine, the bypass ratio can
 R¹   (¹ (¹ be changed allowing independent control of fan and
  
compressor speed. In a commercial engine, when core
since there is very little pressure drop across the burner.
speed is controlled, the fan speed `#oatsa to a speed
Therefore, by multiplying Eq. (13) by = and dividing by
D which satis"es the required air #ow.
= P , we obtain
 
= = K 5.1. Core speed control
D" D . (14)
P = (¹
   A core speed control can be subdivided into a steady-
Since the fuel air ratio, = /= , is directly related to state control and a control for transient operation. The
D 
#ame temperature and hence turbine temperature, ¹ , so steady-state control, which maintains engine operation

is = /P . Thus, = /P provides good control of ¹ , along its steady-state operating line, will be discussed
D  D  
good reaction to stall and good reaction to burner "rst. The transient controls necessary to accelerate and
blowout. An added advantage is that = /P is relatively decelerate the engine while meeting stall, #ameout, and
D 
easy to sense. temperature limitations will then be added.
Commercial engines will generally have variable com- A block diagram of a typical core speed control is
pressor stator vanes, a fuel control valve, and a variable shown in Fig. 9. A core speed demand schedule estab-
booster bleed valve (if there is a booster). The variable lishes the desired core speed as a function of inlet temper-
stators are for improving low-speed stall margin and ature and throttle position. Core speed error is
high-speed performance in the core compressor. The determined from the di!erence between the demand
booster bleed valve is used to bleed booster air into the speed and the actual core speed. A delta = /P signal is
D 
bypass duct to improve booster stall margin at part obtained proportional to the core speed error. This signal
power and during throttle reductions. Both are generally is multiplied by the P sensor signal and the resulting

controlled open-loop. The only closed-loop control in change in fuel #ow is used to drive the fuel metering
a commercial engine is the main fuel control. Military valve. The gain is scheduled as a function of core speed to
engines will generally add an afterburner for increasing meet the control requirements over the entire #ight en-
thrust during takeo!, transonic acceleration, and com- velope. In an electronic control, the desired fuel #ow is
bat. The afterburner will require both an augmentor fuel computed directly rather than as a ratio with P . The

control and a variable exhaust nozzle throat area (A ) to control will provide the control response for small in-

permit a wider range of augmented thrust and to manage creases or decreases in throttle angle.
interactions with the main fuel control. If only proportional control is used, there is always an
error or `droopa between the desired speed and the
actual speed. As the load on the engine increases, this
5. Engine controls error will increase. The loop gain is normally made high
to minimize this droop. The use of integral control elim-
Initially turbofan engines were controlled exclusively inates this problem.
by controlling core speed. This provided a simpler The core speed demand schedule is designed to pro-
control which could satisfy engine constraints and be vide engine thrust as a linear function of the throttle

Fig. 9. Block diagram of core speed controller.


1052 H. Austin Spang III, H. Brown / Control Engineering Practice 7 (1999) 1043}1059

Fig. 10. Characteristic controller schedules.

angle. It also maintains the engine at the most e$cient to the stable steady-state operating point at the
operating point possible. Engine thrust can be shown to demanded speed at point 9.
be a non-linear function of core speed. The throttle
schedule inverts this non-linear relationship to provide An engine deceleration will occur when the throttle is
the desired speed as a function of throttle angle. To retarded to a speed demand which is lower than the
maintain constant thrust at a given throttle angle, phys- current speed. A max-select strategy during the deceler-
ical core speed is increased for increasing inlet temper- ation will then lead to the following:
atures.
Transient operation is illustrated in Fig. 10. It shows E The negative speed error will lead to a proportional
= /P as a function of core speed for a variety of engine = /P error which closes the fuel valve, reducing fuel
D  D 
operating modes during engine acceleration and deceler- #ow, and causing a deceleration along the speed
ation. Assume that the engine has started (points 1}3) governor line to point 10.
and is operating at steady-state idle, point 4. An acceler- E Max-select strategy will switch operation at point 10
ation will occur when the throttle is advanced to a de- to the minimum fuel ratio line to point 11.
mand speed higher than the current speed. A min-select E Max-select strategy will switch operation again at
strategy will then lead to the following series of processes: point 11 to the speed governor line which will increase
fuel #ow leading back to stable steady-state operation
E The positive speed error will result in a proportional at point 4.
= /P error which will open the fuel valve admitting
D 
more fuel to the engine and result in an acceleration Note that each of the above lines in Fig. 10 are gener-
from point 4 along the speed governor line to point ally functions of inlet pressure (P ) and possibly temper-

5 where it will intersect the maximum fuel ratio line. ature (¹ ) as well. To make the engine accelerate or

E Min-select strategy will switch operation to the max- decelerate rapidly and remain as e$cient as possible, the
imum fuel ratio line and it will continue to accelerate control is designed to keep the engine close to or on each
to point 6 where it will intersect the compressor surge limit.
limit line. The above processes will occur during large increases or
E Min-select strategy will switch operation again, this decreases in throttle/speed demand. During small throttle
time to the surge limit line where it will continue to increases, the minimum select process will transition en-
accelerate at a slower pace to point 7. gine operation from the 4}12 point to an intermediate
E At point 7, the min-select strategy will switch opera- point on the steady-state operating line. A small deceler-
tion back to the maximum fuel ratio line and the ation command at point 9 will result in a similar transition
engine will continue to accelerate to point 8. to stable operation at an intermediate point.
E At this point, operation will be switched back to the Other limits can be handled in a similar fashion. The
speed governor line which will reduce = /P leading deceleration limit provides su$cient fuel to maintain
D 
H. Austin Spang III, H. Brown / Control Engineering Practice 7 (1999) 1043}1059 1053

combustion. Except for high #ows, it can be independent schedule is replaced with one that directly speci"es allow-
of speed. An idle speed controller is provided to maintain able engine acceleration. A lead lag compensator is
minimum engine speed. It is a proportional controller necessary to improve transient response.
similar to Fig. 9 with no additional schedule and the When a cold engine is accelerated, energy is extracted
reference speed is the desired idle speed. Over temper- from the gas which heats up the engine rotors and frame.
ature and over speed are also handled as proportional A cold engine accelerates more slowly than normal. Con-
controls with the maximum temperature or speed as the versely, a hot engine will accelerate more rapidly as heat
reference. The over temperature controller senses ¹ . from the rotors and frame adds energy to the gas. The

A block diagram of the complete control is shown in Ndot control produces a more consistent acceleration
Fig. 11. which is independent of the thermal state of the engine.

5.2. Ndot control 5.3. Thrust management

A variant of proportional control uses the derivative of On modern turbofan engines, thrust is more accurately
rotor speed (Ndot or rotor acceleration) (Parsons, 1991; controlled by setting fan speed or engine pressure ratio
Zeller, Lehtinen & Merrill, 1982) rather than rotor speed which is de"ned as the ratio of low pressure turbine
to control engine acceleration and deceleration. Direct pressure to inlet pressure, P /P . Thrust is proportional
 
control of acceleration, rather than speed, allows tighter to the air#ow through the engine. Controlling fan speed
control of engine acceleration thereby improving transi- more accurately controls thrust because the fan handles
ent response and reducing mechanical stress. While rotor all of the air#ow while the core handles only a portion.
acceleration cannot be easily measured directly, a sec- Controlling engine pressure ratio also controls thrust
ond-order "lter applied to speed can be used to give since it is a direct measurement of air#ow.
a good approximation. The algorithm shown in Fig. 12 The requirements for thrust control are to provide
replaces that shown in Fig. 9. The previous acceleration thrust as a linear function of the throttle position and to

Fig. 11. Block diagram of complete controller.

Fig. 12. Ndot controller.


1054 H. Austin Spang III, H. Brown / Control Engineering Practice 7 (1999) 1043}1059

provide required thrust settings at the same throttle posi- Whitney also provide fan speed control as a backup
tion independent of changes in inlet temperature, pres- should there be sensor or control hardware problems.
sure and mach. Typical required thrust settings are:
5.4. Rotor speed control
E Takeow thrust: Maximum engine thrust based on max-
imum exhaust temperature at which engine is allowed For turboshaft engines, the equivalent of maintaining
to operate for a 5 min duration. fan speed control is maintaining rotor speed and hence,
E Maximum continuous thrust: Maximum thrust needed power turbine speed. How well rotor speed is maintained
for a one-engine out climb at which the engine may directly e!ects the agility of a helicopter during maneu-
operate continuously. vers such as a waveo! from an autorotational descent as
E Maximum climb rating: Thrust required to meet aircraft discussed by Gilmore (1992). The load on the rotor is
climb requirements with all engines operating. changed by the pilot changing either the collective, or
E Flight idle: Minimum thrust determined by FAA go- cyclic settings. System responsiveness is determined by
around requirements such that a climb can be initiated the dynamics of the power turbine isochronous governor.
within eight seconds. Unfortunately the helicopter rotor "rst torsional reson-
E Ground idle: Minimum engine thrust on the ground ance mode limits the bandwidth of the control. Notch
which provides positive aircraft control on wet or icy "lters centered at the rotor resonance are used to allow
runways. higher crossover and therefore a more responsive system.

These thrust settings require detailed tables of throttle 5.5. Multivariable control
position versus demanded fan speed or engine pressure
ratio. The tables must also be adjusted for inlet pressure As indicated previously commercial engines are gener-
and temperature. GE's thrust control which is called ally controlled by a single closed loop main fuel control.
Power Management Control regulates fan speed. There are minimal interactions between each of the
A block diagram of the fan speed regulator portion is open-loop controls and the main fuel control. Conse-
shown in Fig. 13. It should be noted that even though quently, single input single output design techniques are
core speed is unregulated, the transient constraints dis- adequate.
cussed previously must still be satis"ed. Thus a block However, this is not the case for military engines which
diagram of the overall controller is the same as that generally have an afterburner augmentor to increase en-
shown in Fig. 11 with the core speed regulator replaced gine thrust for selected segments of the #ight such as
with a fan speed regulator. Pratt and Whitney's thrust takeo!, climb, acceleration to supersonic speed, or com-
control regulates engine pressure ratio. The block dia- bat. The augmentor fuel #ow will determine augmentor
grams shown in Figs. 13 and 11 again apply. Pratt and temperature, ¹ , which e!ects engine pressure ratio and


Fig. 13. Power management block diagram.


H. Austin Spang III, H. Brown / Control Engineering Practice 7 (1999) 1043}1059 1055

turbine temperature. However, the primary combustor three di!erent multivariable techniques: multivariate
fuel control also controls these variables. Thus the aug- transfer functions (Ho!man, Teper & Whitbeck, 1978;
mentor fuel control loop and the combustor fuel control Peczkowski & Sain, 1978), Inverse Nyquist Array
strongly interact. Early design approaches used the con- (Spang, 1978), and Characteristic Root Locus
cept of spectral separation which made the combustor (Kouvaritakis & Edmunds, 1978). Each strategy used
fuel control loop an order of magnitude faster than the 3 or 4 of the measured variables, fan speed, N , compres-

augmentor control loop. More recent designs have used sor speed, N , compressor exit speed, P , exhaust pres-
 
a multivariable approach to achieve two control loops of sure, P , and turbine inlet temperature, FTIT and

approximately the same response time. controlled fuel #ow, = , exhaust nozzle areas, A , and
D 
Another application of multivariable control is a vari- compressor guide vanes, CIVV, or fan guide vanes,
able cycle (VCE) engine which has a variable area bypass RCVV. In all cases decoupled control of each of the
injector or VABI. The VABI allows the bypass ratio to be measured variables was achieved.
changed during #ight. When closed, the engine behaves One of the more complete early multivariable designs
more like a turbojet providing more thrust during super- which was extensively tested was described in DeHo!,
sonic #ight. Opening the VABI makes the engine more Hall, Adams and Gupta (1977), DeHo! and Hall
like a turbofan improving speci"c fuel consumption dur- (1978a,1979), and Skira, DeHo! and Hall (1979) for the
ing cruise. F100 engine using extended linear quadratic regulator
Much of the published literature on multivariable en- techniques. This work went beyond the previous studies
gine control is focused on the regulator problem of main- with its ability to handle large power excursions without
taining the engine near the desired operating trajectory. exceeding engine or actuator limits and to operate over
It is based on linear models valid for small signal analysis the entire engine operating envelope. A block diagram of
and avoids the important problem of limit protection. the control system is shown in Fig. 14. The feedback law
The early 1974}1982 applications are summarized by itself is an optimal regulator structure with integral trims
Zeller et al. (1982). The earliest work was that of McMor- for steady-state accuracy and engine limit tracking. Lin-
ran (1970) and MacFarland, McMorran, Dixon, and ear controllers were designed at four operating points:
Hodge (1971) which was tested on a two spool afterburn- sea level static, subsonic at 30 000 ft., subsonic at
ing engine. They used fuel #ow to control compressor 45 000 ft. and supersonic at sea level. Dominant gain
speed and A to control fan speed through the engine elements were determined by assessing the closed loop

bypass duct. eigenvalue sensitivity to each gain element. Over 50% of
The International Forum on Alternatives for Linear the controller gains were eliminated in the "nal imple-
Multivariable Control organized by Sain, Peczkowski, mentation with little or no e!ect on system performance.
and Melsa (1978) is of particular interest because it Important gain elements were "tted with univariate func-
showed the use of several multivariable techniques using tions of fan inlet pressure and temperature and core
a linear model of the F100 engine as a theme problem. speed. Unique to this control design is the transition
Four authors developed control strategies based on trajectory generator whose purpose is to smooth rapid

Fig. 14. F100 multivariable controller.


1056 H. Austin Spang III, H. Brown / Control Engineering Practice 7 (1999) 1043}1059

throttle changes by providing a piecewise linear technique, an `observer-baseda structure is used such
transition from the current engine state to the requested that the normal controller is modi"ed to assume the
state. The rate of transition depended on whether the form:
engine was at low, medium or high power.
x "A x #B (y !y)#¸(sat(u)!u) (15)
Takeo! thrust for the F100 is de"ned as the thrust A A A A QN
obtained at maximum allowable turbine temperature. At u"C x #D (y !y)
altitude conditions, the minimum burner pressure de"nes A A A QN
engine idle. Thus various physical limits must be held where A B C D the state space description of the "ve
A A A A
exactly at various #ight conditions as shown in Fig. 10. In controller dynamics with the desired set point y and the
QN
theory, an optimal controller could have been designed engine output y, sat(u) is the actual bounded engine input
for each limit at appropriate operating conditions. This and ¸ is the anti-windup gain. When a given regulator is
would have required an exponentially large number of controlling the engine actuators, its elements of sat(u)!u
gain matrices to cover all combinations. DeHo! et al. are zero. The high gain ¸ forces the remaining sat(u)!u
(1977) used an ad-hoc approach to solve this problem by elements to zero, thereby tracking the ones currently
designing single-loop spectrally separated integral trims applied to the engine. This ensures a smooth transition
for each input corresponding to each desired set point from one regulator to another and automatically handles
and number of unsaturated controls. The control was the problem of engine limits.
switched whenever an actuator saturated or an engine Recently, Kapoor and Teel (1997) have extended
limit was reached. Hanus' technique by replacing ¸(sat(u)!u) with an
A very similar multivariable design was developed for equivalent dynamic system. This allows more design free-
a GE23 variable cycle engine (Rock & DeHo!, 1979; dom and guarantees stability. An example is shown
DeHo! & Hall, 1978b). A much larger number of linear where their dynamic scheme gives response very close to
design points were needed due to the greater changes in the unconstrained case while using a static ¸ is unstable.
engine con"guration. Instead of using integral trim to An excellent summary of multivariable control devel-
handle engine limits, a model of the engine was incorpor- opment in the United Kingdom from 1985 to 1995 is
ated into the transition logic. This allowed the generated given by Dadd, Sutton and Greig (1995). A variety of
trajectories to always satisfy engine limits. The problem control laws have been tested on either the RB199 or
with this approach is that it is an open loop feed forward Spey Mk202 engines. Each test uses a di!erent combina-
approach. How well the engine limits are held depends tion of sensors since there was very limited #exibility in
on the accuracy of the model and how well it can handle terms of available actuators. Again the technique of
engine to engine variations. Hanus et al. (1987) was used to handle limit protection
One possible solution to handle engine limits is dem- and controller selection. A summary of these tests is
onstrated by Adibhatla (1993), and Adibhatla, Cooper, shown in Table 1. Based on these tests, the authors
Pajakiwski, Romine, Virnig and Bodden (1994) for conclude that multivariable control is most necessary for
a STOVL short takeo! and vertical landing airplane variable cycle engines and advanced short take o! verti-
using an F110 engine. This is a full range multivariable cal landing, ASTOVL, applications. For conventional
design which was pilot evaluated in the NASA Ames engines the added complexity of multivariable control
"xed base and vertical-motion simulators. The primary outweights most bene"ts.
objective of this engine control is to manage thrust, An example where multivariable control might be
through the aft nozzle during cruise and through ejectors justi"ed is shown in item 3 in Table 1 where a `fasta
at the aircraft wing roots and ventral ports on the under- response test was performed on the Spey Mk202 engine
side of the aircraft during transition and hover. An esti- using a 3;3 controller for most of the operating regime
mate of thrust is determined based on fan speed, fan and a 2;2 for low power settings when the compressor
operating line, fuel #ow and the three thrust port areas. inlet guide vanes are fully closed. The sensors and ac-
During cruise, a 2;2 controller regulates fan speed and tuators chosen for the 3;3 controller were:
aft thrust using fuel #ow and aft nozzle area. During
transition and hover the controller is expanded to a 4;4 Sensors Actuators
controller in order to additionally regulate the ejector
and ventral thrust using the ejector and ventral area Fan speed Fuel #ow
actuators. To prevent engine stall and overtemperature, Compressor speed Inlet guide vanes
and to ensure su$cient pressure for customer bleed, three Bypass duct Mach number A nozzle areas
single input single output regulators were designed as 
limit regulators.
The technique of Hanus, Kinnaert and Henrotte (1987) while the 2;2 controller used fuel #ow and nozzle
for integrator antiwindup is used to transition between area to control fan speed and bypass duct Mach number.
these "ve regulators and to handle actuator limits. In this Both the 2;2 and the 3;3 controllers were run
H. Austin Spang III, H. Brown / Control Engineering Practice 7 (1999) 1043}1059 1057

Table 1
Multivariable engine control tests

Item Period of Participants Control law details Remarks


research

1 1985}89 DRA Actuators: WFM and A8 RB199 engine. Minimal cross coupling of
U. Salford Sensors: HP spool speed Duct Mach no. inputs and outputs
Temperature limits included
2 1989}90 DRA Actuators: WFM and A8 RB199 engine. Hanus method validated.
Sensors: Performance consistent with conven-
(1) N and duct Mach no. tional controls

(2) N and duct Mach no.

(3) N and Fan pressure ratio.

3 1990}94 DRA Actuators: WFM, IGV, A8 Spey Mk202 engine with independent
Sensors: N , N , duct Mach no. Limits actuators for IGV and bleed. Large-scale
 
Pole shifting for disturbance rejection. thrust response improved over upper 1/2
of thrust range
4 1992}94 Lucas Strathclyde: Spey Mk202.
DRA Sensors: N and Fan press. ratio Leicester: H control engine tested.
 
U Strathclyde Actuators: WFM and A8 Hanus limit technique used
U Leicester Limits: Max engine gas temp, ¹ Strathclyde: Test indicated but not dis-

U Southampton Leicester: cussed
Sensors: Fan pressure ratio Duct Mach no., N

Actuators: WFM, A and IGV

Limits: Max N and ¹
 
Southampton: Neural nets and fuzzy logic

5 1992}94 Rolls-Royce Sensors: N , N , Fan press. ratio Spey Mk202


 
Actuators: WFM, A8, and IGV
Limits: Turbine blade temp.

simultaneously with authority switched between them as gain array, the condition number and Hankel singular
the guide vanes either approached or moved o! their values. The selected sensors and actuators were:
limit.
During sea level static tests it was found that this `fast
Sensors Actuators
responsea multivariable controller produced a 60% re-
duction in time to go from 50% to 100% thrust. It was
Engine pressure ratio p /p Fuel #ow
found that the speci"c fuel consumption was not a!ected Q Q
Compressor speed Inlet guide vanes
signi"cantly while the thermal cycle range of the turbines
Bypass duct Mach number A nozzle areas
was reduced. A second set of tests were performed with 
increased integral gains to shift the closed-loop poles.
This improved the robustness and disturbance rejection Engine accelerations are controlled by rate limiting
of the control. the demands of pressure ratio and compressor speed
Thus, by handling the guide vanes and nozzle area derived from throttle position while the bypass duct
unconventionally, the multivariable controller provided Mach number is determined by corrected fan speed. The
fast large-scale response. However, it was indicated that K block is a linear H designed controller and includes
 
there was a possibility that this might induce compressor an observer and a simple reference model. No gain sched-
blade #utter. This possibility would need further study if uling is used.
this approach were to be implemented. Similar controllers were designed for handling the
As part of item 4 in Table 1, the H controller shown limits of maximum fan speed and maximum engine gas

in Fig. 15 was developed at the University of Leicester temperature, ¹ . The block diagram of Fig. 15 still ap-

and tested on the Spey Mk202 engine. The `besta set of plies with the maximum allowed ¹ replacing the de-

engine control parameters were determined using practi- manded pressure ratio and the actual sensed engine
cal considerations, right-half-plane zeros, the relative temperature replacing the measured pressure ratio. The
1058 H. Austin Spang III, H. Brown / Control Engineering Practice 7 (1999) 1043}1059

Acknowledgements

This article is an expanded version of an article by the


same name to appear in the Encyclopedia of Electrical
and Electronic Engineering, edited by John G. Webster.
The material is used with permission of John Wiley and
Sons, Inc. The authors would also like to thank
Vijaykumar Hanagandi and Shrider Adibhatla for their
detailed reviews and helpful suggestions which greatly
improved the paper.

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