Lifetime Physical Fitness and Wellness

A Personalized Program 13th Edition

Hoeger Solutions Manual
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Lifetime Physical Fitness Chapter 8
and Wellness Muscular Flexibility

CHAPTER 8
MUSCULAR FLEXIBILITY
“Regrettably, most people neglect flexibility training, limiting freedom of movement, physical and mental relaxation,
release of muscle tension and soreness, and injury prevention.” American Council on Exercise (ACE)

OBJECTIVES
▪ Explain the importance of muscular flexibility to adequate fitness.
▪ Identify the factors that affect muscular flexibility.
▪ Explain the health–fitness benefits of stretching.
▪ Become familiar with a battery of tests to assess overall body flexibility (Modified Sit-and-Reach Test,
Total Body Rotation Test, Shoulder Rotation Test).
▪ Be able to interpret flexibility test results according to health–fitness and physical-fitness standards.
▪ Learn the principles that govern development of muscular flexibility.
▪ List some exercises that may cause injury.
▪ Become familiar with a program for preventing and rehabilitating low-back pain.
▪ Create your own personal flexibility profile.

MINDTAP
Check your understanding of the chapter contents by logging on to MindTap and assessing the pre-test, personalized
learning plan, and post-test for this chapter.

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

Will stretching before exercise prevent injuries? This is currently a controversial subject; studies have concluded
that stretching is a benefit, not a benefit, and even a detriment. The nature of the stretching and activity to follow are
factors in whether stretching can be shown to prevent injuries.
Does strength training limit flexibility? Strength training through the full range of motion does not limit flexibility.
Will stretching exercises help me lose weight? The caloric expenditure of stretching exercises is extremely low.
How much should stretching “hurt” to gain flexibility? Proper stretching should be performed to “mild tension” and
not cause undue pain.

REAL LIFE STORY

Maria’s experience in learning how to prevent and treat back pain.

EXPANDED CHAPTER OUTLINE

I. INTRODUCTION
A. Defined: Flexibility is defined as the achievable range of motion at a joint or group of joints
without causing injury.
B. Benefits of Good Flexibility
1. Enables economical movement.
2. Maintains appropriate muscle length.
3. Reduces the risk for injury.
C. Flexibility can go too far.
1. Too much flexibility leads to unstable and loose joints.
2. Injuries are more likely.
3. Examples include joint dislocation and subluxation (partial joint dislocation).
D. Flexibility training can be prescribed for:
1. Tendon, ligament, and muscle injuries.
2. Weak muscles.
3. Muscle cramps.
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4. Alleviation of physical tensions resulting from the stress response.

5. Poor posture.
6. Dysmenorrhea—painful menstruation.
E. Flexibility in Older Adults
1. The inability to move about (turn the head, bend over, etc.) can reduce quality of life.
2. Adequate flexibility is important for driving safety.
3. Tight flexor muscles make exercise difficult. In a vicious circle, this is often the result
of inactivity.
4. Accidents (especially falls) are more likely.

II. FACTORS AFFECTING FLEXIBILITY

A. The Factors:
1. Genetics
2. Recent Physical Activity
3. Muscle Temperature
4. Joint Structure
5. Ligaments and Tendons
6. Muscle Bulk and Fat Bulk
7. Previous Injury Scar Tissue
8. Age
B. Flexibility is joint specific.
1. The factors may relate to one joint only or in a unique combination.
2. Only certain joints may be subjected to exercise, injury, or factors of body type.
C. Flexibility enhancement may be temporary or permanent.
1. Plastic Elongation
a. Defined: the permanent lengthening of soft tissue.
b. Plastic tissues include joint capsules, ligaments, and tendons.
c. Is best achieved using slow-sustained stretching exercises.
2. Elastic Elongation
a. Defined: the temporary lengthening of soft tissue.
b. The main elastic tissue is muscle.

III. ASSESSMENT OF FLEXIBILITY

A. Most tests have been sport specific.
1. Front-to-rear splits test.
2. Bridge-up test.
B. Even though flexibility is joint specific, test batteries have not been developed.
1. The tests used involve multiple joints.
2. The tests are applied to usual “problem” areas of flexibility.
C. The Modified Sit-and-Reach Test (Figure 8.1; Table 8.1)
1. It has been “modified” to account for arm vs. leg length differences.
2. Incorporates low-back and hamstring flexibility.
D. The Total Body Rotation Test (Figure 8.2; Table 8.2)
1. Consists of right and left measures.
2. Incorporates the twisting flexibility of the entire trunk.
E. The Shoulder Rotation Test (Figure 8.3; Table 8.3)
1. Involves the shoulder and shoulder girdle.
2. Compares the biacromial width to the smallest possible grip width.
F. Interpreting Flexibility Test Results (Tables 8.4 and 8.5)
1. Table 8.4 translates the flexibility percentile in a fitness category.
2. Table 8.5 indicates overall flexibility from total points of the three tests.
3. Record the test results in Activity 8.1.

IV. PRINCIPLES OF MUSCULAR FLEXIBILITY PRESCRIPTION

A. Basic Training Principles
1. Overload
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a. The muscles must be stretched beyond their accustomed length.

b. The training must progress to continue stimulating change.
2. Specificity
a. Identifying the actual location (joint) to be trained.
b. Administration of the appropriate training methods.
B. Modes of Training
1. Static (Slow-Sustained Stretching)
a. Lengthening the muscle tissue gradually over 10–60 seconds.
b. Because it causes the muscle to relax and causes little pain, it has a low risk for
injury.
c. The most frequently used recommended mode of flexibility development.
2. Passive Stretching
a. Similar to static stretching but an external force is applied to increase the range
of motion.
3. Ballistic Stretching
a. Fast and repetitive bouncing motions to achieve a greater degree of stretch.
b. Fitness professionals believe it causes muscle soreness and increases the risk of
injury even though there is not strong data to corroborate this.
c. Previous aerobic warmup and only gentle bouncing movements are
recommended.
d. This is the least recommended form of stretching.
4. Dynamic Stretching
a. Speed of movement, momentum, and active muscular effort are used to increase
the range of joint motion.
b. Bouncing motions are not included.
c. Dynamic stretches do not decrease strength and power as occurs with static
stretches.
d. Control of the range of motion is needed so as to not overstretch joint ligaments.
5. Controlled Ballistic Stretching
a. Consists of slow, gentle, and controlled (not jerky, rapid, and bouncy) repeated
movements.
b. Is considered a safe stretching mode.
6. Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF) Stretching
a. Called “contract-and-relax” because it causes the body to reduce tension in a
muscle after a vigorous contraction.
b. A 5–6 second isometric contraction, against the push of a partner, results in the
relaxation of the muscle(s) just contracted and a held stretch for 10–30 seconds.
c. Research shows increases in strength of the muscle as well.
d. Disadvantages of PNF include more pain, need for a second person to assist, and
more required time for the flexibility session.
C. Physiological Response to Stretching
1. Proprioceptors in the muscle respond to stretching.
2. Muscle spindles are located in the muscle belly to detect changes in muscle length.
a. When a muscle spindle is stimulated, a stretch reflex occurs.
b. The result of a stimulated muscle spindle is for the muscle to contract.
c. Faster stretching elicits this reflex.
3. Golgi tendon organs are located at the interface between the muscle and the tendon to
detect force on the muscle.
a. A stimulated Golgi tendon organ causes the muscle to relax.
b. Injury might be averted by this reflex if forces in the muscle are too high.
c. Higher forces produced by stretching cause relaxation of the muscle through this
Golgi tendon reflex.
D. Intensity
1. The degree of stretch should be only to a point of mild discomfort or tightness.
2. The muscle should be as relaxed as possible along with relatively slow stretching
movements.
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Critical Thinking: Carefully consider the relevance of stretching exercises to your personal fitness program. How
much importance do you place on these exercises? Have some conditions improved through your stretching
program, or have certain specific exercises contributed to your health and well-being?

E. Repetitions
1. A 10-minute session is the recommended minimum for flexibility training.
2. The length of the flexibility session depends on the number of repetitions (the amount
of times each stretch is performed) as well as the number of flexibility exercises.
3. The session length is also affected by the length of time each repetition is held at the
extreme range of joint motion.
F. Frequency of Exercise
1. Regular flexibility training maintains functional capacity, decreases injury risk, and
enhances stretching tolerance.

V. WHEN TO STRETCH?
A. Warm-up begins with easy walking, cycling, or jogging.
1. The goal is to get the muscle warm, so it resists less.
2. Gentle stretching may be required preceding this warm-up.
3. The warm-up activity should be done for 3–10 minutes, depending on the nature of the
activity to follow.
B. Stretching continues this activity preparation as the joints are tested through their full range of
motion, withholding the final degree of stretch.
C. Following this, sports-specific, pre-exercise stretching may be needed and beneficial.
D. Intense stretching during warm-up is not recommended before strength/power athletic events
because it can lead to a temporary (up to a 60-minute) decrease in strength.
E. Flexibility training has also been found to be muscle protective if done following an exercise
session.

VI. FLEXIBILITY EXERCISES

A. Subject each muscle to at least one exercise.
1. Perform each exercise through the full range of motion.
2. A complete workout lasts between 15–30 minutes.
B. High-Risk Exercises
1. Figure 8.5 illustrates exercises that are contraindicated (not recommended because
they may cause injury).

VII. PREVENTING AND REHABILITATING LOW-BACK PAIN (Activity 8.2)

A. Low-back pain is prevalent.
B. More than 95 percent of all back pain is related to muscle/tendon injury and imbalance.
1. The weak muscles often are the abdominals and gluteals.
2. The relatively stronger (and therefore shorter) muscles are those of the low back. This
causes pain.
3. A forward tilt of the pelvis results (Figure 8.6), pressuring the spinal vertebrae. This
causes pain.
4. Excessive abdominal fat further accentuates pelvic tilt.
5. The resulting faulty posture is shown in Figure 8.7.
C. Alleviation of Low-Back Pain
1. Use positive postural techniques for everyday activities (Figures 8.6 and 8.7).
2. The beginning program should work the flexibility of the low back and the strength of
the abdominals and gluteals (Figure 8.7).

Critical Thinking: Consider your own low-back health. Have you ever had episodes of low-back pain? If so, how
long did it take you to recover, and what helped you recover from this condition?
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D. Effects of Posture
1. Good Posture:
a. Enhances personal appearance.
b. Enhances self-image.
c. Enhances confidence.
d. Improves balance and endurance.
e. Protects against misalignment-related pains and aches.
f. Prevents falls.
g. Enhances overall sense of well-being.
2. Poor Posture:
a. Includes poor sleeping, sitting, sanding, walking, driving, working, and
exercising body mechanics.
b. Is a risk factor for musculoskeletal problems of the neck, shoulders, and low
back.
E. Effects of Stress—Can:
1. Tighten muscles and reduce balance with other muscles.
2. Reduce the supply of oxygen and nutrients to specific body areas via constriction of
blood vessels.
3. Cause forgetfulness of proper body mechanics.
F. Personal Flexibility and Low-Back Conditioning Program
1. Target spinal stability.
2. Target overall body flexibility and strength.
3. Some of the recommended exercises are isometric.
4. Start with a 2–5 second hold, increasing the length up to 20 seconds over the course of
several weeks.
Lifetime Physical Fitness Chapter 8
and Wellness Muscular Flexibility

CHAPTER 8
MUSCULAR FLEXIBILITY
LABORATORY DESCRIPTIONS

MODIFIED SIT-AND-REACH TEST (Figure 8.1, Tables 8.1 and 8.4, and Activity 8.1)

Theory
Main point
 The greater the net reach, the greater the low-back and hamstring flexibility.
Supporting points
1. Referencing the starting arms position relative to the feet position eliminates the factor of arm and leg
length variability in the flexibility estimate.
2. Even though flexibility is joint specific, this test is a good estimate of body flexibility because the low back
and hamstrings tend to be limiting factors in body movement.
Assumptions
1. The subjects have warmed up similarly to those who contributed data to the percentile norms.
2. The technique is performed correctly.
3. The participants gave maximal effort.

Procedure
1. Warm up properly.
2. Remove shoes; then place hips, back, and head against the wall. The feet should be flat against the box and
the knees straight.
3. Place hands one on top of the other, reach forward as far as possible without the head or back leaving the
wall. Measure this reference position on the box or an extension of the scale, using a yard/meter stick.
4. Reach forward (head and back leaving the wall) as far as possible two times, holding each final position at
least 2 seconds.

Evaluation
1. Subtract the reference position measure from the average of the two final reaches. This is the net reach.
2. Identify the percentile of the net reach on Table 8.1.
3. Identify the fitness category of the net reach percentile on Table 8.4.
4. Record results in Activity 8.1.

TOTAL BODY ROTATION TEST (Figure 8.2, Tables 8.2 and 8.4, and Activity 8.1)

Theory
Main point
 The greater the reach, the greater the body rotation flexibility in that direction.
Supporting points
1. The flexibility estimated is judged relative to the limits of technique variations allowed.
2. Even though flexibility is joint specific, this test is a good estimate of overall flexibility (in the horizontal
plane, about the vertical axis) because it involves the entire body in the rotation.
Assumptions
1. The subjects have warmed up similarly to those who contributed data to the percentile norms.
2. The technique is performed correctly.
3. The participants gave maximal effort.

Procedure
1. Warm up properly.
2. Stand sideways, an arm’s length away from the wall, with the feet straight ahead, slightly separated, and the
toes right up to the 15-inch (38-cm) line.
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3. Hold out the arm opposite to the wall horizontally from the body.
4. Rotate the trunk and the extended arm backward and as far forward as possible on the measuring
instrument (held for 2 seconds), without rotating the feet or stumbling forward.
5. Perform two trials, and average the results.

Evaluation
1. Identify the percentile of right and left rotation on Table 8.2.
2. Identify the fitness category of each rotation percentile on Table 8.4.
3. Record results in Activity 8.1.

SHOULDER ROTATION TEST (Figure 8.3, Tables 8.3 and 8.4, and Activity 8.1)

Theory
Main point
 The smaller the hand spacing distance relative to the biacromial width, the greater the shoulder flexibility.
Supporting points
1. This test contributes information toward total body flexibility because many muscles are involved with the
movement of the shoulder and shoulder girdle.
2. This test is joint specific. Combined with the results of the Modified Sit-and-Reach and the Total Body
Rotation Tests, overall body flexibility is well summarized.
Assumptions
1. The subjects have warmed up similarly to those who contributed data to the percentile norms.
2. The technique is performed correctly.
3. The participants gave maximal effort.

Procedure
1. Warm up properly.
2. Measure the biacromial width using a shoulder caliper.
3. With a reverse grip, hold the instrument behind the back with the right hand on the zero mark and the left
hand as wide as needed.
4. Standing up straight and extending both arms to full length (elbows locked), slowly bring the instrument
over the head until it reaches forehead level.
5. Multiple trials are performed to determine the shortest distance between the hands on the instrument with a
successful result (hands can be brought over the head).

Evaluation
1. Determine the final score by subtracting the biacromial width from the shortest successful distance.
2. Identify the percentile of the final score on Table 8.3.
3. Identify the fitness category of the final score percentile on Table 8.4.
4. Record results in Activity 8.1.
Lifetime Physical Fitness Chapter 8
and Wellness Muscular Flexibility

CHAPTER 8
MUSCULAR FLEXIBILITY
CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES

CARTOONS

Use popular cartoons to illustrate flexibility problems that many Americans face.

PROGRESS REPORTS
Give simple prospective and retrospective quizzes to keep students reading and thinking.
1. Put multiple-choice, true–false, or short answer questions on a half-sheet of paper.
2. This requires students to make a commitment to some controversial choices.
3. Use the questions as an outline for topics of the day.

WHY GET MORE FLEXIBLE?

1. Divide students into two groups.

2. Have students gather around the chalkboard, writing answers on their half of the board.

CLASS DIVERSITY

1. Ask students to show extreme flexion or extension of selected joints.

2. Have students compare the results.
3. Ask why there is a difference.
4. Then introduce the factors affecting flexibility, pointing to particular students as examples.

TESTIMONIALS

1. Bring in a very flexible person to show what is possible.

2. Have another guest relate the life difficulties encountered because of low flexibility.

TESTIMONIALS

1. Have students brainstorm behavior that leads to low-back pain.

2. Write the responses on the board, leaving room at the end of each comment.
3. Ask for changes in behavior that would eliminate this negative risk for low-back pain.
4. Write the “corrections” after each poor behavior.

FLEXIBILITY TRAINING CRITERIA (Figure 8.4)

1. Ask what constitutes an exercise program that will bring about significant flexibility.
2. Students should respond with comments about frequency, duration, mode, and intensity.
3. Ask about initiating flexibility training for different students in the class and/or their parents.

PARTNER STRETCHES

1. Paired students go through a choreographed routine of partner-assisted stretching exercises.

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2. Include proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation stretches in the routine.

3. Explain flexibility and strength principles throughout the session.
4. Make the routine short enough so that assignments can be reversed.

STRETCHING ROUTINES

1. Assign groups to demonstrate stretching routines for the class. The assignment may include a specific
flexibility focus (sport, activity, rehabilitation, etc.).
2. Encourage creativity of the leaders in preparation and active participation of the followers during the
presentations.

POOR STRETCHING POSITIONS

1. Ask students for certain stretches that are contraindicated.

2. Students should demonstrate for the class.
3. Then ask for “safer” substitute stretches.
4. Ask if particular exercise groups might effectively use the dangerous stretch.

FLEXIBILITY AND STRENGTH

1. Relate some history or instances of strong but inflexible individuals.

2. Explore why students were inflexible.
3. Divide into groups for brainstorming of how flexibility can be improved or reduced by strength training.
4. After reuniting the class, lead a discussion on this topic from the written responses of the groups.
5. When responses are similar, develop the theme of strength training through the entire range of motion
versus “cheat” lifting.
6. Remark about the joint-stabilizing effects of muscle.
7. Continue any momentum of responses in the area of posture and resting muscle lengths that are established
by a balance of strength between agonist and antagonist muscles.
8. Conclude also (as student responses get close to the subject) that some individuals will be better able to
perform stretching exercises after establishing enhanced strength.

POSTURE AND ATHLETICS

1. Introduce the topic of posture being an effective starting point for use of the body in activity.
2. Have students think about their favorite participant sport.
3. Then, have students simulate (in slow motion) an aspect of the sport movement.
4. Move positioning of the pelvis or spine by gently pushing or pulling on an arm or shoulder to show how
posture affects the ability to perform the movement.
5. Sometimes their posture is already poor and you can show how a change improves the movement.
6. Now have partners also disturb posture of other sport movements (in a controlled environment).

LABORATORY CALCULATION REVIEW

In class, review key aspects of theory and math for the joint flexibility estimation techniques.

INTERPRETING THE REAL LIFE STORY: Maria’s Experience

Maria experienced back pain for a while and figured that there was nothing she could do to get rid of it. After
reading her textbook, though, she realized that there were steps she could take to help alleviate her back pain. She
Lifetime Physical Fitness Chapter 8
and Wellness Muscular Flexibility

began to pay attention to correcting her posture, she bought a new (firmer) mattress, and she began to exercise and
stretch daily. Her back pain is almost completely gone thanks to her efforts.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. Maria found that her muscular pain was a result of many factors. What causes tightness or pain in your
body? What can you do to combat this?
2. Do you experience back pain? If so, have you tried stretching to decrease the pain?

WEB RESOURCES

1. Yoga Journal article on the Science of Flexibility: http://www.yogajournal.com/practice/209

2. President’s Challenge pdf covering Current Issues in Flexibility:

https://www.presidentschallenge.org/informed/digest/docs/200006digest.pdf

3. American Heart Association’s page of Stretching and Flexibility Exercises:

http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/Conditions/More/CardiacRehab/Stretching-and-Flexibility-
Exercises_UCM_307383_Article.jsp

A note regarding the Online Journal:

An Online Journal is offered as a gradable assignment in MindTap. If you do not use MindTap in your course, an
alternate online journal can be used. One alternative is Penzu Classroom. Penzu Classroom allows students to
register for an online journal for free with a specific class code as set up by you, the instructor. These journals can be
assigned and then auto-graded and returned to students electronically. Click here for more information and to sign
up: http://penzu.com/content/products/classroom.