DEFINITION: CONTRADICTION, TAUTOLOGY, CONTINGENCY

A contradiction is a compound proposition that is false for

all possible truth values of its component propositions.
A tautology is a compound proposition that is true for all
possible truth values of its component propositions.
v

A contingency is a compound proposition that is neither a

tautology nor a contradiction.
DEFINITION: LOGICALLY EQUIVALENT PROPOSITIONS
Two propositions 𝑃 and 𝑄 are said to be logically
equivalent if 𝑃 ↔ 𝑄 is a tautology. In symbols, we write
𝑃 ≡ 𝑄.

The statements used for the

Rule of Replacement are
logically equivalent
propositions!
DEFINITION: RULES OF REPLACEMENT
NAME RULE

1. De Morgan’s Theorems ~ 𝑃 ∧ 𝑄 ↔ ∼ 𝑃 ∨∼ 𝑄
(DeM) ~ 𝑃 ∨ 𝑄 ↔ ∼ 𝑃 ∧∼ 𝑄
2. Commutation (Com) 𝑃∨𝑄 ↔ 𝑄∨𝑃
𝑃∧𝑄 ↔ 𝑄∧𝑃
3. Association (Assoc) 𝑃∨ 𝑄∨𝑅 ↔[ 𝑃∨𝑄 ∨ 𝑅]
𝑃∧ 𝑄∧𝑅 ↔[ 𝑃∧𝑄 ∧ 𝑅]
4. Distribution (Dist) 𝑃∨ 𝑄∧𝑅 ↔ 𝑃∨𝑄 ∧ 𝑃∨𝑅
𝑃∧ 𝑄∨𝑅 ↔ 𝑃∧𝑄 ∨ 𝑃∧𝑅
5. Double Negation (DN) 𝑃 ↔∼∼ 𝑃
DEFINITION: RULES OF REPLACEMENT
NAME RULE

6. Transposition (Trans) (𝑃 → 𝑄) ↔ (∼ 𝑄 →∼ 𝑃)
7. Material Implication (𝑃 → 𝑄) ↔ (∼ 𝑃 ∨ 𝑄)
(Imp)
8. Material Equivalence 𝑃 ↔ 𝑄 ↔ [ 𝑃 → 𝑄 ∧ (𝑄 → 𝑃)]
(Equiv) 𝑃 ↔ 𝑄 ↔ [ 𝑃 ∧ 𝑄 ∨ (∼ 𝑃 ∧∼ 𝑄)]
9. Exportation (Exp) 𝑃 ∧ 𝑄 → 𝑅 ↔ [𝑃 → (𝑄 → 𝑅)]
10. Tautology (Taut) 𝑃 ↔ (𝑃 ∨ 𝑃)
𝑃 ↔ (𝑃 ∧ 𝑃)
CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISMS
DEFINITION: CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION
A categorical proposition is a proposition that expresses
the relationship between two categories or sets.

Propositions of this type is indicated by the

quantifiers such as “all”, “some”, and “none”.

The quantifiers “all” and “none” are said

to be universal quantifiers while the
quantifier some is existential.
Let 𝑆 and 𝑃 be the two sets described in the categorical proposition.

Four standard categorical propositions:

P
S S P

All S are P. No S are P.

P x P
x
S S
Some S are P. Some S are not P.
EXAMPLES: CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS

1. All volcanoes are mountains.

2. Every politician is rich.

3. No student should cut classes.

4. None of the applicants was hired
by the company.
EXAMPLES: CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS

5. Some flowers are yellow.

6. There are animals that swim.

7. Some birds can’t fly.

8. There exist integers which are not
prime.
1. 𝒙 is the lower bound of a set 𝑺 of real numbers if 𝒙 ≤ 𝒔 for
all 𝒔 ∈ 𝑺. (not lower bound)

2. The sequence 𝒂𝟏 , 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒂𝟑 , … is an increasing sequence if

𝒂𝒏 < 𝒂𝒏+𝟏 for all 𝒏. (not increasing)

3. A graph G is a complete graph if every pair of vertices in G

is adjacent. (not a complete graph)
DEFINITION: ARGUMENT
An argument is any set of propositions whose conclusion is
claimed to follow from its premises which are providing
support for the conclusion.

DEFINITION: CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM

A syllogism is a deductive argument with two premises and
one conclusion.
A syllogism consisting only of categorical propositions is
called a categorical syllogism.
EXAMPLES: CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISMS

1. All Math teachers are good- 2. Some students do not wear

looking.
Ms. Villarta is a Math teacher.
---------------------------------------------
∴ Ms. Villarta is good-looking.
uniform.
All students who do not wear
uniform are punished.
---------------------------------------------
∴ All students are punished.

3. Some private schools will offer Senior High School curricula.

No schools offering Senior High School curricula will be allowed to join
the quiz show.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
∴ Some private schools will not be allowed to join the quiz show.
VALIDITY OF AN
ARGUMENT
DEFINITION: VALID AND INVALID ARGUMENT
An argument whose form is
𝑃1
𝑃2
∴𝐶
is valid if the proposition 𝑃1 ∧ 𝑃2 → 𝐶 is a tautology.
Otherwise, the said argument is invalid.
 ACTIVITY TIME!!!
USE TRUTH TABLES TO DETERMINE
THE VALIDITY OF EACH ARGUMENT:

1. 𝑷 → 𝑸 2. 𝑷 → 𝑸
𝑷 ~𝑷
∴𝑸 ∴ ~𝑸
DEFINITION: FALLACY
An argument whose conclusion is not supported by its
premises is called a fallacy.

1. Manny Pacquiao is famous and he became a politician.

Vilma Santos is famous and she became a politician.
Lucy Torres-Gomez is famous and she became a politician.
Noli de Castro is famous and he became a politician.
---------------------------------------------
∴ All famous people will become a politician.

∴ Some famous people became politicians.

EXAMPLES: CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISMS

1. All Math teachers are good- 2. Some students do not wear

looking.
Ms. Villarta is a Math teacher.
---------------------------------------------
∴ Ms. Villarta is good-looking.
uniform.
All students who do not wear
uniform are punished.
---------------------------------------------
∴ All students are punished.

3. Some private schools will offer Senior High School curricula.

No schools offering Senior High School curricula will be allowed to join
the quiz show.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
∴ Some private schools will not be allowed to join the quiz show.
 VALID FORMS OF ARGUMENTS
1. MODUS PONENS (Direct Reasoning or Law of Detachment)

𝑃→𝑄 One premise is a conditional statement, the other

𝑃 premise affirms the antecedent, and the
∴𝑄 conclusion affirms the consequent.

𝒙 𝒙/𝟐
𝒙
𝒙/𝟐
 VALID FORMS OF ARGUMENTS
2. MODUS TOLLENS (Indirect/Contrapositive Reasoning)

𝑃→𝑄 One premise is a conditional statement, the other

∼𝑄 premise denies the consequent, and the
∴∼ 𝑃 conclusion denies the antecedent.

𝒙 𝒙𝟐
𝒙𝟐
𝒙
 VALID FORMS OF ARGUMENTS
3. HYPOTHETICAL SYLLOGISM (Transitive Reasoning)

𝑃→𝑄 One premise is a conditional statement, a second premise

is a conditional statement whose antecedent matches the
𝑄→𝑅
consequent of the other premise, and the conclusion
∴𝑃→𝑅 results from this chain of reasoning.

𝒙 𝒙𝟐
𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏
𝒙 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏
 VALID FORMS OF ARGUMENTS
4. DISJUNCTIVE SYLLOGISM

𝑃∨𝑄 One premise is a disjunction, the other premise denies one

of the disjuncts, and the conclusion affirms the other
∼𝑃
disjunct.
∴𝑄

𝒙=𝟎 𝒙>𝟓
𝒙≠𝟎
𝒙>𝟓
 INVALID FORMS OF ARGUMENTS
1. FALLACY OF THE CONVERSE (Affirming the Consequent)

𝑃→𝑄 One premise is a conditional statement, the other premise

affirms the consequent, and the conclusion affirms the
𝑄
antecedent.
∴𝑃

2. FALLACY OF THE INVERSE (Denying the Antecedent)

𝑃→𝑄 One premise is a conditional statement, the other premise

∼𝑃 denies the antecedent, and the conclusion denies the
∴∼ 𝑄 consequent.
 INVALID FORMS OF ARGUMENTS
3. MISUSE OF HYPOTHETICAL SYLLOGISM (FALSE CHAIN)

𝑃→𝑄 𝑃→𝑄 An incorrect attempt at Hypothetical

Syllogism, in which two conditional
𝑃→𝑅 𝑅→𝑄 premises agree in the antecedent, or agree
∴𝑄→𝑅 ∴𝑃→𝑅 in the consequent.

4. DISJUNCTIVE FALLACY (Affirming a Disjunct)

𝑃∨𝑄 One premise is a disjunction, the other premise affirms

𝑄 one of the disjuncts, and the conclusion denies the other
∴∼ 𝑃 disjunct.
OTHER VALID FORMS OF ARGUMENTS
𝑷 𝑷∧𝑸
∴𝑷∨𝑸 ∴𝑷

𝑷 (𝑷 → 𝑸) ∧ (𝑹 → 𝑺)
𝑸 𝑷∨𝑹
∴𝑷∧𝑸 ∴𝑸∨𝑺

∀𝒙 𝑷(𝒙) ∃𝒙 𝑷(𝒙)
∴ 𝑷(𝒄) ∴ 𝑷(𝒙)

𝑷(𝒄)
∴ ∃𝒙 𝑷(𝒙)
ASSIGNMENT:
1. Read more about the Rules of Inference and Fallacies
(see HAND-OUTS).
2. (1/2 cw yellow paper)
a) Choose 2 OTHER VALID FORMS of arguments and
make your own example of them.
b) Choose 3 FALLACIES and make your own example
of them.
3. Prepare for a UNIT EXAM to be given next week.