Investigation of effects of Antibiotics in poultry and farm animals

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Antibiotics have been recognized as a growth promoter for livestock and poultry,

since mid-1940. The use of antibiotics in feedlot cattle and poultry is quite prominent when it

comes to enhancement of productivity. It improves feed efficiency by improving gut health of

animals. The European Union prohibited use of antibiotics as growth promoter in formulated

diets of farm animals in January 2006. In 2017 FDA (FDA, Food and Drug Administration-

USA) also banned the use of antibiotics as a growth promoter. In 1985, in Sweden proscribed

the use of antibiotics in animal diets. Denmark also barred use several antibiotics (Avoparcin,

spiramycin, tylosin phosphate, virginiamycin and zinc bacitracin) antibiotic growth promoter.

FDA has issued a list of antibiotics for use in laying hens, so that their residue in eggs can be

avoided. Moreover maximum residue limit (MRL) along with acceptable daily intake (ADI)

for farm animals has also been issued. Use of quinolones was prohibited in livestock and

poultry by Australian Pesticide and Veterinary Medicine Authority (APVMA) in 2004. As

developing countries suffer from inadequate drug control policies, farmers use most common

antimicrobial drugs irrationally. Enrofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, and tetracyclines are used at

commercial poultry farms in order to prevent and treat ailments. This promotes multidrug

resistance. These wide spectrum antibiotics are used as they can be easily administered orally

in feed and water. But these can cause adverse effects in humans, like Chloramphenicol can

cause aplastic anemia. The use of chloramphenicol has been prohibited for agricultural

animals in several countries (United States, Canada, the European Union, and Turkey).

EFSA, stated that from 2010 to 2018 enrofloxacin, is most commonly detected antibiotic in

egg samples. In 2013, it was reported that about two lac people got infected with disease-

resistant bacteria, in USA. 23,000 mortalities have also been documented (Willis et
al. 2000, Livermore et al. 2003, Donoghue et al. 2003, Bretschneider et al. 2007, Cheng et

al. 2012, Er et al. 2013, Adebowale et al. 2016, Teglia et al. 2021).

2.1 Production Performance

It is reported that tylosin supplementation had no significant effect on feed intake, egg

production, egg weight, egg mass, feed conversion, body weight, and mortality. It was given

to Bovans white and Dekalb white in feed (@33g/ton) (Wu et al. 2006). In Lohmann brown

layers, it was observed that antibiotics (@ zinc bacitracin 20mg/kg) reduced the egg mass

(49.31g) but improved the feed consumption. While oligosaccharide (@ 2000mg/kg)

improved the egg mass (51.35g) but reduced feed intake. The feed conversion ratio, was not

affected by zinc bacitracin. The number of cracked eggs remained unaffected but the

livability of birds increased. It improved immune response as well as gut health of laying

hens. Upon supplementation with antibiotic, Lohmann brown hens showed apparent effect on

egg breaking strength, eggshell thickness, yolk color, Haugh unit. The yolk cholesterol

content was also reduced from 269.4 to 231.3mg/yolk (Li et al. 2007). Whereas, in another

study, when tylosin was administred in feed of breeder (Bovans white and Dekalb white)

(33g/ton) no effect was found on Haugh unit, yolk color, albumen solid, and whole egg solid

(Wu et al. 2008). Supplementation with tylosin resulted in lesser number of dirty eggs. The

effect was achieved by diminishing the growth of pathogenic bacteria and improvement of

gut health (Wu et al. 2008). In a similar study, Baurhoo et al. (2009) conducted with

antibiotics (Bacitracin = 55mg/kg, Virginiamycin = 16.5mg/kg) in the diet of broiler (Cobb

500) it was observed that conversion ratio, daily feed intake, and body weight gain of birds

remained unaffected. When flavomycin was fed to broiler the liver weight didn’t change. It

was observed that carcass yield increased as well as body weight and feed intake. But FCR

was found to be poor (Cervantes et al. 2011; Lillehoj and Lee 2012; Cravens et al.

2013).When virginiamycin (0.02%) was administered in broiler diet had no prominent effect
appeared in the starter and grower phase. Upon finishing highest weight gain and improved

feed conversion ratio and better carcass yield was achieved ( Mashayekhi et al. 2018). Rehman

et al. (2019) states quinolones (dose rate of 0.25mg/kg P.O.) enhances the hen day egg

production of laying hens. The effect was observed upto 10.95% with norfloxacin. Though

ciprofloxacin and enrofloxacin showed an increase upto 8.63 and 6.5% respectively. It has

been reported that addition of enrofloxacin in the diet of Rhode Island (Red) hens for long

period (100 d) affected nutritional component of eggs. The egg albumen weight reduced

while weight of eggshell increased. Being explained as an effect on metabolism which

promotes the release of calcium-binding protein calbindin and influences the transport and

deposition of calcium in the eggshell. In another study conducted on Rhode island laying hen,

enrofloxacin (5mg/kg) fed for 100 days impacted zootechnical performance like the number

of eggs, average weight, and size of eggs. It was found to be much reduced as compared to

control (Teglia et al. 2021).

2.2 Antibiotic residue

Gorla et al. (1997) also documented that, if drug is administered in water, after

cessation metabolite of ciprofloxacin reached at maximum level (2.98 µg/gram) on the ninth

day in egg yolk. Afterwards it depleted completely. The gentamicin administered to laying

hen at the dose rate of 50mg/kg intramuscularly or subcutaneously for one day. The

maximum concentration of gentamicin (⁓90%) was recovered (2.5% of total drug given)

from the egg (from the yolk on the second day and at the first day in the albumen and the

whole egg). The albumin had lesser concentration (4 times less than yolk). Thought the

residue was found yolk and whole egg have residue till the tenth day (Filazi et al. 2005).

Upon oral administration of antibiotics drug residue close to the maximum limit persists

before the elimination on the 12th day to the level of ˂30ng/g. It happends due to slow

absorption of the drug through GIT (Lolo et al. 2005). In comparison to ciprofloxacin and
enrofloxacin, depletion of lincomycin was quick and its residue remained in egg yolk for six

days after cessation of drug administration (Sikorska et al. 2021).

 References

1. Adebowale O, Adeyemo O, Awoyomi O, Dada R, Adedowale O. 2016. Antibiotic use

and practices in commercial poultry laying hens in Ogun State Nigeria. Rev Elev Med

Vet Pays Trop. 69 (1): 41-45.

2. Baurhoo B, Ferket P R, Zhao X. 2009. Effects of diets containing different

concentrations of mannan-oligosaccharide or antibiotics on growth performance,

intestinal development, cecal and litter microbial populations, and carcass parameters

of broilers. Poult Sci. 88: 2262–2272.

3. Cervantes HM, Shim MY, Hooper SE, Bafundo KW, Pesti GM. 2011. The influence

of virginiamycin on the live and processing performance of Nicholas turkey hens. J

Appl Poult Res. 20: 347–352.

4. Cheng AC, Turnidge J, Collignon P, Looke D, Barton M, Gottlieb T. 2012. Control of

fluoroquinolone resistance through successful regulation, Australia. Em Infect Dis.

18: 1453-1460.

5. Cravens RL, Goss GR, Chi F, De Boer ED, Davis SW, Hendrix SM, Richardson JA,

Johnston SL. 2013. The effects of necrotic enteritis, aflatoxin B1, and virginiamycin

on growth performance, necrotic enteritis lesion scores, and mortality in young

broilers. Poult Sci. 92: 1997–2004.

6. Donoghue DJ. 2003. Antibiotic Residues in Poultry Tissues and Eggs: Human Health

Concerns? Poult Sci. 82: 618–621.

7. Filazi A, Sireli U T, Cadirci O. 2005.Residues of gentamicin in eggs following

medication of laying hens. Brit Poult Sci. 46(5): 580-583.

8. Gorla N, Chiostri E, Weyers LU, Giacomelli N, Davicino R, Ovando HG.1997.

HPLC residues of enrofloxacin and ciprofloxacin in eggs of laying hens. Int J

Antimicr Agen. 8: 253–256.

9. Li X, Liu L, Li K, Hao K, Xu. C. 2007. Effect of fructo-oligosaccharides and

antibiotics on laying performance of chickens and cholesterol content of egg yolk.

Brit Poult Sci. 48: 185-189.

10. Lillehoj HS, Lee KW 2012. Immune modulation of innate immunity as alternatives-

to-antibiotics strategies to mitigate the use of drugs in poultry production. Poult Sci.

91: 1286–1291.

11. Livermore D.M. 2003. Bacterial resistance: origins, epidemiology, and impact. Clin

Infect Dis. 36: S11-S23.

12. Lolo M, Pedreira S, Fente C, Vaäzquez BI, Franco CM, Cepeda A. 2005. Study of

Enrofloxacin Depletion in the Eggs of Laying Hens Using Diphasic Dialysis

Extraction/Purification and Determinative HPLC-MS Analysis. J Agric Food Chem.

53: 2849−2852.

13. Mashayekhi H, Mazhari M, Esmaeilipour O. 2018. Eucalyptus leaves powder,

antibiotic and probiotic addition to broiler diets: effect on growth performance,

immune response, blood components and carcass traits. Ani Cons. 18: 1-7.

14. .

15. Rehman A, Khan A, Khan S, Maris H, Khan N. 2019. Effect of Quinolones on Blood

Glucose Level and Blood Profile of Laying Hens. J Anim Health Prod. 7(2): 51-57.

16. Sikorska M, Wieruszewska B, Gajda A, Kozak E, Lisowski A and Posyniak A.2021.

Transfer of enrofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, and lincomycin into eggshells and residue

depletion in egg components after multiple oral administration to laying hens. Poult

Sci. 100: 1013-1041.

17. Teglia CM, Guinez M, Culzoni M J, Cerutti S. 2021. Determination of residual

enrofloxacin in eggs due to long term administration to laying hens. Analysis of the

consumer exposure assessment to egg derivatives. Food Chem. 351: 1292-1279.

18. Willis C. 2000. Antibiotics in the food chain: their impact on the consumer. Rev Med

Microbiol. 11: 153-160.

19. Wu G, Gunawardana M, Bryant M, Roland Sr. 2008. Influence of Dietary Energy and

Antibiotic on Performance, Egg Solids, and Egg Quality in Bovans White and Dekalb

White Hens. J Appl Poult Res. 17: 323–330.