Science

Table of Contents
I. Asexual Reproduction
II. Sexual Reproduction
III. Major Components in an Ecosystem
IV. Ecological Relationships
V. Transfer of Energy Through Trophic Levels
VI. Physics

I. Asexual Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction is a type of reproduction wherein the offspring is reproduced by only a single parent
and is genetically identical with this single parent.

a. Ways of Asexual Reproduction

➢ Binary Fission- Involves a single body separated into two individual bodies in order to reproduce.
The streptococcus bacterium , an organism responsible for causing sore throat in humans, multiplies
through binary fission.
➢ Fragmentation- A new organism is developed from a piece of cut off from a parent organism.
Example would be the Starfish.
➢ Budding- Reproducing an offspring which grows as a bud on the side of a parent organism, similar
to a buddy.
➢ Gemmulation- Method of reproduction in sea and freshwater sponge. Internal buds are formed by
their parents' sponges
➢ Parthenogenesis- Production of offspring from unfertilized eggs.
➢ Sporogenesis- Production of spores which can grow into new organisms.
➢ Vegetative Propagation- An artificial and asexual method of reproduction wherein vegetative plants
such as leaves, roots, stems, and buds are used to produce a new plant.

b. Advantages and Disadvantages of Asexual Reproduction

Asexual Reproduction is very efficient in the sense that a parent can make multiple copies of itself at a very
short period of time. However, that also means that there is low variation in the genetic material or gene
pool since the process is just duplicating yourself.
Advantages Disadvantages

1. When conditions are ideal (ex. No
competition and good resources) then a large
number of offspring are reproduced very
quickly from one parent.
2. Large colonies can outdo other organisms to
acquire nutrients and water.
3. Large number of organisms = better chance
at survival.
4. Finding a mate doesn’t require energy,
1. Offspring are exact copies of their parents
making it more difficult to obtain variety.
2. Conditions that are extremely unfavorable
can get rid of offspring
3. Growing in a single environment can result
in competition for food and space.

II. Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction is the type of reproduction wherein a new organism is created by the combination of
the genetic materials of two organisms. There are two processes:
➢ Meiosis- The halving of chromosomes
➢ Fertilization- Involves the fusion of two germ cells and the restoration of the original number of
chromosomes.
On the average, the descendants of a sexually-reproducing population more likely survive than a similar
asexually reproducing population because of the union of two different DNA.

In simple organisms, the size and shape of gametes are almost the same. Usually, male gametes are small and
motile while female gametes are large and immobile, storing food for future use. The gametes are specialized
by a system called the reproductive system. The union of male and female gametes is called the zygote.

a. Reproductive parts of plants

➢ Petals - Surround its reproductive parts and attract insects to pollinate the flower.
➢ Sepals- Enclose the petals
➢ Stamen- Male reproductive part consisting of the following
- Anther- Sac that produces the pollen
- Filament- Stem that supports the anther.
➢ Pistil/Carpel- Female reproductive part consisting of the following:
- Stigma- The topmost part of the pistil.
- Style- Long tube that connects stigma to ovary.
- Ovary- Where the seed formation takes place.

b. Types of Sexual Reproduction

➢ Internal Fertilization- Wherein the embryo develops inside the parent’s body
➢ External Fertilization- Happens outside of the female’s body.
 III. Major Components of Ecosystem
The ecosystem is a functional unit of nature encompassing complex interaction between biotic (living) and
non-biotic (nonliving) components.

a. Abiotic Components

➢ Physical Factors- They can sustain and limit the growth of organisms.
➢ Inorganic Substances- Essential in the exchange of food and gasses in animals and plants
➢ Organic Compounds- Building blocks of living systems like carbohydrates.

b. Biotic Compounds

➢ Producers - Living things that make their own food.

➢ Consumers
1. Herbivores- Only eat plants,
2. Carnivores- Eat meat.
3. Omnivores- Eat both.
➢ Decomposers- Feed on the dead.

VI. Ecological Relationships

Competition Occurs when they compete for limit resources

Predation One organism (predator) feeds on another (prey)

Parasitism Involves two organisms in which the parasite

benefits from the host

Mutualism Benefits both parties

Commensalism When one species benefits and the other is not

affected

Ammensalism When one species harms another but it itself is not

affected.
V. Transfer of Energy through Trophic Levels
By eating other things you are becoming a part of the food chain, each step in the food chain is a trophic level.

➢ Autotrophs- Producers of food for all other organisms

➢ Herbivores- Primary consumers who consume autotrophs.
➢ Carnivores- Feed on other animals, secondary consumers.
➢ Omnivores- Eat both animals and autotrophs, usually secondary consumers.

VI. Motion Descriptors

Motion involves movement or a change in the position of a thing or body. Mechanics is the study of an
object's state of motion and the forces acting upon it. Kinematics deals with the description of motion
without regard to the forces acting on an object. Dynamics on the other hand is concerned with how the
state of motion is affected by the forces upon that project.

➢ Scalars and Vectors

A scalar quantity is described by its magnitude. Distance is a scalar quality. (ie. Mass, temperature, time, and
speed)

“Vector! That's me, because I commit crimes with both direction and magnitude.”

A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction. Velocity is an example of a vector quantity that
describes magnitude and direction of an object in motion. (ie. displacement and acceleration)

“I moved the brick 5 meters.” That’s a scalar.

“I moved the brick 5 meters east.” That’s a vector.

VII. Distance and Displacement.

Distance is symbolized by (d) and in some cases, km.

In measuring distance you have to compute the total travel path traveled by a body or an object from the
reference to the starting point.

Distance: amount of km/s it took to get you to point a to point b

Displacement: shortest way to get to point a to point b