EDJ32103:

POWER ELECTRONICS
Chapter 6- Part 1
DC-DC Converters
Introduction

Application of DC-DC converter:

• traction motor control in electric automobiles
and forklift trucks.
• regenerative braking of DC motors.
• DC voltage regulators.
• integral parts of energy conversion in
renewable energy technology.
Introduction
• Function: convert unregulated DC input into a
controlled DC output at a desired voltage
level.
• Early DC –DC converters used the concept of
potential divider which has 2 main disadvantages:
• Manual Control
• Low Efficiency
Introduction
• The variable resistor RV with a BJT. Called linear
regulator.
• Operation now become automatic to provide
regulated output.
• System is still however inefficient due to operation in
the linear mode: Ploss = VCEQ  I CQ
Control of DC-DC Converter

Average DC output voltage In a DC-DC converter with

must be controlled to equal given input voltage, the
a desired level through input average output voltage is
voltage, else the output load controlled by controlling the
voltage may fluctuate. switch on and off durations.

D = Duty Cycle
T = Overall Switching Time
Control of DC-DC Converter
Carrier
Reference
Switched-mode of DC-DC Converter

• Dc-dc converter can has two distinct modes of

operation:
➢ Continuous current conduction mode(CCM)
➢ Discontinuous current conduction mode (DCM)
• In practice, a converter may operate in both modes,
which have significantly different characteristics.
• Three types of dc-dc converter will be discussed:
❖ 3.1 Step-down (buck) converter
❖ 3.2 Step-up (boost) converter
❖ 3.3 Step-down/step-up (buck-boost) converter
Step-down (BUCK) Converter

Figure (a)

1 T
Vo =  vo (t)dt =
T 0
1
T
(
0
ton

ton
)
Vs dt +  0 dt =
T ton
T
Vs = DVs

• Produce a lower average output voltage than dc

input voltage.
• Application: DC power supplies and DC motor
speed control.
Step-down (BUCK) Converter
• When duty ratio, D of the switch is varying, the output
voltage, Vo is controlled.
• In practice, the circuit in Figure (a) has two
disadvantages:
➢ The load may be inductive. Even with resistive load,
there are always associated with stray inductance.
Thus, switch has to absorb the inductive energy,
leading to damaged switch.
➢ The output voltage fluctuates between zero and
Vs, which is not acceptable in most applications.
• Solution to the problem:
➢ Inserting a freewheeling diode to overcome the
problem of stored inductive energy.
➢ Using a low-pass filter (LC filter) to minimize the
output voltage fluctuations.
Step-down (BUCK) Converter

When switch is ON, diode becomes

reverse-biased and the input
provides energy to the load and to
inductor. When switch is OFF,
inductor current flows through
diode, transferring some of its stored
energy to the load.
Step-down (BUCK) Converter
Continuous Conduction Mode (CCM):
Step-down (buck) Converter

Continuous Conduction Mode (CCM):

Analysis operation of buck

converter in steady-state.
Assumptions:
• Inductor current flows
continuously (always
positive)
• Average inductor voltage
and capacitor current are
zero
• Power supplied by the
source = power delivered
to the load.
Step-down (buck) Converter
Continuous Conduction Mode (CCM):
When switch is closed (ON):
• Switch conducts the inductor current and diode becomes reverse-
biased, this results in positive inductor voltage,
vL =Vs-Vo . This voltage causes a linear increase in inductor current, i L.
Step-down (buck) Converter

Continuous Conduction Mode (CCM):

When switch is opened (OFF):
• Diode is forward-biased to carry inductor current and
vL = -Vo.
Step-down (buck) Converter
Continuous Conduction Mode (CCM):

• In steady-state operation, the waveform must repeat from one time period
to the next. Thus, the integral of inductor voltage, vL over one time period
is zero.

• The above equation implies that areas A

and B must be equal, thus:

The output voltage varies linearly with duty ratio of the switch
for the given input voltage. It does not depend on any other
circuit parameter.
Step-down (buck) Converter
Continuous Conduction Mode (CCM):
• In steady-state, average capacitor current is zero, thus average
inductor current must be the same as the average current in the
load.

• The maximum and minimum values of inductor

I L(min) must be positive
current are as follow:
for continuous current.
Maximum inductor current fsw=1/T is the switching
frequency
Minimum inductor current
Step-down (buck) Converter

Continuous Conduction Mode (CCM):

• Boundary between
continuous and
discontinuous current is
when IL(min)=0.

 1 1− D 
I L (min) = 0 = Vo  − 
 R 2Lf sw 

= (1 − D)R
Lmin
2 f sw
Step-down (buck) Converter
Continuous Conduction Mode (CCM):
Vo
Output voltage ripple
Vo

• The capacitor is assumed to be very large to keep the output voltage

constant in the previous analysis.
• However, in practice, the output voltage cannot be kept constant with a
finite capacitance.
• The variation in output voltage or ripple can be computed from the
voltage-current relationship of the capacitor.
Step-down (buck) Converter
Continuous Conduction Mode (CCM):
• When capacitor current is positive, capacitor is charging.
Q = CVo
Q
Vo =
C
• The output ripple voltage is defined as a fraction of the output
voltage and the value of capacitance :
Q = T iL
8
Vo = T iL
8C
Vo = Vo (1 − D)
8LCf 2
Vo = 1− D
Vo 8LCf 2
1− D
C=
8L(Vo Vo ) f 2
Design Consideration for DC-DC
Converter

• The choice of switching frequency, inductance and output voltage

ripple are important to ensure continuous current and smooth output
voltage.
• As fsw increase, the minimum size of inductance and minimum
size of capacitance will be decreased.
• However, with increasing of fsw, higher switching losses is
expected. With higher switching loss in switches means that heat
is produced. It will degrade the converter efficiency and may
require a large heat sink.
• Typical fsw above 20kHz to avoid audio noise and extend to
1MHz. Some prefer fsw at about 50kHz to keep switching loss
small yet above audio noise.
Design Consideration for DC-DC
Converter
• Inductance (L) should be larger than Lmin for CCM. Some
designers select 25% larger than Lmin. Other select inductor
current variation (∆iL) is for example 40% of the average
inductor current, IL.
• Switches (e.g. MOSFET) and diode must be able to withstand
maximum voltage stress when off and maximum current when on.
The temperature rating must not be exceeded, often require a heat
sink.
1st Approach: 2nd Approach:
Set ILmi n=0. Vo
iL = (1 − D)T
L
R(1 − D) iL = 0.4  I L
Lmin =  inductor boundary
2 f sw V
IL = I o = o
To achieve CCM, L >25% of Lmi n R
V
L = o (1 − D)T
 L = 1.25  Lmin iL
Buck Converter Examples

Example 1:

The buck converter has an input voltage of 50V and an output of

25V. The switching frequency is 100kHz and the output power is
125W.

Determine:
▪ Duty ratio (D)
▪ The value of inductance to limit the peak inductor current to
6.25A
▪ The value of capacitance to limit the output voltage ripple to
0.5%
Buck Converter Examples

Solution:

1) Find the duty ratio(D):

D = Vo = 25 = 0.5 3) Capacitance to limit to 0.5%:

Vs 50
Write the condition

Vo = 0.5%
2) L when I L(max)=6.25A:
Vo
 1 (1 − D)   1 (1 − 0.5) 
I L(max) = Vo  + 6.25 = 25 +  Therefore
  5 2L(100k) 
 R 2Lfsw 
C= 1− D
Find R: 6.25 = 5 + 12.5  V 
200k  L 8(L)  o  ( f sw )2
Vo2 (25)2 L = 50H
R= = = 5  Vo 
Po 125 1 − 0.5
8(50)(0.005)(100k)2
= 25F
Buck Converter Examples
Solution:
LTSPICE Verification
Buck Converter Examples

Example 2:

The buck converter has input voltage of 30V, output voltage of

20V and switching frequency of 40kHz. The output power is 25W.
Determine:
▪ The size of inductor such that the minimum inductor currentis 25% of
the average inductor current.
▪ The value of capacitor giving that the output voltage rippleto 1%.
Buck Converter Examples
Solution:
Buck Converter Examples

Solution:
LTSPICE Verification
Buck Converter Examples

Example 3:

Design a buck converter that has an output of 18V and input voltage
of 40V. The output voltage ripple is less than 1% with load resistor,
R is 15Ω and switching frequency (fsw) is 50kHz. Design for
continuous inductor current.
Buck Converter Examples
Solution: 1st approach

Step 1: Find the duty ratio(D): Capacitance to limit to 1%: Determine max and min inductor current :

Vo 18 Write the condition  1 1− D 

D= = = 0.45 I L (max) = Vo  + 
Vs 40 Vo  R 2Lfsw 
= 0.01
Step 2: Find L using 1st approach Vo 1 1 − 0.45 
= 18o  + 
Therefore  15 2(103.125)(50k) 
R(1 − D) = 1.2 + 0.96 = 2.16 A
Lmin = 1− D
2( f sw ) C=
 V 
15(1 − 0.45) 8(L)  o  ( f sw )2  1 1− D 
= = 82.5H  Vo  I L ( min) = Vo  − 
2(50k )  R 2Lfsw 
= 1 − 0.45
L = 1.25  Lmin 1 1 − 0.45 
8(103.125)(0.01)(50k)2 = 18o  − 
= 1.25  82.5= 103.125H = 26.67F  15 2(103.125)(50k) 
= 0.24 A
Buck Converter Examples
Solution:
LTSPICE Verification
Buck Converter Examples
Solution: 2nd approach

Step 1: Find the duty ratio(D): Capacitance to limit to 1%: Determine max and min inductor
current :
Vo 18 Write the condition  1 1− D 
D= = = 0.45 I L (max) = Vo  +
Vs 40 
Vo  R 2Lfsw 
= 0.01
Vo 1 − 0.45 
Step 2: Find IL and ripple current
= 18o  1 + 
using 2nd approach Therefore  15 2(412.5)(50k) 
I L = Vo = 18 = 1.2 A L = Vo (1 − D) C=
1− D = 1.44 A
R 15 iL  f sw  V 
8(L) o  ( f sw )2  1 1− D 
18(1 − 0.45)  Vo  I L (max) = Vo  − 
iL = 0.4 1.2 = 0.48A = = 412.5H  R 2Lfsw 
0.48  50k 1 − 0.45
V = 1 − 0.45 
i L = o  (1 − D)T
L
8(412.5)(0.01)(50k)2 = 18o  1 − 
= 6.67F  15 2(412.5)(50k) 
= 0.96 A
Buck Converter Examples
Solution:
LTSPICE Verification