Highway and Railroad Engineering

MODULE 1 – Introduction to Highway and Railroad Engineering

1.1 Importance of Transportation

For as long as the human race has existed, transportation has played a significant role by facilitating trade,
commerce, conquest, and social interaction, while consuming a considerable portion of time and resources. The
primary need for transportation has been economic, involving personal travel in search of food or work, travel for the
exchange of goods and commodities, exploration, personal fulfillment, and the improvement of a society or a nation.
The movements of people and goods, which is the basis of transportation, always has been undertaken to
accomplish those basic objectives or tasks that require transfer from one location to another.
Tapping natural resources and markets and maintaining a competitive edge over other regions and nations
are linked closely to the quality of the transportation system. The speed, cost, and capacity of available transportation
have a significant impact on the economic vitality of an area and the ability to make maximum use of its natural
resources.
Without the ability to transport manufactured goods and raw materials and without technical know-how, a
country is unable to maximize the comparative advantage it may have in the form of natural or human resources.
Countries that lack an abundance of natural resources rely heavily on transportation in order to import raw materials
and export manufactured products.

1.2 Passenger Transportation Modes and Traffic Congestion

The transportation system today is a highly developed, complex network of modes and facilities that
furnishes shippers and travelers with a wide range of choices in terms of services provided. Each mode offers a
unique set of service characteristics in terms of travel time, frequency, comfort, reliability, convenience, and safety.
The term level of service is used to describe the relative values of these attributes. The traveler or shipper must
compare the level of service offered with the cost in order to make tradeoffs and mode selection. Furthermore, a
shipper or traveler can decide to use a public carrier or to use private (or personal) transportation.
Of the available urban transportation modes (such as bus, commuter train, subway, private vehicle, and
others), private vehicles (and single-occupant private vehicles in particular) offer an unequaled level of mobility. The
single-occupant private vehicle has been such a dominant choice that travelers have been willing to pay substantial
capital and operating costs, confront high levels of congestion, and struggle with parking-related problems just to
have the flexibility in travel departure time and destination choices that is uniquely provided by private vehicles. In the
last 50 years, the percentage of trips taken in private vehicles has risen from slightly less than 70 percent to over 90
percent (public transit and other modes make up the balance). Over this same period, the average private-vehicle
occupancy has dropped from 1.22 to 1.09 persons per vehicle, reflecting the fact that the single-occupant vehicle has
become an increasingly dominant mode of travel.

1.2.1 Common Modes of Transportation in the Philippines

The Philippines has some of the world’s most peculiar and most exciting rides. There is an array of
transportation, auspicious or otherwise, for every traveler to use for their convenience.
a. Jeepneys and Multicabs
The colorful, iconic jeepney is the hallmark of Philippine transportation. Jeepneys are non-air con vehicles
servicing the commuting public, roaming the streets in a parade of colors. It’s the cheapest, most common way of
getting around. The multicab is a smaller version of the standard jeepney, but has the same function. It can get
awfully confined inside a multicab, especially for taller, bigger passengers.
b. Buses
Buses ply longer routes from the city to the countryside and distant provinces. It’s the main mode of
transport for land trips that last an hour to several hours, or overnight. There are specific terminals and
unloading/loading spots for buses. Bus fleets are relatively more comfortable than jeepneys, although some don’t
have air conditioning and can be quite crowded on peak season.
c. Taxis
Taxis normally roam around the city streets, picking up or unloading passengers within the city limits. It’s
possible to hire a taxi beyond its route but drivers usually charge extra for the longer trip. Airport taxis specifically
serve airport-bound or newly arrived airplane passengers.
d. Trains (MRT / LRT)
All three railway systems in the country operate around Metro Manila: the Manila Light Rail Transit System
(LRT 1 & 2), Manila Metro Rail Transit System (MRT), and the Philippine National Railways (PNR). LRT and PNR are
government-owned and operated by the Department of Transportation (DOTr). MRT is private-owned but co-
operated with DOTr.
e. Vans
Vans for Hire or V-Hires service provincial routes where other modes of transportations are scarce or
unavailable. They usually have terminals or park within shopping malls for added convenience.
f. Motorcycles with Passenger Compartment
These modes of transport come in a variety of designs. Some have sidecar with three wheels (standard
tricycle) while others are fitted with jeepney-like chassis and have four wheels (motorela). Tricycles and motorelas
are as colorful as passenger jeepneys. They serve very limited routes and are often restricted from servicing busy
cities.
g. Motorcycle Taxis (Habal-habal)
The roads leading to the hinterlands and mountain barangays in the Philippines are very steep or aren’t
paved at all. Generally, the only means of transportation to these areas are motorcycle taxis or habal-habal. It’s a
relatively unsafe way to travel because habal-habals may carry more than two passengers at a time, excluding the
driver. Some habal-habals are fitted with a lateral plank (skylab) for it to accommodate more passengers.
h. Bicycles with Sidecar (Pedicab or Trisikad)
Pedicabs or trisikads are non-motorized versions of the tricycle or motorela. The driver pedals the bicycle
fitted with a sidecar to bring or fetch passengers within a small area. Because they don’t produce noise, they’re
preferred transport options around upscale residential areas.
i. Ferry Boats (Ro-Ro) / Pumpboats (Bancas)
Philippine inter-island travels are best done via ferry boats or roll-in-roll-out ships for major islands, and
pumpboats or bancas for smaller islands and private island hopping trips. For short-distance inter-island travels,
there’s an option to ride smaller yet faster hovercrafts. Bancas are usually small fishing vessels with wooden panels
and bamboo riggers.
j. Airplanes.
The costlier but faster way to visit the different islands of the Philippines is via airplane. There are more than
10 international airports, more than 30 principal domestic airports in the country, and a good number of community
airports and unclassified airstrips across the Philippines for public transportation.

Aside from the ones listed above, the Philippines also has some of the most peculiar means of travel such
as the “palayon” or wooden scooter in Banaue, “pasayad” or carabao-pulled cart, “kalesa” or horse carriage, “kuliglig”
or hand tractor ride, and the “riles kariton” or railroad trolley.

1.2.2 Traffic Congestion

Traffic congestion that has arisen as a result of extensive private-vehicle use and low-vehicle occupancy
presents a perplexing problem. The high cost of new highway construction (including monetary, environmental and
social costs) often makes building new highways or adding additional highway capacity an unattractive option. Trying
to manage the demand for highways also has its problems. For example, programs aimed at reducing congestion by
encouraging travelers to take alternate modes of transportation (bus-fare incentives, increases in private-vehicle
parking fees, tolls and traffic-congestion pricing, rail- and bus-transit incentives) or increasing vehicle occupancy
(high-occupancy vehicle lanes and employer-based ridesharing programs) can be considered viable options.
However, such programs have the adverse effect of directing people toward travel modes that inherently provide
lower levels of mobility because no other mode offers the departure-time and destination-choice flexibility provided by
private, single-occupant vehicles. Managing traffic congestion is an extremely complex problem with significant
economic, social, environmental, and political implications.

1.3 Characteristics of Road Transport

 Roads are used by various types of road vehicles, like passenger cars, buses, trucks two and three wheeled
automobiles, pedal cycles and animal drawn vehicles. Railway tracks are used only by rail locomotives and
wagons. Water ways are used by only ships and boats.
  Road transport requires a relatively small investment for the government. Motor vehicles are much cheaper
than carriers like rail locomotives and wagons, water and air carriers. Construction and maintenance of
roads is also cheaper than that of railway track, docks, harbors and airports.
 Road transport completely offer freedom to road users to transfer the vehicles from one lane to another
according to the need and convenience. This flexibility changes in location, direction, speed and timings of
travel is not available to other modes of transport.
 In particular for short distance travel, road transport saves time. Trains stop at junctions and main stations
for comparatively longer time.
 Speed of movement is directly related with severity of accident. The road Safety decreases with increase
dispersion in speed. Road Transport is subjected to high degree of accidents due to flexibility of movements
offered to the user. Derailment of railway locomotives and air planes and air crashes are not uncommon.
They are in fact more disastrous.
 Road transport is the only means of transport offer itself to the whole community.
 The Major defect of road is Traffic. Traffic means the amount of vehicles using in given volume of road than
average no. of vehicles. It cause an irritation to passenger who were travelling. Without proper maintenance
fatal accidents may occur.

1.4 Scope of Highway and Traffic Engineering

Transportation Engineering is the application of technology and scientific principles to the planning,
functional design, operation and management of facilities for any mode of transportation in order to provide for the
safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical and environmentally compatible movement of people and goods.
Modes of Transportation
 Highways
 Urban Transit
 Air
 Rail
 Water
 Pipelines

1.4.1 Highway Engineering Defined

The road pavements are generally constructed on small embankments, slightly above the general ground
level wherever possible, in order to avoid difficulty drainage and maintenance problems. The term road or railway
thus constructed is therefore termed 'highway' and science and technology dealing with Road Engineering is
generally called ‘Highway Engineering'.
Highway Engineering is the branch of civil engineering that deals with the planning, design, construction,
operation and maintenance of highway systems, streets, roads, bridges, as well as parking facilities.

Highway usually refers to a facility that can accommodate large volumes of traffic.
Street and Road are used mainly for facilities that serve local areas and also provide access to highways.
Scope of Highway Engineering
 Development, Planning and Locations – Historical background; Basis for Planning; Master Plan;
Engineering Surveys and Highway alignment.
 Highway Design, Geometrics and structure – Road Geometrics and their Design; Rigid and Flexible
pavements; Design factors and Thickness design; Overlay design.
 Traffic Performance and its Control – Traffic Studies Analysis; Need for New Road Links; Traffic Regulation
and Control; Intersection Design and their controls with signs, islands and markings.
 Materials, Construction and Maintenance – Highway Materials and Mix Design; Highway Construction; Earth
Work; Construction of different Earthen, Soil Stabilized structure.
 Pavement Design and Evaluation – Design and maintenance of pavements.
 Economic, Finance and Administration – Road User; Cost and Economic Analysis of Highway Projects;
Highway Finance and Phasing of Expenditure.
1.4.2 Traffic Engineering Defined
Traffic engineering is a method of civil engineering that helps to optimize the performance and efficiency of
the movement of people, goods, and transportation.
In the field of traffic engineering, engineers must look at the whole picture in order to maximize traffic flow
and reduce instanced of congestion: the movement of vehicles on roads and highways; the movement of
pedestrians. Through data collection of road construction, land development, and traffic signals, and build traffic
studies from them–allowing them to come up with new and inventive ways to optimize the construction of roads,
freeways, and other forms of ground transportation.
Common objectives of traffic engineering included the following:
 Providing high efficient traffic flow through ample research and innovative design efforts.
 To produce free flow of traffic.
 Use research to design roadways and highways that increase traffic safety (strategic implementation of stop
signs, traffic signs, and traffic lights)
Usually, to successfully implement the above-mentioned objectives, traffic engineers will be required to
study an abundance of data, research, and literature on the characteristics of traffic, the operations of traffic, traffic
administration, traffic planning, and the geometrical design of traffic, amongst other things. In addition to studying
data, many traffic engineers will execute a number of studies that will give them the appropriate data for traffic
optimization. Some (of the many) studies include:
 Accident studies
 Traffic capacity studies
 Speed studies
 Traffic volume studies
 Parking studies
 Origin and destination studies
 Traffic flow characteristics studies

1.5 Highways as Part of the Transportation System

It is important to keep in mind that highway transportation is part of a larger transportation system that
includes air, rail, and water and pipeline transportation. In this system, highways are the dominant mode of most
passenger and freight movements. For passenger travel, highways account for about 90 percent of all passenger-
miles. On the freight side, commercial trucks account for about 37 percent of the freight ton-miles and, because
commercial trucks transport higher-valued goods than other modes of transportation (with the exception of air
transportation), nearly 80 percent of the dollar value of all goods is transported by commercial trucks.
While highways play a dominant role in both passenger and freight movement, in many applications there
are critical interfaces among the various transportation modes. For example, many air, rail, water and pipeline freight
movements involve highway transportation at some point for their initial collection and final distribution. Interfaces
between modes, such as those at water ports, airports and rail terminals, create interesting transportation problems
but, if handled correctly, can greatly improve the efficiency of the overall transportation system.

1.5.1 Highways in the Philippines

In the early part of 1900, transportations in this country depended largely on trails, waterways, railroad,
earth roads and partially graveled roads. Highway in the Philippines at that time is nothing more than a dream to
most Filipinos. The American government initiated the development of roadways in the Philippines, connecting
towns, cities and provinces. The popular Macadam road type was introduced. It gained wide acceptance because of
the abundant supply of stones and gravel.
After the Second World War, the new independent Philippine government continued the rehabilitation and
construction of roads and bridges, through the reparations and war damages paid by the Japanese government.
Other financial grants and aids received from the U.S. government were used in the construction and rehabilitation of
roads and bridges.
Fifty years later, major highways and expressways were constructed through the financial assistance and loans from
foreign banks. Alongside with the industrialization program of the government, vehicles of various types and sizes
started flooding the roadways. Recent Land transportation records revealed that, more than 80,000 brand new
vehicles were added to their lists every year. At an average of 5.00 meters road occupancy by these vehicles, the
DPWH must open 400 kilometers new roads every year. This data did not include the roadway for second hand or
surplus assembled cars. With this statistical report, solution to traffic problems is nowhere in sight. Traffic problems
are expected to worsen year after year.
The year 1960 to early part of 1980 was considered an automobile age. Cars were no longer regarded as
luxury item but a necessity in transporting people and goods, a necessity for survival, Government new concept of
development is to get the farmers out of the mud. It was during this decade that road construction becomes a matter
of priority of the government under the slogan: "This nation is on Wheels”.

1.5.2 Classification of Roads

Road Classification relates to the function or purpose of the road. The essence of functional classification is
that it concentrates on the purpose of the road in a strategic and interregional sense rather than its use in terms of
traffic related to geometric features. It is important for long-term strategic planning and prioritization. Thus, roads may
be classified as, for example, arterial, secondary, feeder roads, or collector roads, irrespective of their ownership.
In most countries, there is a direct relationship between a road’s function and its management. i.e. National
government manages and maintains roads which have a national function; and Local government manages and
maintains roads which have a local function. However, in Philippines, over time, National government has been given
the responsibility through Legislative Act or Executive Order to manage or maintain roads which are Local in function.

a. National Primary
 Directly connects Major Cities (at least around 100,000 people)
Cities within Metropolitan Areas are not covered by the criteria

b. National Secondary
 Directly connects Cities to National Primary Roads, except in Metropolitan Area
 Directly connects Major Ports and Ferry Terminals to National Primary Road
 Directly connects Major Airports to National Primary Road
 Directly connects Tourist Service Centers to National Primary Roads or other-
 Directly connects Cities (not included in the category of Major Cities)
 Directly connects Provincial Capitals within the same Region
 Directly connects to Major National Government Infrastructure to National Primary Roads or Other National
Secondary Roads

c. National Tertiary
 Other existing roads under DPWH which perform a local function

d. Provincial Roads (Local Roads)

 Connect Cities and Municipalities without traversing National Roads
 Connect National Roads to Barangays through rural areas
 Connect to Major Provincial Government Infrastructure

e. Municipal and City Roads (Local Roads)

 Roads within the Poblacion
 Roads that connect to Provincial and National Roads
 Roads that provide Inter-Barangay connections to Major Municipal and City Infrastructure without traversing
Provincial Roads

f. Barangay Roads (Local Roads)

 Other Public Roads (officially turned over) within the Barangay and not covered in the above definitions.

g. Expressways
 Highways with limited access, normally with interchanges; may include facilities for levying tolls for passage
in an open or closed system.
h. Bypasses
 Are roads or highways that avoid a built-up area, town or city proper to let through traffic flow without
interference from local traffic reduce congestion and improve road safety where a toll for passage is levied
in an open or closed system.

1.6. Highway Planning

Roads and Highways play a vital role in development of human society. But for every successful project
planning is necessary. From a small road to big structure and highways planning is the first and foremost thing need
to be done.
Planning becomes more important when sources of funds and materials are limited in quantity. These types
of problems especially occur in developing countries. Thus, for developing a highway or a structure, planning along
with the consultations from experts are basic requirements.
Objectives of highway planning:
 A highway should be plan according to the volume of daily traffic flow from a particular path. For this
purpose proper survey must be done to collect the adequate amount of data.
 The highways develop must be efficient, but at a minimum cost, especially in cases of developing and
underdeveloped countries.
 The highways should be safe and secure.
 The planning must have a forecast for next several years in order plan fix periods for maintenance, renewal
and widening as well.

References:
 Principles of Highway Engineering and Traffic Analysis, 5 th Edition by Fred L. Mannering and Scott S.
Washburn
 Traffic and Highway Engineering, 4th Edition by Nicholas J. Garber and Lester A. Hoel
 Elements of Roads and Highways, 2nd Edition by Max B. Fajardo, Jr.
 DPWH Road Classification and Route Numbering System

Online References:
https://topten.ph/2015/09/05/common-modes-of-transportation-in-the-philippines/
https://triptheislands.com/featured/different-types-of-transportation-in-the-philippines/
http://importanceofhighways.blogspot.com/2015/01/characteristics-of-road-transport.html
http://importanceofhighways.blogspot.com/2015/01/scope-of-highway-engineeing.html
https://www.t2-eng.com/importance-traffic-engineering/