Module I.

KNOWING THE SELF

This module discusses the different representations and conceptualizations of the self
from various perspectives. It examines the factors and influences that shape one’s self. It
shall also challenge you to evaluate your sense of self using these various perspectives as
you represent yourself in many areas of your life experiences.

Unit 1: PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES OF THE SELF

This unit discusses and examines the philosophical perspectives of the self by early
to modern philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, St. Augustine, Descartes, Locke, Hume,
Kant, Freud, Ryle, Churchland and Merleau-Ponty.

EXPLORE

You have probably heard of different sayings and quotes. Try to interpret
what the following philosophical sayings mean:

“It is not enough to have a good mind; the main thing is to use it well.”
“But only he who, himself enlightened, is not afraid of shadows.”
“Know Thyself.”
“Personal Identity depends on Consciousness not on Substance”.
To understand these sayings, and more importantly yourself better, let us
discuss the different philosophical perspectives.

EXPLAIN
*What is Philosophy?
*How is Philosophy relevant in understanding the self?
In this unit, we will look at and understand three groups of philosophical
perspectives, namely: Ancient and Medieval, Modern, and Contemporary.

ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHIES

Ancient and Medieval Philosophies view and understand the self as a
perfection of the soul via self-examination and self-control. These philosophies
include the perspectives of Socrates, Plato, and St. Augustine.
Ancient Greek philosophers believed that the soul is the essence of man. The
soul or “psyche” was also regarded as the self. The famous statement, “Know
Thyself” presents a requirement in terms of knowing oneself, and that is to know
the limits of oneself, such that knowing one’s strengths should be balanced with
also knowing one’s weaknesses. To know oneself is to do so in self-moderation,
with prudence and good judgment.

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 SOCRATES
“The unexamined life is not worth living.”

To know and understand oneself, one should

live an “examined” life. Living an examined life
means:
• having self-knowledge
• being dignified with values and integrity
• having and applying wisdom
• recognizing ignorance

To live an examined life also maintains that one should recognize and
acknowledge that there are things one does not know; that there are things
about the self and about life that still needs to be discovered; that life is a never-
ending search for answers. To this, Socrates stated: “To know, is to know that you
know nothing. That is the meaning of true knowledge.”

PLATO
“Human behavior flows from three main sources:
desire, emotion, and knowledge.”

According to Plato, the examination of the self is a

unique experience; it differs from person to person, as
one gets to discover things about him/herself. This
experience then leads to better understanding of the
psyche.

Plato proposed three elements of the psyche: the appetitive, the spirited,
and the mind. These three elements either work together or go against each
other, resulting in a person’s behavior.

The appetitive consists of one’s pleasures, desires, physical satisfactions,

and comforts. It basically holds all those relevant to sustaining a comfortable
environment. An example of this is wanting to sleep in despite having classes, or
enjoying ice cream on a hot, sunny day.

The spirited is the motivated element, which fights back to ensure that the
appetitive is controlled. For instance, telling oneself that education should be
prioritized, it is not good to be lazy, and one should wake up and get ready for
school.
The mind is the most superior element of the psyche, which controls how
the self is expressed. To do this, it controls the appetitive and spirited elements, thus
striking a balance between the two and resulting in more realistic behavior. To

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 illustrate, perhaps acknowledging that one is still tired and sleepy, but also realizing
the fact that one needs to attend classes, thus, he/she goes to class and then
makes it a point to take a nap afterwards.

Understanding how these three elements work then leads to understanding

of the self, as one sees how behavior results, and determines how to balance the
calls of each element.

ST. AUGUSTINE
“This is the very perfection of man; to find out his
own imperfections.”

St. Augustine considered himself a sinner. He

acknowledged that he had committed bad deeds,
and resolved to change and be a better person. For
St. Augustine, the self develops through self-
presentation and self-realization. One must present
him/herself, accepting who he/she is - strengths, weaknesses, and discerning what
changes to make to be a better individual.

St. Augustine’s perspective centers on religious conviction and belief as he

believed that to be a better person, one should turn to his/her religious beliefs as
this would serve as a guide towards better understanding of oneself. In doing so,
the end goal - happiness in and through God - would be achieved.

MODERN PHILOSOPHIES
Modern philosophical perspectives view the self as a dialectic synthesis
between Rationalism and Empiricism, that is, having different points of view but
coming to a resolution. Rationalism deals with thinking and innate ideas, and
regards reason as the main source of knowledge. Empiricism, on the other hand,
has to do with sense experience where knowledge is based on how one observes
and perceives his/her experiences.

To understand the self then implies the use of both reason and experience,
as such, there is a dialectic synthesis.

RENE DESCARTES
“I think, therefore I am.”

Rene Descartes is a pioneer or Rationalism. To

understand the self, the rational method should be carried
out, where the self exists as one makes use of rational

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 thought, or to put it simply, when one thinks. Descartes’ concept of
Methodic Doubt states that everything must be subjected to doubt or that
everything
should be questioned. It is a way of searching for certainty by systematically and
tentatively doubting everything. When one applies Methodic Doubt, he/she uses
rational thinking, thus, the self exists. For instance, one may question why he is not
good in singing. Instead of simply accepting this as a fact, he reasons out why he
is not good at such, and in doing so, enables his “self” to exist.

Human rationality, according to Descartes, is the primary condition for the

existence of the self. Human beings need to reason in order to:
• evaluate thoughts
• evaluate actions
• establish firm foundations or bases
• protect oneself
• build knowledge

Descartes says, “It is not enough to have a good mind; the main thing is to
use it well.”

JOHN LOCKE
“No man’s knowledge here can go beyond his experience.”

John Locke was an advocate of Empiricism. His concept of

“tabula rasa” explains how the self-starts out as an empty
space. This empty space is then filled with the experiences
one has each and every day, where such experiences are
necessary for sense data - what one sees, hears, smells,
tastes, touches. These sense data are then perceived or
given meaning, and so the empty space is filled with
knowledge of the self. Locke highlighted the capability of man to learn from
experience, and process different perceptions skillfully to form more complex
ideas. From this stems one’s knowledge and understanding of the self. In short,
experience comes before knowledge. For example, to know how one would
behave when a course has been failed, one should first experience failing a
course. From here, one can observe him/herself in terms of his/her behaviors so
there would then be knowledge and understanding of how the self-reacts towards
failure.

DAVID HUME
“There is no self.”

Perhaps the most different perspective in terms

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 of the existence of the self would be that of David Hume. He proposed
the idea that the self does not exist. This is because the idea of the self is
merely derived from impressions.
These impressions may be subjective, temporary, and prejudicial. They do not
persist.

For example, upon asking a person, “Who are you?”, the person can say, “I
am David, a Psychology student, 65 kilograms in weight, and a good singer. This
information, however, can change. One’s physical characteristics, educational
pursuits, and even basic information like one’s name and address can change.
The self, then, cannot exist if information about it is temporary. Even everyday
decisions can change.

IMMANUEL KANT
“If man makes himself a worm, he must not
complain when he is trodden on.”

Immanuel Kant synthesized the rationalist and

empiricist views. He proposed that the self is always
transcendental. The self is outside the body and outside the
qualities of the body. Ideas are perceived by the self, and
they connect the self and the world. Accordingly, rationality
unifies and makes sense of the perceptions we have in our
experiences.

Rationality enables sensible ideas about ourselves and our world. Thus, the
saying above explains that in a way, how we see ourselves is also how others
would see us.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHIES
The Contemporary philosophical perspectives present a wide variety of theories
that could be used in understanding the self. Much of these is more relatable and
relevant in today’s world.

SIGMUND FREUD
Sigmund Freud contended that the self is the “I” that
constitutes both mental and physical actions, with the “I”
being a product of multiple interacting processes. When
we say, for instance, “I am a Louisian”, it is one’s self being
expressed.
The statement involving one’s thoughts, feelings, and
actions.

Freud introduced two models to enable the

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 understanding of the self:

Topographical Model

There are things about the self that one knows and is aware of, and at the
same time, there are those that one does not know and is unaware of. For
instance, you know that you are enrolled in this subject, but you do not know if
you will pass the subject.

This model explains how the “I“ is both conscious and unconscious. Freud’s
Iceberg Theory illustrates this.

At the conscious level, one is aware of thoughts, feelings, and perceptions.

These are easily identified and known by the person. The subconscious level
consists of those that one is able to easily remember and bring into awareness,
such as usual memories and stored knowledge. The unconscious level, on the
other hand, houses those that one has either repressed or forgotten. it consists of
those which are unacceptable, undesirable, or painful. Freud stated that to come
to a complete understanding and awareness of the self, the contents of the
unconscious should be made conscious, where recognition and acceptance of
all experiences are present.

What are those things that you are aware of? What are those things that you
have tried to forget? How do these contribute to who you are and how you
understand yourself?

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 Structural Model
Freud’s structural model looks into the structures of personality or the self, as
Freud proposed. The three structures are the id, ego, and superego.

The ID is the primitive or instinctive component, which consists of one’s

primal urges and wants. In children, the id is most dominant, as the other
structures have not yet been developed. The EGO is the reality principle, and
balances the id and superego. The SUPEREGO synthesizes the values and morals
of society, and includes one’s conscience.

In summary, Freud’s perspective explains that to understand the self, one

needs to be aware of both the conscious and the unconscious, and integrate
the id, ego, and superego.

GILBERT RYLE
“I act, therefore I am.”

Gilbert Ryle stated that the self may be understood based

on the external manifestations - actions, language, expressions –
of a person. Here, physical actions or behaviors are dispositions
of the self.

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 To illustrate: You are known to be a very responsible student because it is
seen in the way you act, wherein you are observed to be always on time, listen
intently to your Professor, and get good scores.

***REFLECTION:
“You are what you do.” What does this statement mean for you? Do you agree or
disagree with it? Why?

MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY
“I live in my body.”

Maurice Merleau-Ponty developed a

phenomenological view of the self/ A phenomenological
rhythm explains the perception of the self, and this involves
three dimensions. The first is the empiricist view, followed by
the idealist-intellectual alternative, and lastly, the synthesis of
both views. Merleau proposed that perception is a causal
process, meaning, one’s perceptions are caused by the
intricate experiences of the self, and intellectually processed
while making a distinction between truthful and illusory perceptions.

Merleau-Ponty’s concept of “lived body” refers to an entity that can never

be objectified or known in a completely objective sort of way. The “I” is a single
integrated entity; a blending of mental, physical, and emotional - structured
around a core identity: the self.

PAUL and PATRICIA CHURCHLAND

“Brains are not magical; they are causal machines.”

The Churchlands brought neuroscience into the fore of

understanding the self. Their concept of “Eliminative
Materialism” explains how mental concepts are mistaken
and do not adequately allow people to know about what
is going on with themselves.

As such, these should be abandoned, and focus

should be on brain processes instead. Thus, to understand the self, one should
go for Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) or Computed Tomography (CT)
Scans, to have a view of the brain’s present condition.

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 References:

Chafee, J. (2013) Who are you? Consciousness, Identity and the Self. In the Philosopher's
Way: Thinking Critically about Profound Ideas. Pearson. 106 — 169.

Villafuerte, S. Quillope, A. Tunac, R. Borja, E. Understanding the Self, NIEME Publishing House
Inc., Quezon City 2018

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means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 9