Using and Interpreting Statistics 3rd

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 Chapter 10 Between-Subjects, One-Way Analysis of 98

10 Between-Subjects, One-Way Analysis of

Variance

NOTE TO INSTRUCTORS

Chapter 10 starts with defining all the new terms that are used in analysis of variance.
Most students will understand them fairly quickly. The one term they frequently have
trouble with is the “level” of the independent variable. I have provided a classroom
activity that allows them to practice labeling the levels of an independent variable. One-
way ANOVA is used instead of multiple t tests to control for experiment error. Students
usually understand how the probability of a Type I error adds up with each additional test.
It is very important to spend a fair amount of class time explaining between-group
variability and within-group variability and how the two types of variability contribute to
the F ratio. There is a PowerPoint template that shows students an example of two
different experiments. Both experiments have three groups and the same differences
between the groups but the within-groups variability is much greater for one experiment
compared to the other. The textbook also includes a useful graphic in Figure 10.4 (p.
335) that illustrates two examples of how total variance is split between within-group
variability and between-group variability. Since the F ratio is a ratio based on sums of
squared scores, all F values are positive and the distribution looks very different. Some
students have trouble looking up values in the more complex F table. Give the students
lots of practice in class so they get immediate feedback on whether they are using the
table correctly. You also need to go slowly over the three different degrees of freedom
for this test. I have provided both PowerPoint templates and handouts for showing
students step by step how to do the calculations. There is also a PowerPoint template
for the ANOVA summary table and a handout that allows students to practice filling out
the summary table based on small pieces of information. Students will again be using r2
as a measure of effect size, but there is a new formula for computing this measure. The
post-hoc test is fairly straightforward except for the use of the q value. I have provided
examples that result in some group differences showing a significant post-hoc test and
others not being significant based on the post-hoc test. Students should practice
interpreting these results.

OUTLINE OF RESOURCES

1. Introduction to analysis of variance

• Discussion question 10-1 (p. 100)
• Discussion question 10-2 (p. 100)
• Discussion question 10-3 (p. 100)
• LaunchPad Statistical Applets: One-Way ANOVA (p. 100)
• Classroom activity 10-1 (p. 101)
• Classroom activity 10-2 (p. 101)
 Chapter 10 Between-Subjects, One-Way Analysis of 99

2. Conducting between-subjects, one-way ANOVA

• Discussion question 10-4 (p. 103)
• Discussion question 10-5 (p. 103)
• Discussion question 10-6 (p. 103)
• Classroom activity 10-3 (p. 104)

3. Interpreting between-subjects, one-way ANOVA

• Discussion question 10-7 (p. 104)
• Discussion question 10-8 (p. 104)
• Classroom activity 10-4 (p. 105)

4. LaunchPad video resources

5. Handouts
• Handout 10-1: Identifying levels of an independent variable (p. 106)
• Handout 10-2: Filling in source tables (p. 107)
• Handout 10-3: Effect size and post-hoc tests (pp. 108-109)

6. PowerPoint templates
• PowerPoint template 10-1: Understanding between-groups and within-groups
variance (p. 110)
• PowerPoint template 10-2: The relationships among the values in a source
table (p. 111)

CHAPTER GUIDE

1. Introduction to analysis of variance

a) Several new vocabulary words are introduced:
Between-subjects means independent groups.
Way or factor refers to the independent variable; i.e.,
4 a one-way or one-factor ANOVA involves one independent variable.
Level refers to the different categories or groups of the independent
variable. For example, if the independent variable is room color, the levels
might be red, blue, or yellow.

b) ANOVA is used instead of multiple t tests in order to control the experiment-

wise error. For each statistical test done on the data, the probability of a
Type I error increases. For instance, if two tests are done, the probability of
a Type I error is equal to 1 minus the probability of not making a Type I error
in each test or 1 – (.95 x .95) = .0975. This is sometimes referred to as alpha
inflation or runaway alpha.

c) The ANOVA tells you that at least one pair of means is statistically different
from another, but it does not tell which pair or if more than one pair are
significant.
 Chapter 10 Between-Subjects, One-Way Analysis of 100

d) A post-hoc test is a test conducted “after the fact,” i.e., as a follow-up, and
tells you exactly which pairs of means are significantly different.

e) ANOVA uses an F ratio. The F ratio is the ratio of the between-groups

variability to the within-groups variability. The between-groups variability
is composed of the treatment effect plus individual differences. The
within-groups variance is composed of just the individual differences.

f) Interpreting F ratios
When there is no treatment effect, the F ratio will be 1.
The larger the value of the F ratio is, the more likely the results are
significant. There cannot be a negative F ratio because it is a ratio of
squared scores.

Discussion question 10-1

Why do we use an ANOVA rather than multiple t tests?
Your students’ answers should include:
• To control the experiment-wise error or to avoid runaway alpha.
• With each test you conduct on a set of data the alphas increase so that your
probability of a Type I error grows.

Discussion question 10-2

Why do we need to do post-hoc tests when the F ratio shows a significant result? Would
we do a post hoc for a nonsignificant result?
Your students’ answers should include:
• A significant F ratio tells you that at least one mean is significantly different
but does not tell you which one or how many significant differences there
are.
• The post-hoc will tell you exactly which pairs of means are significantly
different from each other.
• You would not do post-hoc tests when the F ratio is not significant because
there are no differences to find. Failing to reject the null hypothesis implies
that all the means are the same in the population.

Discussion question 10-3

What does it mean when you get a negative F ratio?
Your students’ answers should include:
• That you made a math error.
• F ratios cannot be negative because they are the ratio of squared scores,
and therefore there are no negative numbers.

LaunchPad Statistical Applets: One-Way ANOVA

• The F statistic for a one-way ANOVA, and its p-value, depend both on the group
means (black dots in this applet) and the spread (standard deviation) and
number (n) of observations within each group (colored dots). This applet allows
you to see how varying the means, standard deviation, and sample size affects
the F statistic and resulting p-value for an ANOVA.

Classroom activity 10-1

 Chapter 10 Between-Subjects, One-Way Analysis of 101

The goal of this assignment is to help students practice identifying the levels of an
independent variable. Handout 10-1 has several examples. Students should work in
pairs to name the independent variable and then name the levels. When they are done,
have students share their answers with the class.

The correct answers are: 1) The independent variable is stress; the levels are physical,
emotional, none. 2) The independent variable is color; the levels are red, brown, orange.
3) The independent variable is music; the levels are none, heavy metal, classical, pop.
4) The independent variable is color; the levels are pink, blue, green, white. 5) The
independent variable is caffeine; the levels are decaf coffee, half-caff coffee, regular
coffee. 6) The independent variable is breakfast; the levels are healthy, minimal, none.

Classroom activity 10-2

The goal of this assignment is to help students understand how the F ratio is in the
between-groups variance divided by the within-groups variance. Use PowerPoint
template 10-1. The PowerPoint shows the data for two different three-group
experiments. Notice that the difference between the means for experiment A is the same
as the difference between the means for experiment B. So the between-groups
difference is the same for both experiments. However, experiment A has much less
within-groups variance (fewer individual differences), and experiment B has large within-
group variability (many individual differences). Ask the students which experiment they
think is more likely to show a significant difference and why. You can walk them through
a conceptual analogy to the F ratio. The average difference between the means of the
three groups in both experiments is 6.66. You can think of that as your between-groups
variance. In experiment A, the average within-groups variance is 1.6. So the F ratio
would be 6.66/1.6, resulting in an F ratio of 4.16. For experiment B, the average within-
groups variance is 7.63, so the F ratio would be 6.66/7.63, which gives you an F ratio
less than 1.

2 Conducting between-subjects, one-way ANOVA

a) There are four assumptions for this test to be valid. They are:
1) The sample is randomly chosen from the population.
2) Each case is not influenced by other cases.
3) The dependent variable is normally distributed in the population.
4) The degree of variability in the populations that the samples were
drawn from is equivalent.

b) The null hypothesis is H0: µ1 = µ2 = ... µκ. The alternative hypothesis is H1:
At least one population mean is different from the others.

c) The decision rule is if F > Fcv , then reject the null. If F < Fcv, fail to reject the
null.

d) There are three different degrees of freedom to calculate for this test.
1) The degrees of freedom for between-group is k – 1. This is the
degrees of freedom for the numerator (the difference between the
groups). It is the number of groups minus one.
2) The degrees of freedom for within-group is N – k. This is the degrees
of freedom for the denominators (within-groups variance). It is the
total number of people in the experiment (N) minus the number of
groups (k).
 Chapter 10 Between-Subjects, One-Way Analysis of 102

3) The degrees of freedom total is N – 1. This represents the total

degrees of freedom in the experiment, and is the total number of
people in the experiment minus 1.
4) The degrees of freedom total is the sum of the degrees of freedom
between-group plus the degrees of freedom within-group. N – 1 =
(k – 1) + (N – k).

e) There are many calculations involved in the ANOVA so it is best to break

them into steps.
Step 1: Calculate the total sum of squares, SSTotal.
 Square each score and add them up.
 Add up all the scores, square the sum, and divide by the total
number of cases.
 Subtract the result of the second step from the result of the first
step.

Step 2: Calculate the sum of squares between, SSBetween.

 For each group, add up all the scores, square the sum, and divide
that square by the number of cases in the group. Add up all these
quotients
 Add up all the scores, square the sum, and divide by the total
number of cases.
 Subtract the result of the second step from the result of the first
step.

Step 3: Calculate the sum of squares within, SSWithin.

 Square each score and add them all up.
 For each group, add up all the scores, square the sum, and divide
by the total number of cases.
 For each group, subtract the result of the second step from the
result of the first step.
 Add together all of the remainders from the previous step.

f) Once you have calculated the three sums of squares, you can do a math
check by adding the SSBetween + SSWithin = SSTotal. If this does not add up,
then go back and check your math for an error.

g) The results of the calculations should be entered into a source table.

PowerPoint template 10-2 gives you an empty source table as well as
example one showing the relationships among the values in a source table.

h) Students can use the source table to calculate the mean square between
(MSBetween) and the mean square within (MSWithin).
MSBetween = SSBetween/dfBetween
MSWithin = SSWithin/dfWithin

i) The F ratio is the MSBetween/ MSWithin.

j) The obtained F is then compared to the tabled value in Table 4a for α = .05
and Table 4b for α = .01. Students need to look up the F value by looking
 Chapter 10 Between-Subjects, One-Way Analysis of 103

for the degrees of freedom in the numerator (dfBetween) along the top of the
chart and the degrees of freedom for the denominator (dfWithin) along the left
side of the chart.

Discussion question 10-4

How are the mean square calculations similar to the calculations of variance for raw
scores? Why is the mean square variation more similar to the variance than the standard
deviation?
Your students’ answers should include:
• You are getting a difference score by subtracting a mean from each score
and then squaring the difference. These squared difference scores are then
added together, i.e., a sum of squares, and then divided by the degrees of
freedom. This is the formula that we use to compute the variance.
• The standard deviation is the square root of the variance. For the mean
square, we never take the square root.

Discussion question 10-5

Use the rule that you lose one degree of freedom for every mean that you calculate. Use
the sum of squares formulas to explain the corresponding degrees of freedom.
Your students’ answers should include:
• For the sum of squares total, you subtract the grand mean from every score
in the experiment. This involves calculating only one mean to do the
corresponding degrees of freedom, which are N – 1.
• For the sum of squares between, the group means become the scores. The
grand mean is subtracted from each group score (group mean). So the
degrees of freedom are k –1, the number of groups (now the number of
scores) minus the one grand mean.
• For the sum of squares within, the mean of each group is subtracted from
each score in that group, so you are calculating k (number of groups) means.
Therefore your degrees of freedom are all the scores minus the k means or
N – k.

Discussion question 10-6

The source table provides a couple of relationships that you can use as math checks
along the way. What are the relationships?
Your students’ answers should include:
• Adding the sum of squares between and the sum of squares within should
total to the sum of squares total.
• Adding the degrees of freedom between and the degrees of freedom within
should total to the degrees of freedom total.

Classroom activity 10-3

The goal of this activity is to help students practice using a source table and looking up F
ratios. Handout 10-2 has examples of partially filled-in source tables. Students should
complete the source table and then find the critical value of F and determine whether the
null hypothesis would be rejected. Students can work on these problems alone or in
pairs. When they are done call on students to share their answers with the class.

3. Interpreting between-subjects, one-way ANOVA

 Chapter 10 Between-Subjects, One-Way Analysis of 104

a) r2 is used to calculate the effect size. This measure uses the SSBetween and
the SSTotal from the source table. The SSBetween is divided by the SSTotal and
then multiplied by 100 to get a percentage. This tells you the percentage of
variability in the scores that is accounted for by the treatment effect.
1) The closer r2 is to 100%, the stronger is the effect of the independent
variable.
2) The closer r2 is to 0%, the weaker is the effect of the independent
variable.

b) The standards for r2 (Cohen 1988) suggest that an r2 around 1% is small,

9% is medium, and 25% is large. The unexplained variance is 1–r2.

c) If the F ratio is significant, you need to calculate post-hoc tests to discover

which pairs of means are different from each other.

d) The Tukey HSD (honestly significant difference) is described. This is a

conservative post-hoc test that errs on the side of potentially making a Type
II error rather than a Type I error.

e) The Tukey HSD test was designed for experiments with the same number of
cases in each group. However, using the sample size from the smallest
group is acceptable, and this just makes the test more conservative.

f) Use the obtained means for each group to determine the direction of the
difference.

Discussion question 10-7

What does r2 tell you? Why is it considered a measure of effect size?
Your students’ answers should include:
• It tells you the percentage of variability in the scores that can be explained
by the treatment effect.
• It is a measure of effect size because the bigger the effect is, the more
variability will be explained.

Discussion question 10-8

If a moderate effect has an r2 of about 9% and the unexplained variance is 1–r2, what
does this tell you about a study with a moderate effect? What are the implications of this
for research?
Your students’ answers should include:
• In a study with a moderate effect, there can still be about 91% of the
individual differences that are unexplained.
• Generally, it means that most research does not explain that much about
what it is studying and that in most studies there needs to be much more
work to explain individual differences.

Classroom activity 10-4

The goal of this activity is to have students practice calculating and interpreting effect
sizes in terms of the experiment. Additionally, students can use the information given to
calculate the Tukey HSD and then interpret the results. Handout 10-3 provides
 Chapter 10 Between-Subjects, One-Way Analysis of 105

examples for students to work on. Students can work alone or in pairs and then share
their answers with the class.

4. LaunchPad video resources

• Snapshots: Introduction to ANOVA
• StatClips: ANOVA – Background and Introduction
• StatClips Examples: ANOVA – Background and Introduction, Examples A
and B
• StatClips: ANOVA – Inference
• StatClips Examples: ANOVA – Inference, Examples A and B
 Chapter 10 Between-Subjects, One-Way Analysis of 106

HANDOUT 10-1
Identifying Levels of an Independent Variable

For each of the following research projects, please indicate the independent and
dependent variable and then specify the levels of the independent variable.

1. You want to know how different types of stress influence exam taking. You have 30
statistics students. Ten take their final exams after running on a treadmill for 15
minutes (physical stress), 10 after being told that they were doing poorly in the class
(emotional stress), and 10 after listening to soothing music (no stress). You compare
the final exam scores of each group.

2. You want to know how color influences taste perception. Each group of participants
is given colored “tea,” which is actually just colored plain water. One group has cups
with red fluid, a second group has brown fluid, and the third group has orange fluid.
The participants are to describe the flavor of each tea and rate how well they liked
each tea.

3. You want to know if music can influence heart rate. Some participants sit in a quiet
room, others hear loud heavy-metal music, while others hear soothing classical
music, and another group hears upbeat pop music. All participants have their heart
rate checked after five minutes.

4. You want to know if color can influence anxiety levels. One group of participants sits
in a pink classroom, a second group sits in a blue classroom, a third group sits in a
green classroom, and the final group sits in a white classroom. All participants rate
their anxiety on a 7-point scale where higher numbers mean more anxiety.

5. Ryan, Hatfield, and Hofstetter investigated the effects of caffeine on memory in older
adults. All participants were between the ages of 70 and 80. One group of
participants was given decaf coffee, one group was given half-caf coffee, and one
group was given full-strength caffeinated coffee. After finishing their coffee,
participants were given 16 words to memorize. They then took both a free recall and
a recognition test on the words.

6. There have been many studies showing that breakfast is the most important meal of
the day for children. You are interested in knowing if breakfast is also important for
college students’ learning. One-third of the college students are told to eat the
standard for a healthy breakfast (one serving each of fruit, cereal, bread, and a
protein); one-third of the students are told to eat a minimal breakfast (coffee and a
bagel), and one-third are told to eat nothing. All students must get up at 8:00 A.M.
and have finished their breakfast (or not eaten) by 8:45 A.M. At 11:00 A.M. all the
participants report to the laboratory and take a reading comprehension test.
 Chapter 10 Between-Subjects, One-Way Analysis of 107

HANDOUT 10-2
Filling in Source Tables

Use what you know about the relationships among the values in a source table to fill in
the missing information. Then test to see if the F is significant.

1.

Source SS df MS F

between 12 3

within

total 72 33

2. . Source SS df MS F

between 10

within 120

total 140 42

3.
Source
SS df MS F

between 48 4
within 30 6
total

4. Use the following information to create a source table. There were 154 participants
divided into 4 groups. The F ratio is 15, and the mean square between is 30.
 Chapter 10 Between-Subjects, One-Way Analysis of 108

HANDOUT 10-3
Effect Size and Post-Hoc Tests

For each of the following studies, use the information given to calculate the effect size;
then do post-hoc tests and interpret the results.

1. Fifteen third-grade students participated in a memory experiment. Five students had

a story read to them by a teacher, five read the story themselves, and five saw a
video of the story. Each student then took a memory test on 12 items from the story.
The children who heard their teacher read the story recalled an average of 5 items.
Those who read the story had an average recall of 9 items, and those who saw the
videotape recalled an average of 10 items.

Source SS df MS F

between 48 2 24 4
within 72 12 6
total 120 14

2. You think that people work faster in the cold. To investigate this you have people do
a word search task in one of four rooms. You record how many minutes it takes to
complete the task. The room temperatures are set at 50, 60, 70, and 80 degrees.
The average time it takes to complete the task for the 50-degree room is 6 minutes,
for the 60-degree room is 2.3 minutes, for the 70-degree room is 3.7 minutes, and for
the 80-degree room is 6.7 minutes. There were three people in each group.

Source SS df MS F

between 36 3 12 6
within 18 9 2
total 54 12
 Chapter 10 Between-Subjects, One-Way Analysis of 109

HANDOUT 10-3 (continued)

3. Harring and Edelman investigated the perceptions of mothers who made different
childcare choices. Participants were told that the mother quit her job to stay home
with the child, hired a nanny, used a daycare center, or had the child stay with a
family member while she was at work. Participants rated how likeable the mother
was on a 7-point scale with higher numbers meaning more likeable. There were four
participants in each group. The average likeability for the stay at home mom was 6.5,
for the mom who hired a nanny it was 1.5, for the mom who used a daycare it was 4,
and for the mom who left her child with a family member it was 5.75.

Source SS df MS F

Between 48 3 16 4

Within 48 12 4

Total 96 15
 Chapter 10 Between-Subjects, One-Way Analysis of 110

POWERPOINT TEMPLATE 10-1

Understanding Between-Groups and Within-Group Variance

Experiment A Experiment B

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 1 Group 2 Group 3

8 17 22 18 20 30
9 15 19 6 25 25

11 13 21 10 15 10

12 16 18 2 5 15

10 14 20 4 10 20

M 10 15 20 10 15 20
SD 1.6 1.6 1.6 7.1 7.9 7.9
 Chapter 10 Between-Subjects, One-Way Analysis of 111

POWERPOINT TEMPLATE 10-2

The Relationships Among Values in the Source Table

Source SS df MS F

between SSb dfb MSb F

within SSw dfw MSw

total SSt dft

SSb + SSw = SSt

dfb + dfw = dft

MSb = SSb/dfb

MSw = SSw/dfw

F = MSb/MSw

Source SS df MS F

Between SSb dfb SSb/dfb MSb/MSw

Within +SSw +dfw SSw/dfw

Total SSt dft