Aim of translation Browse through the text

To serve cross-cultural bilingual communication in translating Scan reading the whole text
to be aware of cultura differences and sensibility. Look for specific details in the text
Translation General impression of the whole text
Transfer process from a foreign language to the mother tongue, Read the text at least twice
most cases you translate into your mother tongue.
Translator If the topic is familiar
Cross-cultural transmitter Do a preliminary translation

Types of difficulties If the topic is unknown

Reading and comprehension ability in the SL Resort the resources
Difficulties of a linguistic nature Look for parar el texts in your own language in the same
Lack of specific knowledge topic
Difficulties of cultural nature
ÔNot foundÕ terms, Gerding-Salas contextualised intuition Do a second version with the suitable techniques to make the
text sound a little bit more natural
Requirements for a good translator Read the translated text and be prepared to defend it
Sound linguistic knowledge of SL and TL Set up all conventions
Knowledge of specialised subjects Coherence
Wide cultural background Cohesion example
Global vision of cross-cultural and interlingual
communication
Adequate management of sources

Newmark (1985)
Reading comprehension ability
Knowledge of the subject
Competence to write the TL clearly, economically and
resourcefully
Sensitivity to language

Tric‡s (1995)
Intuition or common sense (6th sense) which is a mix of
intelligence, sensitivity and intuition
 A2 Introduction: Translation and Translation Studies

TS has become more prominent

Proliferation of specialised courses
Proliferation of conferences, books and journals
19th century International organisations
Translation of literary texts
20th century How TS was viewed in its origins
Translation of the Bible Minor sub-discipline of traditional philology and linguistics,
Nowadays and the role of linguistic has more o less effects depending on
Technical, medical, legal, administrative... the translator.

Profession Formal Education How TS is viewed nowadays

Aim to reflect on
what how why
Translators as professionals
Need to develop an ability to stand back and reflect on what
they do and how they do it.
Have to prove they are in control of what they do, making a
conscious effort.
First theoretical studies in 20th
As a claim for a more systematic and descriptive analysis of
translation the first studies appeared.
James S. Holmes (1988)
Wrote ÔThe name and nature of translation studiesÕ
Impediments in the development of translation as a discipline
Lack of channels of communication
Lack of consensus about the name
Lack of consensus as the scope and structure
Proposal
The name of the discipline as Translation Studies
Detailed classification of the object of study
An inter-discipline, interfacing with many other fields
Some interfacing disciplines are
Linguistics Language engineering
Literary Studies Philosophy
Cultural Studies
Translation is an incredibly broad notion, which can be
understood in many different ways. For example, one may talk
of translation as a process or a product, and identify such
subtypes as literary translation, technical translation,
subtitling and machine translation; moreover, while more
typically it just refers to the transfer of written texts, the term
sometimes also includes interpreting.
Dictionary of Translation Studies
Translation proper
Different criteria equals different definitions
Translation is an incredible broad notion
A process and a result of this process
A type of communication
A skill
Functional perspective
Translation is a process of intercultural communication. ItÕs an
activity which a communicative function performed in a setting
and constrained by this setting.
 Interpreting
ST: Source Text TRL: Translator Oral translation of a message in a SL into a TL.
ST-P: Source Text Producer TT: Target Text Types: depending on the context
ST-R: Source Text Recipient TT-R: Target Text Recipient Conference Community
I: Initiator Court Business meeting
Escort
TRL: Translator
Central position, itÕs the recipient of the ST and the producer Modes: depending on the way
of the TT. It isnÕt an ordinary participant, Translator is a Consecutive Simultaneous
special kind of recipient who is not the intended addressee Liason Whispered
and not a sender. Signed Language Telephone
Subtitling Dubbing

Classification of Translation
ÔIn general terms, translation is a cover term that comprises
any method of transfer, oral and written to speech, from
speech to writing of a message from one language to another.Õ The evolution of TS has been marked by:
Newmark
The co-existence of different models and approaches
Each representing a particular point of view
Who does the translation?: Human VS Machine Each contributing to an integrated theory
Direction of the translation: Direct or indirect
Function of the translation: Literary or informative
Channel: Oral or written TS: Interdiscipline
Type of text: Technical, legal, literary...
Research into translation is possible from many different,
Different Communication Skills angles, from scientific to literary, cultural and political...
Interpreters: expert oral communicators. They have to make
decisions faster because they can only listen to the speech
once and attention sharing skills From a functional perspective
Translators: have time to polish their work. They can re-read
their text multiple times. Translation is a process of intercultural communication,
Background knowledge: performed in a setting, with an aim in mind, and constrained by
Interpreters: acquired prior
this setting.
Translators: acquired during
 e origin of Translation Studies
Late 18th century
As a language learning
activity because it was a
grammar-translation method.
2nd half of the 20th century
As an academic discipline
60Õs to 70Õs
Communicative approach to
language learning. Translation was
considered a higher-Level course and translators needed a
professional training.
Two main characteristics features
Literal VS Free debate
The criteria were vague, subjective and normative
Functional
Functional and Communicative
In Germany in the 70Õs and 80Õs.
Main exponents:
ReissÕ textual typology
Reiss and VermeerÕs skopos theory
Other exponents:
Justa Holz-MŠnttŠriÕs theory of translation action
NordÕs text-analysis model
Discourse analysis
Main exponents:
Bell
Baker
Hatim and Mason
Emphasis on pragm‡ticos and sociolinguistics

In the 60Õs Descriptive approaches and system theories

Translation as a contrastive analysis
Systematic Academic Investigation
ÔScienceÕ used for the first time
NidasÕ book ÔTowards Science of translatingÕ
Translation was promoted in universities
Translation workshop
Comparative literature
In the second half of the 20th century
As a reaction against vagueness and contradictions
Redefine the concepts of literal and free
Describe meaning in scientific terms
Put forward systematic taxonomies
Equivalence
Main exponent: Nida, with ÔTowards a Science of Translating.
Translation should aim for an equivalent effect putting
emphasis on the semantic quality of the text and the receiver
of the text.
Comparative literature and Russian Formalism
Main exponents:
TouryÕs poly system theory that aims at identifying norms
and laws of translation.
Chesterman developed the concept of norm.
Beyond the language
Main exponents:
Bassett and Lefever focused on the interaction between
translation and culture.
Final Remarks
Recent research is characterised by interdisciplinarity,
TS is relegated to many disciplines: linguistics, comparative
literature, cultural studies, philosophy, sociology, history....

Linguistic
Main exponents:
Vinay and DarbelnetÕs taxonomy regarding translation
strategies and procedures.
CatfordÕs translation shift.
 One of the pioneers in this work was K. Reiss,
...The text, and the features which give it textuality, are proposed who didnÕt want to let all the decisions to the
as an integrating concept for the interdiscipline of translation. caprice of the translator. Since the text type
The textual perspective reminds us that the daily practice of will decide our translation methods, it clearly
translation is text-entered. The translator takes knowledge from becomes important to have a system for
texts and puts knowledge into texts. deciding what type the text is.
Neubert & Shreve, 1992; VIII
TS needs a conceptual baseline Reiss make a distinction between
A textual approach. Informative texts
Integrating concept The function is to provide information. The content must be
The text preserved at all costs, and any Ôflourishes of styleÕ can safely be
The translation process involves sacrificed to that purpose, so that the translation method will be
Comprehending the ST and re-textualising it as a TT Ôplain-proseÕ.
Expressive texts
The function is to produce an aesthetic effect, then the
translation must also have such an effect. To do this, we must
follow the Ôauthor-adapted translationÕ to produce the same.
Operative texts
The function is persuasive. The equivalence is achieved if the SL
and the TL texts have the same persuasive effect. To do this, we
must use the Ôparodistic-adaptive method.
Each major text type contains subdivisions into numerous text
sorts. However, the overall text type, rather than the
subdivisions, that will decide the type of equivalence to be sought
and the translations method to be followed.

What influences translations?

In addition to deciding the general translation method, the text
type will also and inevitably influence, according to Reiss the
techniques. Reiss is also aware that the function of the text may
be altered in translation, so that we get adaptation, paraphrase,
summary, scholarly translations, interlinear versions and so on.
She similarly recognises that a specifically targeted readership
may also influence what happens in translation in terms of
censorship, adaptation and rewriting.

Textual typology VS Skopos Theory

Main tenets of Skopos Theory
The prime principle determining any translation process is
purpose of the overall translational action.
Purpose is aimed at by the target text situation.
Sender has intention, receiver has function.

Skopos rule: the end justifies the mean.

Skopos in this sense, can be defined as a Ôvariable of the receiverÕ
The receiver or addressee is the main factor determining the
target-text purpose.
Who decides what the principle is?
The translation brief specifies what kind of translation is needed.
This is why the initiator actually decides on the translation Skopos. W. text serve the same communicative function or functions as the
However, the translation brief doesnÕt tell the translator how to go
about their translating job, what strategy to use, or what
translation type to choose, because these decisions depend on the
translatorÕs responsibility and competence.
The one who decides what the principle is the initiator.
Conventional assignment
Conventional assignment is based on the general assignment that,
in a particular culture community at a given time, certain types of
texts are normally translated by certain types of translation.
Adequacy and Equivalence
In Skopos theory, the highest aim is adequacy, which is attaining
Intratextual coherence.
Equivalence
Means adequacy to a purpose that requires that the target
source text, thus preserving invariance of function between
source and target text.
Type and method of translation
Reiss established a general correlation between text type and
translation method.
Within Skopos theory, this correlation is restricted to the special
case of functional invariance between ST and TT.

Intratextual VS Intertextual
Intratextual coherence Significance of text typology
The TT has to be meaningful to target-culture receivers. It is imperative that the translator recognise the text type it is about
Intertextual coherence to translate, but it must also know when the markers of one text
The TT is expected to bear some kind of relationship with the type have been used to maintain the function of another.
corresponding text.
It is considered subordinate to Intratextual coherence. A text is not just a text
It always has its context, its intended meaning, its target audience
and its generic function.

Text typologies
The translator has to be aware of the specific conventions of the
culture it is translating into and use them as a guideline.
 Method refers to the way a particular translation process is carried out in terms of the translatorÕs
objective, and the method choose by the translator is based on the main aim of the translation and it
affects the whole text.

Strategies are the procedures used by the translator to solve problems that emerge when carrying
out the translation process with a particular object in mind. Translators use translation strategies for
comprehension and reformulation, because strategies play an essential role in problem solving.

Techniques are the result of a choice made by a translator, its validity will depend on various questions related to the context, the purpose of
the translation, audience expectations, etc.

Interpretive-Communicative method
Comprehension and restatement of the sense of the original text, maintaining in the translation the same aim that in the original text, and
producing the same effect in the recipient. Translates the sense of the text.
Literal method
Reproduce the linguistic system of the source text. It is a linguistic transcoding.
Free method
It maintains the original functions, but it doesnÕt intend to produce to the same effect on the reader. It makes modifications of semiotics
or modifications of communicative categories.
Philological method
The translator places philological, historical or philosophical commentaries, making the source text an object of study. It is a scholar
translation and usually a critic translation.

The criteria on which Molina and HurtadoÕs classification of techniques is based.

Molina and HurtadoÕs proposal for classification is based on two premises the need to distinguish between method, strategy and technique
and the need for a dynamic and functional concept of translation.

The classification is based on the following criteria:

To isolate the concept of technique from other related notions
To include only procedures that are characteristic of the
translation of texts and not those related to the comparison
of languages.
To maintain the notion that translation techniques are
functional. Molina and HurtadoÕs definitions donÕt evaluate
whether a technique is appropriate or correct, as this always
depends on its situation in text and context and translation
method that has been chosen.

To formulate new techniques to explain mechanism that have In relation to terminology, to maintain the most commonly
not yet been described. used terms.
 The most oust standing individual property
of a word is the lexical meaning.
Lexical meaning is the specific value it has in
a particular linguistic system and the
personality it acquires through usage within
that system.
Main types of meanings
Propositional: the relation between it and
what it refers to or describes in a real or
imaginary world.
E.g.: Propositional meaning of shirt, Ôa piece of clothing
worn on the upper part of the body.

Expressive: relates the speakerÕs feelings or attitude rather than

to what words and utterances refer to.
E.g.: The utterance ÔDonÕt whingeÕ
reflects the speakerÕs feelings.

Presupposed: arises from co-occurrence restrictions.

Two types of restrictions:
Selectional: a function of the propositional meaning of a
word.
E.g.: human referent. Geometrical has inanimate referent.
Collocational: semantically arbitrary restrictions which
do not follow logically from the propositional meaning of
a word.
E.g.: ÔLaws are brokenÕ in English.

Evoke: arises from dialect and register

Dialect: variety of language can be
Geographical: lift / elevator (London/Scotland)
Temporal: verily (archaic) / really (presente-day)
Social: napkin (lower class) / serviette (high class)
Register: variety of language arising from
Field of discourse: political speech VS discussing politics
Tenor of discourse: relationship among people
interacting
Mode of discourse: expressions using depending on the
type of text and its medium

Two main forms of lexical pattering
Collocations
The tendency of certain words to co-occur regularly in a given
language. This tendency has something to do with their
propositional meaning, but is largely arbitrary and independent
of meaning, both within and across language.
Collocational ranges are not fixed, because there are marked
collocations and register-specific collocations, also words
attract new collocations all the time.
What a word means often depends on its association with
certain collocates.
Some common problems
The engrossing effect of ST patterning
Misinterpreting the meaning of a SL collocation
The tension between accuracy and naturalness
Idioms and fixed expressions
Frozen patterns of language which allow little or no variation in
form and, in the case of idioms, often carry meanings which
cannot be deduced from their individual components.
Idiom:
Burry the hatchet: to become friendly again after a quarrel
The long and short of: basic facts of a situation
Fixed expressions:
Practice what you preach: do what you say
Waste not want not: not waste anything, you might need it.
Main problems:
There is no equivalent in the tl
There is a similar counterpart in the TL, but its context of
use may be different.
An idiom may be used in the ST in both its literal and
idiomatic sense.
Some techniques:
Using an idiom of similar meaning and form
Using an idiom of similar meaning and dissimilar form
Translating by paraphrasing
Translating by elision or omission
Translating by compensation
 B3 Contrastive Analysis: Grammatical issues
Languages differ in the degree of importance they
attach to aspects of and thus, but the
way they express them.
Some grammatical categories
Number, gender and person
Tense, aspect and mood
Voice
Word order
English and Spanish do not exhibit many differences as far as
number and gender are concerned. However, attention should
be paid to the category of person.
1st, 2nd and 3rd person
Number
Gender
Formality / politeness
When translating from Spanish into English, aspectual
differences are important
Mainly the distinction between perfective (completion) or
imperfective (non-completion) we are forced to put in
Spanish, whereas in English thereÕs just simple past.
E.x. Yo com’ (perfective) / Yo com’a (imperfective)
Mood, relevant category when comparing English and Spanish
The use of passive voice is extremely common in many varieties
of written English and can pose various problems in translation.
The tendency to translate English passive structures
literally into a variety of TLs is often criticised in
translation.
The main function of the passive in most languages is to allow
the construction of agentless clauses. Most languages have a
variety of mechanism for constructing this clauses.
Thus, languages which have a category of voice do not always
use the passive with the same frequency.
Things to have in mind when translating:
The frequency of use of active, passive and similar
structures in the SL and the TL.
Their respective stylistic value in different text types
The function of the passive and similar structures in each
language
The idea is not to replace an active form with an active one and
passive with a passive one. ItÕs always the function of a
category rather than the form it takes that is of paramount
importance of translation.
The order in which functional elements may occur is more fixed
in some languages than in others.
Word order is extremely important in translation because it plays
a major role in maintaining a coherent point of view and in
orienting messages at text level.
B4 Contrastive Analysis: Textual and Pragmatic awareness

Pragmatics is the study of language in use.
ItÕs the study of meaning as conveyed and manipulated by
participants in a communicative situation
Two important areas of study related to the question of Ômaking
senseÕ could be mentioned:
Coherence
Implicature
Implicature
It has to do with the question of how it is that we come to
understand more than is actually said.
This complicates the tasks of the translator who may:
Eliminate certain possible interpretations of the original
from the TT.
Give rise to other interpretations which are not derivable
from the ST.
Coherence
ItÕs a network of conceptual relations which organise an create a
text, which are connected by virtue of conceptual or meaning
dependencies as perceived by language users.
In the case of cohesion, stretches of language are connected to
each other virtue of lexical and grammatical dependencies.
The coherence of a text is the result of the interaction between
knowledge presented in the text and the readerÕs own knowledge
and experience of the world.
A readerÕs cultural and intellectual background determines how
much sense he gets out of a text.
A translator has to take account of the range of knowledge
available to his T-readers and their expectations.