SYSTEMS INFRASTRUCTURE &

INTEGRATION
Week 06 (21 ─ 25 Aug)
Pakiso J. Khomokhoana (PhD)
21 Aug, 2023

T: +27 51 401 9396 | E: khomokhoanap@ufs.ac.za | www.ufs.ac.za/cs

T: 051 401 2754 itinfo@ufs.ac.za www.ufs.ac.za/it

 TOPICS
Class Test 2:
Date: 28 August, 2023 during your chosen
session (Group A & B).
Mode of Test: Closed Book on Blackboard.
Test Coverage:
Chapter 2 of Foundations to Computer
Science (Berhouz Forouzan), and
Chapters 2, 5 and 8 of Systems Architecture
(Stephen D. Burd).
Venue Challenge – Physics Auditorium –
Booked and awaiting approval ─ Thursdays!
Data and Network Communication Technology
OVERVIEW
ASCII TABLE
 COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS
Message
A unit of data or information transmitted from a
sender to a recipient.
Message types
Data message – Data generated, sent, received, or
stored by electronic means (e.g., voice, stored record, video).
Command message – a message that controls
some aspect of the communication process (e.g.,
start/stop, addressing, routing instructions and error detection/correction
method).

Communication protocol
A set of rules and conventions governing message
transmission and reception.
DATA COMMUNICATIONS MODEL
DATA COMMUNICATIONS MODEL (CONT. [1])
 COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS (CONT. [1])
 Message content
 Defines the content and format of data
and command messages.

 Media control
 Defines how message bits are encoded
and transmitted across the
communication media.
 Encoding – Use a variety of patterns of
voltage/current levels to represent the
binary digits of the digital signals on the
transmission link.

 Channel organization:
 Is transmission one-way or two-way?
 If two-way, is a single channel
shared or are there separate
channels for
upstream/downstream?
 Are bits sent one after another down
a single line or in parallel across
multiple lines?
Components of a communication protocol
 Coordination
 How are sender/receiver clocks
synchronized to ensure accurate bit
recognition?
 Coordination of the hardware
devices to ensure that the data that
they contain is made to be identical.
 How are errors detected/corrected?
 ENCODING AND TRANSMITTING BITS – CARRIER WAVES
 Energy transmitted through a communication
channel (e.g., light, electricity, RF waves) travels
as a sine wave.

 Three characteristics of a sine wave can be

manipulated to represent data:
 Amplitude – Peak of the maximum
positive/negative energy states.
 Phase – A specific time point within a single
cycle, measured in degrees (0° represents
the beginning of the cycle and 360°the end ─
Period).
 Frequency – # of cycles per second,
measured in Hertz (Hz).

 Data is encoded in a carrier wave (e.g., wave

encoded with data/bits) by varying one or more
of the above characteristics ─ Modulation.

 The receiver observes a modulated carrier wave

characteristic and interprets the modulations as Characteristics of a sine wave
bit values.

 A signal is a data transmission event or group of

events representing a bit or group of bits.
 MODULATION METHODS

Techniques used to encode bits in sine

waves:
Amplitude modulation (AM).
Frequency modulation (FM).
Phase-shift modulation.
Multilevel coding.
 MODULATION METHODS (CONT. [1])
Amplitude Modulation
 Amplitude modulation
(AM), akas amplitude-shift
keying (ASK), represents
bit values as amplitude
(power) levels in a carrier B
wave. A
 Amplitude : Changes
 Frequency : Constant
 Phase : Constant

 A encodes a Morse code dot

(zero bit) and B dash (one
bit).
 ASCII, Unicode, etc.

 C encodes the bit string

11010001 by representing:
 Binary “0” as one volt for one
wave cycle. C
 Binary “1” as 10 volts for one
wave cycle.
 MODULATION METHODS (CONT. [2])
Frequency Modulation
 Frequency modulation
(FM), akas frequency-shift
keying (FSK), represents
bit values by varying carrier
wave frequency while
holding amplitude constant.
 Amplitude : Constant
 Frequency : Changes
 Phase : Constant

 D encodes the bit string D - The bit string 11010001 encoded in a

carrier wave with frequency modulation
11010001 by representing:
• Binary “0” as 2 Hz.
• Binary “1” as 4 Hz.
 MODULATION METHODS (CONT. [3])
 Phase-Shift Modulation
 Phase-shift modulation,
akas phase-shift keying
(PSK), represents bit values
as the instantaneous
changes in the phase of a
carrier wave. (Switch quickly
between 2 signals of different phases).
 Amplitude : Constant
 Frequency : Constant
 Phase : Changes

 E encodes the bit string

11010001 by representing:
• Binary “0” as shift from 0 E - The bit string 11010001 encoded in a
to 180 degrees. carrier wave with phase-shift modulation

• Binary “1” as shift from

180 to 0 degrees.
 MODULATION METHODS (CONT. [4])
 Multilevel coding
 Encodes multiple-bit
values in a single wave
characteristic, such as
frequency or amplitude.

 Groups of bits are treated

as a single unit for the
purpose of signal encoding.

F uses four amplitude

levels – each encoding F - The bit string 11100100 encoded in a carrier
wave with 2-bit multilevel coding
two-bit pair values (11,
10, 01, and 00)
represented by bit
values 8, 6, 4, and 2.
 ANALOG SIGNALS
 In all the previous examples, a bit (or small set of bits) was encoded in a
wave characteristic using relatively few “relevant” values.
 An analog signal uses all the possible values of a wave characteristic as
different numeric values.
 Each degree of phase could represent a number between 0 and 359.
 Amplitude could represent a continuous value between zero and the
maximum amplitude the channel could carry.
 Frequency could represent a continuous value between zero and the
maximum frequency that the channel could carry.
 Theoretically, an analog signal can carry any of an infinite number of
possible values during one signal event since there are an infinite number
of possible values of each carrier wave characteristic (e.g., amplitude values of
4.900, 4.990, 4.999, …).

 Practically, the number of possible values that can be transmitted is finite

because the receiver must accurately distinguish between them
 Can an electronic circuit detect the difference between amplitude values
of 4.999998 and 4.999999?
 Even with realistic limits on the receiver’s detection precision, the
number of different values that can be transmitted is very large.
DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF SIGNALS
 DIGITAL SIGNALS
 A digital signal akas a discrete signal
can contain one of a finite number of
values in each signal event.

 A binary signal can represent only one

of two possible values in each signal
event.

 Other possible digital signals include

trinary (3 values), quadrary (4 values),
quinary (5 values), senary (6 values),
septenary (7 values) (etc.)
 F is an example of a quadrary
signal.

 Digital signals are encoded within

square waves using on-off keying
(OOK) which is a digital form of AM.
G - The bit string 11010001 encoded in
 G shows the bit string 11010001
encoded in a square wave with square waves (digital signals)
 Binary “0” as zero volts for a fixed
time interval.
 Binary “1” as 5 volts for the same
fixed time interval.
 DIGITAL SIGNALS (CONT. [1])
 The receiver needs abrupt shifts between power levels to reliably detect: [1]
encoded bit values; and [2] where one-bit ends, and another begins.
 Square waves are the preferred method of transmitting digital data
over short distances (e.g., the system bus).
 However, electrical square waves cannot be transmitted reliably over long
distances, because:
 They are affected by power loss, distortion, electromagnetic interference
(EMI), and noise.
 The “corners” of a square wave are “rounded off”, resulting in decoding
errors.
 The distance a square wave can travel before this impacts reception
accuracy depends on the characteristics of the digital signal and the
transmission medium.

A square wave before

(a) & after (b) long
distance transmission
 DIGITAL SIGNALS (CONT. [2])
 Minimizing Digital Transmission Error
 Over a very short distance, a wire
with exactly 5 volts of input will
produce 5 volts of output.
 Over longer distances, the voltage
will vary due to: [1] Resistance
(voltage converted to heat); [2]
Noise; and [3] interference. H
 In digital signaling, the receiver
does not look for an absolute
value, it looks for a value relative
to a threshold.
 Error is avoided because (see H & I)
 Even though the sender encodes a
1-bit by sending 5 volts and the
receiver only receives 4.1 volts, the I
signal is still decoded as a 1-bit
(because it is still above the
threshold of 2.5). ATM Example –
Page 277!
 SIGNAL CAPACITY AND ERRORS
Two important differences between analog and digital
signals are their:
Data-carrying capacity, and
Susceptibility to error.

Analog signals can carry more information than digital

signals in a fixed time interval.

Higher data-carrying capacity results from the large

number of possible messages that can be encoded in
an analog signal during one time period.
 SIGNAL CAPACITY AND ERRORS (CONT. [1])
 Although analog signals have higher data-carrying capacity than
digital signals, they are more susceptible to transmission error.
 If the mechanisms for encoding, transmitting and decoding electrical
analog signals were perfect, transmission error would not be an
issue, but errors are always possible.

 Electrical signals and devices are subject to noise and disruption

because of electrical and magnetic disturbances (e.g., the noise you hear
on a radio during a thunderstorm is an example of these disturbances).

 Voltage, amperage, and other electrical wave characteristics can be

altered easily by this interference.

 To conclude:
 Analog signals have high transmission capacity than binary
signals.
 Binary signals have a lower error rate than analog signals.
 TRANSMISSION MEDIA
 Communication channels:
Each channel, at its
simplest level contains:
Sending device
Transmission medium
Receiving device

Most channels are

complex, containing Elements of a communication
Multiple transmission channel
media carrying different
signal types; and
Interconnection points
that convert signal types
and communication
protocols.
 TRANSMISSION MEDIA (CONT. [1])
 Transmission medium – the communication pathway that
physically carries signals from sender to receiver:
Guided (i.e., wired transmission) - Ethernet cable,
coaxial cable, optical cable.
Unguided (e.g., wireless transmission) - Infrared and
radio frequency (RF) radiation.

 Important characteristics of all transmission media that

affect their capability to transmit messages successfully
and efficiently include:
Speed and capacity,
Frequency,
Bandwidth, and
Susceptibility to noise, distortion, and external
interference.
 SPEED AND CAPACITY
 Factors that account for transmission speed variations in different
media [1] Length of the media; [2] The ways in which media segments are
interconnected; [3] The rate at which bits are encoded in signals and recognized
by the receiver.

 The raw data transfer rate of a transmission line is the maximum

number of bits carried per second, ignoring errors.

 Raw data transfer rate depends on [1] signal type an [2] encoding
method (e.g., 00 Mbps for a binary signal transmitted at 100 MHz).

 Effective data transfer rate is the actual throughput of data

accounting for:
 Command messages and other “non-data” bits.
 Transmission errors (and recovery from those errors, if any).

 Effective data transfer rate is determined by:

 Raw data transfer rate,
 Capacity consumed by command messages and non-data bits,
 Probability of error, and
 Method of dealing with the error (usually retransmission).
 FREQUENCY
Carrier wave frequency is a basic measure of data-
carrying capacity.

It limits data-carrying capacity because a change in

amplitude, frequency, or phase must be held constant
for at least one wave cycle to be detected reliably
by a receiver.
If a single bit is encoded in each wave cycle, the
raw data transfer rate is equivalent to the carrier
wave frequency.
If multiple bits are encoded in each wave cycle via
multilevel coding, the raw data transfer rate is an
integer multiple of the carrier wave frequency.
 FREQUENCY (CONT. [1])
 Transmission spectrum:
 Radiated energy (guided or
unguided) has different
characteristics at different
frequencies.

 Long-wave and some short-

wave RF frequencies can
traverse metal wires.

 Most RFs, light, and X-rays

can travel through space.

 Optical transmission is
preferred to RF because it
has a much higher
frequency.
The spectrum of electromagnetic frequency
between 101 and 1019 Hz
 BANDWIDTH
 The difference between a signal's maximum and minimum frequencies is
called the signal bandwidth.
 Amount of data that can be transferred from one point to another
within a network in a specified amount of time.
 The difference between the maximum and minimum frequencies that can be
propagated through a transmission medium is called the medium
bandwidth.
 For example:
 A copper wiring in phone circuits can typically carry electromagnetic
frequencies between 0 and 100 MHz. The medium bandwidth is
computed by subtracting the min frequency from the max:
 100 MHz - 0 Hz = 100 MHz.
 A similar calculation for an optical fiber carrying visible light is
approximately:
 790 THz - 400 THz = 390 THz.

 Like maximum signal frequency, channel (or medium) bandwidth determines

the raw data transfer rate:
 Less bandwidth implies lesser transmission capacity.
 SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO
Important concepts:
Noise – any unwanted signal components added to the data
signal that might be interpreted incorrectly as data.
In other words, any signal content detected at the
receiving end of a transmission medium that was not part
of the sender’s signal.

Electromagnetic interference (EMI) – “extra” signal added

to the original signal during transmission by “leakage” into
the medium:
EMI can be produced by a variety of sources, including
electric motors, radio equipment, and nearby power or
communication lines.

Attenuation – loss of signal power as the signal travels

through a transmission medium (due to resistance).

Distortion – change in signal as it travels through a

transmission medium (e.g., echoes, resonance, selective attenuation).
 SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO (CONT. [1])
 Signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio is the difference between signal power
and noise power.
 It is a difference (subtraction), not a ratio (division), because
power is measured in decibels (dB) on a logarithmic scale.

 Noise introduced into a channel is added to the original signal

producing a new signal – the sum of the original signal and the noise
signal.

 S/N ratio limits raw data transfer rate

 Low S/N ratio makes it more difficult for the receiver to “hear” the
original signal within the combined signal and noise.
For example:
Listen to the lecture(r) while a person next to you is snoring.
Listen to TV while music is playing loudly in the next room.
 In the lecture example, reception accuracy is improved if the
speaker speaks more slowly – reducing the transmission rate
to compensate for the low S/N ratio.
 In both examples, increasing signal volume/power (speaker or TV)
improves reception accuracy by increasing the S/N ratio.
 EXAMPLE
S/N = Signal Power – Noise Power
Scenario 1 – High Noise Power?
(S/N1) = 20dB – 15dB = 5dB (Low!)

Scenario 2 – Low Noise Power?

(S/N2) = 20dB – 5dB = 15dB (High!)
 ELECTRICAL CABLING
Electrical signals are usually transmitted
through copper wiring because it is
inexpensive, highly conductive, and easy
to manufacture.
Two most common forms of copper wiring
used for data communication:
Twisted pair wire, and
Coaxial cable.
 ELECTRICAL CABLING (CONT. [1])
 Twisted pair wire
Two copper wires are repeatedly twisted
around one another.
The wires are usually encased in
nonconductive material (e.g., plastic) to
provide minimal shielding from EMI.
Most common quality standards –
Category 5 and 6 Twisted-pair cable

Advantages
Low cost.
Ease of installation.
Disadvantages
High susceptibility to noise.
Limited transmission capacity because
of low bandwidth (generally 250 MHz or RJ-45 connector
less) and a low amplitude (voltage)
limit
 ELECTRICAL CABLING (CONT. [2])
 Coaxial cable
 Contains a single copper conductor
surrounded by a thick plastic
insulator, a metallic shield, and a
tough plastic outer wrapping.
 Because of its heavy shielding,
coaxial cable is very resistant to
EMI.
 Advantages Coaxial cable and connector

Very resistant to EMI.

Attenuation is lower than twisted
pair wire.
Data transmission capacity is
higher over long distances than
twisted pair wire. Twin-axial cable and
 Disadvantages connector
More expensive to install than
twisted pair wire.
Harder to install than twisted-pair
wire.
Below!
 OPTICAL CABLING
 Fiber-optic cable contains strands of light-conducting filaments
made of plastic or glass.
 Electrical shielding is not used because light waves neither
generate nor respond to EMI.
 Two types:
 Multimode optical cable
 The density of optical fibers is different from the surrounding material
(cladding).
 This density difference causes light that might otherwise escape the optical
fibers to reflect back into the fiber.
 Light follows a zigzag path, reflecting many times per centimeter.
 Each reflection attenuates the signal because the cladding absorbs energy.
 Single-mode cable
 Uses smaller diameter optical fibers that vary continuously in density from
center to edge.
 They eliminate reflections and reduce the variation in distance that different
components of the optical signal must travel.
 The result is much lower attenuation and dispersion, which increases raw
data transmission rates and/or transmission distances.
SINGLE- VS MULTI-MODE OPTICAL CABLE
 RADIO FREQUENCY TRANSMISSION
 Computer-related RF data transmission normally uses
frequencies in the shortwave spectrum.

 Advantages
High raw data transfer capacity (because of high frequency
and bandwidth).
High mobility afforded by avoiding wired infrastructure.
One sender transmitting the same message to many
receivers at the same time.

 Disadvantages
Regulatory and legal issues.
Cost of transmitting and receiving stations.
High demand for unused radio frequencies.
Susceptibility to many forms of external interference (e.g., EMI
and multipath distortion).
Security concerns (e.g., anyone with the necessary receiving equipment can
listen to the transmission).
Above!
 CHANNEL ORGANISATION
 Simplex mode
 Uses a single transmission path between sender and receiver.
 Messages flow in only one direction (e.g., unidirectional).
 Half-duplex mode
 Uses a single transmission path between sender and receiver.
 Each node takes turns using the transmission line to transmit and receive.
 After sending a message, the first node signals its intent to cease
transmission by sending a special control message called a line
turnaround.
 The receiver recognizes this message and subsequently assumes the role
of the sender.
 Full-duplex mode
 Uses two transmission paths, one in each direction.
 The receiver can communicate with the sender at any time over the second
transmission line, even while data is still being transmitted on the first line.
 If an error is sensed, the receiver can notify the sender immediately, which
can halt the data transmission and retransmit.
 The speed of full-duplex transmissions is high, even if the channel is
noisy.
CHANNEL ORGANISATION (CONT. [1])

Configurations for simplex (a), half-duplex (b),

and full-duplex (c) modes
 CHANNEL ORGANISATION (CONT. [2])
 Error detection and correction:
 Simplex
No error detection/correction since there is no way for the
receiver to request retransmission of a message with an error.
 Half-duplex
Receiver waits for a line turn-around after detecting an error.
Receiver sends a negative acknowledge (NAK) after line
turn-around.
Sender restarts transmission from the last checkpoint.
Time and transmission capacity are wasted from the time of
error until the time the sender sends line turn-around to the
receiver.
 Full-duplex
Receiver immediately sends NAK after detecting an error.
Sender restarts transmission from last checkpoint.
No time or transmission capacity is wasted after error is
detected.
 PARALLEL AND SERIAL TRANSMISSION
 Parallel transmission
 Carry multiple parts of a message
simultaneously.
 In its typical form, parallel
transmission decomposes a byte or
word into bits and transmits each bit
over a separate sub-channel (see J).
 Sub-channels can be implemented
with separate electrical transmission
lines, optical fibers or frequency J
bands.
 Serial transmission
 Transmits all bits one at a time over a
single electrical transmission line,
optical fiber or frequency band. K
 Bits are extracted from larger
messages, sent sequentially through
the transmission line and the
receiver reassembles them into
the original message (see K).
 CHANNEL SHARING
 Multiplexing
 Process of combining multiple signals into one signal over a
shared transmission medium.
 Carrying independent messages among multiple sender/receiver
pairs across the same communication channel.
Multiplexer – device that accepts multiple incoming
independent message streams from separate channels and
combines them for transmission over one multiplexed channel.
Demultiplexer (demuxer) – device at the end of a multiplexed
channel that extracts individual message streams
(“conversations” among different senders/receivers) and
copies them onto independent non-multiplexed channels.

 Methods:
Time-division multiplexing (TDM) – divide channel capacity
into time “slices” and allocate different slices to different
“conversations”.
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) – divide a channel
with “broad” frequency range into multiple non-overlapping
channels.
 CHANNEL SHARING (CONT. [1])
 Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
 Packet switching is the most common type of TDM.
 Packet switching basics
 Messages from different users or applications are divided into smaller
units called packets (e.g., a few thousand bytes).
 Each packet carries the address of the sender and receiver, as well
as the packet’s sequence number.
 Packets are then sent through the network to their destination.
 The receiver reassembles packets into the original message in their
intended sequence.

Packet switching
 CHANNEL SHARING (CONT. [2])
Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)
A broadband (high bandwidth) channel is subdivided into
multiple baseband (low bandwidth) channels.

Signals are transmitted in each sub-channel at a fixed

frequency or narrow frequency range.

Channel sharing with FDM

 COMMUNICATION COORDINATION
Sender and receiver must coordinate their approaches
to various aspects of communication in a channel:
Start and end times of bits or signal events.
Error detection and correction.
Encryption methods (or lack thereof)*.
 COMMUNICATION COORDINATION (CONT. [1])
 Clock Synchronization
 Bit encoding and decoding is
controlled by a clock – clock ticks
(pulses) mark the end of one bit and
the beginning of the next.
 Senders place bits onto a
transmission line at precise intervals
and receivers examine the signal at
the same intervals to extract encoded
bits.
 Unless sender and receiver share a
common timing reference and use
equivalent transmission rates, data
cannot be extracted correctly from
the signal.
 When sender and receiver share a
common timing reference, they are
said to be synchronized.
 Clock synchronization describes any Bit decoding errors resulting from
means by which sender/receiver keep unsynchronized clocks
both clock parameters the same
(coordination of h/w devices for data they
contain to be identical).
 COMMUNICATION COORDINATION (CONT. [2])
Synchronous communication:
Sender and receiver synchronize the start and
duration of each bit value by referencing a common
clock signal.
Example:
The motherboard of a typical desktop or server computer
carries a common clock signal to all attached devices.
All devices monitor this clock signal continuously and use
it to ensure that receivers read and interpret bits at the
same rate the senders encode and transmit them.
 COMMUNICATION COORDINATION (CONT. [3])
 Asynchronous communication:
 Sender and receiver devices are separated by greater distances
and each device has its own clock.
 Because the clocks are independent, there is no guarantee that
their timing pulses are generated at exactly the same time.
 Most communication protocols synchronize sender-to-receiver
clocks by transmitting clock signals when a connection is first
established.
 However, even if perfect synchronization is achieved at that
time, clocks can drift out of synchronization later.
 Addressing this problem?
Add start bits to the beginning of each message.
Intermix extra bits (having values that are different from the surrounding
bits) with the data bits at periodic intervals.
 These start bits and extra bits give the receiver additional
opportunities to synchronize its clock with the sender's
clock.
 ERROR DETECTION AND CORRECTION
 A crucial component of any communication protocol is a
method for detecting and correcting errors in data
transmission, reception or interpretation.

 Error detection/correction methods vary by:

Size and content of error-detecting message payload.
Efficiency in channel use.
Probability of detecting a “true” error.
Probability of calling good data an error – “false
positive”.
Complexity of the method.

 As in any complex design, characteristics are in conflict

and the chosen method(s) is/are a compromise among
them (e.g., method easy to implement, but may not use the full
capacity of the transmission channel).
 ERROR DETECTION AND CORRECTION (CONT. [1])
 Type I and Type II Error:
With any error detection method there are four possible
outcomes per message:
1. An error occurs, and is detected (good!).
2. An error occurs, and is not detected (very bad) X.
3. No error occurs, but one is detected anyway (bad?) Y.
4. No error occurs, and none is detected (good!).
Type I error – akas the miss rate
Probability of outcome 2 X
Type II error – akas the false positive rate
Probability of outcome 3 Y
For any given error detection method, Type I and II errors
are inversely related (one goes up as the other goes down and vice
versa).
 ERROR DETECTION & CORRECTION (CONT. [2])
 Error detection methods and redundancy (e.g., inclusion of
unnecessary components)
Error detection/correction methods are all based on some
form of redundancy:
Sender generates redundant message content and
transmits it along with the original message (e.g., a copy).
Receiver compares redundant message content to the
original message – error if they do not “match” (e.g., scan).
Receiver requests a retransmission if they do not match.

Methods include:
Parity checking akas vertical redundancy checking –
most redundancy.
Block checking akas longitudinal redundancy checking –
moderate redundancy.
Cyclic redundancy checking – least redundancy.
o Most widely used due to its low redundancy.
Below!
 PARITY CHECKING
 The sender adds a parity bit
to every “character” (group of 7
or 8 bits).

 Two types of checking:

Even parity – the parity bit
is set to make the number
of one-valued bits even.
Odd parity – the parity bit
is set to make the number
of one-valued bits odd. Sample parity bits

 Parity checking has high Type

I error for transmitted data
since transmission errors tend
to affect adjacent bits.
 BLOCK CHECKING
 The sender adds a block
check character (BCC) to a
group of BCC contains parity
bits computed for each
“column” of bits in the block.
 Typical block sizes are
between 64 and 1024 bytes.
 Block checking has
moderately high Type I error
(but not as high as parity checking).
Block checking
 Block checking can be
combined with parity
checking of individual bytes
for improved Type I error.
 CYCLIC REDUNDANCY CHECKING
Most widely used due to its low redundancy.

Similar to block checking, it produces a block check

character for a group of characters/bytes.

Differently from block checking, the check character is

Computed with a complex mathematical algorithm
that has very low Type I and Type II error.
Much higher than 8 bits.
Above!
 Thank You!

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