Trends in Food Science & Technology 86 (2019) 392–398

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Trends in Food Science & Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tifs

Review

New approach for yoghurt and ice cream production: High-intensity T

ultrasound
Vildan Akdeniz∗, A. Sibel Akalın
Ege University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Dairy Technology, 35100, Izmir, Turkey

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Background: The use of alternative technologies has recently gained significant importance in the food industry
High-intensity ultrasound due to the new consumer trends for the novel food processing methods that minimize processing, increase
Yoghurt quality, improve processing effectiveness and efficiency, and provide food safety while extending shelf life.
Ice cream Ultrasound has emerged as an innovative technology in the food industry because it is relatively cheap, simple,
Homogenization
fast, non-toxic, environmentally friendly, and energy saving. High-intensity ultrasound (HIU) causes physical,
Viscosity
mechanical, and chemical changes in the material because of the acoustic cavitation, which provides high
Freezing
temperature and pressure by collapsing the microbubbles.
Scope and approach: This study summarizes the major applications and important advantages of HIU in yoghurt
and ice cream production, including research findings.
Key findings and conclusions: In yoghurt technology, HIU can be utilized to improve homogenization and
emulsification by reducing milk fat globule size, to increase viscosity and water holding capacity by reducing
syneresis, to enhance gel strength and firmness by increasing coagulation properties of whey proteins, to reduce
fermentation time by improving lactose hydrolysis, and to stimulate probiotic bacteria. In ice cream technology,
certain benefits can be achieved by HIU application during the freezing process, such as reducing ice crystal size,
decreasing freezing time, and preventing incrustation on the freezing surface.

1. Introduction which is insufficient to cause acoustic cavitation. Therefore, it is used

Nowadays, increased significance and consumer demand are ob-
served for new technologies which provide the least damage to nutri-
tional ingredients and ensure longer shelf life (Shanmugam,
Chandrapala, & Ashokkumar, 2012). Ultrasound is a novel and pro-
mising technology which can be used to minimize processing, increase
quality, improve processing effectiveness and efficiency, and provide
food safety while extending shelf life (Huang et al., 2017). It is gen-
erally considered safe, non-toxic, cheap, simple, fast, environmentally
friendly, and energy saving, thus providing important advantages over
other innovative techniques (Arzeni et al., 2012).
Ultrasound is defined as sound waves at frequencies above the
human hearing threshold, typically higher than 20 kHz. Ultrasound
applications in the food industry are classified into two categories ac-
cording to frequency and energy amount or sound intensity: high- and
low-intensity ultrasound (Awad, Moharram, Shaltout, Asker, & Youssef,
2012; Shershenkov & Suchkova, 2015; Zhang, Regenstein, Zhou, &
Yang, 2017). Low-intensity ultrasound has frequencies higher than
100 kHz at intensities below 1 W/cm2 and provides very low power,
for food quality control without affecting the product, as well as for
non-destructive, non-invasive, and well-matched analysis and mon-
itoring of various food materials during processing and storage to en-
sure quality assurance, process control, and non-contact inspection
(Chandrapala & Leong, 2015; Loveday, Sarkar, & Singh, 2013;
Mohammadi, Ghasemi-Varnamkhasti, & Gonzalez, 2017). High-in-
tensity ultrasound (HIU) has frequencies between 20 and 100 kHz and
intensities between 10 and 1000 W/cm2, resulting in physical, me-
chanical and chemical changes in the food structure (Ashokkumar,
2015; Mohammadi, Ghasemi-Varnamkhasti, Ebrahimi, & Abbasvali,
2014; Ojha, Mason, O'Donnell, Kerry, & Tiwari, 2017).
HIU (low-frequency, high-intensity ultrasound) has great potential
for a wide variety of applications which are promising in dairy pro-
cessing. It provides high power, which is enough to generate cavitation,
so it is capable of producing mechanical, chemical, and biochemical
effects in liquids via the production and subsequent collapse of cavi-
tation bubbles. These effects are used to modify the physicochemical
properties and enhance the quality of various food systems during
processing (Arzeni et al., 2012; Huang et al., 2017; Ojha et al., 2017).

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: vildan.akdeniz@ege.edu.tr (V. Akdeniz).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2019.02.046
Received 6 February 2018; Received in revised form 22 July 2018; Accepted 7 February 2019
Available online 10 February 2019
0924-2244/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
V. Akdeniz and A.S. Akalın
Fig. 1. Ultrasonic cavitation (Soria & Villamiel, 2010).
The main phenomenon responsible for the effects of HIU on liquid
mediums is acoustic cavitation. It causes several physical and chemical
changes in liquid products such as milk by generating extreme physical
forces including acoustic streaming, shock waves, microjets, turbu-
lence, and shear forces (Ashokkumar, 2011; Chandrapala, Oliver,
Kentish, & Ashokkumar, 2012; Soria & Villamiel, 2010). When ultra-
sonic waves pass through a liquid medium, acoustic cavitation occurs
because of the interaction between ultrasonic waves, liquid, and dis-
solved gas. As shown in Fig. 1, the cavitation bubbles result from dis-
solved gas nuclei in the liquid. These bubbles grow due to the com-
pression and decompression of the HIU waves until they reach a critical
size and then violently collapse (Cheng, Zhang, Xu, Adhikari, & Sun,
2015; Gao, Hemar, Lewis, & Ashokkumar, 2014; Soria & Villamiel,
2010). The implosion of cavitation bubbles causes energy accumula-
tions in hotspots, generating extremely high temperature and pressure
regions which produce very high shear energy waves and turbulence
(Ashokkumar, 2011; Pingret, Fabiano-Tixie, & Chemat, 2013).
HIU with frequency between 20 and 40 kHz and power intensities
higher than 10 W/cm2 has been widely applied in the dairy industry,
especially in yoghurt and ice cream technology (Ashokkumar, 2015).
Additionally, it is utilized in the milk industry as a processing technique
for microbial inactivation due to its advantages such as minimization of
valuable nutrient and flavour loss, as well as significant energy savings
compared to conventional heat treatment. Microbial inactivation by
HIU treatment is mainly due to the acoustic cavitation and its physical,
mechanical, and chemical effects which inactivate bacteria and deag-
glomerate bacterial clusters (Awad et al., 2012; Huang et al., 2017).
The effects of acoustic cavitation by HIU damage bacterial cells, leading
to their death. The main mechanisms which provide cell death result
from the thinning of cell membranes, the breaking and shearing of cell
walls, production of free radicals, and localized heating which damages
cellular structural and functional components such as DNA (Beatty &
Walsh, 2016; Cameron, McMaster, & Britz, 2009; Chandrapala & Leong,
2015; Chemat, Huma, & Khan, 2011).
However, due to the creation of extremely high-localized tempera-
tures and pressures, free radicals, which can induce various chemical
393
Trends in Food Science & Technology 86 (2019) 392–398
effects, can be formed. As the water is the normal solvent in the food
processing, the cavitation conditions can rupture of the OeH bonds
leading to the formation of H and OH radicals and other recombined
products such as hydrogen peroxide. In dairy technology, these radicals
can induce lipid oxidation and cause a rubbery flavour and aroma as a
result of various volatile organic compounds generated by lipid oxida-
tion. Furthermore, in dairy applications these unwanted reactions can
be minimised by selecting the use of HIU at 20 kHz where the amount of
free radicals formed is insignificant (Chandrapala & Leong, 2015;
Riener, Noci, Cronin, Morgan, & Lyng, 2009; Shershenkov & Suchkova,
2015).
In yoghurt technology, HIU applications are used to improve
homogenization efficiency by reducing milk fat globule size (Riener
et al., 2009; Sfakianakis, Topakas, & Tzia, 2015; Wu, Hulbert, & Mount,
2001), to increase viscosity and water holding capacity by reducing
syneresis (Bosiljkov et al., 2012; Riener, Noci, Cronin, Morgan, & Lyng,
2010; Sfakianakis et al., 2015), to improve gel strength and firmness by
increasing the coagulation properties of whey proteins (Riener et al.,
2009; Zhao et al., 2014), to reduce fermentation time by improving
lactose hydrolysis, and to stimulate probiotic bacteria (Nguyen, Lee, &
Zhou, 2009; Ojha et al., 2017). In ice cream technology, HIU is used to
reduce ice crystal size, decrease freezing time, and prevent incrustation
on cold surfaces (Mortazavi & Tabatabaie, 2008).
2. Effects of HIU in yoghurt technology
Yoghurt is the most well-known fermented product all over the
world and has significant importance in the human diet due to its high
nutritional value and superior sensory properties. It is defined as a
fermented product that is produced from acidified milk including two
symbiotic bacteria (Streptococcus salivarius subsp. thermophilus and
Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus) which is viable even during
consumption by creating a gel from the coagulation of the milk proteins
(Fisberg & Machado, 2015; Sfakianakis & Tzia, 2014). There has been
an increased interest in yoghurt production and consumer demand
within the last decades because of its health benefits. It contains es-
sential nutrients, highly bioavailable proteins, calcium, potassium,
phosphorus, magnesium, riboflavin, vitamins B12 and A, and a high
level of viable yoghurt culture bacteria which increase health benefits
(Fisberg & Machado, 2015; Sfakianakis & Tzia, 2014). Aside from the
health aspects and nutritional value, the texture of yoghurt is one of the
key properties of its quality. Thus, studies on new approaches continue
to improve the textural characteristics of yoghurt (Loveday et al.,
2013). One of these approaches is HIU, which has desirable effects on
the technology of fermented dairy products, especially in yoghurt
production (Riener et al., 2009; Sfakianakis et al., 2015).
2.1. Improving homogenization efficiency
Homogenization has a significant effect on the physicochemical,
sensorial, and rheological properties of the final yoghurt gel depending
on the size distribution of the fat globules and the composition of the
membrane (Chandrapala et al., 2016; Paniwnyk, 2017). The main
components of anhydrous milk fat are triglycerides (95–98%). Milk li-
pids also include diglycerides (0.3–1.59%), monoglycerides
(0.016–0.038%), phospholipids (PLs) (0.8–1.0%), sterols (0.22–0.41%),
and free fatty acids (0.1–0.44%) (Corredig, 2009). The milk fat, which
is a typical water-oil emulsion, is found as globules with diameters in
the range of 1–10 μm in milk and surrounded by a milk globule mem-
brane which plays the role of an emulsifier. Milk fat globules tend to
collide and grow with each other due to the interfacial tension and the
reactions of the agglutinins (Chandrapala et al., 2016; Sfakianakis &
Tzia, 2014). Homogenization is applied in yoghurt production to pre-
vent a milk fat layer during incubation and storage, improving the
textural characteristics of natural yoghurt (Wu et al., 2001). When HIU
is applied, forces such as turbulence, mixing, and shear generated by
V. Akdeniz and A.S. Akalın Trends in Food Science & Technology 86 (2019) 392–398

Table 1
The effect of HIU on milk fat globule size and homogenization efficiency.
Purpose HIU Application HIU Effects Reference

Determine the effect of HIU on homogenization efficiency 20 kHz, 90 W, 225 W, It was found that HIU has a very good homogenization Wu et al. (2001)
compared to conventional homogenization and 450 W for 1, 6, and effect compared to conventional homogenization in
10 min yoghurt production. The homogenization effect of
450 W power was better than that of other power
levels.
20 kHz, 90 W, 180 W, The fat globule diameters of milk homogenized using Ertugay et al. (2004)
360 W, and 450 W for 5 conventional homogenizers and HIU ranged between
and 10 min at 55 °C 2.0–3.0 and 0.5–5.0 μm, respectively. Milk
homogenized by HIU (at higher power levels) had
smaller fat globules. The best homogenization and the
smallest fat globule diameter were obtained at 450 W
power for 10 min.
20 kHz, 90 W, 225 W, The homogenization efficiency of HIU was better than Sengul et al. (2009)
and 315 W for 3 and that of the conventional method, even at the lowest
6 min power level – time combination (90 W–3 min). The best
homogenization efficiency was obtained at 315 W for
6 min.
20 kHz, 150–750 W for HIU homogenization and two-stage pressure Sfakianakis et al. (2015)
10 min homogenization (10–30 MPa/5 MPa) were equally
efficient in reduction of fat globule diameter.
Determine the effect of thermosonication on fat globules 24 kHz, 400 W for 10 min The average particle size of fat globules in Riener et al. (2009)
at 72 °C thermosonicated yoghurts was smaller (< 1 μm) than
those found in conventionally heated yoghurts (10 min
at 90 °C).
20 kHz, 104 W and Thermosonication decreased the fat globule size in Vijayakumar et al. (2015)
115 W for 1 and 3 min at skim milk and cream, and the homogenization effect
72 °C increased with increasing treatment time.
Determine the effect of HIU on milk fat globule size in 30 kHz, up to 100 W for A significant decrease in the fat globule size of sheep Bosiljkov et al. (2012)
different dairy products 2–15 min milk was observed, and better homogenization
efficiency was achieved depending on the increase in
application power and time.
20 kHz, 20 W, up to A significant decrease in the size of fat globules in fresh Shanmugam et al. (2012)
60 min pasteurized, homogenized skim milk was observed
when HIU was applied. The size of fat globules after
60 min of HIU application at 20 W was 157 nm, while it
was 170 nm for unsonicated samples.
20 kHz, up to 100 W and It was observed that thermosonication decreased the Almanza-Rubio, Gutiérrez-
up to 30 min at 4–63 °C size of milk fat globules to below 2 μm from 7 μm in Méndez, Leal-Ramos,
cream cheese. The best structural and rheological Sepulveda, and Salmeron
properties of cream cheese were obtained with HIU at (2016)
50 W power and 35–50 °C for up to 30 min.
Determine the effect of HIU at low temperatures on the fat 20 kHz, 31 W and HIU application decreased the fat globule size in raw Chandrapala et al. (2016)
globule size of raw milk, ultrafiltration retentate, and 50 W at 10 °C milk, ultrafiltration retentate, and cream. A similar size
cream samples compared to conventional of fat globules formed at 50 °C in conventional cream
homogenization at high temperature. homogenization were obtained at temperatures below
10 °C by HIU. Therefore, cream homogenization can be
achieved at lower temperatures with less energy
requirement.

acoustic cavitation disrupt fat globules and decrease globule diameters
significantly (Chandrapala et al., 2016; Paniwnyk, 2017). Large fat
globules are more affected by these physical forces (Shestakov,
Krasulya, Rink, & Ashokkumar, 2013). When HIU is applied to the milk,
very high temperature and pressure regions generate through cavita-
tion. This extreme pressure caused by the violent collapse of bubbles
disintegrates the milk fat globule membrane and alters its composition
and structure (Sfakianakis et al., 2015; Villamiel & de Jong, 2000).
Therefore, the reduction in size of the milk fat globule with smaller
structures composed mainly of triacylglycerols micro-droplets are ob-
tained. New fat globule membrane, which is covered with hydrophobic
part of casein particles, are generated by disruption of fat globules.
Although some of the original milk fat globule membrane remains on
the globule, it is insufficient to cover the new surface. Thus, casein
semi-intact micelles and micellar fragments completely cover the new
surface and prevent the coalescence of fat globules (Bermudez-Aguirre,
Mawson, & Barbosa-Canovas, 2008).
As seen in Table 1, research has shown that fat globules of HIU-
treated milk were markedly smaller than those obtained by conven-
tional homogenization, indicating that HIU application had an
important effect on milk homogenization. According to these in-
vestigations, the most popular frequency employed in homogenization
was 20 kHz, and the best homogenization efficiency resulting in smaller
fat globules and more uniform size was obtained at high amplitude
levels and with longer exposure times (Ertugay, Sengul, & Sengul, 2004;
Riener et al., 2009; Sengul, Baslar, Erkaya, & Ertugay, 2009;
Shanmugam et al., 2012; Vijayakumar, Grewell, Annandarajah, Benner,
& Clark, 2015; Wu et al., 2001). Furthermore, HIU application has
advantages such as lower investment cost and ease of cleaning in
comparison with conventional homogenization (Shershenkov &
Suchkova, 2015).
2.2. Improving gel strength and firmness
Because yoghurt is a kind of protein gel, milk proteins have an
important effect on yoghurt gel structure. Milk proteins are a major
component of yoghurt in terms of both physicochemical and nutritional
characteristics. The denaturation of whey proteins is critical for the
formation of compact and steady gel structure (Higuera-Barraza, Del
Toro-Sanchez, Ruiz-Cruz, & Márquez-Ríos, 2016; Paniwnyk, 2017). HIU

394
V. Akdeniz and A.S. Akalın
is an effective technique to control the size and shape of whey protein
particles (Shanmugam et al., 2012). HIU application improves gelling
properties, gel strength, elasticity, and firmness while shortening the
gelation time of emulsions in dairy products, especially in yoghurts
(Gursoy, Yılmaz, Gokce, & Ertan, 2016; Higuera-Barraza et al., 2016;
Paniwnyk, 2017). It provides the denaturation of the globular whey
proteins due to high shear forces, which lead unfolding of the peptide
chains of whey proteins and subsequent formation of whey–whey and
whey–casein aggregates (Sfakianakis et al., 2015; Shanmugam et al.,
2012). This is thought to be due to the fact that HIU application dis-
sociates casein micelles into subunits, and the subunits are re-ag-
gregated strongly with each other and with partially denatured whey
proteins to form strong networks. These strong networks provide firmer
gel (Riener et al., 2009; Zisu et al., 2011). The newly formed dena-
tured/aggregated soluble whey proteins interact with κ-caseins present
on the surface of the casein micelles and form micellar aggregates. It is
assumed that these micellar aggregates are formed due to the thiol-
disulphide exchange reactions between the denatured whey proteins
and the κ-caseins of the micelles. In addition, acoustic cavitation in-
creases the interaction between β-casein molecules and re-aggregation
of β-casein with the micelles because β-casein contains the most hy-
drophobic component among all the caseins (Shanmugam et al., 2012).
The turbulence generated by HIU also increases particle mobility and
promotes the aggregate formation. The association of numerous small
fat globules formed by HIU with coagulated protein aggregates re-
inforces the protein aggregates. It is probably the main factor re-
sponsible for the increased firmness of yoghurts (Riener et al., 2009;
Shanmugam et al., 2012).
As understood based on Table 2, the findings of the research on this
subject are promising. These results indicate that HIU enhances the
gelling properties of whey proteins, reduces syneresis by increasing gel
strength and firmness, and shortens gelation time. Accordingly, it can
be said that HIU has high potential as an alternative to homogenization
to improve the gelling properties of milk proteins.
2.3. Improving viscosity and water holding capacity
The textural and organoleptic properties of yoghurts have great
importance for consumer preference. Total dry matter, protein content,
Table 2
The effect of HIU on gel structure of yoghurt and other dairy products.
Purpose HIU Application
Determine the effect of HIU under moderate 20 kHz for 12 s at 40 °C
pressure on the structure of yoghurt under 2 kg/cm2 pressure
Determine the gel firmness of thermosonicated 24 kHz, 400 W for
yoghurts compared to conventionally heated 10 min at 72 °C
yoghurts
Determine the effect of HIU on gelling properties 20 kHz up to 60 min
of reconstituted whey proteins
Determine the effect of HIU on gelling properties 20 kHz, 750 W for
of whey protein concentrate 20 min
Determine the effect of HIU on renneting 20 kHz at pH 8 and 30 °C
properties of milk
Determine the effect of HIU on functional 20 kHz, 176 W for
properties of 7% flaxseed oil/milk emulsion 1–8 min
Determine the effect of HIU on the gelling 20 kHz, up to 5 min
properties of reconstituted milk protein
concentrate
Determine the effect of HIU on the rennet-induced 20 kHz, 800 W, up to
coagulation properties of goat milk 20 min
Determine the effect of HIU on gel firmness 22.5 kHz, 50 W
Trends in Food Science & Technology 86 (2019) 392–398
denaturated serum protein content, interactions between denaturated
serum proteins, and k-kazein affect the rheological properties of yo-
ghurt curd, such as consistency, viscosity, and syneresis. Viscosity and
water holding capacity are very important quality criteria for yoghurt
technology, while serum separation, agglomeration, and non-tight
structure are the most important textural defects (Gursoy et al., 2016;
Ozer, 2006, p. 40; Riener et al., 2010). The viscosity of yoghurt is de-
pendent on its structure, which is based on the protein network formed
by interacting of casein micelles with each other and with denaturated
serum proteins entrapping serum and fat globules (Riener et al., 2009;
Vercet, Oria, Marquina, Crelier, & Lopez-Buesa, 2002). HIU application
increases the viscosity and water holding capacity of fermented dairy
products. Studies on fermented dairy products, especially on the effects
of HIU application on yoghurt viscosity and water holding capacity,
have provided favourable results (Sfakianakis et al., 2015; Wu et al.,
2001). The effect of HIU on viscosity is due to an increase in whey
protein denaturation and formation of aggregates between whey pro-
teins and casein fractions (Higuera-Barraza et al., 2016; Sfakianakis
et al., 2015; Wu et al., 2001). The cavitation effect of HIU in yoghurt
technology results in a reduction of globule size and hence an increase
of the total fat membrane surface area with dispersion of fat into an
increased number of smaller globules. Increased surface area, which
includes new bonded casein micelles, improves the water holding ca-
pacity by promoting the increase in casein bonds with the milk fat
globule membrane and reduces syneresis with increased hydrophilic
properties by an increased exposure of hydrophilic regions to the
aqueous phase (Higuera-Barraza et al., 2016; Sfakianakis et al., 2015;
Wu et al., 2001). Casein particles adhere the newly built surfaces and
this modification improves the para-casein network, which prevents
shrinkage of the network and reduces syneresis. (Chandrapala et al.,
2016). The research findings on this subject are shown in Table 3.
According to these data, HIU application increases the viscosity and
water holding capacity of fermented dairy products such as yoghurt and
yoghurt drink and reduces serum separation during the storage of the
product. Consequently, HIU can be used successfully in the production
of yoghurt, either alone or in combination with heat treatment, to
improve the viscosity and water holding capacity, delaying serum se-
paration, which are important quality criteria for fermented dairy
products (Erkaya, Baslar, Sengul, & Ertugay, 2015; Gursoy et al., 2016;
HIU Effects Reference
Yoghurt produced from thermosonicated milk under moderate Vercet et al. (2002)
pressure had stronger structure with improved rheological
parameters
It has been observed that the gel firmness is increased in Riener et al. (2009)
thermosonicated set type yoghurts.
It was determined that HIU improved the gelling properties of whey Zisu et al. (2011)
proteins, increased gel strength, and reduced syneresis.
It was found that HIU enhanced the elastic gelling properties of Arzeni et al. (2012)
whey protein concentrates.
HIU application improved gelation time, gel firmness, and Liu, Juliano, Williams,
coagulation ability of milk with rennet. Niere, and Augustin (2014)
It was observed that HIU application shortened the gelation time, Shanmugam and
increased the elastic structure and gel strength, and reduced the Ashokkumar (2014)
syneresis of 7% flaxseed oil/milk emulsion.
It was found that HIU improved the gelling properties of Yanjun et al. (2014)
reconstituted milk protein concentrate.
It was determined that HIU affects the coagulation properties of Zhao et al. (2014)
goat milk, reducing the undenaturated whey protein ratio by 9.57%
and significantly increasing the gel firmness, coagulum strength,
and cross-linking of gels.
It was found that HIU application increased gel firmness and Nguyen and Anema (2017)
reduced gelation time in gel produced by acidification of HIU-
treated milk compared to gel produced by untreated milk.
395
V. Akdeniz and A.S. Akalın Trends in Food Science & Technology 86 (2019) 392–398

Table 3
The effect of HIU on viscosity and water holding capacity of yoghurt and other dairy products.
Purpose HIU Application HIU Effects Reference

Determine the effect of HIU on the viscosity and
water holding capacity of yoghurt
Determine the effect of HIU on the viscosity of sheep
milk
Determine the effect of HIU on the water holding
capacity of goat milk rennet gels
Determine the effect of thermosonication on the
viscosity and serum separation of yoghurt drinks
during storage.
20 kHZ, 90 W, 225 W, and
450 W for 1, 6, 8, and 10 min
20 kHz, 90 W, 225 W, and 315 W
for 3 and 6 min
24 kHz, 400 W for 10 min at
45 °C
150 W, 262 W, 375 W, 562 W,
and 750 W for 10 min
30 kHz, up to 100 W for
2–15 min
20 kHz, 800 W for up to 10 min
35 kHz for 1, 3, and 5 min at 60,
70, and 80 °C
24 kHz, 100 W, 125 W, and
150 W for 15 min and 70 °C heat
treatment for 5 min
It was found that HIU application increased the viscosity and Wu et al. (2001)
water holding capacity of yoghurt when compared to traditional
yoghurt production. Additionally, better results were obtained at
high power applications from 180 to 450 W for 6 and 8 min.
It was determined that the water holding capacity of yoghurts Sengul et al.
produced by HIU was higher than that produced by traditional (2009)
homogenization.
Yoghurt produced from thermosonicated milk had higher Riener et al.
viscosity and water holding capacity than yoghurt produced by (2010)
conventional heat treatment for 10 min at 90 °C. Furthermore,
thermosonication reduced syneresis.
It was found that the yoghurt curd obtained at the end of Sfakianakis et al.
fermentation (pH = 4.6) of milk homogenized by HIU had (2015)
significantly higher viscosity than the control curd obtained by
milk homogenized with a two-stage homogenizer.
It was observed that the viscosity of sheep milk increased in all of Bosiljkov et al.
the various time-power combinations applied up to 100 W and (2012)
15 min.
It was determined that HIU increased the water holding capacity Zhao et al. (2014)
of goat milk rennet gels by about 40%.
It was determined that yoghurt drinks produced by applying Erkaya et al.
thermosonication at different temperatures and times had higher (2015)
viscosity and less serum separation during storage compared to
traditionally produced yoghurt drinks to which heat treatment at
90 °C for 1 min was applied.
It was observed that thermosonication improved the viscosity and Gursoy et al.
reduced serum separation in yoghurt drinks compared to (2016)
conventional heat treatment at 90 °C for 10 min. Furthermore, no
serum separation was observed during storage in 150 W
thermosonicated samples.

Riener et al., 2010; Sfakianakis et al., 2015).
3. Effects of HIU in ice cream technology
Ice cream is a frozen multiphase mixture which contains fat glo-
bules, air bubbles, foam, and dispersed ice crystals in a serum phase of
proteins, salts, and dissolved sugars. Because ice cream is one of the
most preferred foods consumed by children, adults, and even elders, its
production is a profitable and developing industry (Cruz, Antunes,
Sousa, Faria, & Saad, 2009; Hartel, Rankin, & Bradley, 2017; Turgut &
Cakmakcı, 2009). Thus, researchers have recently conducted studies on
controlling the complex microstructures in ice cream to improve its
functional and nutritional qualities (Hartel et al., 2017). The most im-
portant process in ice cream technology is freezing because it affects the
quality characteristics, i.e. sensory and textural properties, and effi-
ciency of ice cream production (Grossi, Lazzarini, Lanzoni, & Riccò,
2011).
Recent studies have shown that HIU application in freezing and
crystallization processes has promising potential. Acoustic cavitation
generated by HIU causes microstreaming, which promotes ice nuclea-
tion, accelerates heat and mass transfer, and controls the crystal shape
and size distribution during freezing. It is considered that formation of
high pressure with the collapse of cavitation bubbles causes nucleation
of solid crystals by increasing the equilibrium freezing point of liquids.
Hence, HIU has beneficial effects in ice cream production, such as re-
ducing ice crystal size and freezing time. It can also be used to prevent
incrustation on the freezing surface (Hu et al., 2013; Kiani, Sun, Zhang,
Al-Rubeai, & Naciri, 2013; Kiani, Zhang, Delgado, & Sun, 2011; Yu, Liu,
& Wang, 2012; Zheng & Sun, 2006).
3.1. Reducing ice crystal size
The amount of small ice crystals is very important for the cooling
effect, as well as the smooth and creamy mouthfeel of ice cream.
Therefore, control of the crystallization process and the amount, size,
and distribution of ice crystals are important factors for both a desirable
product and improved shelf life (Hartel et al., 2017; Mortazavi &
Tabatabaie, 2008). Ice crystallization occurs in two steps: nucleation
and crystal growth. In the nucleation step, nuclei of new crystals form.
This step is very important for the optimization of industrial freezing
processes because it affects the morphology, size, and distribution of ice
crystals (Delgado, Zheng, & Sun, 2009; Hu et al., 2013; Kiani et al.,
2011; Yu et al., 2012). In the crystal growth step, which is affected by
mass transfer rate, ice crystals reach a critical nucleus size. This step is
also important for the size and distribution of ice crystals (Cheng, Sun,
Zhu, & Zhang, 2017; Hu et al., 2013; Kiani et al., 2013; Xu, Zhang,
Bhandari, & Cheng, 2014). The ice crystals give a unique mouthfeel to
ice cream. Obtaining large amounts of the smallest possible crystals
during the freezing process is very important to prevent gritty structure
and to gain the desired smoothness and softness of ice cream (Cruz
et al., 2009; Goff, 2008; Hartel et al., 2017; Zheng & Sun, 2006).
HIU is a novel technique to enhance freezing and crystallization
processes. The forces generated by HIU result in the fragmentation of
ice crystals, an increase in the nucleation rate and yield, and conse-
quently, smaller and uniform ice crystals, which are important quality
criteria in ice cream (Zhang, Sun, Zhu, & Cheng, 2015; Zheng & Sun,
2006). The freezing mechanism caused by HIU has not been fully
clarified yet, but there are several proposed theories, including cavi-
tation effect, microstreaming, and fracture of big ice crystals (Cheng
et al., 2017; Gao, Cheng, Zhou, Zhang, & Zhou, 2017). The cavitation
effect, which leads to the formation of bubbles, is the main effect that
improves the freezing. The violent collapse of these bubbles can gen-
erate high super-cooling degrees which initiate ice nucleation by
creating local zones of high pressure (≥5 GPa) in a very short time,
such as nanoseconds (Cheng et al., 2017; Hu et al., 2013; Kiani et al.,
2011; Tao & Sun, 2015). Additionally, the force generated by collapse
of cavitation bubbles is so strong that it results in fragmentation of
existing ice crystals, creating smaller ones (Chow, Blindt, Chivers, &
Povey, 2005; Hu et al., 2013; Mortazavi & Tabatabaie, 2008).
Several studies have investigated the effect of HIU on nucleation

396
V. Akdeniz and A.S. Akalın
and ice crystal size. The results of these studies indicate that HIU in-
duced the ice nucleation by increasing the nucleation temperature
(Delgado et al., 2009; Mortazavi & Tabatabaie, 2008; Yu et al., 2012).
Kiani et al. (2011) investigated the effect of HIU on the nucleation of
liquid and solid foods such as deionised water, sucrose solution, and
agar gel during freezing. The authors found that HIU can be used to
induce nucleation in both liquid and solid foods, but the results showed
that it is more efficient in liquid foods. Furthermore, they observed that
HIU improved the final product quality. Xu et al. (2014) found that HIU
induces nucleation by increasing nucleation temperature. It is a pro-
mising application to control the crystallization process in the freezing
of solid foods. Chow et al. (2005) indicated that existing big ice crystals
could be broken up into smaller ice crystals by HIU.
3.2. Reducing freezing time
Freezing is a distinctive process, which differentiates ice cream from
other dairy products. Therefore, developments in freezing technology
are followed by developments in ice cream technology. While slow
freezing causes big ice crystals, rapid freezing provides small and uni-
form intracellular ice crystals. Reducing freezing time is important in
ice cream production, both economically and in order to obtain the
high-quality product desired by customers (Cheng et al., 2017; Hartel
et al., 2017).
Aside from production of gas bubbles, microstreaming is another
important acoustic phenomenon associated with cavitation by HIU. It is
generated by vigorous circulatory motion of cavitation bubbles. These
oscillating bubbles, which cause violent agitation and turbulence, en-
hance heat and mass transfer rate and nucleation rate. Furthermore,
due to the violent agitation, heat and mass transfer resistance at the ice/
liquid interface reduces and freezing rate increases (Hu et al., 2013; Tao
& Sun, 2015; Zhang et al., 2015; Zheng & Sun, 2006). Increased freezing
rate then improves the freezing process and reduces freezing time.
Generation of ice crystals is closely related to freezing rate. Small ice
crystals, which are necessary for high-quality ice cream, are created
through rapid freezing. HIU is a promising technology for rapid freezing
by reducing freezing time (Cruz et al., 2009; Delgado & Sun, 2001;
Zheng & Sun, 2006).
Some researchers determined the effect of HIU on the freezing rate
of different foods. Delgado et al. (2009) found that HIU enhanced the
freezing rate of immersion-frozen apples and induced the nucleation.
Other researchers have found similar results, indicating that HIU
shortened the freezing time of some foods such as potatoes, mushrooms,
broccoli, and strawberries during immersion freezing (Cheng, Zhang,
Adhikari, Islam, & Xu, 2014; Comandini et al., 2013; Islam, Zhang,
Adhikari, Xinfeng, & Xu, 2014; Li & Sun, 2002; Xin, Zhang, & Adhikari,
2014). Mortazavi and Tabatabaie (2008) observed that HIU shortened
the freezing time significantly and increased overrun in ice cream
production. Furthermore, they determined that HIU improved the
sensory properties of ice cream.
3.3. Preventing incrustation on the cold surface
High heat transfer is important during ice cream production because
ice formation starts from the wall of the freezer, which is generally a
scraped-surface heat exchanger. The thermal conductivity of the freezer
is higher than the ice thermal conductivity. Therefore, scrapers in the
freezer are used to remove the formed ice crystals from the wall and to
provide high heat transfer. Incrustation of ice crystals on the cold sur-
face is prevented due to the cavitation effect by HIU; thus, a high heat
transfer rate is obtained without any requirement of scrapers. In this
way, the investment cost is reduced by simplifying the freezer, and the
undesirable thermal effect caused by the friction of the scraper against
the wall of the freezer is eliminated (Zheng & Sun, 2006). Mortazavi
and Tabatabaie (2008) found that HIU is beneficial to prevent in-
crustation of the cold surface in ice cream production.
397
Trends in Food Science & Technology 86 (2019) 392–398
4. Conclusion
It has been clearly shown that HIU application has potential for use
in yoghurt and ice cream production. In yoghurt production, enhanced
homogenization, emulsification, and microbial inactivation by HIU
have been achieved at much lower temperatures than conventional heat
processing, resulting in higher quality products. In addition to these
effects, yoghurt prepared by HIU-treated milk has markedly improved
firmness, water holding capacity, viscosity, and gel strength than yo-
ghurt prepared from conventionally heated and/or homogenized milk.
In ice cream production, HIU can be used during freezing to induce ice
nucleation due to the cavitation, as well as to increase heat and mass
transfer due to microstreaming. Furthermore, it is used to fracture big
ice crystals and prevent incrustation of the cold surface. Therefore, the
desirable high-quality ice cream is produced with small and uniform ice
crystals.
Nowadays, producers are willing to use HIU in dairy product pro-
cesses, especially in yoghurt and ice cream production, due to im-
provements in functional properties of the products, low energy re-
quirements, and reduced processing times. On the other hand, it is
considered a green technology because of the creation of en-
vironmentally friendly processes. In conclusion, HIU application has
significant potential in yoghurt and ice cream production. However,
although it has widely been used in laboratories, it has not yet been
fully incorporated into the industry. Therefore, further investigations
into the industrial use of HIU are necessary.
Acknowledgements
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
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