MODULE 3

PED 311 – Climate Change and Disaster Risk Management

1. Title of the Module

Chapter 3: Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming

2. Introduction
For most people, the expression of “climate change” means the alteration of the
world’s climate that we humans are causing, through fossil fuel burning, clearing
forests and other practices that increases the concentration of greenhouse gases
(GHG) in the atmosphere. In this chapter, each factor that contributes to the global
warming and climate change will be discussed.

3. Learning Outcome
At the end of Chapter 3, you are expected to be able to: a) recognize different
greenhouse gases b) distinguish the effects and impacts of these different
greenhouse gases to the Earth’s atmosphere c) define what is greenhouse
effect and global warming and how does it affects the global climate d) list
different human activities that contribute to the continuing changes in global
climate that causes climate change and global warming and; e) evaluate the
effects of these phenomena to different processes and living organisms on
Earth.
4. Learning Content
The Greenhouse Gases
The three most powerful long lived greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are
carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. In this section the sources,
sinks, and atmospheric concentrations of these compounds are considered. In
addition we will consider the class of compounds known as halogenated
organic compounds (of which CFCs are a subset), SF6, and ozone in the
lower and upper atmosphere. At this point it is germane to note that water
vapor is the single most powerful greenhouse gas in the atmosphere.
Water vapor has approximately twice the effect of the second most powerful
greenhouse gas—carbon dioxide. Human activities do not have any
significant direct impact on the level of water vapor in the atmosphere.
However, as a result of global warming it is likely that human activities will
have a significant indirect impact on the level of water vapor in the
atmosphere. Water vapor is the most important greenhouse gas and the
development of a better understanding of the effect of global warming on
atmospheric water in all its forms (solid, liquid, and gas) is of critical
importance.

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Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
Discussion of the human impact on the levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the
atmosphere is complicated by two factors.
 First, emissions of CO2 associated with human activities, while large
on a human scale, are small when compared to natural fluxes of CO2
associated with photosynthesis, respiration, uptake into ocean water,
and release from ocean water.
 Second, there are several large reservoirs of CO2 (e.g. atmosphere,
upper ocean, deep ocean, biosphere) which are continually exchanging
CO2. In such a system one needs to be very careful when using the
words "source", "sink", and "lifetime". Instead of "source" and "sink" it is
often better to refer to "net source" and "net sink".
Thus, the oceans are both a large source and a large sink of atmospheric
CO2. With continual exchange between reservoirs it is not possible to specify
a single atmospheric lifetime for CO2. The atmospheric lifetime of CO2 is
typically quoted as approximately 100 years. For simplicity the discussion
below will not consider the natural fluxes of carbon between the various
reservoirs in the environment; instead it will focus on the human perturbation
to the natural cycle.
Human activities are believed to lead to emission of carbon dioxide from fossil
fuel combustion and cement production from changes in tropical land use
(deforestation). The atmospheric burden of CO2 is increasing. To balance the
CO2 budget "unknown terrestrial sinks" have been invoked and have been
inferred. This is often known as the "missing sink”.
For terrestrial systems CO2-climate feedbacks include effects of temperature,
precipitation and radiation changes (changes in cloudiness) on primary
production and decomposition. For marine systems feedback occurs through
climatic influences on ocean circulation and chemistry. Rates of biological
activity generally increase with warmer temperatures and increasing moisture.
The feedbacks of changing carbon dioxide and climate on ecosystems are
many and complex.
Methane
Methane (CH4) is the most abundant well mixed greenhouse gas after carbon
dioxide. In contrast to carbon dioxide, methane is removed from the
atmosphere via chemical reaction with hydroxyl (OH) radicals. Methane plays
an important role in atmospheric chemistry and it can influence the levels of
other important trace species via its reaction with OH. All other factors being
constant, increased atmospheric levels of methane will result in decreased
concentrations of OH and hence a longer lifetime for any gas whose
atmospheric lifetime is influenced by reaction with OH. Also, an increase in
methane will lead to the production of more tropospheric ozone which is an
important greenhouse gas.

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Methane is emitted into the atmosphere by a large number of natural and
anthropogenic sources. Natural sources are believed to contribute
approximately 30% of the methane flux while anthropogenic sources account
for the remaining 70%. The largest natural sources are wetlands, termites,
and oceans, respectively. Anthropogenic sources are natural gas facilities,
coal mines, petroleum industry, coal combustion, enteric fermentation, rice
paddies, biomass burning, landfills, animal waste and domestic sewage.
Nitrous oxide (N2O)
Nitrous oxide (N2O) is the third most abundant well mixed greenhouse gas
after carbon dioxide and methane. The atmospheric concentration of N2O has
increased by approximately 16% since pre-industrial times. In addition to its
importance as a greenhouse gas, N2O is transported through the troposphere
into the stratosphere where it reacts with O(1D) atoms and is the source of
stratospheric NOx (O(1D) atoms are electronically excited oxygen atoms).
Natural sources of N2O associated with emission from soils and the oceans to
the atmosphere. Anthropogenic emissions of N2O are associated with
biomass burning, fossil fuel combustion, industrial production of adipic and
nitric acids, and the use of nitrogen fertilizer. Photodissociation in the
stratosphere is the major (90%) loss mechanism for N2O in the atmosphere.
Halogenated organic compounds
Halogenated organic compounds are organic compounds containing one or
more halogen atoms. Halogenated organic compounds can be fully
substituted where all of the hydrogens in the molecule have been replaced by
halogen atoms, or partially substituted where some hydrogens remain.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs) are two
subsets of halogenated organic compounds in which all hydrogen atoms have
been substituted by fluorine and chlorine atoms, or solely by fluorine atoms.
CFC-12 (CCl2F2) and CFC-11 (CCl3F) are the two most abundant CFCs in
the atmosphere and are present at levels of 0.5 and 0.25 ppb (parts per
billion), respectively. CF4 is the most abundant PFC and is found at a
concentration of 0.08 ppb in the atmosphere.
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and hydrofluorochlorocarbons (HCFCs) are
compounds in which some, but not all, of the hydrogens have been replaced
with fluorine (HFCs) or fluorine and chlorine atoms (HCFCs).
Halons are a class of compounds containing bromine and chlorine (but no
hydrogen).
There are no significant natural sources of CFCs, PFCs, HFCs, HCFCs, or
Halons. These compounds were not present in the preindustrial atmosphere,
and their presence in contemporary air reflects emissions associated with
industrial activities Carbon-halogen bonds (e.g. C-F, C-Cl, C-Br) absorb
strongly at infrared wavelengths and this is why halogenated organic
compounds are strong greenhouse gases.

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The effectiveness of these compounds as greenhouse gases depends on two
factors:
(i) the number of carbon-halogen bonds in the molecule and
(ii) the atmospheric lifetime of the molecule.
PFCs have lifetimes of the order of thousands of years while CFCs and
Halons persist for typically 50-100 years.
By contrast HFCs and HCFCs have relatively short atmospheric lifetimes
ranging typically from a few months to a decade (depending on the particular
compound).
Recognition of the adverse environmental impact of CFCs and Halons on
stratospheric ozone has led to international controls on the use of these
chemicals. Under the Montreal Protocol the production of CFCs and Halons
are being phased out and these compounds are being replaced by HFCs and
HCFCs. While release of CFCs and Halons from existing equipment
continues, the rate of such release has decreased substantially and the
atmospheric concentration of such compounds is beginning to decline. With
accelerating use of HFCs and HCFCs over the past 10-20 years the levels of
these compounds in the atmosphere have increased substantially, HCFC-22
(CHF2Cl) is the most abundant at a concentration of 0.1 ppb, while HFC-23
(CF3H), HCFC-141b (CFCl2CH3), HCFC-142b (CF2ClCH3), and HFC-134a
(CF3CFH2) are each present at a concentration of approximately 0.01 to 0.02
ppb.
Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6)
On a per molecule basis, sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) is one of the most potent
greenhouse gases known. Its potency stems from its intense absorption and
its extremely long atmospheric lifetime of 3200 years. SF6 is present in small
amounts in fluorites and degassing from these minerals provides a small
natural source which results in a natural background concentration of 0.01
ppt. SF6 is a useful industrial chemical used as an insulating gas in electrical
switching equipment.
As a result of anthropogenic emissions the current level of SF6 in the
atmosphere is approximately 400 times that of the natural background and
increasing. New SF6-like greenhouse gas was detected in the atmosphere:
SF5CF3. While the concentration of SF5CF3 is very low and this compound
does not play any significant role in global warming it is of interest because on
a per molecule basis it is the most potent greenhouse gas yet identified in the
atmosphere. The discovery of SF5CF3 illustrates that there is much that is still
to be learnt concerning such greenhouse gases. While it is unlikely that any
single major greenhouse gas awaits discovery, the possibility that many
compounds such as SF5CF3 are present, with each making a small
contribution that when summed represent a non-negligible contribution cannot
be ruled out at present.

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Ozone (O3)
In contrast to all other greenhouse gases, ozone is not emitted into the
atmosphere. Ozone is generated in-situ in the atmosphere from two
processes:
(i) photolysis of molecular oxygen (O2) which gives oxygen atoms (O)
which then add to molecular oxygen to give ozone (O3) and
(ii) oxidation of organic compounds (from natural and man-made sources)
in the presence of nitrogen oxides (NOx)
The first process only occurs in the upper atmosphere where there is
sufficient short wavelength sunlight to photodissociate molecular oxygen and
this process gives rise to the stratospheric ozone layer at altitudes of 20-50
km. The second process occurs throughout the atmosphere but, because of
the much greater availability of organic compounds and NOx near the Earth's
surface, is much more important in the lower atmosphere (troposphere).
Emission of large amounts of organic compounds and NOx in urban areas
leads to the formation of substantial amounts of ozone in, and downwind of,
large metropolitan centers around the world.
In discussions of the climatic impact of human perturbations of atmospheric
ozone levels a clear distinction must be made between ozone in the upper
atmosphere (stratospheric ozone), which has decreased as a result of human
activities, and ozone in the lower atmosphere (tropospheric ozone) which has
increased as a result of human activities. Finally, in contrast to all other
greenhouse gases considered here, the atmospheric lifetime of ozone is short
(of the order of days or weeks, depending on local conditions) and hence its
concentration responds quickly to changes in atmospheric conditions. Ozone
concentrations in the lower atmosphere are typically 10-100 ppb with levels at
the low end of the range being characteristic of remote pristine environments
and levels at the high end of the range being typical of polluted urban air
masses.
The depletion of stratospheric ozone during the period 1979-2000 (caused by
the release of CFCs and subsequent chemical reactions) has led to a
negative radiative forcing of climate. International agreements are now in
place which should eliminate the emission of CFCs over the next few
decades. It is expected that the stratospheric ozone layer will recover during
the twenty-first century and that the magnitude of the negative radiative
forcing associated with stratospheric ozone loss will decrease with time.
It is believed that the levels of ozone in the troposphere have increased by 30-
40% since 1750 due to increased emission of organic compounds and NOx.
This increased concentration of tropospheric ozone has contributed a positive
radiative forcing. The forcing associated with tropospheric ozone varies
substantially by region and season and will respond quickly to changes in
emissions of ozone forming compounds.

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Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Increasing emissions of greenhouse gases due to human activities worldwide
have led to a substantial increase in atmospheric concentrations of long-lived
and other greenhouse gases. Every country around the world emits
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, meaning the root cause of climate
change is truly global in scope. Some countries produce far more greenhouse
gases than others, and several factors—such as economic activity (including
the composition and efficiency of the economy), population, income level, land
use, and climatic conditions—can influence a country’s emissions levels.
Each greenhouse gas has a different lifetime (how long it stays in the
atmosphere) and a different ability to trap heat in our atmosphere. To allow
different gases to be compared and added together, emissions are converted
into carbon dioxide equivalents. This step uses each gas’s 100-year global
warming potential, which measures how much a given amount of the gas is
estimated to contribute to global warming over a period of 100 years after
being emitted. Carbon dioxide is assigned a global warming potential equal to
1. This analysis uses global warming potentials from the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC’s) Second Assessment Report. In that
report, methane has a global warming potential of 21, which means a ton of
methane emissions contributes 21 times as much warming as a ton of carbon
dioxide emissions over 100 years, and that ton of methane emissions is
therefore equal to 21 tons of carbon dioxide equivalents. See the table for
comparison with global warming potentials from IPCC’s Fifth Assessment
Report.
Key Points
• In 2010, estimated worldwide emissions from human activities totaled nearly
46 billion metric tons of greenhouse gases, expressed as carbon dioxide
equivalents. This represents a 35 percent increase from 1990 (see Figures 1
and 2). These numbers represent net emissions, which include the effects of
land use and forestry.
• Between 1990 and 2010, global emissions of all major greenhouse gases
increased (see Figure 1). Net emissions of carbon dioxide increased by 42
percent, which is particularly important because carbon dioxide accounts for
about three-fourths of total global emissions. Nitrous oxide emissions
increased the least—9 percent—while emissions of methane increased by 15
percent. Emissions of fluorinated gases more than doubled.
• Energy production and use (including fuels used by vehicles) represent the
largest source of greenhouse gas emissions worldwide (about 71 percent of
the total in 2010), followed by agriculture (13 percent in 2010) (see Figure 2).
While land-use change and forestry represent a net sink for emissions in the
United States, absorbing carbon dioxide and offsetting emissions from other
sources (see the U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions indicator), these activities
are a net source of emissions on a global scale, largely because of
deforestation.1
• Carbon dioxide emissions are increasing faster in some parts of the world
(for example, Asia) than in others (see Figure 3). The majority of emissions

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come from three regions: Asia, Europe, and the United States, which together
accounted for 88 percent of total global emissions in 2012.

*Source: EPA, 2016

*Source: EPA, 2016

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Greenhouse Effect

*Image source: Toxipedia. The Greenhouse Effect, 2011

The history of the scientific understanding of the greenhouse effect can be

traced back to Jean Baptiste-Joseph de Fourier in 1827. Fourier suggested
that the atmosphere allows short wavelength radiation from the Sun to reach
and warm the Earth's surface but blocks emission of longer wavelength
radiation which would cool the Earth. Fourier compared this effect to that of
the glass in a greenhouse (hence "greenhouse effect") and predicted that
climate could be influenced by human activities. It is now known that
prevention of the loss of warm air via convection is the main factor by which
heat is retained in a greenhouse. However, for historical reasons, the terms
"greenhouse effect" and "greenhouse gases" are still used when describing
radiative trapping of heat in the atmosphere.
In 1859 John Tyndall measured the infra-red (heat) trapping ability of water
vapor, carbon dioxide, and methane and suggested that ice ages were
caused by variations of the atmospheric levels of these gases.
In 1896 Svante Arrhenius noted the release of large amounts of carbon
dioxide by the burning of fossil fuel and estimated that a doubling of
atmospheric carbon dioxide would warm the Earth by 5-6 °C (current climate
models predict a 1.5 – 4.5 °C rise from doubling of carbon dioxide).
In 1957 Roger Revelle and Hans Suess pointed out that the build-up of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere constituted a large scale geophysical

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experiment whose consequences were unknown. The following year (1958)
was designated as the International Geophysical Year and saw the start of an
ongoing program of continuous measurements of atmospheric carbon dioxide
levels at Mauna Loa, Hawaii, by Charles Keeling which have showed that the
levels of carbon dioxide are rising steadily (from 315 ppm in 1958 to 370 ppm
in 2001).
It has been known for over a hundred years that water vapor, carbon
dioxide, and methane naturally present in the atmosphere trap heat in the
atmosphere. It is relatively straightforward to estimate the magnitude of this
"natural greenhouse effect". The only mechanism by which the Earth can
cool itself is via emission of infrared radiation into space. At infrared
frequencies the Earth behaves like a black body (when seen in IR light even
"white" clouds and snow appear "black"). Without the natural greenhouse
effect the planet would be permanently frozen and devoid of life.
The Natural Greenhouse Effect
The greenhouse effect is the rise in temperature that the Earth experiences
because certain gases in the atmosphere (water vapor, carbon dioxide,
nitrous oxide, ozone, methane, for example) trap energy that comes from the
sun. These gases are usually called greenhouse gases since they behave
much like the glass panes in a greenhouse. The glass panels of the
greenhouse let in the light but keep heat from escaping and this is similar to
the effect these gasses have on earth.
Sunlight enters the Earth's atmosphere, passing through the greenhouse
gases. As it reaches the Earth's surface, land, water, and biosphere absorb
the sunlight's energy. Once absorbed, this energy is sent back into the
atmosphere. Some of the energy passes back into space, but much of it
remains trapped in the atmosphere by the greenhouse gases. This is the
completely natural process and without these gases all the heat would escape
back into space and Earth's average temperature would be about 30 degrees
Celsius (54 degrees Fahrenheit) colder. The greenhouse effect is very
important process, because without the greenhouse effect, the Earth would
not be warm enough for humans to live. But if the greenhouse effect becomes
stronger, it could make the Earth warmer than usual. Even a little extra
warming may cause problems for humans, plants, and animals.
The Enhanced Greenhouse Effect
Some human activities also produce greenhouse gases and these gases
keep increasing in the atmosphere. The change in the balance of the
greenhouse gases has significant effects on the entire planet. Burning fossil
fuels - coal, oil and natural gas - releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
Cutting down and burning trees also produces a lot of carbon dioxide. A group
of greenhouse gases called the chlorofluorocarbons have been used in
aerosols, such as hairspray cans, fridges and in making foam plastics.

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Since there are more and more greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, more
heat is trapped, which makes the Earth warmer. This is known as global
warming. A lot of scientists agree that man's activities are making the natural
greenhouse effect stronger. If we carry on polluting the atmosphere with
greenhouse gases, it will have very dangerous effects on the Earth. Today,
the increase in the Earth's temperature is increasing with unprecedented
speed.
To understand just how quickly global warming is accelerating, consider that
during the entire 20th century, the average global temperature increased by
about 0.6 degrees Celsius (slightly more than 1 degree Fahrenheit). Using
computer climate models, scientists estimate that by the year 2100 the
average global temperature will increase by 1.4 degrees to 5.8 degrees
Celsius (approximately 2.5 degrees to 10.5 degrees Fahrenheit).
Global Warming
"Global warming" refers to the enhanced greenhouse effect expected to result
from an increase in atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases resulting
from emissions associated with human activities. Absorption of infrared
irradiation by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has been well
documented by satellite observations.
Water vapor, ozone, and methane are also strong absorbers of infrared
radiation. The presence of these natural greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
prevents the direct escape of terrestrial infrared radiation into space.
Increases in the atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases such as
carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, and ozone will act to further hinder the
escape of terrestrial infrared radiation and hence warm the Earth's surface.
Certain industrial gases such as sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) and the
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are powerful absorbers in the atmospheric
window region and have a particularly pronounced greenhouse effect (on a
mass basis SF6 is 22, 200 times more powerful a greenhouse gas than
carbon dioxide). To understand the potential for human induced global
warming we need to consider the human contribution to greenhouse gas
levels.
The Effects of Global Warming
With more heat trapped on Earth, the planet will become warmer, which
means the weather all over Earth will change. Since the conditions we are
living in are perfect for life, a large rise in temperature could be disastrous for
us and for any other living creatures on Earth. At the moment, it is difficult for
scientists to say how big the changes will be and where the worst effects will
occur. These are some of the assumptions.
The Weather
The effects will vary in different parts of the world: some places will become
drier and others will become wetter. Although most areas will be warmer,
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 some areas will become cooler. There may be many storms, floods and
drought, but we do not know which areas of the world will be affected. All over
the world, these weather changes will affect the kinds of crop that can be
grown. Plants, animals, and even people may find it difficult to survive in
different conditions.
Sea Level
Higher temperatures will make the water of the seas and oceans expand. Ice
melting in the Antarctic and Greenland will flow into the sea. All over the
world, sea levels may rise, perhaps by as much as 20 to 40 cm, by the
beginning of the next century. Higher sea levels will threaten the low-lying
coastal areas of the world, such as the Netherlands and Bangladesh.
Throughout the world, millions of people and areas of land will be at danger
from flooding. Many people will have to leave their homes and large areas of
farmland will be ruined because of floods.
Farming
The changes in the weather will affect the types of crops grown in different
parts of the world. Some crops, such as wheat and rice, grow better in higher
temperatures, but other plants, such as maize and sugarcane, do not.
Changes in the amount of rainfall will also affect how many plants grow. The
effect of a change in the weather on plant growth may lead to some countries
not having enough food. Brazil, parts of Africa, south-east Asia, and China will
be affected the most and many people could suffer from hunger.
Plants and Animals
It has taken millions of years for life to become used to the conditions on
Earth. As weather and temperature changes, the homes of plants and animals
will be affected all over the world. For example, polar bears and seals will
have to find new land for hunting and living if the ice in the Arctic melts. Many
animals and plants may not be able to cope with these changes and could
die. This could cause the loss of some animal and plant species in certain or
all areas of the world.
People
The changes in climate will affect everyone, but some populations will be at
greater risk. For example, countries whose coastal regions have a large
population, such as Egypt and China, may see whole populations move inland
to avoid flood risk areas. The effect on people will depend on how well we can
adapt to the changes and how much we can do to reduce climate change in
the world.
5. Teaching and Learning Activities
Activity 1: Answer the following questions below.
1. What greenhouse gas is involved in the production of ozone?
2. What are the most abundant CFCs in the atmosphere?
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3. What are the different human activities that mostly emit CO2?
4. What is the most important greenhouse gas on Earth?
5. What are the most powerful gases on Earth?
6. What causes the depletion of ozone layer in year 1979-2000?
7. What is Photodissociation?
8. What is the most potent greenhouse gas and why?
9. What is the difference between ozone and ozone layer?
10. What is the difference between natural and enhanced Greenhouse Effect?
Activity 2: Enumeration.
A. Give the different lifetimes of all the greenhouse gases (use the Learning
Content as reference)
B. Given different personalities who are involved in the history of Greenhouse
Effect and Climate Change together with their contributions
C. Natural Sources of Methane
D. Anthropogenic Sources of Methane
Activity 3: Answer the questions using the information in the given Graph
below.

*Source: EPA, 2016

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 1. Which year from 1990 to 2010 has the highest emission of CO2?
2. What activity/ies contribute/s the highest emission of CO2 from 1990 to
2010?
3. Among the activities in the graph, which contribute/s the most constant
emission of CO2?
4. If to compare the CO2 emission during 1990 to 2010, state the differences
and similarities you observe through the years.
5. How does CO2 emission contribute to the increasing global warming?

6. Recommended learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.

Journal Articles
 GREENHOUSE GASES AND GLOBAL WARMING, in Environmental and
Ecological Chemistry by Timothy J. Wallington, Jayaraman Srinivasan, Ole
John Nielsen, Ellie J. Highwood

Website
 www.epa.gov/climate-indicators

7. Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted

Example:
Online (synchronous)
//Youtube
Remote (asynchronous)
//module, exercises, problems sets, powerpoint lessons

8. Assessment Task
Before answering the following questions, you have to first watch the YouTube video
entitled, Greenhouse Effect, at the given link below:

Write a 5 to 10 sentences short-response/essay for each question below.

1) What new ideas about Greenhouse Effect did you learn that changed the
way you think?
2) What is the importance of knowing the status level of the different
Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere on Earth?
3) Do you believe in climate change and global warming?

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 Your answers will be graded according to the given standards/basis for
grading:
Question No. 5 Points 3 Points 1 Point Score
1 Over or short
Followed the Over or short of more than
2 word count of 20 words at 20 words and
and presented most and presented a
a well- presented an not so good
3
organized organized idea.
idea. idea.

Total:

9. References
Buha, Aleksandra. 2011. Toxipedia. The Greenhouse Effect
EPA. 2016. Climate Change Indicators in the United States: Global
Greenhouse Gas Emissions retrieved on July 15, 2020 at
www.epa.gov/climate-indicators
Timothy J. Wallington,Jayaraman Srinivasan,Ole John Nielsen,Ellie J.
Highwood, (2004), GREENHOUSE GASES AND GLOBAL WARMING, in
Environmental and Ecological Chemistry, [Ed. Aleksandar Sabljic], in
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS), Developed under the
Auspices of the UNESCO, Eolss Publishers, Oxford ,UK,
[http://www.eolss.net]

ISUE__ __ Syl ___

Revision: 02
Effectivity: August 1, 2020

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