REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Prothallus -> structure where m & f gametophytes are ->

wind and rain will be the agent for sperm and egg to meet
- Making a copy, a likeness; providing continued
= fertilization; Prothallus will grow leaves (developing
existence of species.
sporophyte.)
2 Types of Reproduction
VASCULAR PLANTS
1. Asexual – 1 organism produces 1 or more new
organisms that are identical to itself:
independent.
2. Sexual Reproduction – meiosis; produces sex
cells w/ half genetic material of the parent cells.
• Fertilization - process of sexual rep; male and Process: The sporophyte (tree) will make a cone (either
female rep cells combine -> form a new m or f gametophyte.) F cone will develop ovules (seed
organism. like) and ‘d M cone will release pollen -> pollen will catch
• Hermaphroditic – has both m & f sex organs by the female cones = ovule will be fertilized -> become
(earthworms.) a seed, separate, and fall to the ground = will develop as
a pine tree.
Plant - Alternate btw. producing spores & gametes.
VASCULAR (FLOWERING PLANTS)
- flowers are ‘d rep organs of plants; “complete
flower” -> flower which has both m & f rep • Parts of the Flower
organs.
- 2 phase life cycle: haploid (1n – sperm or egg) &
diploid (2n – complete set of DNAS).
1. Non-Vascular – moss & fern.
2. Vascular – has xylem & phloem (tube where
water and nutrients extract.); angiosperm (has
F&F) & gymnosperms (no F&F; only cone).

- “Complete” flower has stamen and pistil.

• Sporophyte – spore-producing plant.
- Diploid begins w/ fertilized egg; meiosis.
• Gametophyte – gamete-producing plant.
- Haploid; begins w/ spore; mitosis.
• Stamen – male sex organ.
• Pistil – female sex organ.
• Sepals – protects ‘d developing flower.
• Petals – attract the animal pollinators.
- Animal pollination is more efficient than wind
pollination.
Double Fertilization – bc flower needs 2 sperm cells
(pollens.)

NON-VASCULAR PLANTS

Process: 1st pollen will go to the polar nuclei and the

other one will goo to the egg cell. Polar nuclei will
become the fruit; egg cells will make seeds.

Process: Matures sporophyte releases spores that will

become the gametophytes (either male or female.) Wind
or water will be the agent for the sperm and egg
gametophytes meet = fertilization -> will develop into a
specific species.

Plant Hormones – regulate plant functions.

Process: Under the leaves of the fern are the sori where
spores are inside; Sori -> releases spores (either m or f.);
ANIMAL REPRODUCTION ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Animal Development Sequence - Endocrine glands and their hormones.

- Function: secrete hormones into the
1. Gametogenesis (Gametes)
bloodstreams.
- Produced by the process of meiosis.
• Hormones – chemical messenger targets specific
- Sperm: flagellated for mobilization.
group of cells to do or stop some act.
- Egg Cell: Spherical & large; contains yolk.
2. Fertilization Endocrine Glands
- Sperm and egg cell meet.
- Ductless glands
- S & EC contribute a set of chromosomes ->
- Process: glands release hormones to
fertilized eggs have a pair of each chromosome.
bloodstreams -> blood transports to ‘d whole
- Egg’s wall become rigid; fertilization membrane
body -> each hormone only acts on their target
expands and pushes away other SC.
tissue.
3. Pre-Embryonic Development
- The egg was fertilized.
- Zygote begins to / to produce multicellular
embryos.
a. Cleavage – 1st identifiable period; each cell
produced is an identical genetic copy of the
zygote (blastomere.) Human Endocrine Glands
b. Morula – Solid ball; continued cell division; 32 1. Pituitary
cells. - Master gland -> nag uutos
c. Blastula – Embryo becomes a hallow ball of cells. sa ibang gland kung anong
Blastocoel is the space inside (preparation for hormones ang ire-release.
the next stage, gastrula.) - size of pea (1 cm)
d. Gastrula – Depression forms at one end of the - growth, blood pressure, regulation of pregnancy,
embryo; Embryo is now 2 layered; Archenteron breast milk production, sex organ functions,
(gastrocoel) is also a space, smaller than thyroid gland function, metabolism, water
blastocoel; 3 embryonic tissue layers: ectoderm, regulation in kidneys, temp regulation.
skin & nervous system; mesoderm, skeletal,
muscular, & circulatory system; endoderm,
respiratory and digestive system.

4. Embryo – Organs and organs systems formed. By
‘d end of this stage, all tissues & major organs
have formed; Animal embryos can be: larvae,
nymphs, or fetuses.
Larva
• Planula Larva – oval larva w/o discernable
organs; planula -> polyp -> strobila -> ephyra ->
medusa.
• Nauplius Larva – triangular larva; has digestive
system; crab & shrimp.
• Glochidia – larvae of freshwater clams; mature
and fall to the sediment & begins life.
• Caterpillars, maggots, and tadpoles undergo
complete metamorphosis.
2. Thyroid Gland
- Thyroxine (T3, T4): has iodine; for metabolism;
cellular respiration.
- Hyperthyroidism: over secretion of thyroxine ->
weight loss.
- Hypothyroidism: under secretion of thyroxine ->
cretinism.
- Calcitonin: lowers blood calcium levels
3. Parathyroid Glands
- Increase calcium levels and metabolism.
- Location: back of thyroid gland (neck)
- Hormone: Parathormone - normal nerve &
muscle, healthy bones, blood clotting.

Nymphs – immature stages of animals (ex: cockroach)

Fetus – develops in womb.

 4. Adrenal Glands 4 Primary Functions of NS
- Location: top of each kidney (adrenal medulla:
1. Sensing the World – 5 senses
center; adrenal cortex: outside)
2. Transmitting Information
- Hormones: epinephrine & norepinephrine
3. Processing Information
• Epinephrine (adrenaline) & F or F Response
4. Reaction/Response
- Nervous system regulation
- Increase: heartbeat, blood pressure, respiration, Neuron
clotting rate, & glucose levels.
- If under secretion -> inability to deal with stress. - Specialized cell that
stores information &
• Norepinephrine: lower blood pressure
carries messages.;
- Corticosteroids
doesn’t regenerate.
• Cortisol (Glucocorticoid): affects carbs, protein,
- Building blocks of the
and fat metabolism.
NS.
• Aldosterone (Mineralocorticoid): affects sodium
- Glial Cells: protects &
& potassium levels.
supports neurons.
5. Islet of Langerhans (Pancreas)
- Location: pancreas
- Hormones: insulin & glucagon
• Insulin – lowering of sugar level.
• Glucagon – rise of sugar level.
6. Gonads
- Ovaries
• Location: female abdominal cavity
• Hormones: estrogen – stimulates reproductive
system; 2ndary sexual characteristics; menstrual • Dendrites/dendro – branches
cycle. • Cell body – contains nucleus
• Progesterone: regulates mens cycle. • Myelin Sheath – covers the axon
- Testes • Axon – carries electrical messages away from ‘d
• Location: scrotum body to terminal axons
• Hormones: testosterone (androgen) – 2ndary • Terminal Axons – passes the signal to the next
characteristics; stimulates rep system. cell
7. Pineal Gland 3 Main Types of Neurons
- Location: base of the brain
- Hormones: melatonin – sleeping hormone 1. Sensory Neurons – detect stimuli (sensing)
2. Interneurons – nagpapasa ng response sa motor
Control of Hormone Secretion neurons
1. Negative Feedbacks (most) 3. Motor neurons – response/nagpapagalaw sa’tin
- Kapag kinokontra natin yung nangyayari sa Synapse – gap between the terminal axon and the new
katawan natin kasi sobra na. dendrite bc neurons don’t usually connect. Dito nadaan
- Often used to maintain homeostasis. ang neurotransmitters papunta sa next neurons.
2. Positive Feedbacks (few)
- Dinadagdagan para mag transpire pa sa katawan Neurotransmitters (NT)
ang hormones. - Info na pinapasa; chemical messengers released
- Usually present on girls giving birth. from neurons; usually act in paracrine fashion.

NERVOUS SYSTEM – physically connected network of

cells, tissue, & organs -> allow to communicate and react.

How does NS work?

- Process: it carries impulses along neurons for u

to react to ur surroundings.
1. Stimulus – tititgnan yung changes sa
environment. Reflexes – simplest neutral pathway; carry out the reflex
2. Receptor – 5 senses entirely before ‘d brain is aware of ‘d response.
3. Sensory Neurons – present ‘to sa receptors;
magsesend ng signal sa brain & spinal cord. Reflex Arc – sense -> interneurons -> brain (thru spinal
4. Central Nervous System – processing the cord) -> motor neurons
message from neurons. Nerve Impulse – sensed information; progressive wave
5. Motor Neurons – movement ng tao depending of electric & chemical act.
on sa response mo.
6. Effector – muscle contract -> gagalaw ka na
Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System

- Consists of brain and spine - All about nerves

- Functions: receive sensory signals & determines - Connects CNS to all organ systems.
the appropriate response; stores memory; - Made up of: Sensory Neurons to detect stimuli;
carries thought; interprets & send signals to PNS. Motor Neurons: to respond.

Brain 2 Major Subsystems of PNS

1. Somatic
- voluntary movement (balance, movement) ->
activating skeletal muscles.
2. Autonomic
- involuntary movements; ‘di na kayang i-control

2 Types of Autonomic

1. Sympathetic Division (alert and alive)

- Fight or flight response
1. Cerebrum
- Dilation of pupils
- large front part of ‘d brain
- Increased heart beats & breathing rates
- Function: voluntary activity; memory, language;
- Constriction of blood vessels
receives & responds to sensory signals; controls
- Inhibits digestion
more functions; for thinking.
2. Parasympathetic Division (calm)
• Frontal lobe – speech
- Rest and ruminate
• Parietal Lobe – direction - Constricts pupils
• Occipital Lobe – vision - Dilate blood vessels
• Temporal Lobe – hearing - Reduced heart rates and breathing rates
- Composed of telencephalon (cerebral cortex) & - Stimulates digestions
diencephalon; CC is gray matter bc of fibers lack
white myelin coating.
• Diencephalon – has 2 major parts
1. Thalamus – everything a person can sense will
directly go to the thalamus to interpret & further
process.
2. Hypothalamus – monitors temp, sugar level, and
hormone levels; helps homeostasis.
• Cerebral Cortex
- covering of the brain
- Wiring is plastic; pwedeng baguhin yung
influences sa brain.
- Functions: intellectual processes (thought &
intelligence); processes sensory information &
integrates w past exp to produce appropriate
motor neurons.
2. Cerebellum
- smaller part of ‘d brain
- located behind ‘d brainstem.
- Functions: maintain posture, muscle control, and
balance; movements.

Spine

- Protected by vertebrae.
- Gray matter contains cell bodies; white matter
contains myelinated fibers.
- PNS nerves extend outside ‘d vertebrae.

Gray Matter – made up primarily of cell bodies &

dendrites; examples: interneurons is GM & terminal
portion of axons.

White Matter – made up of axons; carry ascending &

descending signals; pyramidal: control muscles;
extrapyramidal: control posture.