MODULE 1

INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?
 Came from two Greek words:
 Philo – love
 Sophia – knowledge, wisdom
 Studies the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and existence
 Finding answers to serious questions about ourselves and the world we live in
 Questioning existing knowledge and intuitions to get closer to the truth
 What do we get out of these series of asking questions and being confused?
 Critical Thinking
 Argument Skills
 Communication
 Reasoning
 Analysis
 Problem Solving

UNIT 1 PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES OF THE SELF

ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHIES
 Self – perfection of the soul via self-examination and self-control
 Perspectives of Socrates, Plato, and St. Augustine.
 Soul is the essence of man.
 They regarded the self as the soul or “psyche”
 “Know Thyself” – presents a requirement in terms of knowing oneself, and that is to
know the limits of oneself, such that knowing one’s strengths should be balanced
with also knowing one’s weaknesses.
 To know oneself is to do so in self-moderation, with prudence and judgment.

SOCRATES
 Father of Western Philosophy
 “The unexamined life is not worth living.”
 Emphasized our ability to reflect on our experiences. To examine our life through
examining the things that we’ve been through.
 First thinker to focus the full power of reason on the human self: who we are, who we
should be, and who we will be.
 Every man is dualistic – body and soul
 Believed in dichotomous realms – physical and ideal
 Living an examined life means:
 Having self-knowledge
 Being dignified with values and integrity (adherence to moral code)
 Having and applying wisdom
 Recognizing ignorance
 To live an examined life also maintains that one should recognize and acknowledge that
there are things one does not know; that there are things about the self and about life that
still needs to be discovered; that life is a never-ending search for answers.
 “To know is to know that you know nothing. That is the meaning of true
knowledge.”
PLATO
 Student of Socrates
 “Human behavior flows from three main sources: desire, emotion, and knowledge.”
 Examination of the self is a unique experience; it differs from person to person, as one
gets to discover things about him/herself. This experience then leads to better
understanding of the psyche.
 Plato proposed three elements of the psyche: the appetitive, the spirited, and the mind.
 Appetitive – consists of one’s pleasures, desires, physical satisfactions, and comforts. It
basically holds all those relevant to sustaining a comfortable environment.
 Spirited - motivated element, which fights back to ensure that the appetitive is
controlled. Understands the demands of appetitive.
 Mind - most superior element of the psyche, which controls how the self is expressed. To
do this, it controls the appetitive and spirited elements, thus striking a balance between
the two and resulting in more realistic behavior. Enables individuals to make wise
decisions and rational thinking.

ST. AUGUSTINE
 Christianity’s First Theologian
 “This is the very perfection of man; to find out his own imperfections.
 The self develops through self-presentation and self-realization.
 One must present him/herself, accepting who he/she is - strengths, weaknesses, and
discerning what changes to make to be a better individual.
 Centers on religious conviction and belief as he believed that to be a better person, one
should turn to his/her religious beliefs as this would serve as a guide towards better
understanding of oneself. In doing so, the end goal - happiness in and through God -
would be achieved.
 Talked about the relationship of the body and the soul.
 Body is different and inferior to the immortal soul.
 Body is a “snare” or “cage”.
 He realized that this might be wrong, so he came up with a more unified perspective of
the body and soul.
 Body is the “spouse” of the soul.

MODERN PHILOSOPHIES
 Self as the dialectic synthesis between rationalism (reason) and empiricism (experience).
 Having different points of view but coming to a resolution.

RENE DESCARTES
 “I think, therefore I am.”
 Pioneer of Rationalism
 To understand the self, the rational method should be carried out, where the self exists as
one makes use of rational thought, or to put it simply, when one thinks.
 Concept of Methodic Doubt – everything must be subjected to doubt or that everything
should be questioned; searching for certainty
 Human Rationality – primary condition for the existence of the self.
 Human beings need reason to:
 Evaluate thoughts
 Evaluate actions
 Establish firm foundations or bases
 Protect oneself
 Build knowledge
 It is not enough to have a good mind; the main thing is to use it as well.
JOHN LOCKE
 “No man’s knowledge here can go beyond his experience.”
 Advocate of Empiricism
 Tabula rasa - explains how the self-starts out as an empty space. This empty space is
then filled with the experiences one has each and every day, where such experiences are
necessary for sense data - what one sees, hears, smells, tastes, touches. These sense data
are then perceived or given meaning, and so the empty space is filled with knowledge of
the self.
 Capability of man to learn from experience, and process different perceptions skillfully
to form more complex ideas.

DAVID HUME
 “There is no self.”
 The idea of the self is merely derived from impressions. These impressions may be
subjective, temporary, and prejudicial. They do not persist.
 One’s physical characteristics, educational pursuits, and even basic information like one’s
name and address can change. The self, then, cannot exist if information about it is
temporary. Even everyday decisions can change.

IMMANUEL KANT
 “If man makes himself a worm, he must not complain when he is trodden on.”
 He proposed that the self is always transcendental.
 The self is outside the body and outside the qualities of the body. Ideas are perceived by
the self, and they connect the self and the world.
 How we see ourselves is also how others would see us.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHIES
SIGMUND FREUD
 Self is the “I” that constitutes both mental and physical actions
 I is a product of multiple interacting processes.
 Self has NO SINGLE CONCEPT.
 Two models to understand the self:
 Topographical Model - There are things about the self that one knows and is
aware of, and at the same time, there are those that one does not know and is
unaware of. “I” is both conscious and unconscious.
Conscious level – thoughts, feelings, perceptions
Subconscious level – usual memories, stored knowledge
Unconscious level – repressed and forgotten thoughts, those that are
unacceptable, undesirable, painful, fears
 Structural Model – looks into the structures of personality or the self
Id – primitive or instinctive component; primal urges, and wants; most
dominant in children
Ego – reality principle; balances the id and the superego
Superego – synthesizes the values and morals of society; conscience
 In summary, Freud’s perspective explains that to understand the self, one needs to be
aware of both the conscious and the unconscious, and integrate the id, ego, and
superego.

GILBERT RYLE
 “I act, therefore I am."
 Stated that the self may be understood based on external manifestations --- actions,
language, expressions of a person.
  Physical Actions or Behaviors are dispositions of the self.

MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY
 “I live in my body.”
 Developed a phenomenological view of the self/ a phenomenological rhythm explains the
perception of the self, and this involves three dimensions.
 The first is the empiricist view, followed by the idealist-intellectual alternative, and
lastly, the synthesis of both views. Merleau proposed that perception is a causal process,
meaning, one’s perceptions are caused by the intricate experiences of the self, and
intellectually processed while making a distinction between truthful and illusory
perceptions.
 The “I” is a single integrated entity.
 Reality is how we see and perceive ourselves and the world.

PAUL AND PATRICIA CHURCHLAND

 “Brains are not magical; they are causal machines.”
 Brought neuroscience into the core of understanding the self.
 Eliminative Materialism - how mental concepts are mistaken and do not adequately
allow people to know about what is going on with themselves. As such, these should be
abandoned, and focus should be on brain processes instead.
 To understand the self, one should go for Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) or
Computed Tomography (CT) Scans, to have a view of the brain’s present condition.

UNIT 2 SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES OF THE SELF

SOCIOLOGY
 Scientific study of social behavior and human groups; focuses on social relationships;
how these relationships influence people’s behavior; and how societies – the total sum of
those relationships – develop and change.
 Pre-modern society – people already had a set of roles and traditions; individual
identities are closely tight to belonging to a clan
 Modern society – technology, infrastructure; having own choices to follow; more free
from constraints
 Delocalization – self is released from traditions and communal attachments to explore
opportunities and infinite possibilities

EMILE DURKHEIM
 Social Integration and Moral Individuation
 “To love society is to love something beyond us and something in ourselves.”
 Before we were born, there are already societal influences on us that shape our life and
personalities. While alive, the societal influences continue to have an impact on us, and
even beyond our lifetime.
 Division of Labor – how people get to live together peaceably and in organized
manner
 Social Integration – how culture, roles, and norms bind people together in
synchronized behaviors, feelings, and thoughts
 Moral Individualism – how the rights and dignity of the individual are based on
the principles of equality and Justice
 The task of sociology is to analyze social facts.
 Social Facts – consisting of manners of acting, thinking, and feeling external to the
individual, which are invested with a coercive power by virtue of which they exercise
control over him; conditions and circumstances external to the individual that,
nevertheless, determine the individual’s course of action.
  This means that even if you “do these things” (do your tasks in school, do your duties as
a son or daughter) because it conforms to your sentiments and feel their reality
subjectively, such reality is still objective. We did not create these realities (duties and
responsibilities of a child or citizen); we merely inherited them through our education
(formal and informal). That, or rather, these realities, are social facts.
 Individual lines of conduct are the outgrowth of social arrangements.
 Social Integration - degree to which an individual is connected to the society; results
from a collective consciousness or a shared way of understanding and behaving in the
world in terms of norms, beliefs, and values.
 People who are able to form strong social ties have a deeper sense of belonging, form
more cohesive groups and are able to reduce conflicts. Those who have weak social
connections are more prone to self-destructive behaviors, or deviancy, because they are
unable to balance their desires with what is considered appropriate by the society.
 Social Solidarity - described the social ties that bind a group of people together such
as kinship, shared location, or religion.
 Moral Individualism - the doctrine that rationality leaves room for the individualities of
personalities of subjects to express themselves in the moral realm in an autonomous
choice between idealism and fulfilment-maximization. It involves a morality of
cooperation and a profound respect for humanity. It is not the glorification of the self,
“but of the individual in general”
 Modernity will affect the way the sacred is experienced, in that collective consciousness
might get destroyed.

CHARLES HORTON COOLEY

 The Looking Glass Self - Self-concept is formed through our impressions on how
other people see us.
 Proposed that one’s self grows out of one’s social interactions with others. The degree of
personal insecurity displayed in social situations is determined by what one believes other
people think of him/her. Simply put, the “Self” is how we believe others see us.
 The process:
 We imagine how we present ourselves to others
 We imagine how others evaluate us
 Finally develop some sort of feeling about ourselves such as respect or shame as a
result of these impressions
 The Labeling Bias - This occurs when we are labeled, and others’ views and
expectations of us are affected by that labeling.
 Self-Labeling - This occurs when we are repeatedly labeled and evaluated by others, and
we adopt other’s labels explicitly into our self-concept. This may lead to:
 Internalized prejudice - when individuals turn prejudice directed toward them
by others onto themselves. They may tend to view themselves more negatively,
thus, also affecting their self-esteem.
 Positive Reclaiming - may also take place when labels are used by society to
describe people negatively. Those who are negatively labeled may claim these
labels more positively to feel better about themselves.

GEORGE HERBERT MEAD

 The conception one holds about the self in one’s mind emerges from social
interaction with others. The self is neither present at birth nor at the beginning of social
interaction. It is constructed and re-constructed in the process of social experience.
 Two Components of the self:
 “Me” – objective element; represents the expectations and attitudes of others (the
“generalized other”) organized into the social self; the internalized generalized
other becomes the instrument upon which society has control over the actions of
its individual members
  “I” - subjective element; the response to the “me”or the person’s individuality
 Stages by which the self emerges:
 Preparatory Stage (1-3)
children merely imitate the people around them
then they understand the symbols (gestures, language, and objects that
form the basis for their capacity to communicate with people around them
as a result they become aware of roles that people play in their immediate
environment
 Play Stage (4-7)
as a result of the above stage, they now do pretend play of different
characters or roles (Role playing)
they become more aware of social relationships; they can mentally assume
the perspective of another and respond from that imagined viewpoint
(Role taking)
 Game Stage (8-9)
begins to consider several actual tasks and relationships simultaneously
grasp not only their social position but also those of others around them
perspective taking becomes less egocentric as they begin to understand
and accept that many people have different perspectives and develops
greater concern about the reactions of others

CLEMEN AQUINO
 Mula sa Kinaroroonan: Kapwa, Kapatiran and Bayan in Philippine Social Science –
articulates on the relevant concepts of “kapwa”, “mag-anak”, “kapatiran” on ugnayan
(relations) in Philippine society
 In kapwa, self-identity is part of one’s perception of others, so there is a unity or
integral relation of the sarili (self) to ibang tao (others).
 The concept of mag-anak is embedded in Filipino relationships. It does not only
refer to the nuclear family (father, mother, children) but encompasses the
extended family, hence, an older woman in the community is called “Aunty” even
if not a kin by consanguinity.
 Kapatiran is reflected in religious and other organizations. The strong bond of
ingroup relations determines ugnayan and pakikipag-ugnayan within the group as
compared to how they interact with those who are not part of the kapatiran.

UNIT 3 ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES OF THE SELF

ANTHROPOLOGY
 study of human beings in aspects ranging from biology to the features of society and
culture.

ZEUS SALAZAR
 Our reality is rooted in society and learning.
 Language is needed in order for us to articulate this reality. We get to know what is
happening in our society through language.
 Language is considered as the primary vehicle in understanding ourselves.
 Pantayong pananaw – self-substituted ideological circle consisting of active subjects. It
is a from-us-for-us perspective. It is any social collectivity which possesses a relatively
unified and internally articulated linguistic-cultural structure of communication and
interaction and/or a sense of oneness of purpose and existence.
 Pag-aaral ng kasaysayan natin hindi sa perspektiba ng dayuhan na naging kamalayan
natin sa matagal na panahon, kundi sa sarili nating perspektiba.
 Kung kausap natin ang mga Pilipino, dapat nagsusulat tayo sa wikang Pilipino na
naiintindihan ng bayan.
PROSPERO COVAR
 Makes use of dynamic dualism, or a pairing of concepts, in order to understand the
Filipino personality.
 Ama ng Pilipinolohiya
 Pilipinolohiya – describes internal studies and investigations based on Philippine culture,
civilization, and national needs carried out with internal or internalized concepts,
approaches, and methods, in Filipino.
 Ang pagkataong Pilipino ay may tatlong elemento: labas, loob, lalim
 He likened the body to a banga. Ang nilalaman ng banga ay ang kalinangan at pagkatao
ng Pilipino. This banga is a container which has a labas, loob, and lalim. According to
Covar, metaphors involving the labas, loob, and lalim are used in order to understand the
laman or the pagkataong Pilipino.
 Aspects of Culture:
 Likas – includes the biological and natural aspects of culture.
 Likha – includes the artificial and man-made aspects of culture.

HARRY TRIANDIS
 “The Self and Social Behavior in Differing Cultural Context”
 Discussed several aspects of the self, each of which become more prominent or are
sampled in a specific type of culture.
 Aspects of self:
 Private self – your understanding of yourself
 Public self – how you are perceived by other people
 Collective self – sense of belonging to a social group
 Types of Culture:
 Individualistic vs. Collectivistic - In individualistic cultures, emphasis is placed
on the individualistic self. In contrast, collectivistic cultures give importance to
being an active player in society.
 Tight vs. Loose – A tight culture is rigid in requiring that members behave
according to the norms. In comparison, a loose culture has a high tolerance for
deviation from norms.
 Simple vs. Complex – In a simple culture, there is a common way of living. On
the other hand, a complex culture has a several ways of life.
UNIT 4 PSYCHOLOGICALPERSPECTIVES OF THE SELF
PSYCHOLOGY
 Psyche – mind or soul ; logos – study or science
 Scientific study of how people behave, think, and feel.
 Studies behaviors; a part of personality that can be seen
 How the brain works

WILLIAM JAMES
 Father of American Psychology
 Self is both the “knower” and the “known.” It is partly object and partly subject.
 Divisions:
 Me-Self (known – experience; past)
The empirical self
The object of a thought
Three dimensions:
o Material self – pertains to the things you own
o Social self – significant interpersonal relations
o Spiritual self – one’s personality, character and defining values
 I-Self (knower – experiences things; present)
“pure ego” - provides the thread of continuity between our past, present,
and future selves
Component of the self that is the consciousness itself
Self- awareness (the act of thinking about ourselves)
Referred to as the soul (or mind)
Involves subjective experiential features such as life history and
experience.
Three dimensions:
o Individual self
o Relational self
o Collective self
 Alternative ways of viewing the world:
 Healthy Minded
A single perspective on life was not appropriate/ applicable for all
individuals.
 Morbid Minded
Unavoidable for some people due to circumstances of their lives
Such a view is not desirable and should be avoided at all costs.
SHOULD NOT BE SEEN AS WEAK OR COWARDLY
There is a connection between the depth of a person’s despair and the
level of appreciation for life that one could achieve.

KAREN HORNEY
 “To search for truth about the self is as valuable as to search for truth in other areas
of life”
 the foundation of a healthy development stems from our childhood experiences.
 Parents need to provide feelings of safety and security to the child in order for them to
become psychologically healthy individuals.
 Parents’ inability, unwillingness or indifference may interfere with their capacity to
provide safety and security to the child. As a result, the child will develop basic hostility
- anger/aggression – towards the parents.
 However, such feelings are unacceptable and are repressed. These feelings of
unexpressed hostility would result in the child developing basic anxiety - a feeling of
inadequacy and helplessness in a perceived hostile world.
  Theory of the Self
 Idealized Self
An overly positive, and perfect image of the self.
an imaginary picture of the self as the possessor of unlimited powers and
superlative qualities
developed when people feel inferior and have the need to be loved
one’s view of perfection
 Actualized Self
the person one is in everyday life
the person one actually is regardless of other people’s perceptions
 Despised Self
negative view of the self
based on the lack of love and acceptance by others
consists of feelings of inferiority and shortcomings
the feeling that one is hated; it is assumed that it is one’s true self is the
one hated
 Real Self
revealed only as a person begins to shed the various techniques developed
to deal with basic anxiety
- a “force” that impels growth and self-realization
- the inner core of personality, one’s potential - the need to be who one
truly is

CARL ROGERS
 Each person has the ability to achieve their goals, wishes, and desires
 Self-actualization
 Two types of tendencies:
 Formative tendency – ability to grow from simple to complex organisms
 Actualizing tendency – ability to reach one’s fullest potential
 Experiences can help us grow and develop. That is why he gave emphasis on the
subjective experience of a person. As the individual goes through life experiences, he/she
becomes a separate individual from others. This is the SELF or SELF-CONCEPT defined
by the words I, my, myself and me.
 Self is divided into two:
 Real Self - Refers to the aspects of one’s being and experiences that are perceived
in awareness.
 Ideal Self - This pertains to who you want to become in the future.
 According to Rogers, everyone has an ideal self and it is perfectly “healthy”to have one -
unlike for Horney’s concept of Idealized Self-image. The Real self and Ideal self should
overlap and co-occur in order for us to become “psychologically healthy individuals”.
Problems and difficulties may arise once there is little to no overlap between the two.
 REQUIREMENTS FOR THE IDEAL SELF AND REAL SELF TO OVERLAP:
 Congruence/Genuineness - being real; accepting the self
 Empathy -ability to recognize and understand others’ feelings
 Unconditional Positive Regard -no conditions of worth; unconditional
acceptance
 THE SELF AS PROACTIVE AND AGENTIC
 Proactive
acting in advance of a future situation, rather than just reacting
taking control and making things happen rather than just adjusting to a
situation or waiting for something to happen
  Agentic
self-organizing, proactive, self-reflective and self-regulating as times
change - agentic perspective states that we are NOT merely reactive
organisms shaped by environmental forces or driven by inner impulses

ALBERT BANDURA
 HUMAN AGENCY: Essence of humanness; People are self- regulating, proactive, self-
organizing and self-reflective. In addition, people have the power to influence their own
actions and produce the desired consequences.
 CORE FEATURES OF HUMAN AGENCY
 Intentionality
This pertains to the idea that people are continually changing their plans
and are aware of the consequences of their actions.
 Forethought
This pertains to the idea that people are able to anticipate the possible
outcomes of their actions and select behaviors that will produce the
desired outcome.
 Self-reactiveness
This pertains to the ability to motivate themselves and regulate their
actions.
 Self-reflectiveness
This pertains to the idea that people have the ability to examine
themselves.
 SELF EFFICACY: Feelings of adequacy, efficiency, and competence in coping with
life.
 High Levels – Belief that they can deal effectively with events and situations
 Low Levels – Belief that they are unable to exercise control over events and
situations
 Sources:
Performance Attainment - Previous successful attempts and experiences
provide clear indications of one’s level of mastery and competence. Prior
achievements demonstrate our capabilities and may increase one’s level of
self-efficacy.
Vicarious Experience - Observing and witnessing others perform
successfully strengthen self-efficacy, particularly if the people being
observed are similar in abilities.
Verbal Persuasions - Verbal feedback and encouraging words may help
strengthen levels of selfefficacy. ü The “WHO” is also an important
factor.
Physiological and Emotional Arousal - The more composed we are, the
greater one’s self-efficacy is.
MODULE 2
INTRODUCTION
 This module explores the different dimensions of the self and identity, the different
factors and influences in the development of the self and the integration of these different
aspects of the self into a whole.

UNIT 1: THE PHYSICAL SELF

WHAT IS THE PHYSICAL SELF?
 The body; neck, arms, shoulder, etc.
 Cindy Jackson – holder of the Guinness World Record for having the most cosmetic
procedures have undergone in her body ; age 52

BODY IMAGE
 individual’s mental representation of his/her own body
 influences self esteem
 Two types:
 Internal/ Personal - Person’s perception of the level of attractiveness of his own
body; produces either satisfying or unsatisfying results
 External/ Social – Sense of how other people view our bodies

BODY IMAGE DISSATISFACTION

 occurs when there is a discrepancy between actual (i.e. what you really look like) and
ideal body image (i.e. what you want to look like)

BEAUTY
 Two types:
 External Beauty – physical characteristics of a person; usually what is
considered as pleasant to the aesthetic senses
 Inner Beauty – pertains to the inner qualities of a person

WHAT IS CONSIDERED BEAUTIFUL/HANDSOME?

 Common Physical Features (?)
 Striking Physical Features (?)

GILLIAN RHODES (2006)

 Common Physical Features are considered to be beautiful/ handsome.
 The results of her study showed that averageness, rather than distinctiveness, was
correlated with facial attractiveness.
 Striking and unusual features often make people appear strange.

WHY DOES BEAUTY MATTER?

 Aesthetic Capital – refers to the privileges and wealth people receive from aesthetic
traits such as their face, hair, body, clothes, grooming habits and other markers of beauty
 Samantha Lovascio - aesthetic traits impact our lives in matters of modest importance
(e.g. friend selection) up to matters of great importance (e.g.career mobility). This
advertisement depicts this concept of aesthetic capital.

HOW DOES CULTURE INFLUENCE OUR PERCEPTION OF BEAUTY?

 “All cultures everywhere have attempted to change their body in an attempt to meet their cultural
standards of beauty, as well as their religious and/or social obligations” – De Mello
  De Mello (2014) – people seek to conform to certain standards of beauty through the following:
 Body Adornment - Practice of physically enhancing the body by temporary
means such as styling and decorating
 Body Modification - Temporary or permanent physical alteration of the body
through means such as surgery, tattooing, piercing and the like
 Culture of Physical Improvement – is what necessitates these behaviors
 Pertains to the belief that all bodily processes should be under our control.
Addtionally, this culture also trains us to be ashamed of body parts that refuse to
comply with the cultural idea.
 Body Shame - not a natural response to being fat, physically impaired, chronically sick,
or old, rather it is a culturally conditioned response to a commercially fabricated fantasy
of physical perfection.
 THINGS THAT DETERMINE WHETHER A PERSON FEELS ASHAMED
OF THEIR BODY
Popular or ‘Pop’ Culture
o A culture that is widely accepted and patronized by the public.
o Usually influences people to patronize products endorsed by
popular celebrities or products that are ‘on trend’
Media
o People that are given the most exposure are usually attractive
celebrities and models that create ideals for men and women to
admire and emulate.
o The constant exposure pressures individuals to conform to these
expectations
Hyper-mediated Society
o Presence of advertisements representing appropriate body or skin
types
o People internalize ideals presented and either attempt to conform
or resist
 HOW DO ALL THESE AFFECT PEOPLE?
Self-esteem - is a person’s overall sense of self-worth or personal value.
In relation to the concepts of body image and body image dissatisfaction,
the way people perceive and feel about their body significantly affects
their self-esteem.
Puberty also plays a role in body image. Children who develop too fast
(‘Tweeners’) or too slow (‘Late Bloomers’) may experience an increase or
decrease in their self-esteem.
 HOW CAN PEOPLE DEVELOP POSITIVE BODY IMAGE?
Understand that healthy and attractive bodies come in many shapes and
sizes.
Physical appearance says very little about our character or value as a
person
Try to practice self-acceptance.

UNIT 2: THE SEXUAL SELF

SEX
 refers to the biological characteristics that define humans as female or male
 While these sets of biological characteristics are not mutually exclusive, as there are
individuals who possess both, they tend to differentiate humans as males and females.
GENDER
 A complex interrelationship between an individual’s biological gender, gender identity,
and gender expression.
 Biological Sex - Refers to the biological anatomy that is assigned at birth and determines
whether an individual is male (has a penis), female (has a vagina), or intersex.
 Cisgender: an individual who’s sexual orientation, gender orientation/expression
matches their biological sex assigned at birth.
 Gender Identity: The sense of “being” a specific gender such as man, woman,
genderqueer, agender, etc.
 Gender Expression: The many ways in which an individual manifests femininity,
masculinity, neither or both such as behavior speech, sexual preferences, clothing, etc.
 Gender Fluid: A person who is able to manifest and adapt to various genders.
 Gender Binary: The belief that there are only two genders: male and female.
 Gender Non-Conforming (GNC): A person whose presentation of their gender does not
match the expectations associated with that gender.
 Gender Normative/ Gender Straight: An individual whose biological sex matches their
gender identity and expression. Also known as cisgender.
 Gender Role: Expectations, rules, behaviors, and roles given to males and females by
society, such as masculine traits for males and feminine traits for females.
 Gender Queer: An individual whose identity is outside what is generally accepted as
part of the gender binary ; They tend to view the dominant beliefs about sex, gender, and
desire determined by society as problematic.
 Gender Variant: A person who does not conform to the gender expectations of society
by either choice or nature (e.g. transgender, transsexual, intersex, gender-queer, cross-
dresser, etc.).
 Transgender: An individual who presents themself and lives as a gender that does not
corresponds with the sex they were assigned at birth.
 Transman: A label used by female-to-male transgender or transsexual individuals who
indicate that they are male while still asserting their birth sex.
 Transwoman: A label used by male-to-female transgender or transsexual individuals
who indicate that they are female while still asserting their birth sex.

SEXUAL ORIENTATION
 How one feels drawn to other people in sexual or romantic ways; A person’s romantic,
sexual, emotional or spiritual attraction to others based on gender (This does NOT define
their sexual preference).
 Asexual: The low level/ lack of sexual attraction to others and/or the lack of
interest/desire for sex and sexual partners.
 Bisexual: An individual who is sexually, emotionally and/or physically attracted
to both men and women.
 Demisexual: An individual who does not feel sexual attraction until they have
formed a strong emotional connection with a partner (usually within a romantic
relationship).
 Gay: The term used to describe the emotional, physical, and/ or sexual attraction
between members of the same gender. Usually used to describe identified men
who are attracted to other identified men.
 Heterosexual: An individual who is attracted emotionally, physically, and/or
sexually to members of the opposite sex.
 Homosexual: A person who is emotionally, physically, and/or sexually attracted
to members of the same sex or gender.
 Lesbian: A term used to describe identified women who are attracted
emotionally, physically, and sexually to other identified women.
  Metrosexual: A heterosexual man who spends more time, energy and money on
his appearance than what is considered gender normative.
 MSM/WSW: Stands for men “who have sex with men” and “women who have
sex with women” in a way of differentiating sexual behaviors from sexual
identities.
 Mx: Alternative prefix for individuals who do not identify with either Mr. or Ms.
 Pansexual: An individual who is attracted physically, emotionally and sexually to
all gender identities and expressions.

SEXUAL PREFERENCE
 The types of sexual stimulation, gratification, and intercourse that an individual likes to
receive and participate in.

SENSUALITY
 the attractiveness, love, relationships, and enjoyment of the world through the five senses

SOGIE – an acronym that is mostly used to understand human sexuality

 Sexual
 Orientation
 Gender
 Identity
 Expression

OTHER TERMINOLOGIES
 Fluid(ity): Term used to describe an identity that shifts or changes over time (man and
woman, bi and straight, etc.).
 Heteronormativity: The belief by people and/or institutions that everyone is
heterosexual and that heterosexuality is superior to all other sexualities.
 Heterosexism: The behavior that gives preferential treatment to heterosexual individuals.
 Homophobia: The fear, intolerance, resentment, discomfort, or hatred towards members
of the LGBTQ community.
 Intersex: An individual who is born with a combination of male and female gonads,
hormones, internal sex organs, and genitals.
 LGBTQ/GSM/DSG: stands for Lesbian, Gay, Bi, Transgender, and Queer/ Gender
Sexual Minorities/ Diverse Genders and Sexualities.

SEXUALITY
 “...a central aspect of being human throughout life encompasses sex, gender identities and
roles, sexual orientation, eroticism, pleasure, intimacy and reproduction. Sexuality is
experienced and expressed in thoughts, fantasies, desires, beliefs, attitudes, values,
behaviors, practices, roles and relationships. While sexuality can include all of these
dimensions, not all of them are always experienced or expressed. Sexuality is influenced
by the interaction of biological, psychological, social, economic, political, cultural, legal,
historical, religious and spiritual factors.” (WHO, 2006a)

THE CIRCLES OF SEXUALITY IS A HOLISTIC MODEL OF SEXUALITY created by

DENNIS DAILEY
 The circles of sexuality break sexuality down into five components:
Sensuality
Intimacy
Identity
Reproduction and sexual health
Sexualization.
 All of them are interconnected, and our values influence how you perceive each circle.
SENSUALITY
 Body image, our ability to allow ourselves pleasure, our need to be touched, and
fantasizing
 We can feel attracted to someone’s sense of humor, intelligence, charisma, or kindness,
and whether it is sexual or non-sexual

INTIMACY
 Emotional closeness (sexual or non-sexual); how easy it is for you to be emotionally
vulnerable to others
 Is caring about or liking someone, trusting, being able to self-disclose and sharing your
inner world. Taking risks in relationships by being emotionally vulnerable and expressing
our needs, wants, desires, and feelings, creates intimacy.

IDENTITY
 Who are you? Identity is not just about whether we are male, female, or intersex.That
identity is attributed to our biological sex. There’s also our gender identity, which can be
the same as our biological sex, or totally different.
Gender Identity - how we feel about ourselves as a man, woman, agender (no
gender), gender fluid (changing and moving between genders) or non-binary (not
specifically male or female) person.
Gender Roles - are established by society, so what our gender is expected to do
in one culture will be different in another culture.
Sexual Orientation

REPRODUCTION AND SEXUAL HEALTH

 Sexual Response Cycle - refers to the sequence of physical and emotional changes that
occur as a person becomes sexually aroused and participates in sexually stimulating
activities, including intercourse and masturbation. Has four phases: excitement, plateau,
orgasm, and resolution.
Phase 1: Excitement
o Muscle tension increases.
o Heart rate quickens and breathing is accelerated.
o Skin may become flushed (blotches of redness appear on the chest and
back).
o Nipples become hardened or erect.
o Blood flow to the genitals increases, resulting in swelling of the woman's
clitoris and labia minora (inner lips), and erection of the man's penis.
o Vaginal lubrication begins.
o The woman's breasts become fuller and the vaginal walls begin to swell.
o The man's testicles swell, his scrotum tightens, and he begins secreting a
lubricating liquid.
Phase 2: Plateau
o The changes begun in phase 1 are intensified.
o The vagina continues to swell from increased blood flow, and the vaginal
walls turn a dark purple.
o The woman's clitoris becomes highly sensitive (may even be painful to
touch) and retracts under the clitoral hood to avoid direct stimulation from
the penis.
o The man's testicles tighten.
o Breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure continue to increase.
o Muscle spasms may begin in the feet, face, and hands.
o Muscle tension increases.
Phase 3: Orgasm (climax)
o Involuntary muscle contractions begin.
 o Blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing are at their highest rates, with a
rapid intake of oxygen.
o Muscles in the feet spasm.
o There is a sudden, forceful release of sexual tension.
o In women, the muscles of the vagina contract. The uterus also undergoes
rhythmic contractions.
o In men, rhythmic contractions of the muscles at the base of the penis result
in the ejaculation of semen.
o A rash, or "sex flush" may appear over the entire body.
Phase 4: Resolution
o The body slowly returns to its normal level of functioning, and swelled
and erect body parts return to their previous size and color.
o This phase is marked by a general sense of well-being, enhanced intimacy
and, often, fatigue.
o Some women are capable of a rapid return to the orgasm phase with
further sexual stimulation and may experience multiple orgasms.
o Men need recovery time after orgasm, called a refractory period, during
which they cannot reach orgasm again.
o The duration of the refractory period varies among men and usually
lengthens with advancing age.
 Psychological Counterpart for the different phases of the Sexual Response Cycle
(David Reed):
Seduction - learning how to attract someone sexually, this is equivalent to the
excitement phase
Sensation - enhancement of sexual excitement by the senses, this is equivalent to
the plateau phase
Surrender - allowing passion to be expressed, this is equivalent to the orgasm
phase
Reflection - meaning is brought to the sexual experience; this is equivalent to the
resolution phase.
 Sex is not merely a physical release of tension. There are accompanying psychological
effects and consequences to the sexual act. Mature human sexuality needs to incorporate
these aspects of the sexual experience.
 The reproduction and sexual health circle also includes our knowledge and attitudes
about sexual health: contraceptives, sexually transmitted infections (STIs), the
development of a baby in the uterus, and our general sexual health. Oh yes, let’s not
forget oral sex, intercourse and any sexual activity.

SEXUALIZATION
 When we objectify people or objects as sexual (take a banana, for instance) rather than
see them for what they are
 It is also the use of one’s sexuality to control, influence, or manipulate others.
 Flirting is an example of a behavior that can either be sexualization or an interaction
with someone you have a trusting relationship with. When flirting is used to control,
manipulate, or influence someone negatively, it is considered sexualization. If it’s part of
foreplay or your relationship with someone, then it’s just flirting.
 Using sex as punishment (usually withholding it), sexual assault, and sexual harassment.

CHEMISTRY OF LUST, LOVE, AND ATTACHMENT

 Lust – driven by sex hormones
 Attraction – person starts to feel love, some people are love-struck and can’t think of
anything else
 Attachment – bond helping a couple take their relationship to the next level; future-
oriented
NEEDS SATISFIED BY SEX
 Biological
 Psychological
 Social
 Existential

UNIT 3: THE MATERIAL SELF

 “A man’s self is the sum total of what he can call his.” – William James
 In the Philippines, shopping malls outnumber parks and there are approximately 153
malls in the National Capital Region alone.
 In the second quarter of 2016, Filipinos were deemed to be the world’s most confident
consumers (Nielsen, 2016).
 86% of Filipinos are willing to pay extra for products and services that come from
companies committed to positive social and environmental impact.
 According to the Philippine Statistics Authority (2015), Filipino households spend the
most on food and non-alcoholic beverages, miscellaneous goods and services, and utility
fees. On the other hand, Filipino households spend the least on health, communication
and recreation and culture.
 Nescafe, Lucky Me, and Surf are among the top brands whose products are most
frequently purchased by Filipino consumers for the home.

MATERIAL SELF
 Includes all the physical elements that reflect who a person is (e.g. possessions, cars,
home, body, clothes, immediate family)
 The more people invest themselves in objects, the more attached they inevitably are to
them.
 Money – can powerfully influence the thoughts and actions of individuals in ways that
they are often not aware of, no matter what their economic circumstances.

HOW DOES MONEY CHANGE PEOPLE?

 Social and Business Value: Motivations For Completing a Given Task (Heyman &
Ariely, 2004)
Social Value - When people recognize the social value of a task, they think that it
is a worthy investment of their time, that it is part of social duty, and they are
often happy to help out ; When money is involved, people think less of social
value and more of business value
Business Value - People that focus on the business value of a task often demand
for compensation before or after they have engaged in it.
 Self-sufficiency and Service
Money-conscious individuals typically strive to be more self-sufficient or
independent than those who do not prioritize money
 Self-view
The amount that people earn could have an effect on how they view themselves
Class Essentialism - is the belief that differences between classes are based upon
identity and genetics, rather than circumstance
Wealthy people are more likely to believe that they were entitled to wealth based
upon their personal circumstances and actions, whereas poor people tend to
believe that anyone can be rich and anyone can be poor.
 Ethics
Those who perceive themselves to be in a higher class are the most likely to
engage in unethical behaviour
 Self-interest Maximization (Piff, 2012) – idea that suggests those that have the
most money or occupy higher classes are more likely to ask “What’s in it for
me?”
 Addiction
is brought about by a positive response from a certain type of behaviour
o Behavioral or Process Addiction - occurs when there is compulsive
behaviour motivated by a process that leads to a seemingly positive
outcome (not an addictive substance).

WHAT ARE THE ROLES OF CONSUMER CULTURE ON OUR SENSE OF SELF?

POSSESSIONS AND THE EXTENDED SELF
 Since possessions are viewed as part of the self, unintentionally losing these possessions
are regarded as a loss or lessening of the self
Goffman (1961) – described this point in that there is a deliberate lessening of the
self that is maintained in some institutions (metal hospitals, homes for the aged,
prisons etc.). When people go to these places, they become deprived of personal
possessions and adapt to standardized ‘identity kits’ (e.g. same uniforms,
haircuts). There is an elimination of one’s uniqueness and a traumatic lessening of
the sense of self.
Rosenblatt, Walsh, and Jackson (1976) - the non-voluntary loss of possessions
through theft or casualty may diminish the sense of self. Possessions have
sentimental value and people experience grief and mourning following the loss of
these possessions.
McLeod (1984) - claims that feelings of loss of a part of the self are experienced
by victims of natural disasters or casualty. They undergo the process of grief or
DABDA (denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance).
Juliet Schor (1998) - studied the connection between wealth and well-being.
There is what she termed a “Cycle of Work and Spend” wherein people work
more to buy more and the income one earns determines the level of consumption
which becomes a reward for working hard.

SPECIAL CASES OF THE EXTENDED SELF

 Collections
“I shop, therefore I am; I have, therefore I am.”
Modern humans assemble collections of non-necessities for distinction and self-
definition (e.g. cars, shoes)
Collections may be security blankets for adults
 Pets
Representatives of the self and given characteristics of people
Some pets are regarded as family members and become surrogate parents for
children and surrogate children for adults.
 Body Parts
Cathexis is defined as charging an object, activity or an idea with emotional
energy.
When a body part is more highly cathected, there is greater use of grooming
products to care for this part of the body
Women generally groom and tend to cathect body parts to a greater degree than
men and that such cathexis reflects self-acceptance.
The body is more likely and more strongly cathected as compared to other objects
since it is permanent.
UNIT 4: THE POLITICAL SELF
POLITICS, CITIZENSHIP, AND THE SELF
 As members of the society, people are naturally obligated to participate in a political
system as social citizens. Politics refers to the actions or activities concerned with
achieving and using power in a nation or society. It is also defined as the ways that power
is shared in an organization and the ways it is affected by personal relationships between
people who work together.
 As Aristotle stated, “man is, by nature, a political animal.” This is because man is a
social being and that people naturally drawn to various political involvements in order to
satisfy their social needs.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY (ALBERT BANDURA)

 Social behaviour learned by observing and imitating the behaviour of others.
 Political Socialization – lifelong process by which individuals gain knowledge about
politics through social interaction, a person’s understanding of politics is influenced.

COGNITIVE THEORY
 Approach that attempts to explain human behaviour by understanding the thought process
 Mental activities of individuals are important determinants of behaviour.
 For instance, individuals interpret the meaning of politics and then choose and decide the
actions they will make.

THEORY OF SYMBOLIC INTERACTION

 Behaviors are products of communication, meaning, and symbols
 People give meaning to symbols and express through language and communication
 Based on these symbols (of politics, human rights, etc.), people can formulate plans of
action (elections, demonstrations, rally)

THEORY OF POLITICAL PARTICIPATION

 Citizen’s actions or activities anchored in politics
 Mutual trust and respect among members of the society must EXIST
 Thus, ordinary Filipino citizens must be allowed to take part in the policy and decision-
making process regarding the administration of the country which is in accordance to the
democratic nature of Philippine society.

POLITICS AS IMBIBED BY MAN IMPLIES SEVERAL THINGS:

 Politics is concerned with power. Power inequalities can be observed within societies.
The one who holds power holds influence.
 Politics functions based on a particular social economic and cultural context. The
nature of politics and political systems is dependent on the culture of the state. Political
claims made by advocates are influenced by their geographical location and
ideology.
 The political is also personal. One’s personal choices reflect his/her personal politics;
both are indistinguishable.
 Politics goes hand in hand with the society. Politics pervades the structure of society,
and thus influences inhabitants in their beliefs, ethics, and behavior.
 However, the political self is not only shaped by one’s political affiliation or beliefs.
One’s sense of accountability should be manifested in promoting certain advocacies
through healthy political engagement. This is aligned with the concept of active
citizenship.

ACTIVE CITIZENSHIP
 Active citizenship refers to the structured forms of engagement with political processes
and everyday forms of participation in society. It is also defined as the process of
 sharing decisions which affect one’s life and the life of a community in which one
lives. Participation is the fundamental right of citizenship.
 Active citizenship is anchored on one’s cognitive and behavioural engagement to
participate in formal and informal political activities. Different people manifest
different levels of active citizenship; some they take a more active approach in making
their voices heard.
 Active citizenship is a practice of democracy. Democracy should not only be thought of
as a form of government. It is a communal system that allows volitional freedom of
citizens to make informed choices that allow them to be heard.
 Active citizenship is a social construct. It fosters social relatedness and belongingness.
 The most important goal of active citizenship is to instill change and influence society at
large.
 Active citizenship is also associated with the “sense of community.” People, including
adolescents, participate in communal activities because it gives a sense of belonging in a
particular group. Active citizenship may facilitate ethnic pride and provide a voice to the
woes of their social group.
 For the younger generation, active citizenship can contribute to their social development.
Engaging in such activities can also enhance efficacy and competence of the younger
generation, as they are considered to be the “future leaders” of the society. The
participation of the youth in nation- building activities enhances their value orientation
and fosters integrity, compassion, and the sense of justice, which are crucial to the
holistic development of a citizen of a nation.
 Active citizenship helps an individual embrace their individuality through the choices
they make and the behavior they manifest. The political self is a result of various personal
and environmental factors that impact the individual. The participation of the youth in
political discourse and social activities can result in cultural and political paradigm shifts
that may be felt even by future generations.

UNIT 5: THE DIGIITAL SELF

 “Privacy is not an option, and it shouldn’t be the price we accept for just getting on the
internet.” – Gary Kovacs
 Filipinos remain most active internet social media users globally.


ONLINE IDENTITY
 constitutes the sum of your characteristics and interactions online.
 The different websites you access obtain a subset of information you share, thus, having
different pictures of who you are. In the same manner, you may express yourself
differently in the different websites or social media platforms you access.
 Partial Identities - The different representations of your identity seen and expressed
online; these identities are not full and true pictures of who you really are and do not
include how you react in particular situations.

IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT AND SELECTIVE SELF- PRESENTATION

 In a digital world where one’s self-concept may be greatly influenced by the “likes”,
“reacts” and “comments” that one gets, people try to express themselves in a manner by
which one can elicit positive reactions from others, or one may be perceived as likable.
 may involve limiting the personal information we provide to present ourselves in a way
that is acceptable to others.

IMPACT OF ONLINE INTERACTIONS TO THE SELF

 Within the first two years people first accessed the internet, their level of happiness
decreased. (Kraut)
  The use of digital technology and online interactions seem to replace or limit physical or
face-to-face interactions, thus drawing people away from more genuine encounters and
meaningful connections with others.
 As people create their different online personas, this may result in feelings of jealousy
and envy towards the seemingly perfect lives of other people.
 Apart from making communication more accessible, online interactions may likewise
empower individuals to change themselves and their communities. Through responsible
use of and participation in social media, essential information may be obtained or used to
our advantage like keeping up to date with current events and political issues.
 may facilitate the expression of opinions and lobbying of concerns or needs, such as in
the case of online petitions aiming to promote different advocacies or to lobby grievances
to concerned authorities.
 As everyone could create and distribute content all over the internet, anyone could be a
target of identity theft, like you. Anyone could be a victim of false information, and the
most rampant today, fake news.
 R.A. 10175 (Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012) primarily aimed to protect internet
users from several legal offenses committed online or through a computer system like
cyberbullying, cybersex, child pornography, identity theft, illegal access to data and libel.

EXTENDED SELF IN A DIGITAL WORLD (BELK)

 Dematerialization - Now that we are in the digital age, things that were formerly
tangible have become invisible and immaterial. To research, we browse the internet
more, and fewer and fewer people visit libraries to get a hold of books. Photos, videos
and music now have what we call as “soft copies”.
 Reembodiment - As people interact behind their own screens, people are now more free
to create new constructions and definitions of the self. On the internet, people have the
liberty to “reembody” themselves through the creation of avatars, characters or “hero” in
online games, photoshopped photos, dating site profiles, among others.
 Sharing - Through the internet, people can now easily and freely access and share
information, movies, photos, music, and the like. A simple tap on your digital device
allows you to share to the world wide web a photo of yourself, the food you eat, the
places you go to, etc. You can create your own blog and share your innermost thoughts,
or create your own Youtube channel to share whichever content you choose, may it be
your cooking skills, makeup skills, lifestyle, travels, online gaming, and a whole lot
more.
 Co-construction of the self - Our online interactions allow us to give and receive
comments on the posts or contents shared by other people thereby facilitating the
construction of our individual self and our extended self (the self shared online). This is
also known as the “collaborative self”. We continually develop or work on ourselves
through the help of our online interactions.

SETTING BOUNDARIES TO YOUR ONLINE SELF

 Stick to safer sites. If a website is not secure or appears to be suspicious, leave
immediately.
 Guard your passwords. Avoid using your basic information as your passwords. Strong
passwords often include both UPPERCASE and lowercase letters, numbers, symbols, and
special characters.
 Be choosy about your online friends. Avoid adding or accepting as friends/contacts
those individuals whom you do not know personally. Remember that these people will
see the things you share. If you do not trust them with your shared content, decline.
 Remember that anything you put online or post on a site is there FOREVER even if
you try to delete it. If you do not want it to be available on the internet forever, do not
post or upload it. You might want to ask yourself first, “Is this really worth sharing or is
this something I might regret in the future?”
 Do not be mean or embarrass other people online. Remember that you may be
criminally liable when you do online acts that directly or indirectly harm other people.
When you see something wrong, there are better ways to approach your concern than
being mean or embarrassing others. Be a responsible internet consumer.
 Limit what you share. Again, everything you share on the internet stays there forever.
Avoid oversharing, especially those which you think are things that can be used against
you, or worse, used to blackmail you. Is it helpful? Does it really concern others? Think
before you click.