3.

1: Selection

Introduction

Selection: process that allows organisms that are better adapted to their environment to
survive and reproduce, while those who could not fail to do so.

Those selected are able to:

- Live longer & to reproduce.
- Passed their genes to the next generation

Definition
The process in which individuals that have certain heritable traits tend to survive and
reproduce at the higher rates than other individuals.

Results in:
● Favoured traits being represented more and unfavoured one less in the following
generations
● Selection depends upon the existence of phenotypic variation within the population
is part of the mechanism by which a species adapts to its environment.
 ● Organisms that are suited to their environment, reproduce faster than those less
suited to that environment.

Determine the types of selection represented by the graph I, II and III.

Type of : Stabilizing Directional Disruptive

selection
Choosen : Intermediate phenotype One extreme phenotype Both extreme phenotype
phenotyp
e
Eliminate : Both extreme phenotype Other extreme phenotype Intermediate phenotype
phenotyp
e
Example : Newborn baby weight Black peppered moth (Biston Bird beak size
• Average weight babies betularia). • Hard and large seeds
are more likely to The black peppered moth which birds with big-size
survive will increase in numbers as beaks (extreme phenotype)
• Underweight babies the area becomes more can feed on
have immature body industrialised & dirtier. The
systems prone to white and the intermediate • Soft and small seeds which
illness shade will be eliminated birds with small-size beaks
• Overweight babies are (extreme phenotype) can
difficult to delivers feed on
through the cervix and
vagina. • Birds with medium-size
beaks (intermediate
phenotype) will be
 eliminated because
difficult for them to feed
on both types of seeds

d. Define artificial selection.

Definition
A process of altering the genotype of organism to produce a new strain or organism with
desired phenotype for a specific purpose by involving human intervention.
Eg: Selective breeding of organisms (cultivated plants and domesticated animals) leads to
changes in genotype of offspring thus, producing new varieties of organisms.

Advantages
To select:
• Animals / plants adapted to particular conditions eg: drought, cold, heat
• Plant ~ High yields & Animal ~ More food
• Resistance to diseases, herbicides or pests
• For fashion (desirable qualities in animals & plants are kept for pleasure & sport)

Inbreeding
Involves mating between closely related
individuals of the same species
Outbreeding
Mating between unrelated or distantly related
individuals of a species
Or
from two different populations, subspecies or
difference species (have same genus).

Promotes homozygosity (less variation) Promotes heterozygosity (more variation) and

hybrid vigour

Practiced in domesticated animal and crops Eg:

Eg:
i. Breeding of ‘show’ animals such as cats &
dogs
ii. Livestock breeders such as cattle, sheep
iii. In agriculture, to produce selected crop
plants such as wheat and rice
i. Horse + donkey = mule (hybrid)
ii. Oil palm Pisifera sp. (low oil, fruit do not
drop easily) + Oil palm Dura sp. (high oil,
fruit drops easily) = Oil palm Tenera (hybrid)
(Produces fruits with high oil content & the
fruits do not drop easily)

Advantages: Advantages:
Pure characters still can be observed • Growing faster
• Increases yield ~ e.g: fruit size &
number
 • More resistant to diseases
• Increases the size of the organisms
• More fertile (in plant)
• Longer lifespan

Disadvantages: Disadvantage:
• Decreases variability of the genomes
- Homozygous > heterozygous genotypes • Pure characters are lost
● Animals: - Slow growth
- More susceptible to diseases
● Plants: - Less yield
- Size is getting smaller
- Becomes less fertile
- Its lifespan decreases

3.2: Speciation

a. Define the biological species concept

 MODES OF SPECIATION
Allopatric speciation Sympatric speciation

Formation of new species when a Formation of new species when a

population is physically divided and isolated population is reproductively divided and
by geographical barrier (river, mountain isolated in the same habitat (reproductive
range etc.) isolation).
Example: Grand Canyon squirrels.
Two closely related species of squirrels, A.
harrisi, and A. leucurus live on different
sides of the Grand Canyon because of
gradual formation of Grand Canyon.
Example: Apple Maggot
A population of fruit maggot flies from
hawthorn trees migrated to apple trees.
Hawthorn maggot flies & apple maggot
flies no longer interbreed. Although they
occupy the same geographical area but they
were on different hosts.

Factor 1: Reproductive solation

- refers to any structural, functional or behavioral characteristic that prevent successful
reproduction from occurring between two species. This mechanism acts before (Pre-zygotic
barriers) or after fertilization (Post-zygotic barriers)
Factor 2: Genetic drift
- the change in the frequency of allele in a small population. This mechanism can be found in
two situations; bottleneck effect and founder effect.
Factor 3: Hybridization
- Production of hybrid (new species) through interbreeding between two different
species (closely related)
Factor 4: Adaptive radiation
- the formation of a diverse species from a single ancestral
• A group of individuals that undergo changes in allele frequencies
• Changes in alleles frequency cause changes in homologous structure
e.g.: shape of bird’s beak
• Homologous structure in different species is similar because originated from the
common ancestor
• Their homologous
structure is modified to perform
a variety of function (adaptation
to different habitats and modes
of life)
• E.g. beak in finches of South
America migrated and
colonized Galapagos Islands.
(Large ground finch as the
ancestor and 6 types of finches are
formed). Their beaks are
adapted for specific diet