Classical switched-mode DC/DC converter

Classical switched-mode DC/DC converter

1 Introduction

DC/DC converter is to convert power from DC state to DC state. It can be a step up or down
or both. The main application is the power supply. It sometimes is referred as switched-mode
power supply (SMPS). There are six most common single-transistor and unisolated DC/DC
converters as shown in Fig. 1. They are so called the classical type. They are:

 Buck (Step-down)
 Boost (Step-up)
 Buck/Boost (Step up/down)
 Cuk converter (Step up/down)
 Zeta converter (Step up/down)
 Sepic converter (Step up/down)

Buck converter Boost converter

Buck-Boost converter Cuk converter

Zeta converter Sepic converter

Fig 1 The six popular topologies of SMPS

Each of the six converters is formed by a transistor T, a diode D, inductor(s) L, capacitor(s) C

and a load resistor R. The first three converters are basic topology in the switched-mode
DC/DC converter. They have similar circuit waveforms. The forth to sixth converters are
slightly more complex ones. They all are analysed here under the assumption of:

(1) large capacitor

(2) no power loss in the circuit

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 Classical switched-mode DC/DC converter

The assumption (1) is to ensure the output voltage is constant and its voltage ripple is
negligible as compared with its voltage. The assumption (2) is to ensure that the loss in the
circuit does not affect the principle of operation of the circuit. The characteristics of the first
three converters are examined in each of two operating modes: continuous inductor current
and discontinuous inductor current. In the former mode, the inductor current is always
continuous whilst in the latter the inductor current falls to zero and remains zero during the
transistor off-period. It should be noted that, for the fourth to sixth converters, the
discontinuous inductor conduction mode does not exist; instead the non-positive inductor
conduction mode exists. For either the discontinuous or the non-positive inductor conduction
mode, the characteristics are quite different from the continuous conduction mode. The
details between these two modes for all six converters are shown in this chapter.

In following analysis, the converters are assumed to operate with a constant switching
frequency with period Ts, and the transistor on-time to period ratio is defined as the duty ratio
D.

2 Buck Converter

This is the most common type among the six topologies. It forms the basis of the many
switched-mode power circuits including forward converter and phase-shift converters. It is
used at power levels ranging from a few watts to MW levels. The operating frequencies are
up to 250kHz for low power applications and less than 1kHz at very high power levels.

2.1 Continuous inductor current operation

Figure 2.2 shows the circuit diagram with annotation used in the following analysis and Fig. 3
the idealised waveforms of the inductor voltage vL, inductor current iL, capacitor current iC,
transistor voltage vT, transistor current iT, diode voltage vD and diode current iD.

Fig. 2 Circuit diagram of Buck converter

2.1.1 Principle of operation

When the transistor T is on, the diode D is reverse biased and a voltage Vin -Vo is developed
across the inductor L causing a linear increase in current. When the transistor is turned off,
the inductor current is diverted from T to the freewheel diode D. A reverse voltage Vo is
then developed across the inductor causing a linear decrease in current. Since the output
voltage ripple is assumed to be virtually zero the load ripple current is almost zero and the
entire inductor ripple current flows in the capacitor; the average or dc component of
inductor current flowing into the load. The equivalent circuit when the transistor being on
and off can be shown in Fig. 4(a) and (b) respectively.

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 Classical switched-mode DC/DC converter

(a) On-state (b) Off-state

Fig. 4 Equivalent circuit of the two states of operation for the Buck converter
2.1.2 Inductor current

The average inductor current is the output current Io. The peak-to-peak inductor current
can be expressed by considering the basic formula of inductor:
Vo (1  D)Ts (Vin  Vo ) DTs
i L   (1)
L L
Therefore the middle expression is obtained from the off-state and the right-hand
expression is obtained from the on-state. The average inductor current i L is the output
current Io.

Fig. 3 Continuous mode for Buck converter Fig. 7 Discontinuous mode for Buck converter

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 Classical switched-mode DC/DC converter

The rms inductor current can be derived by considering the equations during the rising and
falling of the current ripple. During the on-state, the inductor current is:
 iL iLt
iL _ on (t )    iL (2)
2 DTs
During the off-state, the inductor current is:
i iLt
iL _ off (t )  L   iL (3)
2 (1  D )Ts
The rms current of the inductor L is obtained by:
(1 D)Ts
1  
DT
 s 
iLrms 2    L _ on
i 2
(t ) dt   i L _ off
2
(t ) dt  (4)
Ts 
 0 0 

iL 2 2
iLrms   iL (5)
12
The above equation is a generalised result for average current iL with a peak-to-peak
current ripple iL. Its rms value can be seen in Table 2.1.

2.1.3 Conversion ratio

The input-to-output voltage conversion ratio can be obtained by eqn (1) because during
the steady-state, the current ripple developed by the on-state and off-state should produce
the same ripple. Hence:
(Vin  Vo ) DTs  Vo (1  D)Ts (6)
It follows that:
Vo
D (7)
Vin
where 0<D<1. Alternatively, the positive and negative volt-seconds impressed across the
inductor over a switching cycle must also be equal. Under steady-state operation the total
volt-seconds of the inductor is zero otherwise the average value of the inductor current
will be increasing or decreasing which means the inductor current levels are different at
the beginning and end of a period. i.e.
(Vin  Vo ) DTs  Vo (1  D)Ts  0 (8)
The above expression is in fact the same as eqn (7). Figure 2.5 shows the voltage
conversion ratio. The following points can be observed:

! The conversion ratio is linear proportional to D. The output voltage is less than
input voltage.
! The voltage conversion depends solely on D and is independent of load conditions.
! The capacitor ripple current is independent of load current.

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 Classical switched-mode DC/DC converter

Fig. 5 DC voltage conversion ratio for Buck converter Fig. 8 DC voltage conversion ratio for Buck
under continuous mode converter under discontinuous mode

2.1.4 Capacitor current and voltage

Using Figure 2.4, the equation of iC during on-state is:

 iL iLt
ic (t )   (9)
2 DTs
and the equation of iC during off-state is:
i iLt
ic (t )  L  (10)
2 (1  D)Ts
The rms value of the capacitor current can be obtained by:
(1 D)Ts
1 DT
 s 

icrms 2    ic 2 (t )dt   ic 2 (t )dt  (11)
Ts 
 0 0 

i I (1  D)
iCrms  L  o (12)
12 3K
where K = 2L / (RTs). The peak-to-peak voltage ripple can be obtained by considering the
positive part of the waveforms divided by C:
1 1 1 iL TS Vo (1  D)Ts 2
Vo   ic dt  ( ) (13)
C C 2 2 2 8LC
The voltage ripple to output voltage ratio is:
2
Vo (1  D ) 2  f c 
   (14)
Vo 2  fs 
where fc = 1/( 2 π(LC) ) and fs = 1/Ts

Therefore the output voltage ripple depends on the L and C product. Usually, L is
selected to restrict the peak current of the converter and prevent the converter to operate
under the discontinuous mode as shown next.

2.1.5 Component rating

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 Classical switched-mode DC/DC converter

The components’ rating can be derived from the voltage across and current through the
component. Usually, the minimum voltage rating is the maximum voltage across the
devices. The current rating is the average current or rms current through the device that
depends on the device being used. For diode, average current is used because when a
diode is conducting, it behaves as a relatively constant voltage across the device. It is
similar for thyristor, bi-polar transistor and IGBT. However, for power Mosfet, its rms
current is used because it behaves as a resistor when it is turned on.

The transistor’s average current is a direct average with the duty ratio. It is similar for the
diode’s average current. The rms current is the root mean integration of eqn (2) and
eqn(3) with a duration of DTs and (1-D)Ts for the transistor and diode respectively. i.e,
The rms current for T is:
1  
 1  
DT DT
 s  s i i t  i 2 2
iTrms 2    iL _ on2 (t )dt     ( L  L  iL ) 2 dt   D( L  iL ) (15)
Ts  0 
 Ts   0 2 DTs 
 12
The rms current for D is:
2 1 (1 D )Ts 2
 1 (1 D )Ts i iLt 
iDrms    iL _ off (t )dt     ( L   iL )2 dt 
Ts  0  Ts  0 2 (1  D)Ts 
(16)
2
i 2
 (1  D)( L  iL )
12
The iL can be obtained from eqn (1). The above two equations give a general results for
device current with this format. The results have been summarised in the following Table
2.1:

Table 2.1: Summary of the components’ rating under continuous mode for the Buck converter
Component Maximum voltage Average current Rms current
T Vin I o D =Iin
iL 2
D(  Io2 )
12
D Vin I o (1  D)
i L 2
(1  D)(  Io2 )
12
L Max(Vin-Vo, Vo) Io
iL 2
 I o2
12
C Vo 0 iL
12

2.2 Discontinuous inductor current operation

In certain condition when the inductor current falls to zero before the next turning on of
the transistor is called discontinuous inductor conduction mode. The inductor current
cannot fall below zero because the diode stops from reversing. The inductor therefore
ceases from conduction. The load current is then supplied entirely by the capacitor. The
equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 6. The idealised waveforms are shown in Figure 2.7.
The time δTS is denoted as the inductor current to fall to zero after the transistor is turned
off. It can also be seen shown that δ is the duty ratio of the diode D.

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 Classical switched-mode DC/DC converter

Fig. 6 Equivalent circuit of the Buck converter during discontinuous mode

2.2.1 Voltage conversion ratio

The expression for the voltage conversion ratio could be obtained by equating the input
power and output power:
iL V (V  V ) D 2Ts Vo2
Vin Iin  Vin D  in in o  (15)
2 2L R
which gives:
Vo 2
 (16)
Vin 1  1  4 K / D 2
where K = 2L/RTs. It can be seen that the output voltage still cannot be greater input
voltage. The voltage conversion ratio now depends on L, Ts and R. The characteristic of
voltage conversion ratio is shown in Figure 2.8. The ratio increases as K is reduced.

2.2.2 Boundary condition

The boundary between the two operating modes occurs when the inductor current just falls
to zero as the transistor is switched on. The condition for discontinuous inductor current
can be obtained when the inductor current ripple is less than its average current:
iL
 IO (17)
2
Hence,
K  (1  D) (18)

2.2.3 Capacitor voltage and current

The capacitor current is the ac part of the inductor current. Under the discontinuous mode,
the ripple current in the inductor is high and hence the ripple current in the capacitor is
also very high and is more severe than that in continuous mode. The ripple voltage in the
output also depends on the load condition. The ripple voltage can be obtained by
considering the positive part of the capacitor current waveform. The height and base of
the triangle formed by positive area of iC is iL-Io and (iL-Io)(D+)TS /iL respectively.
Hence
1 1cycle ( D   )Ts (iL  I o ) 2
Vo  C
i dt  (19)
C  ve 2CiL
Because the above reasons and also due to the load dependent voltage conversion ratio,
the discontinuous operating mode is tried to be avoided in some applications.

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 Classical switched-mode DC/DC converter

2.2.4 Components’ rating

The component of all the components in the Buck converter are summarised in Table 2.2.
The voltage rating is the same as the continuous mode. The average current is a simple
average of the waveform. The rms current is derived from their current waveforms. The
rms current for T is:
DTs  1 DTs i t  i L 2
   L 2 
 
1
iTrms 2   L _ on
i 2
(t ) dt   ( ) dt   D (20)
Ts   Ts  DTs  3
 0   0 
The rms current for D is:
DTs  1 Ts i L t 2  i 2
   
 
1
i Drms 2
  i L _ off (t )dt  
2
 (i L  ) dt    L (21)
Ts   Ts  Ts  3
 0  0 
The capacitor rms current can be considered as follows:
iC 2  (iL  iL ) 2 (21)
1  
T Ts Ts
2 s 2 2 
icrms    iL dt   iL dt  2iL  iL dt  (22)
Ts 
0 0 0 

2
icrms 2  iLrms 2  iL (23)
The values are in terms of  which is derived from the voltage-second balance of the
inductor L. Hence:
(V  Vo ) D
  in (24)
Vo
Also, the iL is given from the right-side side expression of eqn (1) which is the on-state
inductor current ripple. The off-state expression is not valid in this mode because the
influence of the discontinuous mode operation. Alternatively, iL can be obtained from
the transistor current which gives the input current. i.e. iL=2Iin/D.

Table 2.2: Summary of the components’ rating under discontinuous mode for the Buck converter
Component Maximum voltage Average current Rms current
T Vin i L D D
 I in iL
2 3
D Vin iL 
iL
2 3
L Max(Vin-Vo, Vo) i L ( D   ) D 
 Io iL
2 3
C Vo 0 D 
i L 2  Io2
3

3 Boost converter

The Boost converter is also an important fundamental topology because many other
circuits can be derived from it. This topology has been using in the power factor
correction circuit because of its unique feature of continuous input current. A circuit
diagram is shown in Figure 2.9. The idealised waveforms of the inductor current and
voltage, the capacitor ripple current and the semiconductor devices’ voltage and current

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 Classical switched-mode DC/DC converter

for continuous inductor current are shown in Fig. 10.

Fig. 9 Boost converter

3.1 Continuous inductor current operation

3.1.1 Principle of operation

When the transistor is turned on, the input voltage Vin is developed across the inductor
that causes the inductor current to increases linearly. The diode is reverse biased by the
output voltage and the load current is supplied solely by the capacitor C. When the
transistor is turned off, the inductor current iL diverts from T to the diode. The voltage
across the inductor becomes negative of the value Vo-Vin. Its current hence decreases
linearly. The equivalent circuits of the two states are shown in Fig. 11.

(a) On-state (b) Off-state

Fig. 11 Equivalent circuit of the two states of operation for the Boost converter

3.1.2 Inductor current

The peak-to-peak inductor ripple current as shown in Fig. 10, is:

V DT (V  V )(1  D)TS
 i L = in s  o in (25)
L L
The average inductor current is the input current. Also it may be obtained by equating the
input and output powers:
I
iL  I in  o (26)
1 D
The rms current is obtained by integrating the inductor current. This gives:
(1 D)Ts
1  
DT
2  s 2 2 
iLrms    iL (t )dt   iL (t )dt  (27)
Ts  0 0 

iL 2 2 iL 2
iLrms   iL   I in 2 (28)
12 12

9
 Classical switched-mode DC/DC converter

Fig. 10 Continuous mode for Boost converter Fig. 14 Discontinuous mode for Boost converter

3.1.3 Voltage conversion ratio

An expression for the voltage conversion ratio may be considering the current during the
on-state and off-state. Hence from eqn (25)
Vin DTs  (Vo  Vin )(1  D)Ts (29)
Vo 1
 (30)
Vin 1  D
Alternatively, by considering the volt-second balance of the inductor can also obtain the
same results. The conversion ratio depends solely on D and is greater than one as shown
in Fig. 11 or equal to one when the transistor is always on. In the deal case, the output
voltage approach to very large value as D tends to one, but the maximum achievable
output voltage is restricted by conduction loss in a practical circuit.

10
 Classical switched-mode DC/DC converter

Fig. 12 DC voltage conversion ratio for Boost Fig. 15 DC voltage conversion ratio for Boost
converter under continuous mode converter under discontinuous mode

3.1.4 Capacitor voltage and current

The peak-to-peak output voltage ripple may be again obtained by considering the negative
area formed by the capacitor current waveform when the transistor is conducting:
1 DTS I DT V
Vo   iC dt  o S  DTs o (31)
C 0 C RC
Vo DTs
 (32)
Vo RC
The voltage ripple is independent of L but depends on the load condition. The selection of
C depends on the range of D, Ts and load condition. The selection of L depends on the
allowance of the peak current on the switching devices, the inductor’s design and the
region of discontinuous mode operation.

The capacitor current ripple is more severe than that of the Buck converter and depends
directly on the load current level.

3.1.5 Component rating

The transistor’s average current is a direct average with the duty ratio. It is similar for the
diode’s average current. Again, the rms currents are root mean integration of eqn (2) and
eqn(3) with a duration of DTs and (1-D)Ts for the transistor and diode respectively. The
values are in term of iL which can be obtained from eqn (25). The results have been
summarised in the following Table 2.3:

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 Classical switched-mode DC/DC converter

Table 2.3: Summary of the components’ rating under continuous mode for the Boost converter
Component Maximum Average current Rms current
voltage
T Vo Iin D
iL 2
D(  I in 2 )
12
D Vo I in (1  D) =Io
iL 2
(1  D)(  I in 2 )
12
L Max Iin
iL 2 2
(Vo -Vin, Vin)  I in
12
C Vo 0
i 2
(1  D)( L  ( Iin  I o )2 )  I o 2 D
12

3.2 Discontinuous inductor current operation

Figure 2.13 shows the equivalent circuit. Fig. 14 shows the idealised waveforms during
the discontinuous inductor current operation. The inductor current falls to zero when the
transistor is still in the off-state and the diode stop the inductor current from reversing.

Fig. 13 Equivalent circuit of the Boost converter during discontinuous mode

3.2.1 Voltage conversion ratio

Let δTS be the time taken for the inductor to fall to zero following transistor turn off. The
voltage conversion ratio can be obtained by equating the input and output powers:
iL V DT DVin V DT Vo D V 2
Vin ( D   )  Vin in s ( D  )  Vin in s  o (33)
2 2L Vo  Vin 2 L Vo  Vin R
which reduces to:
Vo 1  1  4 D 2 / K
 (34)
Vin 2

In discontinuous inductor conduction mode, the output voltage is greater than the
continuous conduction mode output level for the same duty-ratio as shown in Fig. 12 and
2.15. The voltage conversion ratio varies almost linearly with duty-ratio and K. At no-
load condition where K approaches to 0, the output voltage theoretically become infinite,
therefore, it is necessary to set a dummy load to ensure the output voltage does not cause
any damage to the converter.

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 Classical switched-mode DC/DC converter

3.2.2 Boundary condition for discontinuous inductor current

The condition for discontinuous conduction happens when the inductor current ripple is
larger than its average current, i.e. Iin .
iL
 I in (35)
2
Hence,
K  (1  D)2 D (36)

3.2.3 Capacitor voltage and current

The peak-peak output voltage ripple may be determined by integrating either the positive
or negative section of the capacitor current waveform. Hence:
1 1 cycle Ts (I L  I o ) 2
Vo  C
i dt  (37)
C  ve 2CI
The rms capacitor current can be calculated by:
1 TS
iCrms   (iD  I o ) dt iDrms  I o
2 2 2 2
(38)
TS 0

3.2.4 Components’ rating

The component of all the components in the Boost converter are summarised in Table 2.4.
The voltage rating is the same as the continuous mode. The average current is a simple
average of the waveform. The rms current is derived from their current waveforms. The
values are in terms of  which is derived from the voltage-second balance of the inductor
L:
Vin D
 (39)
(Vo  Vin )
Again, the iL is given from the middle side expression of eqn (25) which is the on-state
inductor current ripple. The off-state expression is not valid in this mode because the
influence of the discontinuous mode operation. Alternatively, iL can be obtained from
the diode current which gives the output current. i.e. iL=2Io/.

Table 2.4: Summary of the components’ rating under discontinuous mode for the Boost converter
Component Maximum voltage Average current Rms current
T Vo i L D D
iL
2 3
D Vo i L 
 Io iL
2 3
L Max(Vo -Vin, Vin) iL ( D   ) D 
 I in iL
2 3
C Vo 0 
i L 2  Io2
3

4 Buck/Boost Converter

13
 Classical switched-mode DC/DC converter

This converter behaves as a combination of a Buck converter and a Boost converter. Using
topology analysis, it can be proved that it is a cascade connection of the two converters.
This concept is illustrated in Fig 16. It can be seen that when a Buck and a Boost
converter are connected in cascade. The two inductors can be merged into one inductor.
If the transistors’ on-state current and off-state current are studied and are shown in Fig
16. The current passes through both transistors and both diodes during the on-state and
off-state respectively. Therefore only one transistor and one diode are needed. The circuit
can further be simplified and as shown in Fig 17, the typical circuit of a Buck/Boost
converter. Therefore it possesses both step up and down voltage conversion capability,
however, the penalty is increased voltage ratings in the circuit components.

Fig. 16 Illustration of the cascade connection of the Buck converter and the Boost converter.

Fig. 17 Buck-Boost converter

The idealised waveforms of the inductor current iL, inductor voltage vL, the capacitor
ripple current ic and the devices’ voltage and current are shown in Figs 2.18 and 2.22 for
the continuous mode and discontinuous mode. It is interesting to see that the output
voltage is inverted.

4.1 Continuous inductor current operation

4.1.1 Principle of operation

The equivalent circuit during the on-state and off-state is shown in Fig. 19. When the
transistor is turned on, the voltage across the inductor becomes Vin and hence the inductor
current increases. The diode is reverse biased with a voltage Vin+Vo. Hence the load
current is supplied solely by the output capacitor. When the transistor is turned off the

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 Classical switched-mode DC/DC converter

inductor current freewheels through the diode and a reverse voltage of V o is developed
across the inductor causing a linear decrease in current. The transistor off-state voltage is
then Vin+Vo.

(a) On-state (b) Off-state

Fig. 19 Equivalent circuit of the two states of operation for the Buck-Boost converter

4.12 Inductor current

The peak-to peak inductor ripple current, form Fig. 18, is:
V DT V (1  D)TS
iL  in s  o (40)
L L
and an expression for the average inductor current iL may be derived by considering the
average transistor and diode currents:
Average diode current = output current
V
I o  o  iL (1  D) (41)
R
Average transistor current = input current
I in  iL D (42)
Hence average inductor current = input current + output current. i.e.
I
iL  Iin  IO  O (43)
1 D

4.1.3 Voltage conversion ratio

The voltage conversion ratio may be obtained by considering eqn (40) which gives:
Vin DTs  Vo (1  D)Ts (44)
gives
Vo D
 (45)
Vin 1  D
Alternatively, the same expression can be obtained by equating the volt-seconds of the
inductor during on-state and off-state of the transistor:

4.1.4 Capacitor current

The capacitor ripple current is identical to the corresponding waveform for the boost
converter and the peak-to-peak output voltage ripple may be obtained in the same way:
Vo DTs
 (46)
Vo RC
Therefore, the capacitor current ripple is severe and depends directly on load current. In
designing the converter, C is chosen to satisfy the output voltage ripple specification

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 Classical switched-mode DC/DC converter

whilst L is chosen to restrict the peak current levels hence to reduce the conduction loss of
the circuit, or to avoid discontinuous inductor current operation in certain application.

Fig. 18 Continuous mode waveforms for Buck- Fig. 22 Discontinuous mode waveforms for Buck-
Boost converter Boost converter

4.1.5 Component rating

The average currents of the transistor and diode are direct average with the duty ratio.
Again, the rms currents are root mean integration of eqn (2) and eqn(3) with a duration of
DTs and (1-D)Ts for the transistor and diode respectively. The rms values are in term of iL
which can be obtained from eqn (40). The results have been summarised in the following
Table 2.5:

16
 Classical switched-mode DC/DC converter

Table 2.5: Summary of the components’ rating under continuous mode for the Buck-Boost converter
Component Maximum Average current Rms current
voltage
T Vo+Vin I in i L 2
D(  ( I in  I o ) 2 )
12
D Vo+Vin Io
i 2
(1  D)( L  ( I in  I o ) 2 )
12
L Max(Vin, Vo) Iin+Io
iL 2
 ( I in  I o ) 2
12
C Vo 0
i 2
(1  D)( L  Iin 2 )  I o 2 D
12

4.2 Discontinuous inductor current operation

The typical waveforms of the discontinuous inductor conductor mode are shown in Fig.
22. An additional mode appears following the inductor current falls to zero and the
inductor current becomes discontinuous. During this state transistor and diode are also
does not conduct any current. The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 21. Let δTs be the
time taken for the inductor current to fall to zero after the transistor is turned off.

Fig. 22 Equivalent circuit of the Buck-Boost converter during discontinuous mode

Fig. 20 DC voltage conversion ratio for Buck-Boost Fig. 23 DC voltage conversion ratio for Buck-Boost
converter under continuous mode converter under discontinuous mode

17
 Classical switched-mode DC/DC converter

4.2.1 Voltage conversion ratio

The voltage conversion ratio may be obtained by equating the input power and output
power:
iL V DT V2
Vin Iin  Vin D  Vin in S D  o (47)
2 2L R
Vo D
 (48)
Vin K
where K = 2L/RT. The output to input voltage conversion characteristics of the converter
are shown in Fig. 23 for K=0.01 and K=0.05. In discontinuous mode, the output voltage
is greater than the continuous conduction mode output level for the same duty-ratio and
the conversion ratio varies linearly with D.

4.2.2 Boundary condition for discontinuous conduction mode

Discontinuous conduction occurs when half of the inductor current ripple is larger than its
average current:
iL
 iL (50)
2
Hence
(1  D)VoTS I
 o (51)
2L 1 D
and gives:
K  (1  D)2 for discontinuous operation (52)

4.2.3 Capacitor voltage and ripple

The peak-to-peak output voltage ripple may be obtained as before by considering the
positive section of the ic waveform:
Ts (iL  I o )2
Vo  (53)
2CiL
4.2.4 Components’ rating

The component of all the components in the Buck-Boost converter are summarised in
Table 2.6. The voltage rating is the same as the continuous mode. The average current is
a direct average of the waveform. The rms current is derived from their current
waveforms. The values are in terms of  which is derived from the voltage-second
balance of the inductor L. Hence:
V D
  in (54)
Vo
Also, iL can be obtained from the transistor current which gives the input current, i.e.
iL=2Iin/D. Alternatively, it can be obtained from middle expression of the on-state as
shown in eqn. (40).

18
 Classical switched-mode DC/DC converter

Table 2.6: Summary of the components’ rating under discontinuous mode for the Buck-Boost converter
Component Maximum voltage Average current Rms current
T Vin iL D D
 I in i L
2 3
D Vin iL 
 Io iL
2 3
L Max(Vo -Vin, Vo) iL ( D   ) D 
 I in  I o iL
2 3
C Vo 0 
iL 2  Io2
3

5 Cuk Converter

This converter as shown in Fig. 24 is obtained by duality principle of the Buck/Boost

converter. This converter has two inductors and two capacitors. Similar to the
Buck/Boost converter, the output voltage in inverted.

Fig. 24 Cuk converter

5.1 Continuous conduction mode

5.1.1 Principle of operation

When the switch T is turned on, the diode D is reverse biased by VC1. iL1 is increasing
because of the input voltage. Vc1 is decreasing because C1 is discharged to the output
through L2. The idealised waveforms can be seen in Fig. 25.

When the switch T is turned off, the current in L1 diverts through D, C1 is charged by the
input current iL1 and iL2 is freewheeling through D. VC1 will be next shown to be greater
than Vin, therefore iL1 is decreasing. The equivalent circuits during the on and off states
are shown in Fig. 26.

(a) On-state (b) Off-state

Fig. 26 Equivalent circuit of the two states of operation for the Cuk converter

19
 Classical switched-mode DC/DC converter

Fig. 25 Continuous mode waveforms for Cuk Fig. 29 Discontinuous mode waveforms for Cuk
converter converter

5.1.2 Steady state voltage on C1 and inductor currents

Consider the volt-seconds on L1:

Vin DTs  (Vin  VC1)(1  D)TS  0 (55)
1
VC1  Vin (56)
1 D

20
 Classical switched-mode DC/DC converter

Consider the volt-seconds on L2:

(VC1  Vo ) DTS  Vo (1  D)TS  0 (57)
1
VC1  Vo (58)
D
Hence the voltage across C1 is Vin+Vo.
The inductor current of L1 and L2 are obviously Iin and Io.

5.1.3 Voltage conversion ratio

Equating the above two equations:

Vo D
 (59)
Vin 1  D
Fig. 27 shows the characteristics of the voltage conversion ratio. The ratio is the same as
the Buck-Boost converter and ideally varies between 0 to infinity. The average value of
iL1 and iL2 is Iin and Io respectively. The ratio of the average iL1 and iL2 can be obtained by
using conversation of energy:
I o iL 2 1  D
  (60)
I in iL1 D

5.1.4 Ripple voltage and current

The voltage impressed on L1 is Vin and Vin-VC1 =-Vo during the on and off states
respectively. The voltage impressed on L2 is VC1-Vo=Vin and -Vo during the on and off
states. The ripple current on iL1, iL1, and iL2, iL2, can be calculated from the on-state or
off-states as:
V V (1  D)TS
iL1  in DTs  o (61)
L1 L
V DT V (1  D)TS
iL 2  in s  o (62)
L2 L
It is noted that although the current ripple can also be obtained from the off-state, it will
not be valid when the converter is operated in the ‘discontinuous’ mode. Because only ac
part of iL2 passes through C2, iL2 flows through C2. Hence the voltage ripple on C2 is
given by the integration of iL2. The voltage ripple on C2 is given by considering iC2. iC2
is symmetrical about horizontal axis. The positive area per cycle of iC2 is:
1 iL 2 TS Vin DTs 2 Vo (1  D )TS 2
 ic 2dt  2 2 2

8 L2

8 L2
(63)
 ve
1 Vo (1  D )TS 2
VC 2   C2
i dt  (64)
C2  ve 4C2 L2

21
 Classical switched-mode DC/DC converter

Fig. 27 DC voltage conversion ratio for Cuk Fig. 30 DC voltage conversion ratio for Cuk
converter under continuous mode converter under discontinuous mode

5.1.5 Component ratings

22
 Classical switched-mode DC-DC converters

The voltage ratings on T and D and C1 are Vo+Vin. It can be seen that the rating is higher
than the basic SMPS i.e. Buck and Boost. Even though for the same voltage conversion
as the Buck/Boost converter, the voltage rating for the transistor and diode is increase to
1/(1-D) and 1/D times as compared to Buck and Boost converters.

However, the Cuk converter is sometimes preferred to Buck, Boost and Buck-Boost
converters because its input and output currents can be continuous with the present of the
inductors. It therefore improves the EMI. The ratings of all the components is
summarised in Table 2.7. In the table, iL can be obtained from eqn (61) and (62)

Table 2.7: Summary of the components’ rating under continuous mode for the Cuk converter
Component Maximum Average current Rms current
voltage
T Vo+Vin (Iin+Io)D=Iin (i L1  i L 2 ) 2
D(  ( I in  I o ) 2 )
12
D Vo+Vin (Iin+Io)(1-D)=Io (i L1  i L 2 ) 2
(1  D)(  ( I in  I o ) 2 )
12
L1 Max(Vin, Vo) Iin i L1 2
 I in 2
12
L2 Max(Vin, Vo) Io i L 2 2
 Io2
12
C1 Vo+Vin 0 i L1 2 i 2
(  I in 2 ) D  ( L 2  I o 2 )(1  D)
12 12
C2 Vo 0 i L 2
12

5.2 Non-positive inductor conduction (Discontinuous) mode

When the load current is small or the inductance of L1 and L2 is small during the
transistor’s off state, the diode currents may tend to decrease to zero before the transistor
is turned on in the next cycle as the above three converters. However, strictly speaking,
we cannot call them the discontinuous inductor conduction because the inductors still
conduct but either one of the currents becomes non-positive.

5.2.1 Boundary condition for Discontinuous conduction mode

In this converter, the diode conducts the sum of iL1 and iL2. When the sum of these two
currents equals to zero, the non-positive inductor conduction mode starts to occur. i.e. this
diode current reaches zero, the diode stops from conduction, the equivalent circuit
becomes Fig. 28. The inductor currents for L1 and L2 are equal and opposite in direction.
Hence, we should not call this condition as discontinuous although it is very similar to the
discontinuous mode. The state is denoted as idle state as both transistor and diode are off.
Therefore the condition for non-positive inductor conduction mode is:
iL1  iL 2 V
 in DTs  I in  I o (65)
2 2 L12
(1  D)2  K12 (66)
where K12 = 2L12/(RTs) and L12 = L1L2/(L1+L2)
23
 Classical switched-mode DC-DC converters

Fig. 28 Equivalent circuit of the Cuk converter during idle state

It can also seen that the voltage across the two inductors is zero and hence the current
ripples on the inductors are zero.

5.2.2 Voltage conversion ratio

Using the balance between the voltage-seconds of the inductor:

Vin DTs  VoTs  0 (67)
Hence
Vo D Iin
  (68)
Vin  Io
Assuming the average current of L1 and L2 during the transistor on state be IL1’ and IL2’
respectively. Hence:
V DT
I L1'  I Lo  in s (69)
2 L1
V DTs
I L 2 '   I Lo  in (70)
2 L2
For the waveform of L1:
I L1' ( D   )  I Lo (1  D   )  Iin (71)
The capacitor C1 under steady-state has a balanced positive portion and negative current.
Hence:
I L 2 ' D  I L1'  (1  D   ) I Lo (72)
Eliminating ILo from eqns (71) and (72) gives
D( I L1' I L 2 ' )  I in (73)
Substituting eqns (69) and (70) into (73) gives
Vin DTs Iin
 (74)
2 L12 D
Using eqns (68) and (74) gives:
Vo RTs D
 D (75)
Vin 2 L12 K12
It can be seen that the voltage conversion ratio now becomes a linear relationship with D.
For information, the idle state current ILo is derived by substituting (69) and (70) into (72):
V DT D 
I Lo  in s (  ) (76)
2 L2 L1
Also the duration of the off-state is derived from eqns (68) and (75):

24
 Classical switched-mode DC-DC converters

2 L12
  K12 (77)
RTs

5.2.3 Voltage ripple of the output

The iC2 gives the voltage ripple on C2. Because sum of Io and iC2 equal to iL2, therefore,
during the idle state, iC2 is equal to -(iLo+Io). The voltage ripple is obtained by integrating
the positive current of iC2. This gives:
( D   )Ts (i L 2  I o  I Lo ) 2
Vo  (78)
2C 2 i L 2
where iL2 is given eqn (62).

5.2.4 Component rating

The component of all the components in the Cuk converter are summarised in Table 2.8.
The voltage rating is the same as the continuous mode. The average current is a simple
average of the waveform. The rms current is derived from their current waveforms. The
values are in terms of  which is derived from the volt-second balance of the inductor L.
Hence:
Vin D
 (79)
Vo

25
 Classical switched-mode DC-DC converters

Table 2.8: Summary of the components’ rating under discontinuous mode for the Cuk converter
Component Maximum Average current Rms current
voltage
T Vin+Vo (iL1  iL 2 ) D D
(iL1  iL 2 )
2 3
D Vin+Vo (iL1  iL 2 ) 
(iL1  iL 2 )
2 3
L1 Max iL1( D   ) i 2
(Vin, Vo)  I Lo ( D   )( L1  I Lo 2  I L0iL1)
2 3
 Iin
 I L 02 (1  D   )
L2 Max iL 2 ( D   ) iL 22
(Vin, Vo)  I Lo ( D   )(  I Lo 2  I L0iL 2 )
2 3
 Io
 I L02 (1  D   )
C1 Vin+Vo 0
i 2
D( L 2  I Lo 2  I L0iL 2 )
3
i 2
  ( L1  I Lo 2  I L0iL1)
3
 I L02 (1  D   )
C2 Vo 0
iL 22
D(  ( I Lo  I o )2  ( I L0  I o )iL 2 )
3
iL 22
(  ( I Lo  I o )2  ( I L0  I o )iL 2 )
3
 I L02 (1  D   )

6 Comparison among the four topologies

The following Table 2.12 summaries the difference between the above six circuits during
the continuous condition mode. For the discontinuous mode as shown in Table 2.13, the
relationship besides iL is basically the same as that of the continuous mode except all the
parameters depends on R as well. For Buck converter, iL is dependent on R whereas the
other 5 circuits are independent of R.

Table 2.12: Summary of the components’ dependence on parameters under continuous mode
Depend Buck Boost Buck/Boost Cuk All six
on topologies
iL L L L L D, L, Ts
R, C
i L rms R, L R, L R, L R, L R, L, D
C, Ts
Vo L, C R, C R, L, C L, C L, C, D, Ts
R R
iC (o) L R, L R, L L L, D, Ts
26
 Classical switched-mode DC-DC converters

R R C
iCrms L R, L R, L L L, D,
R R C, Ts

iT R R R R R, D
L, C, Ts
iTrms R, L R, L R, L R, L R, L, D
C, Ts
iD R R R R R, D
L, C, Ts
iDrms R, L R, L R, L R, L R, L, D
C, Ts
Note:  means independent

Table 2.13: Summary of the components’ dependence on parameters under discontinuous mode
Depend Buck Boost Buck/Boost Cuk All six topologies
on
iL L L L L D, L, Ts
R R R R, C
i L rms

Vo
iC (o)
iCrms

iT Same as continuous mode but all dependent on R

iTrms

iD

iDrms
Note:  means independent

The Buck and Boost converters are basic topologies. All the other circuit are derived from
them. Buck-boost is a cascade connection of the Buck and Boost converters. The 3
converters are very popular for in power supply application. The transformer isolated
version of Buck and Buck-Boost converters are also very popular for off-line power
supply. It can also be seen that, Cuk, has two inductors and two capacitors. The
converter is more complex than the other three basic topologies, both their input and
output current waveforms are continuous and it offers better EMI, and their voltage
conversion ratio covers a large range.

27