JOB ANALYSIS:

DEFINING
PERFORMANCE

Defining what employees need to do in order to perform their work effectively, and
hence to make a contribution to the achievement of organizational aims and object-
ives, is of fundamental importance for managing human resource systems, which exist
to locate and engage the resources needed. We saw in the previous chapters that HR
strategy depends upon an understanding of what is meant by effective performance
to meet objectives. The definitions of effective work performance provide the criteria
or standards against which recruitment success, development success and the
employees' rewards, promotion and personal success are measured.
This chapter is concerned with the answers to the following three issues:

■ How to conduct an analysis of jobs in order to reveal what is required for high
performance, in terms of the competencies which underpin the firm's dynamic
capabilities?
■ How to identify the enduring competency requirements, which are central to the
company's culture and identity?
■ How to express competences using behavioural terms that are measurable?

The techniques applied in job analysis are expected to help determine what compet-
ences are needed in the company now and in the foreseeable future. This helps to
establish how the requirements for effective performance should be expressed in job
advertisements, and which applicants appear to meet these requirements.
This will also be useful data to help newly appointed employees in the induction
stage to meet the firm's requirements.
RECRUITM ENT AND SELECTION ■■■■

THE COMPETENCY APPROACH

The term 'competences' has come to be used to describe the attributes necessary for
effective performance. Competences can be purely role-related, or be a mix of personal and
job attributes. In the case of the connection of personal and current job attributes, compet-
ences can be used to assess the potential for future roles. Competences can be highly
specific, as we suggest here, for use in a person specification, or they can be generic, that
is, general for certain types of work (for example, managerial work at different levels) for an
organization. Many companies use competences as the touchstone for talent management
and for the whole human resource system so that recruitment, appraisal, training and devel-
opment are all based on a common standard of effective performance.
In a series of 51 HRM audits, Tyson and Doherty (1999) found that 95 per cent of
organizations used competency systems for their managerial staff, around 80 per cent for
clerical level staff and 75 per cent for manual staff. These schemes were in all cases used
for development and training, in around 88 per cent of cases for performance appraisal, 80
per cent for recruitment and in 58 per cent of cases for rewards.

DYNAMIC CAPABILITIES

In our discussion on HR strategy, we identified three dynamic capabilities as being critical

for organizations to be successful in the current highly competitive market place. These are:

■ change capability
■ learning capability
■ innovative capability.

These capabilities are organizational, but are, of necessity, also part of employees' attrib-
utes, as employees provide the impetus to influence corporate performance. Just as human
capital can be seen as an individual phenomenon, or as an organizational attribute, so
competency is both individually and collectively manifested.
Change capability we described as being achieved through the agility of the organiza-
tion. The competences employees need in order to make organizations agile are not partic-
ular skills but are more associated with attitudes or states of mind. Reed and Stoltz (2011)
express something similar in their idea of the 'mindset' of potential employees as being of the
greatest importance. From their research they describe the top 20 qualities that companies
look for in employees, which include in the top 10 qualities such as honesty and commitment,
but also adaptability, accountability and flexibility. Employers have long valued the attitudes
of employees who can be relied on to do their utmost, in whatever job they are given. This is
found in the often quoted maxim of 'recruit for attitude, train for skill' - implying that skills can
be acquired through the training system, but the overall attitude to work cannot.

■ ■ ■ 138
 ■ ■ ■ ■ JOB ANALYSIS: DE FI N I NG PE R FOR MANCE

Employee attributes we would expect to find in the agile company employee include
resilience, flexibility in attitude and the classic organizational citizenship behaviours of will-
ingness to exert discretionary effort and being an enthusiastic advocate for the company in
dealings with others outside the business. Of course, agility is concerned with organiza-
tional capabilities, especially a passion for the products and services offered by the company
and a strong desire to be as close to the market place as possible, to adapt swiftly to chan-
ging customer requirements.
Learning capability and innovative capability are linked as, indeed, are change and
learning capability. Organizational learning derives from amassing knowledge from outside
and from inside the company. The RBV argues that competitive advantage is gained from
firm attributes such as systems and processes of working which integrate, review and
reconfigure the organization, helping the firm to renew itself in the face of constant chal-
lenges from a global market place. This requires learning capability, which will both bring
new knowledge into the firm, from exploration of the field of knowledge, and learning to work
smarter, to improve routines and processes, by exploiting existing assets and tacit know-
ledge within the firm more effectively. Bringing knowledge into the firm requires a capability
to innovate and use new ideas. Exploiting existing knowledge is also part of the change
capability, since it means leveraging experience and expertise. In this way learning is a
dynamic capability, which should be manifested in the competency of employees who have
the opportunity to influence competitive advantage (Easterby-Smith and Prieto 2008).
The speed of learning is related to the level of intelligence of staff. However, as we
discussed in Chapter 1, there are many different kinds of intelligence - emotional, spatial,
practical, and so on. Competency clusters used in determining high performance will inev-
itably major on the intelligence required to perform work at a high level, whatever type of
intelligence this uses.

MANAGERIAL COMPETENCIES

Managerial competencies usually consist of lists of competences (sometimes devised from

research within the organization, sometimes from a focus group or from the executive) with
accompanying definitions. The following list, drawn from a large retail bank, illustrates mana-
gerial competences:

■ achievement motivation
■ complex thinking
■ customer-service orientation
■ developmental ability
■ delegation
■ technical expertise
■ flexibility

139 ■■■
RECRUITM ENT AND SELECTION ■■■■

■ initiative
■ interpersonal sensitivity
■ organizational awareness
■ relationship-building
■ self-confidence
■ self-control
■ team leadership.

Competence can be defined at different levels. Taking the competency 'delegation' from the
above list, there were four levels defined (1 low to 4 high), as in the following example.

E EXAMPLE 9.1 DELEGATION

X
A Definition: Allocates tasks to others, making full use of resources and skills available. Knows
M to whom can delegate and how best to delegate, to ensure delivery to expectation. Makes
P objectives and expectations clear to others.
L
E Levels:
9.1
1 Delegates discrete tasks with clear rules on how they should be completed. Gives clear
instructions, telling the individual exactly what to do. Sets a specific deadline and reviews
process at regular intervals when the task has to be completed over time.
2 Delegates discrete tasks with some discretion over how they are completed. Sets
achievable short-term objectives for others, clarifying the standards required and setting
the time parameters for the work. Makes occasional checks on progress and formally
reviews at key milestones.
3 Delegates complex tasks that need further delegation. Defines the problem for others,
and explains the context and surrounding issues. Sets the priorities to attend and be
attended to and then leaves the individual to complete the task as appropriate.
4 Delegates complex and problematic issues to be resolved by others, first having agreed
the issues to be tackled through discussion and consultancy. Delegates some account-
ability, keeping an overview through management information.

Competences can be used to produce different role profiles. For example, a large
pharmaceutical company produced a job profile and a spidergram (Figure 9.1) for sales
management roles, showing where the individual's competences matched those required
and where they were deficient.
There are software systems that produce the competency clusters and plot a spider-
gram for each individual, based on appraisal and other data stored about each person's
competence.

■ ■ ■ 140
 ■ ■ ■ ■ JOB ANALYSIS: DE FI N I NG PE R FOR MANCE

Figure 9.1 Job profile showing competencies for a sales manager in pharmaceuticals

If any job, no matter how simple or complex, is analysed, it will become apparent that
the requirements for effective performance can be described in four interdependent, over-
lapping categories, which are: knowledge, skills, attitudes and personal attributes. Whilst
skill and knowledge are necessary, they are not sufficient for success. High performance
that is sustainable requires appropriate attitudes, traits and motives. For example, the effect-
ively performing lawyer could be said to need knowledge of the law and court procedures
and customs, skills in relating to a variety of people, particular skills in advocacy; together
with attitudes and personal attributes such as honesty, integrity, conscientiousness, care,
patience, calm temperament, etc.
Competence in performance sometimes tends to be considered mainly in terms of
professional aspects, that is, knowledge and skills. But the personal qualities that an
employee brings to a job may make all the difference between success and failure, as we
discussed in regard to emotional intelligence. Of what use to an employer, for example, is
the employee who is professionally the most proficient member of the work group, but at the
same time has a disruptive influence because of an uncooperative attitude and surly
demeanour, and is a constant source of friction with colleagues and clients? In researching
within the organization to establish the competences, and the definition, the best practice is
to examine low, average and high performers' behaviour, to show precisely what succeeds
in the organizational context. For example, team leadership could be taken from the bank's
list above, as follows in Example 9.2.

141 ■■■
RECRUITM ENT AND SELECTION ■■■■

E EXAMPLE 9.2 TEAM LEADERSHIP

X
A Definition: The desire and ability to take on responsibility and the role of leader. Values team-
M working as a means of achieving objectives; the ability to develop team effectiveness by
P encouraging team members' participation, creating an environment of integrity and profession-
L
alism; communicating and being supportive; setting an open climate and engendering pride.
E
9.2
Average performer
Clearly communicate goals. Provides clear accountabilities, and empowers the team. Invites all
the team members to contribute their ideas. Gives specific feedback, and praises individuals
and the team as a whole.

Star performer
Identifies any sources of conflict and facilitates resolution. Sets an example, by actions, as
well as words. Congratulates and publicly takes pride in the team's achievements. Creates an
open climate, which encourages change.

The criteria for effective performance are established by the process known as job
analysis. Job analysis can be conducted for a variety of reasons. First, it can be used to
establish what is required for recruiting purposes; second, as part of a development
programme, to discover competences and attributes of high performance and, third, as
part of job evaluation, to determine rewards. Sometimes the same definition is known by
different names. Semantic distinctions are unimportant, however. For selection, two specific-
ations are required: one to describe the job, its component tasks and competences; the
other to describe the requirements for effective performance in the kind of personal terms
mentioned above (this may well be a combination of competences/personal attributes). We
shall call one 'the job description' and the other 'the person specification'.
For managerial-level work, the role requirements are likely to be mostly personal. For
lower-level jobs the tasks are more likely to be significant (as in the National Vocational
Qualification approach), which means a more person-centred approach for senior roles and
a more task-centred one for others.
The lists below are intended to give a general guide to indicate the kind of information
that job analysis needs to provide as a basis for the various functions of HR management.

JOB DESCRIPTION

1 Basic data: Exact title and grade (if applicable). Numbers engaged in the job.
Location(s).

■ ■ ■ 142
 ■ ■ ■ ■ JOB ANALYSIS: DE FI N I NG PE R FOR MANCE

2 Purpose: Objectives and relationship to the aim of the organization.

3 Tasks: Main tasks and key areas. Occasional tasks. Secondary duties. Hours of work.
4 Measurable targets: For achievement.
5 Competencies: These combine standards for effective performance of tasks, the
criteria indicating that tasks have been effectively performed with levels of knowledge,
skills to perform the tasks.
6 Responsibilities/accountabilities: Position of job in organization structure. Managers/
supervisors to whom job holder is accountable. Subordinate staff for whom job holder
is responsible. Responsibilities for:
(a) finance
(b) materials, equipment, etc.
(c) information.
7 Physical and social environment: Particular features of work environment (e.g.
sedentary, static, indoor-outdoor, mobile, dirty, hazardous, etc.). Contacts with others
(e.g. small/large groups, isolated, external contacts, etc.).
8 Development/education: Training planned to bring new job holders to required levels
of performance (e.g. induction programme, job rotation, visits, external courses, etc.).
In-job training and educational courses normally associated with the job.
9 Advancement opportunities: Opportunities open to job holders for promotion and
career development.
10 Conditions of employment: Salary and other emoluments and benefits such as
pension schemes. Possible overtime requirements. Sickness schemes. Welfare,
social and other facilities. Leave entitlement. Any special employment conditions
applying to the job.
11 Job circumstances: Aspects of the job commonly accepted as pleasant or unpleasant,
easy/demanding.

PERSON SPECIFICATION

1 Competences required, including knowledge, skills, attitudes and personal attributes.

2 Specific qualifications (if any are needed).
3 Previous experience (if any is needed).
4 Health (general and specific requirements/ demands, reasonable adjustments that
could be made).
5 Special conditions (e.g. travel, unsocial hours, etc.).

Any requirements included under the heading 'health' or fitness may vary considerably from
one organization to another. In some occupations, such as the armed forces and the police,
the standards of health required are necessarily stringent and high. Health is also an issue
in occupations such as drivers of passenger and heavy goods trains and vehicles, airline

143 ■■■
RECRUITM ENT AND SELECTION ■■■■

pilots, sports teachers and many others. If we include 'stress resistance', a massive range
of occupations could also be included.
The job description and the person specification are both necessary and comple-
mentary definitions. Of the two, however, the person specification is immediately important,
since it provides the criteria for assessing effective performance affecting, as we have already
seen, the main functions involved in the management of people at work, and in particular is the
basis for job advertisements and candidate details. The job description has a wider, longer
term applicability and can be used in various formats, for appraisal and objective-setting,
development reviews, etc., and with some additional information for evaluation exercises.
Because all jobs in various ways require knowledge, skills, appropriate attitudes and
personal attributes, it may be useful to use these headings as the initial basis for analysing
the job, to produce the person specification. The information that this analysis reveals can
then be adapted to suit preferred formats. Starting the analysis on this basis is systematic
and logical and has the following advantages:

1 Attention is focused immediately on the essential requirements for effective

performance.
2 This approach provides the criteria for defining and assessing standards of potential and
actual performance. For example, a candidate for employment may reveal during the
selection procedures an insufficient level of knowledge defined as necessary for effective
performance, but may be accepted nevertheless, because the deficiency could be
remedied by training. An employee whose performance is being appraised may reveal
attitudes that hinder effective performance and require counselling as a possible remedy.
3 It helps to review whether the formal qualifications and experience often associated
with a particular role are, in fact, required. In some jobs, specific qualifications are
obviously essential, e.g. medicine, law, accountancy, etc. In others they may be desir-
able but not essential.
4 Now that managers are asked to guard increasingly against unfair and discriminatory
practice, it is especially important to produce person specifications that truly and fairly
state what the job requires, and to be cautious about using personal characteristics
that are thought to be associated with high performance, unless there is unequivocal
proof of the association.

An illustration of how job analysis based on these lines has been applied to an actual job is
provided in Figure 9.2. The job description and person specification refer to a training
administrator, employed at a training centre which provides courses and consultancy work,
in the UK and overseas, in management and related subjects. This job is demanding not
only on account of the responsibilities implied in the job description, but especially because
of the crucial importance of human relationships. Effective performance of the job depends
greatly on the job holder's ability to communicate successfully with a very diverse range of
people, the various levels of staff at the centre, external sponsors and agencies, external

■ ■ ■ 144
 ■ ■ ■ ■ JOB ANALYSIS: DE FI N I NG PE R FOR MANCE

Figure 9.2 Job description (Continued overleaf)

145 ■■■
RECRUITM ENT AND SELECTION ■■■■

Figure 9.2 (Continued)

■ ■ ■ 146
 ■ ■ ■ ■ JOB ANALYSIS: DE FI N I NG PE R FOR MANCE

tutors, speakers and consultants, course members from the UK, Europe and other coun-
tries, covering a very wide variety of cultures and customs.

JOB ANALYSIS IN PRACTICE

Job analysis may be carried out in two ways. It may be for managers and job holders to
discuss and agree among themselves, or it may be carried out by HR staff of the employing
organization or by external consultants or some mixture of these. Whether it is carried out
by managers and job holders or others will depend on the nature of the organization, the
jobs in question and the preferences of individual organizations.
Cost-effectiveness is a major consideration. For a large organization, in which there
are groups of identical jobs, it may be worthwhile to employ the personnel staff or external
consultants to carry out a comprehensive analysis. For other organizations, which are small
or where a number of jobs are unique, it would probably be impracticable to incur the time
and expense of a comprehensive, in-depth analysis. There is another important considera-
tion: jobs are changing all the time, affected by technological and by economic and social
factors. Therefore, job descriptions need constant revision and amendment.
Job analysis carried out through discussions between managers and job holders can
be an important part of the appraisal review. Before considering the performance of the
person and what future action may be needed, it is obviously necessary to enquire whether
the tasks in the job and criteria for effective performance are the same before drawing any
conclusions about performance. When job analysis is carried out by HR staff or outside
consultants, the following methods are often used:

1 Direct observation: here the analyst observes actual work in progress and makes
notes as necessary under the various headings of the job description. These notes
can be used as a basis for subsequent questions that the analyst may wish to ask. The
advantages of seeing a job performed for oneself are obvious, but the method has the
following limitations:
(a) It is very time-consuming. A great deal of time would be needed adequately to
observe a number of jobs. All jobs need to be observed over a period of time
which is representative of the typical work in order to appreciate the fluctuations
between, for example, the quieter and busier periods, avoiding any seasonality
effects. A brief observation can very easily produce a distorted view.
(b) There is no substitute for personal experience of the job and the evidence of obser-
vations can be very misleading. Special skills expertly applied may make jobs seem
easier. Skilled workers could make jobs seem more difficult if they chose to do so.
(c) Behaviour that is formally observed is inevitably influenced by the act of obser-
vation, unless this is done without the knowledge of those being observed,
(which would raise ethical questions). All the research data confirm this

147 ■■■
RECRUITM ENT AND SELECTION ■■■■

phenomenon (often described as the 'Hawthorne effect' from the studies carried
out at the Hawthorne plant described earlier).
(d) There is a great difference between observation of manual and managerial jobs.
It is unlikely that an observer can obtain any kind of accurate picture or evalu-
ation of the mental energy expended, personal pressures, contemplative and
planning activities or the subtleties of interpersonal relationships, which form a
large part of the managers' and supervisors' work.
2 Interviews: these should be carried out with the job holders themselves, their imme-
diate managers and any others who can give useful information. The interview is a
necessary and potentially useful method in job analysis, enabling the job analyst to
raise questions, to gather the evidence of observation and to compare the perception
of one job holder with others. The caveats that need to be made about the use of the
interview in job analysis are these:
(a) As in all other interview situations considerable skill is needed. The interview has
to be systematic and purposeful, and conducted with particular empathy, tact
and sensitivity.
(b) For reasons already explained, however cooperative the job holders may be, the
job analyst has always to deal with personal biases and perceptions of jobs.
(c) The interviewer needs to be careful to distinguish fact from opinion.
(d) Interviews provide especially useful data on topics such as what responses/
attitudes about work challenges seem to be necessary (for example the inter-
viewer could use the critical incident technique, see below), for example in jobs
such as teaching, nursing, selling and interacting with the public.
3 Diaries: using this method, the job analyst provides job holders with the areas of the
job description about which information is required. Job holders then analyse their
own work over a period of time, recording information systematically in diary form
under the required headings and the time spent on each item. The advantages and
disadvantages of the diary method are these:
(a) Self-recorded data of this kind can be made over a longer period and thus
provide a more reliable picture of the nature of the job.
(b) The data can be used as valuable bases on which to conduct interviews.
(c) The data are an obvious means of saving some of the time that prolonged direct
observation of jobs requires.
(d) Like the other methods, diaries are inevitably affected by factors of subjectivity.
Moreover, because the information is self-recorded there is no means of veri-
fying accuracy.
(e) To be of real value the diary has to be kept accurately, conscientiously and regu-
larly. This approach can soon become a chore, especially if job holders are not in
sympathy with the job, in which case it might be perfunctorily fulfilled or neglected.
4 Questionnaires: here the job analyst compiles a series of questions designed to elicit
the maximum possible useful information about the jobs under analysis, and distributes

■ ■ ■ 148
 ■ ■ ■ ■ JOB ANALYSIS: DE FI N I NG PE R FOR MANCE

these with careful instructions about the completion of the form. The advantages and
disadvantages of questionnaires are:
(a) They enable the job analyst to put standard questions to all the job holders
taking part in the survey.
(b) If there are large numbers working, random samples and larger numbers of
people can be covered.
(c) Specialized skill is needed in devising the questionnaire and framing the ques-
tions. For example, attractive as the prospect of open questions may seem to be,
it is probably better to require the respondent to choose from a range of answers
that best fit particular situations, which also facilitates analysis. Skill is also
required in the analysis of responses.
5 Critical incident reviews: as the term implies, this method uses examples of real events
at work as a means of eliciting what the criteria for effective performance should be. The
component tasks of a job are systematically analysed with job holders, who are asked
to cite actual examples of typical incidents that could have had a significant impact on
their performance, from their experience of the job, and how they dealt with them.

It is unlikely that any one of these methods will be adequate by itself. In practice, therefore, a
combination of techniques is usually employed and adapted to meet the needs of particular
situations.

JOB ANALYSIS

There are many examples and proprietary systems of job analysis documentation. These can
be called position analysis questionnaires or schedules. The questions normally found in
these types of documents can be used as a basis for interview. Examples are given below:

Job title.
Purpose of job: what is the purpose/objective?
For what specifically is the job holder personally accountable?
How does this job relate to the unit (department/office, etc. objectives)?
Provide a brief organization chart, locating the job in relation to those roles with which it
interacts.
Summarise the main activities of the job and the performance standards used.
What are the duties/functions of the job? (noting frequency, cycles of work, significance or
weighting attached to each activity).
What is the responsibility for materials? (equipment, materials).
What is the responsibility for money? (amounts)
What is the responsibility for people? (managerial/supervisory duties, activities related to
training, day by day, supervision, coaching, career and professional development).

149 ■■■
RECRUITM ENT AND SELECTION ■■■■

Specify any additional duties performed in the job (e.g. key account management, project
group membership, etc.).
What experience is required to perform the job? (include time, months, years, etc.)
What knowledge, skills, abilities are necessary?
Are there any special licences, qualification requirements?
What educational, professional qualifications are essential?
Are there any particular hazards, environmental conditions associated with the job?

The output from this process will be a detailed job description. Such a description may be
for training, recruitment or reward purposes. Clearly, the above schedule could be modified
according to the job in question. There are also sample job descriptions for a variety of roles
available on the internet.
A summary of the main elements of job analysis is shown in Figure 9.3.

Figure 9.3 Summary of the main elements of job analysis

QUESTIONS

1 Why is the definition of effective performance fundamentally important to the whole

system of HR management?

■ ■ ■ 150
 ■ ■ ■ ■ JOB ANALYSIS: DE FI N I NG PE R FOR MANCE

2 How would you define competences? Are there fundamental attributes that are
important for high performance?
3 Name and describe the methods commonly used in job analysis.
4 After reading Chapter 25, list the possible issues relating to discrimination which
might arise in a job analysis exercise and how to avoid them.

REFERENCES
Easterby-Smith, M. and Prieto, I. M. (2004). 'Dynamic capabilities and knowledge management: an
integrative role for learning'. British Journal of Management, 19: 235-49.
Reed, J. and Stoltz, P. G. (2011). Put Your Mindset to Work. London: Portfolio Penguin.
Tyson, S. and Doherty, N. (1999). Human Resource Excellence Report. Cranfield/Financial Times.

151 ■■■