MSc Construction Project Management Dissertation

A Study to Review the Role and Quality of Recycled Products and Aggregate in the Field of
Construction.

Student Name:

Course Name:

Instructor’s Name:

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DECLARATION
This is to state that my dissertation, titled A Study to Review the Role and Quality of Recycled
Products and Aggregate in the Field of Construction, is duly submitted to my department to
complete my degree. The work done here is entirely authentic and performed by me.
The dissertation presented at the university is original, and neither was submitted to any other
university by me.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I want to thank my lecturer and supervisor for their continued support and encouragement. My
successful project completion could not have been accomplished without their support and my
classmates. Thank you all for writing and researching this project.

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Table of Contents
1 CHAPTER 1.................................................................................................................................8
1.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................8
1.2 Background Information........................................................................................................9
1.3 Problem Statement...............................................................................................................10
1.4 Research Aims and Objective..............................................................................................11
1.4.1 General Objective..............................................................................................................11
1.4.2 Specific Objective..............................................................................................................11
2 CHAPTER 2...............................................................................................................................12
2.1 Literature Review.................................................................................................................12
2.2 Recycled Aggregates............................................................................................................12
2.3 Recycled Aggregates are Classified in Several Ways..........................................................12
2.3.1 Based on weight loss and water absorption.......................................................................12
2.3.2 Based on the source...........................................................................................................13
2.4 Benefits of Using Recycled Aggregates...............................................................................15
2.5 Some Recycled Materials Used In Concrete........................................................................16
2.5.1 Recycled Concrete Aggregate............................................................................................16
2.5.2 Reclaimed Aggregate (RA)................................................................................................16
2.5.3 Electric arc furnace slag...................................................................................................17
2.5.4 Recycled waste glass and Glass Cullet..............................................................................17
2.5.5 Recycled Rubber................................................................................................................18
2.6 Properties of Recycled Concrete Aggregates (RCA)...........................................................18
2.6.1 Physical Properties of RCA...............................................................................................19
2.6.2 Mechanical Properties.......................................................................................................20
2.6.3 Chemical Properties..........................................................................................................21
2.7 Properties of Recycled Concrete Aggregates (RCA) Concrete...........................................22
2.7.1 Fresh Characteristics........................................................................................................22
2.7.2 Hardened Properties.........................................................................................................24
2.7.3 Durability Properties.........................................................................................................29
2.8 Factors Affecting the Properties of Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA).........................30
2.8.1 The Properties of RCA.......................................................................................................30
2.8.2 The RCA Content...............................................................................................................31
2.8.3 Quality of Parent Concrete................................................................................................31
2.8.4 Types of Sources of RCA....................................................................................................31

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2.8.5 The Size of RCA.................................................................................................................31

2.8.6 The Moisture Condition of RCA........................................................................................31
2.8.7 The Curing Condition........................................................................................................31
2.8.8 The Cement Content..........................................................................................................32
2.8.9 The Water-to-Cement Ratio...............................................................................................32
2.8.10 The Air Entrainment........................................................................................................32
2.9 Methods of Enhancing the Performance of RCA Concrete.................................................32
2.9.1 Improvement of RCA Quality.............................................................................................32
2.9.2 The Adjustment of Water to Cement Ratio........................................................................32
2.9.3 The Incorporation of Pozzolanic Materials.......................................................................32
2.9.4 The Use of New Mixing Technique....................................................................................33
2.10 Barriers to Using Recycled Construction Aggregates....................................................33
2.10.1 Lack of Facilities.............................................................................................................33
2.10.2 Work Force.....................................................................................................................33
2.10.3 Quality.............................................................................................................................33
2.10.4 Finances..........................................................................................................................33
2.10.5 Technology......................................................................................................................33
2.10.6 Resources........................................................................................................................34
2.11 Risks Associated with Recycling Construction Aggregate.............................................34
2.11.1 Lower Quality.................................................................................................................34
2.11.2 Toxic Emission of Chemicals..........................................................................................34
2.11.3 Increased Cost of Maintenance.......................................................................................34
3 CHAPTER 3...............................................................................................................................36
3.1 Methodology........................................................................................................................36
3.2 Qualitative Research............................................................................................................37
3.3 Mixed Research....................................................................................................................38
3.4 Research Paradigm...............................................................................................................38
3.5 Data Collection.....................................................................................................................39
3.6 Ethics....................................................................................................................................40
4 CHAPTER 4...............................................................................................................................41
4.1 Results and Discussion.........................................................................................................41
4.2 Traditional and Recent Reviews on RCA Qualities.............................................................41
4.3 Composition and Key Properties of Recycled.....................................................................42
4.3.1 Chemical Composition and Characteristics of RCA.........................................................42

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4.4 Physical Properties of RCA..................................................................................................44

4.4.1 Particle Shape and Texture...............................................................................................44
4.4.2 Specific Gravity.................................................................................................................44
4.4.3 Bulk Density.......................................................................................................................45
4.4.4 Pore Volume......................................................................................................................45
4.4.5 Absorption..........................................................................................................................45
4.5 Mechanical Properties of RCA............................................................................................45
4.5.1 Comprehensive Strength....................................................................................................45
4.5.2 Tensile Strength.................................................................................................................46
4.5.3 Creep..................................................................................................................................46
4.5.4 Shrinkage...........................................................................................................................46
4.5.5 Modulus Elasticity.............................................................................................................47
4.6 Limitation on Construction and Demolition Waste (CDW) Composition on its Applications
47
4.7 Environmental Benefits of Using RCA% of the material used............................................48
4.8 Barriers to Using RCA.........................................................................................................48
5 CHAPTER 5...............................................................................................................................51
5.1 Conclusion and Recommendation........................................................................................51
5.1.1 Recommendation................................................................................................................51
5.1.2 Conclusion.........................................................................................................................51
References.......................................................................................................................................52
APPENDICES.................................................................................................................................57

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List of Figures
Figure 1: Physical Properties of RCA............................................................................................................19
Figure 2: The essential mechanical properties of RCA and NCA..................................................................21
Figure 3: Essential Fresh Properties of RCA and NCA Concretes................................................................23
Figure 4: The Impact of RCS on Splitting Tensile Strength..........................................................................25
Figure 5: The Impact of RCA Concrete on Flexural Strength.......................................................................26
Figure 6: The Impact of RCA on the Total Porosity of Concrete..................................................................27
Figure 7: The Impact of RCA on the Permeability of a Concrete..................................................................27
Figure 8: The Impact of RCA on Absorption of Concrete.............................................................................28
Figure 9: The Impact of RCA on Drying Shrinkage of Concrete..................................................................29
Figure 10: Methodological Model.................................................................................................................39
Figure 11: Composition of most of the Construction and Demolition Wastes...............................................43
Figure 12: The basic physical properties of RCA and NCA (McGinnisf et al., 2017)...................................45

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1 CHAPTER 1

1.1 Introduction
The world is improving every day, and so are other industries, the most significant of which is the
construction industry. This creates a desire for more and more innovation in the sector without
sacrificing quality or safety. The utilization of recycled goods or aggregates in buildings is a new
notion that is being debated in the construction business. The term "recycled aggregate" refers to
materials that have been recycled and previously used in construction. Concrete, the most versatile
building material, will significantly contribute to the growth of infrastructure and industries. Still, it
is argued that concrete is not environmentally friendly due to its strong resource, potential adverse
environmental impact, and high cost.
As previously stated, the world is developing, and people are always in need of high-quality, low-
cost items. Concrete recycling has become even more critical in terms of ensuring long-term
growth. The cost of creating concrete from recycled aggregates is frequently less than the cost of
getting raw aggregates, which can be passed on to the consumer (Zhou & Chen, 2017). Compared
to virgin aggregate, recycled aggregate has a wide range of applications. Specifically, cost-saving if
recycled materials are accessible locally, it can save money, time, and transportation costs while
also being environmentally friendly due to the reduced use of natural resources. According to
several research, recycled aggregates are long-lasting. Reducing the amount of material that must
be disposed of via reuse within the industry is also an evident benefit (Zhou & Chen, 2017).
However, the risk is quite significant when all of the aforementioned fulfilments or needs are
considered. More strategies for measuring and mitigating these risks are required.
The topic of this dissertation emphasizes the points mentioned above. It discusses the relevance and
benefits of recycling aggregates in the construction industry and the quality considerations and risk
management that come with them (Zhou & Chen, 2017). Quality is defined as how this improves
the construction process and ensures better satisfaction of needs. At the same time, risk
management focuses on all threats that arise here, how to mitigate them, and how to enhance
innovative project opportunities and performance while avoiding any backfire.

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1.2 Background Information

The rate of global urbanization is quickly increasing due to population growth and industrialization
expansion. Roads, buildings, bridges, transportation systems, and other infrastructures are in higher
demand due to urbanization and population growth. Rapid infrastructure investment demands many
construction materials, the site, and necessary land. Concrete is favored for major building projects
due to its longer lifespan, lower maintenance requirements, and superior performance. The priority
of most nations has been raising their economic levels and Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (Zhou
& Chen, 2017). Smaller buildings are being destroyed, and new towers which can accommodate
larger populations and industrial activities are being built for countries to increase their GDP rates.
However, environmental sustainability is a fundamental aspect closely related to industrialization
and the human race's continued existence. The prerequisites for modern construction work include
environmental awareness, resource protection, and sustainable development. Modernization has led
to the disposal of demolished aggregates on the land without further use. Such circumstances
impact soil fertility and negatively impact the environment (Zhou & Chen, 2017). Total demolition
waste comprises 40%, 30%, 10%, 5%, 5% and 10% of concrete, ceramics, wood, plastic, metal and
other mixtures respectively (Zhou & Chen, 2017). As the construction sector is predicted to grow
by 1.8 times in the next five years, the waste generation from the sector is expected to increase
(Zhou & Chen, 2017). To reduce the impact of the disposal of demolished aggregates, recycling is
one of the key solutions being utilized by nations worldwide. The utilization of recycled aggregate
in the construction sector is an important strategy for protecting the environment (Zhou & Chen,
2017). The building materials of the future are recycled aggregates. Recycled aggregate is now
being used in numerous construction projects across various European, Russian, American, and
Asian nations (Zhou & Chen, 2017). Many nations are relaxing their infrastructure rules to
encourage the usage of recycled aggregate. This paper will review the role and quality of recycled
aggregates and products in the construction industry.

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1.3 Problem Statement

The concept of Circular Economy (CE) mediating the unsustainable use of finite resources is
escalating. It has recently gained much academic, governmental, and organizational attention. Due
to the rising population depleting natural resources, industrialization and urbanization have peaked
(Arulrajah et al., 2012). On the other side, it causes a depletion of natural resources and substantial
solid waste production. Among all industries, the construction sector significantly impacts
obtaining natural resources and producing wastes known as Construction and Demolition (C&D)
wastes (Arulrajah et al., 2012). These C&D wastes are produced during the demolition of structures
and roadways and disposed of in landfills.
In comparison to rural areas, urban areas needed larger quantities of raw materials for construction
growth due to technological innovation. The disposal of these wastes requires a large area for
landfilling, which impacts the environment by affecting the soil fertility, moisture, and emission of
Carbon (IV) Oxide (Arulrajah et al., 2012). The increased production of construction wastes
requires remediation approaches to control environmental impacts. Recycling is the greatest choice
in these conditions among the 3R strategy (Recycle, Reduce, and Reuse) (Arulrajah et al.,
2012). Recycled aggregate is now being used in numerous construction projects across various
European, Russian, American, and Asian nations (Arulrajah et al., 2012). Many nations are
relaxing their infrastructure rules to encourage the usage of recycled aggregate. However, the issue
of the quality of the recycled aggregate is becoming of great concern due to the durability and
strength of the materials. This paper will review the role and quality of recycled aggregates and
products in the construction industry. The basic characteristics of recycled fine aggregate and
recycled coarse aggregate are reported in this research, comparing these characteristics to those of
native aggregates.

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1.4 Research Aims and Objective

1.4.1 General Objective
A study to review the role and quality of recycled products and aggregate in the field of
construction.
1.4.2 Specific Objective
I. To establish the factors affecting the quality of recycled aggregate.
II. To compare natural and recycled aggregate in construction.
III. To determine quality variations in recycled aggregates.
IV. To establish the risk associated with recycling construction aggregates
V. To establish the barriers to using recycled construction aggregates

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2 CHAPTER 2

2.1 Literature Review

2.2 Recycled Aggregates

C&DW, one of the most abundant forms of waste created worldwide, is used to make recycled
aggregates. C&DW encompasses a wide range of materials originating from several operations,
such as building, restoration, demolition, land clearance, and even natural disasters. Due to the lack
of a consistent description of its ingredients, it is frequently difficult to determine the volume of
C&DW generated annually in a single state or even globally (Arulrajah et al., 2012). C&DW is
transformed into recycled aggregates at treatment facilities that can be movable or fixed and
equipped with crushers, panels, and magnetic isolators. The goal is to separate ferrous elements,
reduce waste and other pollutants, and achieve the required grading (Arulrajah et al., 2012). From a
technical standpoint, many studies have been conducted to determine how reprocessed aggregates
the performance of concrete (Pellegrino et al., 2019).

2.3 Recycled Aggregates are Classified in Several Ways

The aggregate recovered from C&DW must meet the particle requirements' specified size and the
smallest number of pollutants. These criteria align with the materials' requirements for durability
and stability. The aggregates, the cement, and the armor must not undergo any unexpected or
depletion-causing reactions (Arulrajah et al., 2012). It should have a precise form and particle size
that will aid in good concrete workability. Different institutions in different countries classify
recycled aggregates from building demolition trash in various ways. Some of them are based on
weight loss and water absorption, based on the source, and based on constituents.
2.3.1 Based on weight loss and water absorption
The table below shows the Ministry of Construction Japan's classification of reprocessed
aggregates from the building demolition waste.
Table 1: Classification based on weight loss and water absorption (Recycled Aggregates from
Construction Demolition Wastes -Types & Uses, 2017)

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2.3.2 Based on the source

Aggregates that have been recycled from a significant building material are classified in this way
are:
Type I – Aggregates produced from Masonry Waste
Type II – Aggregates made from Concrete Waste
Type III- Natural aggregates + recycled aggregates; This form of aggregate will have a range
of 80% natural aggregate and 10 % type I aggregates. EN 12620 is the European standard that
establishes this categorization (Arulrajah et al., 2012). As indicated in the table below, recycled
aggregates are carefully sorted based on their distinct elements (Arulrajah et al., 2012). The terms
RCU90, RB10, and RA5 refer to aggregates that comprise 90 percent concrete by mass, 10 percent
less masonry, 5 percent bituminous substance, and so forth (Arulrajah et al., 2012).

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Table 2: Classification of Recycled Aggregates according to the constituents that are present
(Recycled Aggregates from Construction Demolition Wastes -Types & Uses, 2017. Source:
Arulrajah et al., 2012)

Table 3: The constituents found in demolition waste, As seen in the table above. (Recycled
Aggregates from Construction Demolition Wastes -Types & Uses, 2017)

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2.4 Benefits of Using Recycled Aggregates

Demolition work inevitably occurs during construction, producing waste materials such as concrete
and brick. Rather than ending up in a landfill, these materials may be recycled and eventually re-
used in buildings. This lessens landfill pressure and the enormous burden on natural resources
(Arulrajah et al., 2012). Furthermore, local garbage is recycled and reused in the community,
minimizing the need for long-distance transportation.
As a result, recycled aggregates serve the circular economy, a system critical in assisting the
building sector in becoming carbon neutral (Arulrajah et al., 2012). The circular economy is a
concept in which things are designed to be recycled and reused several times. This guarantees we
get the most out of precious resources while preserving limited natural resources.
Contractors can save money using recycled aggregate instead of virgin materials since they are less
expensive to create. Furthermore, if recycled materials are accessible near a building site, the cost
of shipping the product can be reduced, resulting in even more cost savings (Arulrajah et al., 2012).
Furthermore, recycling aggregate prevents landfill charges from being incurred when unwanted
materials are sent to waste.
Recycling aggregates is commonly recognized as a "green" building material. They may be utilized
in various ways and are ideal for building and landscaping projects. They're safe to use and have
the same structural integrity as natural aggregate (Sheehan, 2021).

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2.5 Some Recycled Materials Used In Concrete

2.5.1 Recycled Concrete Aggregate
Coarse Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA) is made through the crushing or demolition of
structures to produce wastes of at least 95% by weight of concrete and less than 1% contaminant
level in the bulk mass (Pedro, De Brito & Evangelista, 2017). RCA may also contain crushed
stones, hydraulic-cement concrete, gravel, and a combination of all of which may have been used
in creating the original concrete. Previous studies have demonstrated the potential of RCA in
various technical applications. According to studies, Class 1A RCA, which comprises a well-
graded, high-quality RCA with no more than 0.5% brick content, has the potential to be used in a
variety of applications, provided the necessary performance or test requirements are met (Pedro, De
Brito & Evangelista, 2017). For non-structural work like gutters, usage includes a partial
replacement to a maximum of 30% coarse RCA for original material in concrete production (Pedro,
De Brito & Evangelista, 2017). There is little practical knowledge on using recycled concrete
aggregates for construction purposes. It was claimed that 30- to 40-MPa concrete exposed to
moderate conditions might integrate Class 1A RCA but with certain drawbacks in terms of mix
modification, permeability, and shrinkage qualities (Pedro, De Brito & Evangelista, 2017). There
were no negative visual consequences in the concrete, and it was anticipated that the higher cost of
cement would be compensated by the cheaper cost of aggregates made from recycled concrete.
RCA has high water-absorption ranging between 4.5 to 5.4 and smaller specific gravity ranging
between 2.44 to 2.46 than most natural aggregates (Pedro, De Brito & Evangelista, 2017).
Particularly fine RCA has extremely high water absorption of 6.2% and low specific gravity of
around 2.32. The unit weight of RCA concrete is between 2240 and 2320 kg/m3 (Pedro, De Brito &
Evangelista, 2017). Compared to control concrete constructed from natural aggregate with an
equivalent water-to-cement ratio, it has a higher water demand and less compressive strength
(Pedro, De Brito & Evangelista, 2017). Similar in flexural strength to control concrete, RCA
concrete has a lower elastic modulus. Higher creep and drying shrinkage were also the results of
RCA, while control expansion was equivalent. The main reason for increased water absorption,
lower SG, and poor mechanical characteristics was the mortar's adhesion to the surface of the RCA
(Pedro, De Brito & Evangelista, 2017). Gypsum and plaster pollution may result in excessive
swelling or expansion. To counteract the effect of RCA on absorption, workability, shrinkage,
and strength, changes to the mix design would be required.
2.5.2 Reclaimed Aggregate (RA)
By extracting the aggregates from the water-cement mixture using one of several alternative
processes, the majority of which are centered on washing the material with water, aggregate can be
recovered from concrete that has been returned to a batching plant. Depending on the method used,
aggregates are filtered for future use, and water may be recycled (Butler, West & Tighe, 2017).
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Letting the returned concrete solidify for a brief period before crushing it to be used as aggregate in
new blends has been investigated as an alternate way to recover aggregates from the concrete in
fresh state (Butler, West & West & Tighe, 2017). Reclaimed aggregate has a combined gradation
of coarse and fine aggregate and is comparatively clean. Recycled aggregate must be handled
carefully to prevent segregation, just like any other graded aggregate. Except for their combined
grade, recycled aggregate's mechanical and physical characteristics are the same as those of the
original aggregates used.
To account for the small particles (e.g., -2 mm) eliminated with the washing water, mix changes are
performed using reclaimed aggregate to replace some or all of the aggregates in the concrete. In
Australia, 100% recycled aggregate has been used with structural grading up to 32 MPa (Butler,
West & Tighe, 2017). Higher grades of concrete up to 80 MPa have also been partially replaced
with recycled aggregate (Butler, West & Tighe, 2017). The earliest findings for concrete made with
recycled aggregates from hardened recycled concrete suggested that using the aggregate within a
specific time window could improve qualities like strength. Due to the nature of the broken
material, other qualities, including workability, may be diminished.
2.5.3 Electric arc furnace slag
EAF slag is a dark-grey or black broken aggregate that is rocky, cohesive, somewhat porous,
heavy, hard, and strong. Because it is composed of particles with a tightly packed, hard, and
angular form that has excellent mechanical qualities, this has powerful resistance to abrasion,
relatively low crushing value, and good fragmentation resistance (Shaban et al., 2019).
Furthermore, it has a higher load than natural aggregates, and it is determined mostly by the
proportion of massive metal oxides in its content, which differs from slag to slag.
EAF slag has the qualities listed above, making it a strong candidate for usage in various building
applications, including as a concrete aggregate (heavyweight) (Shaban et al., 2019). As a result,
gravity structures, bulk concrete, hydraulic safeguard structures, and any other application where
the slag's heavyweight is beneficial could be recognized as the ideal marketplaces for EAF
concrete.
2.5.4 Recycled waste glass and Glass Cullet
In terms of the impacts of glass material in concrete aggregate, it is important to mention that it has
essentially little water absorption, which is a benefit because it doesn't have to be taken into
account when determining the mix's efficient water-cement ratio (Shaban et al., 2019). The flow
qualities of fresh concrete mixture with glass aggregate are enhanced over natural aggregate
concrete without this same addition of water-reducing additives due to the absence of the smooth
surfaces of glass particles and moisture absorption (Shaban et al., 2019). This results in lower costs,
increased strength, and endurance, especially in harsh settings. Another benefit of large crystals is
their abrasion resistance and great hardness, which helps to make them ideal aggregates for floor
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tiles, paving stones, and other high-wear applications.

Glass cullet can be ground into a sand-like product that has a few uses, including drainage, fill
material, and non-structural concrete aggregate. Crushed cullet sand (-2.46 mm), discovered in
Australia, has a specific gravity between 2.4 and 2.5 and a water absorption rate under 1%. Up to
2% of impurities and 5% ignition loss are possible (Butler, West & Tighe, 2017). In laboratory and
field testing, crushed cullet sand worked effectively in concrete when properly combined with
natural sand. The use of binders with at least 30% fly ash greatly reduced ASR resulting from cullet
replacement for fine aggregate (Butler, West & Tighe, 2017). Comparatively to a 27% loss at a
30% substitution level, the compressive strength of concrete was reduced by 5% when a 5% cullet
was used in place of natural sand (Butler, West & Tighe, 2017). Compared to identical
conventional concrete mixes, glass cullet concrete had somewhat reduced drying shrinkage values.
For concrete used for footpaths, bicycle lanes, and other non-structural purposes, a 20% cullet
replacement limit was suggested (Butler, West & Tighe, 2017).
2.5.5 Recycled Rubber
When they're just substituting natural aggregates without improving any concrete qualities,
recycling rubber in concrete and cement composites might be considered a downcycling of the
garbage (Shaban et al., 2019). Rubber in concrete is primarily used to lighten constructions and
improve performance qualities such as energy dissipation capacity, ductility, and strain capacity.
When a load-bearing framework is available, significant volumes of rubber aggregates may be
useful for a variety of additional uses, such as non-structural reasons such as building exteriors,
architectural units, and lightweight concrete walls (Shaban et al., 2019). Advancements in the
formulation and reinforcement of concrete might as well be utilized as aggregate for cement units
under adaptable pavements.
Many other materials have also been offered as alternatives to traditional concrete constituents. The
concentrate here is on components recognized as by-products of other manufacturing methods or
even garbage, and for whom there is now no market (Pellegrino et al., 2019).

2.6 Properties of Recycled Concrete Aggregates (RCA)

This paper reviews previous research findings on the construction sector's quality and applications
of recycled aggregates. According to the existing experimental findings, the essential properties of
RCA concrete and RCA materials are discussed in this research.

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2.6.1 Physical Properties of RCA

Figure 1: Physical Properties of RCA

G = Specific Gravity, WA = Water Absorption
D = Density,
CV = Crushing Value,
AV = Abrasion Value
Research has been done on the various physical properties of RCA that need to be examined before
concrete use. According to research, the Coarse Aggregate (CA) size affects how much mortar
adheres to the surface. If the size of the CA is smaller, there will be the additional mortar that has
adhered to the RCA surface (Jagan et al., 2020). The type of crushers used and the process used to
produce RCA significantly impact the form or texture of the finished product. Furthermore, high-
strength concrete produced RCAs with greater qualities. Therefore the strength of the RCA
produced largely depended on the strength of the parent concrete (Nedeljković et al., 2021). The
surface of crushed RCA concrete is heavily adherent with mortar, preventing the interlock with the
matrix needed for effective weight transfer.
Research has been done on the various physical properties of RCA that need to be examined before
concrete use. According to research, the Coarse Aggregate (CA) size affects how much mortar
adheres to the surface. If the size of the CA is smaller, there will be the additional mortar that has
adhered to the RCA surface (Nedeljković et al., 2021). The type of crushers used and the process
used to produce RCA significantly impact the form or texture of the finished product. Furthermore,
high-strength concrete produced RCAs with greater qualities. Therefore the strength of the RCA
produced largely depended on the strength of the parent concrete (Jagan et al., 2020). The surface
of crushed RCA concrete is heavily adherent with mortar, preventing the interlock with the matrix
needed for effective weight transfer.
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The type of crushers and the process used to produce RA significantly impact the final product's
form or texture. The gradation curves and Fuller Thompson equation were confirmed for RCA by a
well-packed structure produced by optimizing particle packing, which increased RAC strength
(Nedeljković et al., 2021). Due to the adhering mortar, the loosening effect, and the quality of
the original concrete, the wedge impact as the quantity of RCA grows, RCA's particle packing was
weaker than NCA's (Jagan et al., 2020). Given that the RCA made from high-strength concrete had
higher particle packaging than those made from low-strength concrete, it is possible that the quality
of the parent concrete directly influenced the strength of packing of the RCA.
Researchers conclude that RCA with excellent packing technology can be accomplished by
ensuring that the RCA materials are passed through successive crushing and screening
(Nedeljković et al., 2021). The larger RCA materials can be taken back to crushing for further
sorting in terms of surface texture and adhered mortar. Optimization of the RCA based on the
quality of the parent concrete is essential since it affects the Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ) of the
RCA materials. When a normal load is applied to RCA, cracks occur along the ITZ (Jagan et al.,
2020).
2.6.2 Mechanical Properties
The mechanical characteristics of the aggregate influence the mechanical qualities of the concrete.
According to previous studies, RCA's mechanical qualities are substandard compared to NCA's
(Omary, Ghorbel & Wardeh, 2016). In this part the fundamental mechanical characteristics of RCA
and NCA are covered in this section;
2.6.2.1 Aggregate Abrasion Value (AVV)
The wear resistance of an aggregate particle is determined as AVV. A high AVV results when
there is greater wear of materials. RCA has a higher AVV than NCA. The typical RCA values
range between 20%v to 45% (Omary, Ghorbel & Wardeh, 2016). Regardless of origin, the AAV of
RCA is typically below the permitted maximum limit (50% by weight) for construction purposes
(McGinnisf et al., 2017).
2.6.2.2 Aggregate Impact Value (AIV)
The AIV measures the impact-sensitive aggregate's strength. A indicates the aggregate's resistance
to dynamic load. The weaker the aggregate, the higher the AIV. Previous research has shown that
the AIV of RCA (20–25%) is higher than that of NCA (15–20%) (McGinnis et al., 2017).
Because of the bonded mortar and cement paste, RCA is less durable and has a higher AIV.
2.6.2.3 Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV)
The ACV offers a way to quantify an aggregate's resistance to crushing under a gradually applied
compressive load (Omary, Ghorbel & Wardeh, 2016). The stronger the aggregate, the lower the
ACV value. The ACV of RCA particles ranges from 20% to 30%, which is higher than the ACV of
NCA, which ranges from 14% to 22% (McGinnisf et al., 2017). This is based on the literature that
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is currently accessible. This is expected given the RCA particles' relatively weak cement mortar
bonds. The figure shows the essential mechanical properties of RCA and NCA;

Figure 2: The essential mechanical properties of RCA and NCA

2.6.3 Chemical Properties
The chemical characteristics of RCA have an impact on how well RCA concrete performs. The
durability of concrete will be impacted if harmful chemicals such as chlorides, sulphates,
and alkalis are present in RCA (Shi et., 2016). Below, a detailed discussion of RCA's chemical
characteristics is provided;
2.6.3.1 Soundness
Aggregate soundness indicates the resistance of an aggregate to weathering and other
environmental exposures. The most common methods for evaluating the soundness of aggregate
are magnesium sulphate, sulphate, and sodium sulphate, soundness tests. RCA usually fails the
magnesium sulfate soundness test but passes the sodium sulphate test (Omary, Ghorbel & Wardeh,
2016). According to Shi et al. (2016), the soundness losses for magnesium sulphate were 3.7% and
2.5% for RCA and NCA, respectively (Shi et., 2016). These numbers are comparable to what Shi et
al. (2016) found. When Tabsh and Abdelfatah (2019) looked into the sodium sulfate soundness
test, they discovered that the losses for RCA and NCA were 12% and 9%, respectively, and these
values satisfied ASTM C 33-04 (2004) standards. The findings are comparable to those of Shi et al.
(2016).
2.6.3.2 Sulphate Content
Due to the presence of sulphate compounds in cement mortar, RCA may contain a greater sulphate
concentration. Poon and Chan (2017) looked at the sulphate content soluble in water of NCA and
RCA and found that it was 0.025 and 0.032 g/L for each aggregate (McGinnisf et al., 2017). The
amount of attached cement mortar determines the RCA's sulphate content. A higher RCA sulphate
percentage indicates that RCA has more mortar connected to it.
2.6.3.3 Alkali-aggregate Reactivity (AAR)
If the original concrete's aggregates were sensitive to an AAR, RCA might result in an AAR in the
concrete. Additionally, the AAR susceptibility of fresh concrete incorporating RCA may be
significantly impacted by the alkali content of cement mortar adhering to RCA (McGinnisf et al.,

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2017). The amount of mortar in RCA is related to the amount of alkali in it. An RCA that uses
more mortar has a higher alkali content and is consequently more vulnerable to AAR.
2.6.3.4 Organic Matter
You might find wood, paper, rubber, textile fabrics, plastics, joint seals, and other polymeric
materials in RCA. When these materials are exposed to freezing and thawing or drying and
wetting, they become unsustainable in concrete. The level of organic matter permitted in concrete
is 0.15% by weight of RCA.
2.6.3.5 Chloride Content
The RCA made from original concrete exposed over an extended period of time to chloride-based
deicing agents has high chloride content. RCA with high chloride contents causes corrosion of the
steel reinforcement, which affects the durability of new concrete (Omary, Ghorbel & Wardeh,
2016). Because rapid steel corrosion could result due to high chloride content can lead to early
failure of reinforced concrete structures. RCAs made from old concrete that contains chlorides
greater than 0.04 kg/m3 should not be used in fresh concrete (Omary, Ghorbel & Wardeh, 2016).

2.7 Properties of Recycled Concrete Aggregates (RCA) Concrete

2.7.1 Fresh Characteristics
As a result of its increased absorption, angularity, porosity, and surface roughness, RCA can affect
the characteristics of fresh concrete.

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Figure 3: Essential Fresh Properties of RCA and NCA Concretes

2.7.1.1 Workability
The surface roughness and greater angularity of RCA particles reduce the workability of the
concrete and make it hard to finish properly. The amount of workability loss increases as the
proportion of RCA in the concrete mix increases (Gabr & Cameron, 2012). More water must be
used for RCA concrete to have the same workability as NCA concrete. The RCA-infused concrete
mixtures often meet the initial slump requirements. However, the quicker loss of workability
caused by RCA's greater absorption rate can reduce the amount of time needed for putting and
finishing concrete (Gabr & Cameron, 2012). Instead of adding more water to the Jobsite, the issues
related to the rapid loss of workability should be addressed by adjusting and managing the moisture
content of RCA before mixing.
2.7.1.2 Stability
In general, RCA concrete bleeding is less than NCA concrete. This is caused by rubbing
old mortars with RCA while mixing and causing the concrete mix to include more fine particles.
These particles minimize bleeding in concrete by adsorbing some of the mix water. The
cohesiveness of the concrete mix is also increased by greater amounts of fines when the free water

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content is low (Gabr & Cameron, 2012). Additionally, the increased surface roughness and
angularity at a higher RCA percentage help to strengthen concrete cohesiveness (Gabr & Cameron,
2012). Due to less bleeding and more cohesion, the concrete mix is more stable. As a result, the
segregation resistance of RCA concrete and NCA concrete can be compared.
2.7.1.3 Air Content
The volume of the mortar has a significant impact on the concrete's air content. RCA affects the
concrete's air content due to its higher mortar concentration. Fresh concrete containing RCA has
slightly more variable air content, which is frequently up to 0.6% greater than fresh NCA concrete
(Evangelista & De Brito, 2018). The air trapped and contained in the RCA mortar's recovered
mortar is responsible. Therefore, when choosing the target air content for RCA concrete, the air
content of the existing mortar should be considered.
2.7.1.4 Wet Density
Several studies have been conducted to establish how RCA affects the wet density of concrete.
RCA concrete often has a lower wet density than NCA concrete. According to reports, RCA
concrete has a wet density between 5–15% lower than NCA concrete (Evangelista & De Brito,
2018). This is because RCA has old mortar or cement paste that has been applied to its surface
and has a lower density than NCA.
2.7.2 Hardened Properties
Depending on the concrete's type, source, gradation, content, and physical characteristics, the
impact of RCA on the hardened properties can be minimal or significant. In general, as NCA is
replaced with RCA, the hardened qualities of RCA concrete deteriorate (Zheng et al., 2018). As a
general rule, RCA may substitute for up to 30% (on a weight basis) of NCA without appreciably
altering the hardened properties of concrete (Evangelista & De Brito, 2018). The variety of RCA-
induced changes in the concrete's hardened properties, as seen in the literature. Below is a
discussion of the essential RCA concrete hardened characteristics;
2.7.2.1 Dry Density
RCA concrete typically has a 5–15% lower dry density than NCA concrete. This results from the
RCA's recovered mortar attachment (Evangelista & De Brito, 2018). According to Hansen and
Narud (2018), depending on the aggregate size, the amount of mortar linked to RCA varies
between 30 and 60% (by volume of RCA). Reclaimed mortar has a significantly lower density than
the majority of virgin aggregates. As a result, RCA concrete has a lesser density. RCA concrete
often has a lower compressive strength than NCA concrete. The compressive strength of
RCA Concrete mixtures is typically 5% and 10% lower than NCA concrete. However, depending
on the RCA's quality, it can also be reduced to 25% (Evangelista & De Brito, 2018). Lower
strength ratings may also result from the greater air content typically found in concrete mixtures
containing RCA. However, suppose the RCA is obtained from a source of old concrete, which was
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initially created with a lesser water to cement ratio than the new concrete. In that case, it may have
comparable and occasionally greater compressive strength than NCA concrete.
According to Mandal et al. (2018) research, RCA had no impact on concrete's compressive strength
up to a replacement level of 30% by weight. Still, once this level was exceeded, the compressive
strength of the concrete deteriorated (Evangelista & De Brito, 2018). When RCA was employed in
the oven-dry condition, Poonet et al. (2014) discovered that the concrete's compressive strength
was much reduced. Using RCA resulted in a 20–30% decrease in compressive strength in the
instance of high-performance concrete. Other researchers noted a comparable outcome
(Evangelista & De Brito, 2018). When Grdicet al. (2016) examined the characteristics of self-
compacting concrete made using RCA to those made with NCA, they found little change in
compressive strength at the same concrete age.
2.7.2.2 Splitting Tensile strength
There is minimal literature on the impact of RCA on the splitting tensile strength of concrete.
Nelson (2016) claimed that RCA concrete has a lower splitting tensile strength than NCA concrete.
According to several researchers, the splitting tensile strength of RCA concrete ranges between 0%
and 10% lower than that of NCA concrete (Zheng et al., 2018). However, no statistically
significant decrease in tensile strength occurred between 91 and 365 days. On the contrary,
according to Tavakoli and Soroushian 2017, RCA concrete showed greater splitting tensile strength
than NCA concrete. Therefore, more study is needed to determine how RCA affects the splitting
tensile strength of concrete.

Figure 4: The Impact of RCS on Splitting Tensile Strength

2.7.2.3 Flexural Strength
RCA concrete often has a lower flexural strength than NCA concrete. RCA concrete typically has a

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0–10% lower flexural strength than NCA concrete. Yong and Teo's research in 2019 showed that
the 3-day flexural strength of RCA concrete was higher than NCA concrete. However, the strength
decreased at the age of 28 days. In Yong and Teo's research, NCA concrete grew stronger over
time and, as it aged, had higher flexural strength than RCA concrete. According to Safiuddin et al.
(2016), RCA had no appreciable detrimental effects on the flexural strength of concrete.
Nevertheless, it is possible to manufacture RCA concrete with sufficient flexural strength for
various purposes, sometimes even by replacing NCA 100 percent (Gabr & Cameron, 2012).

Figure 5: The Impact of RCA Concrete on Flexural Strength

2.7.2.4 Porosity
Minimal research is available on how RCA affects concrete's porosity. Levy and Helene (2014)
produced grade 20 to 40 concretes and demonstrated that the total porosity was lower at a 20%
replacement of RCA than it was for the control concrete with NCA (Zheng et al., 2018). They also
noticed that all concrete's overall porosity rose at 50% RCA concentration. However, grade 20
RCA concrete demonstrated a slightly lesser porosity than grade 20 NCA concrete at 100%
replacement (Zheng et al., 2018). Levy and Helene (2014) claim that, depending on the strength
grade, the porosity of RCA concrete can be between 10% and 30% greater than that of NCA
concrete (Zheng et al., 2018). These RCA concrete phenomena result from variations in the
composition of the concrete mix (pozzolanic proportion, the aggregate amount, RCA contents,
cement, etc.) (Zheng et al., 2018).

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Figure 6: The Impact of RCA on the Total Porosity of Concrete

2.7.2.5 Permeability
Concrete permeability is a function of the concrete matrix's (binder paste or cement) permeability
and the aggregate's capacity to absorb water. Concrete's porosity and the number, size, and
continuity of its pores impact how permeable it is. For the same water-to-cement ratio, RCA
concrete appears to have a higher permeability than NCA concrete (Gabr & Cameron, 2012).
Compared to NCA concrete, RCA concrete can have permeabilities that are 200–500% greater
(Gabr & Cameron, 2012). If appropriately considered during design, RCA concrete mix can be
built to have a permeability comparable to NCA concrete.

Figure 7: The Impact of RCA on the Permeability of a Concrete

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2.7.2.6 Water Absorption

The water absorption of RCA concrete has only been the subject of limited research. Generally,
RCA concrete is anticipated to absorb more water than NCA concrete. This is caused by RCA's
elevated water absorption and air permeability. Levy and Helene (2014) produced various grades of
concrete and demonstrated that, with the exception of 20% replacement, the water absorption of
concrete elevated as the RCA content increased (Zheng et al., 2018). Depending on the strength
grade, they claim that the water absorption of RCA concrete is between 0% and 40% more than
that of NCA concrete (Gabr & Cameron, 2012). They suggested future research but did not address
the cause of the reduced water absorption at 20% RCA content (Gabr & Cameron, 2012).

Figure 8: The Impact of RCA on Absorption of Concrete

2.7.2.7 Drying Shrinkage
The main factors influencing drying shrinkage are paste content, water-to-cement ratio, and
aggregate particle size. Studies have found that RCA concrete shrinks 20–50% more than NCA
concrete due to its greater paste concentration (Jayakody Arachchige, Gallage & Kumar, 2018).
However, fewer tests found drying shrinkage values for RCA concrete that were noticeably lower.
When concrete that was made by replacing 30% NCA with RCA underwent varied curing ages,
Corinaldesi (2017) found that the shrinkage strain was reduced. The contradictory findings imply
that additional study is needed to determine how RCA affects concrete's drying shrinkage
(Jayakody Arachchige, Gallage & Kumar, 2018).

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Figure 9: The Impact of RCA on Drying Shrinkage of Concrete

2.7.3 Durability Properties
Concrete's durability refers to its ability to withstand harsh service circumstances such as
weathering, chemical attacks, and abrasion. Suppose the mixture mix ratio is done correctly and
good quality is retained during construction. In that case, RCA concrete can be quite durable even
when the RCA is made from concrete that has durability issues (Jayakody Arachchige, Gallage &
Kumar, 2018). The following discussion covers the many durability characteristics of RCA
concrete.
2.7.3.1 Resistance to Corrosion
Properly weighing the mixture and maintaining high construction quality standards can slow
embedded steel corrosion in RCA concrete. To determine the corrosion rate of steel embedded in
RCA concrete, Ann et al. (2018) used a polarization approach (Puthussery, Kumar & Garg, 2017).
They noticed that at lower levels of chlorides (0.2- 0.3% by weight of the cement), the corrosion
rate did not appear to depend on the kind of aggregate and binder but considerably changed for a
greater level of chlorides (>0.5%) (Puthussery, Kumar & Garg, 2017). Additionally, they
discovered that RCA concrete, which contains 65% powdered, granulated blast-furnace slag and
30% pulverized fuel ash, was superior to NCA concrete in terms of preventing corrosion reactions
at greater levels of chlorides (Puthussery, Kumar & Garg, 2017).
2.7.3.2 Resistance to Chemical Attacks (Acid)
There is a lack of sufficient research regarding RCA concrete's resistance to acid damage.
According to Morgan (2019), the acid tolerance of RCA concrete is on par with or significantly
less effective than NCA concrete. He submerged the concrete block samples in a testing

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solution containing H2SO4 with a pH of 2 to assess the level of RCA concrete's deterioration
against acid assault (Puthussery, Kumar & Garg, 2017). Compared to NCA concrete, RCA
concrete had a slightly higher acid penetration rate. However, he proved that adding fly ash can
increase RCA concrete's resistance to acid assault (Morgan, 2019).
2.7.3.3 Resistance to Carbonation
The literature demonstrates the conflicting effects of RCA on the carbonation of concrete. Levy
and Helene (2014) discovered that, except for 100% replacement, the carbonation depth reduces as
the RCA content increases, showing a superior behavior (Kurda, de Brito & Silvestre, 2017). They
claim that more cement must be used for RCA concrete to have the same strength as NCA concrete
at the same water-to-cement ratio (Kurda, de Brito & Silvestre, 2017). The increased alkali reserve
associated with higher cement content reduces the carbonation depth in concrete. In contrast,
Hansen (2016) found that RCA concrete has a deeper carbonation depth at the same water-to-
cement ratio than NCA concrete (Kurda, de Brito & Silvestre, 2017).
Additionally, RCA concrete carbonates at a rate four times higher than NCA concrete. In RCA
concrete, greater carbonation may raise the chance of reinforcing steel corrosion. Lower water-to-
cement mix proportion, correct curing, appropriate supplemental cementing materials, and more
concrete cover can reduce this danger (Kurda, de Brito & Silvestre, 2017). However, more analysis
is required to determine how RCA affects concrete's carbonation resistance.
2.7.3.4 Resistance to Free-Thaw
RCA concrete exhibits adequate resistance to freeze-thaw cycles, according to several researchers.
Surprisingly, there is evidence that frequent recycling of RCA concrete increases frost resistance.
However, compared to NCA concrete, several researches claimed that RCA concrete had roughly
similar or slightly worse frost resistance (Kurda, de Brito & Silvestre, 2017). Additionally, the
freeze-thaw resistance of concrete made with dry and saturated RCA was lower; however, concrete
built with semi-soaked aggregates performed better because of stronger binding at the interface
between the aggregate and paste (Kurda, de Brito & Silvestre, 2017). However, additional studies
are required to confirm the impact of RCA on concrete's freeze-thaw resistance.

2.8 Factors Affecting the Properties of Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA)

Factors like water influence the RCA properties to cement ratio, type and size of RCA, RCA
content, the physical characteristics of RCA, the moisture condition of RCA, curing condition, air
entrainment, cement content, and the quality of the parent concrete of RCA. Below is a detailed
discussion of the factors (Wang, Yu& Li, 2020).
2.8.1 The Properties of RCA
The physical properties of RCA significantly influence concrete's hardened and fresh properties.
The new concrete mixes with rough-textured and angular RCA particles to become harsh and
challenging to finish; due to the high absorption of RCA, the workability and finish ability can also
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be affected. Additionally, the higher pore volume of RCA can affect the strength, porosity, and
transport properties.
2.8.2 The RCA Content
The RCA content used as a partial or complete replacement of natural coarse aggregate (NCA)
significantly influences concrete's fresh and hardened properties. Concrete produced by NCA has
lower compressive strength and elastic modulus than NCA concrete; higher RCA content increases
water absorption but decreases the density, increasing the porousness of concrete.
2.8.3 Quality of Parent Concrete
The water absorption of RCA increases with the increased strength of parent concrete; Concrete
with higher strengths requires more excellent cement content, leading to an increased quantity of
mortar adhering to the aggregates. Consequently, adjusting mixed water content is mandatory for
the new concrete with the RCA derived from an old concrete of higher strength to obtain the
desired workability. The power of RCA concrete is affected by porous RCA. The proportion loss in
first-hand concrete's compressive or tensile strength due to using RCA is more significant when
derived from weak old concrete than stronger old concrete (Thomas et al., 2018).
2.8.4 Types of Sources of RCA
The concrete produced with coarse RCA has a lower compressive strength, except for the concrete
made of recycled fine aggregate derived from brick ceramic, where compressive strength increases.
When the elastic modulus of concrete reduces for all types of RCA, the one obtained from red
ceramic exerts a more extensive influence in reducing concrete’s elastic modulus due to lower
density.
2.8.5 The Size of RCA
Limited research was conducted to observe the size effect of RCA on Concrete Properties. The
research observed that a higher reduction in the modulus of elasticity was obtained for the concrete
with a smaller RCA size. Centrally, it was found that strength increases in the maximum size of
RCA because of the relatively low content of weaker mortar adhering to larger-sized aggregates.
2.8.6 The Moisture Condition of RCA
The workability of concrete is highly affected by the moisture condition aggregates. The initial
slump of concrete strongly depends on the concrete mix's initial free water content; few studies
have investigated the effect of RCA moisture conditions on the fresh properties of concrete.
2.8.7 The Curing Condition
More adverse effects on RCA are produced compared to NCA by external environmental curing
conditions. The difference in the splitting tensile strength between NCA and RCA concrete is high
when cured in the outer environment, where the depth of carbonation of water-cured RCA concrete
is almost twice smaller as air-cured RCA concrete. Higher internal humidity of concrete partially
decreases the depth of carbonation produced by water curing (Verian, Ashraf, & Cao, 2018).
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2.8.8 The Cement Content

The RCA concrete with high cement content has high resistance to carbonation. It is recommended
that higher cement content for RCA concrete to achieve the desired comprehensive strength. The
tensile resistance of RCA concrete increases with increased cement content in concrete.
2.8.9 The Water-to-Cement Ratio
The declined performance of RCA concrete is related to the water-cement ratio used in the mix
design. RCA concrete requires a lower water-to-cement ratio and higher cement content when
compared to the parent concrete of RCA to achieve a specific compressive strength. At water to
cement ratio of 0.29, the resistance of NCA concrete to freezing and thawing is exceptionally high.
However, the same water-to-cement ratio fails to provide good freeze-thaw resistance for RCA
concrete (Wang, Yu& Li, 2020).
2.8.10 The Air Entrainment
There has been limited research to study the effect of air entrainment on the performance of RCA
concrete. Proper air entrainment produces durable RCA concrete. The effectiveness of RCA
concrete and NCA concrete by air entrainment is the same. Additionally, entrained air is more
effective than lowering the water-to-cement ratio in improving the resistance of RCA concrete to
freezing and thawing (Ouyang et al., 2020). More, Comprehensive research is needed to evaluate
the performance of air-entrained RCA concrete.

2.9 Methods of Enhancing the Performance of RCA Concrete

2.9.1 Improvement of RCA Quality
When the thermal treatment method Kwon to improve RCA, thermal treatment at 800 degrees
Celsius, the RCA reasonably compares to the conventionally river dredged aggregates. However,
the use of washed RCA negates the strength reduction.
2.9.2 The Adjustment of Water to Cement Ratio
The water-to-cement ratio adjustment for the concrete mix improves the strength of RCA concrete.
Compared to Parent concrete, a lower water-to-cement ratio and higher cement content for RCA
concrete archives equal compressive strength. Lowering the water-to-cement ratio to a certain level
is highly beneficial for RCA concrete to develop a freezing and thawing resistance equal to NCA
concrete.
2.9.3 The Incorporation of Pozzolanic Materials
Using suitable pozzolanic materials can improve the strength and durability of RCA concrete. The
use of 30% pulverized fly ash and 65% ground granulated blast furnace slag increases the
compressive strength of RCA concrete to the level of control concrete cast with natural granite
gravel. Pulverized fuel ash and ground granulates blast-furnace slag also raise the resistance to
chloride-ion penetration into RCA concrete (Thomas et al., 2018). In addition, silica fume
effectively increases the chloride-ion penetration resistance of RCA concrete.
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2.9.4 The Use of New Mixing Technique

When a two-stage mixing technique to obtain good quality RCA concrete is applied, with recycled
aggregate coated with pozzolanic powder to improve the properties of RCA concrete. 100% NCA
replacement is a possible mixing technique to produce RCA concrete with acceptable properties
compared to NCA concrete. The optimal situation occurs with a 20% replacement of NCA
(Ouyang et al., 2020). The slump and strength results suggest that the new mixing technique
contributes significantly to better workability and higher compressive and flexural strength. The
SEM results confirm that the new mixing technique contributes to a dense microstructure. The new
mixing technique can reduce inner bleeding.

2.10 Barriers to Using Recycled Construction Aggregates

2.10.1 Lack of Facilities
The construction companies lack technical information, which creates a barrier to using
construction aggregates basically, the lack of information about recycling facilities results in
contractors not applying concrete recycling (Tam, Soomro, & Evangelista, 2018).
2.10.2 Work Force
The lack of knowledge among the workers at construction sites about recyclable and non-
recyclable waste materials causes the minimal use of the aggregates. Also, inadequate training on
waste handling issues of construction workers will result in traditional behavior of refusing to move
towards sustainability.
2.10.3 Quality
The quality of recycled concrete that might differ from new aggregate-based concrete results in
contractors not applying concrete recycling. Similarly, contractors cannot commit to investing in
construction waste materials in construction projects unless there is a guaranteed and consistent
quantity and quality of recycled waste materials (Marvila, 2022).
2.10.4 Finances
In construction, major financial obstacles are related to cost, price, and machinery. Recycling
concrete Waste is not cost-effective, inefficient, impractical, and incompatible with core
construction activities; most of the time, it has been avoided. Also, recycling concrete Waste
contradicts contractors practicing the concept of full utilization from having excess concrete. For
example, contractors use excess concrete to create spacer blocks or lean con for needed areas.
Besides that, renting the necessary machines to recycle concrete is expensive. The high cost is a
major barrier encountered by project managers in the construction industry, and concrete recycling
will not be implemented (Marvila, 2022).
2.10.5 Technology
The Barriers in this category include machinery for crushing concrete waste composites. The
recycling of concrete Waste cannot be implemented until there is advanced machinery to crush or
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blast concrete components to produce elements that produce new products such as recycled
aggregates, few suppliers in the industry provide machines to blast concrete. Also, concretes mixed
with reinforcement bars require advanced machinery to dismantle concrete, which is high and
therefore be avoided.
2.10.6 Resources
This barrier involves the availability of resources such as materials and equipment at construction
sites in producing recycled concrete aggregate (RCA). Concrete recycling in some regions is
behind due to a lack of material viability and equipment. Concrete debris recycling as RCA is
difficult because it is necessary to utilize laboratory tests to investigate the RCA's failure
mechanism, strength, and long-term appearances.

2.11 Risks Associated with Recycling Construction Aggregate

2.11.1 Lower Quality
Depending on the properties of the waste feed, preprocessing is necessary, such as drying, sorting,
and neutralization. The major part of Waste used as alternative fuels and raw (AFR) is solid with
various shapes, dimensions, and densities. This special operation is necessary to grind it optimally
to convenient, standardized proportions and simplify metal extraction for meeting the necessary
conditions for kiln feeding; other wastes can be liquids like oils and solvents from transport or
agricultural industries chemicals) or slurries. The composition of the AFR and its variability in time
can be important parameters influencing the cement quality and its potentially hazardous impact.
Some classes of Waste are prohibited, like radioactive Waste, Electronic Waste, batteries
explosives, and unsorted municipal Waste, because of their variable possessions or high content of
heavyweight metals, lowered quality results in a change of the output quality that hinders the
achievement of the expected quality (Marvila, 2022).
2.11.2 Toxic Emission of Chemicals
The possibly hazardous oddity of recycled aggregates exists in their chemical composition.
Generally, most wastes are composed of a solid matrix that is relatively inert (oxides and silicates
stable in contact with water), crystalline or vitreous, and confers the mechanical properties of the
aggregates. Various trace elements are also present depending on the foundation of these recycled
materials, like coals, ores, residues from thermal processes, and municipal wastes. These trace
elements can have toxic properties that have several impacts (Tam, Soomro, & Evangelista, 2018).
2.11.3 Increased Cost of Maintenance
The use of recycled aggregates mostly reflects cost-saving measures. It is understandable unless
one is unaware of why recycled materials are not suitable for making some construction blocks;
therefore, being able to question manufacturer choice could result in them using substandard
quality materials unsuspectingly. Eventually, while there may be savings to be had initially, the
shorter lifespan of many substandard blocks could mean being forced to purchase replacements
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which would be costly in the long term. Blocks that only contain aggregates used for the first time
are often given a durability lifespan of over 100 years. However, it is simply impossible to
guarantee the longevity of a block that contains unknown elements, increasing the cost of
maintenance to the construction owners (Tam, Soomro, & Evangelista, 2018).

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3 CHAPTER 3

3.1 Methodology
This paper will look at and discuss the data collection methods used to efficiently investigate and
analyze the quality of recycled materials and aggregate employed in the construction industry and
the risks involved. It will also go through the materials chosen as aggregates, as there are several
that can be used efficiently, those that should not be used at all, and those that can be utilized by
modifying them appropriately. The researcher will utilize a qualitative study to collect data since
the study is centered on selecting products or even wastes that can be recycled to pave the way to a
more sophisticated, quality, and riskfree industry such as construction. There will also be a
crossover between the literature review and case study approaches. As a result, there will be a lot
more difficult since there will be a lot more qualitative analysis and many elements to consider.
Thus the research will be mitigated by combining qualitative and quantitative data in a mixed
manner.
Correct study methodology and data-gathering procedures will be used to conduct decent research
and proper study with important facts. Secondary data will be collected through textual materials
such as government papers, official statistics, and online articles.
Strategy
Some techniques include experimental research, surveys, interviews, case study research, or a
detailed literature review. The method is determined by the data required for the research and the
study's main objective. Because all of the decisions made about how to execute a dissertation
should be strategic and referred to as defining a research strategy, to create a research strategy,
consider the path that will be taken and the approach that will be taken along that path, explore
relevant theories about various aspects of the research strategy, develop your research strategy, and
respond to the practical requirements that are highly relevant to that research strategy.

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3.2 Qualitative Research

To understand the concepts, experiences, or views, qualitative research gathers and assesses non-
numerical information (e.g., text, recordings, or video). It could be used to grab in-depth
knowledge of a topic or to generate new research ideas. In the social sciences and humanities, the
qualitative approach is often utilized in regions such as sociology, anthropology, medical sciences,
history, education, etc. Qualitative studies have been done to gain knowledge about people's
viewpoints on the world. While qualitative data has a number of different methodologies, they
always concentrate on maintaining rich definitions when assessing data. Theoretical framework,
action research, ethnography, narrative research, and phenomenological research are all common
methods and techniques. They have certain resemblances, but their objectives and attitudes differ
(Bhandari, 2020).
Quantitative Research
The process of gathering and analyzing numerical information is known as quantitative research. It
may be used to find patterns and averages, predict outcomes, analyze causal linkages, and
generalize outcomes to larger groups. In the scientific and social sciences, such as economics,
biology, psychology, chemistry, marketing, and sociology, quantitative research is frequently
employed. Quantitative research methods can be used in experimental studies, correlational or
descriptive. Experimental and correlational research may be utilized to employ statistics to test
predictions or hypotheses formally. Based on the sampling method utilized, the results may be
extrapolated to a larger population (Bhandari, 2020).

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3.3 Mixed Research

The researcher's paradigm in mixed methods research is frequently pragmatism. Pragmatists argue
that using several paradigms in the same research project is permissible and that qualitative and
quantitative methodologies may complement each other. "What works" becomes the motivating
element for a mixed methodologist. Pragmatists regard both the subjective and objective, and
they feel that the essential problem is the research topic. The procedure should be guided by the
study topic rather than the framework. By combining qualitative and quantitative methodologies,
researchers can uncover issues that might otherwise go unreported.
On the other hand, critics of pragmatism have criticized it as naïve, unsophisticated, and unduly
applied. A mixed methodologist would argue that an overemphasis on theory and paradigms has
diverted attention away from the most important aspect of research: the research question. One
of the reasons mixed methodologies has become a respected subject is because it focuses on the
issue rather than theory (Mixed Methodology Research, 2016).

3.4 Research Paradigm

As a researcher, the solutions to your research questionnaire will excite your interest. Users can
casually address the research queries, and though users won't be able to determine the viewers how
you carried out the study. Such a researcher must give viewers step-by-step guidance about how the
study was done and how the researcher reached the solutions to the research questionnaire. As
researchers already understand, any report should include particular aspects, and these data analysis
features also give the research its significance and value. The user cannot defend his results to the
viewers except if he continues to follow the very well path to the inquiry. Besides, other
researchers can still not recreate or gain knowledge from work. A framework is a reference for the
authors to pursue throughout the research.
A quantitative approach to research is not a paradigm; it is an approach or methodology to study. A
research paradigm is a way of thinking about the study. The research paradigm, on the other side,
provides students with ideas for choosing procedures and study designs. The research approach is
concerned with the strategy used for studies instead of the other manner around (What Are
Research Paradigms, 2019).

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Methodological model

Figure 10: Methodological Model

3.5 Data Collection

Because this issue has been discussed several times, enough data is already available to continue
the study. The study aim and objectives are defined using the information in hand.
Literature Review: The literature review is a thorough overview of prior research on a specific
topic. The literature review will discuss books, academic papers, and other resources that are
important and relevant to a certain research subject. This previous study should be summarised,
outlined, described, clarified, and objectively evaluated in the review. This would provide a
theoretical basis for the research and help the author define the scope of your research. The
literature review acknowledges the efforts of previous researchers, guaranteeing the viewer that
your research is very well. By acknowledging previous works in the study area, it is predicted that
the writer has reviewed, evaluated, and absorbed that work into the ongoing work (Andruss, 2008).

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Case study: A case study is a detailed examination of a single person, location, group, event,
organization, or phenomenon. Research papers are commonly utilized in educational, therapeutic,
social, and commercial studies. Many qualitative approaches are utilized in the case study method;
however, quantitative strategies are occasionally used here. Case studies could be used to
characterize, evaluate, compare, and understand various components of a research topic.
(McCombes, 2019).

3.6 Ethics
Before doing the research, a variety of ethical concerns must be taken. Appendix 1 has an Ethics
Proforma that outlines the ethical considerations that should be made during the proposed research.

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4 CHAPTER 4

4.1 Results and Discussion

4.2 Traditional and Recent Reviews on RCA Qualities

Recycled Aggregates (RA) are produced by crushing CDW. Unlike the NA, the recycled RA
contains different types of foreign substances and an old mortar adhering to the surface of the RA.
The existence of these substances and old mortar causes a large deviation in the quality of RA
compared to NA. There exists medium literature on the qualities, benefits, weaknesses, and risks of
utilizing RCA in construction. It was established that, in general, the utilization of RCA elevates
the creep and shrinkage and reduces the modulus of elasticity modulus and comprehensive strength
of the concrete compared to the natural aggregates (Karim et al., 2016). While examining the
endurance of RA aggregate concrete for a secure path to sustainable development, the researchers
discovered that the concrete with the maximum pore volume and the same compressive strength
did not always match the concrete with the highest order of carbonation (Karim et al., 2016). Axial
loading was utilized to determine RCA's mechanical properties (Karim et al., 2016). It was
established that the comprehensive strength of RCA concrete declined with an increasing
percentage of recycled aggregate, and the concretes mostly failed in shear mode.
In relation to work, researchers have established that the two-stage mixing of RCA is essential in
increasing the comprehensive strength of RCA concrete. This indicates the suitability of coarse
RCA for creating high-strength concretes (Karim et al., 2016). A maximum of 30% coarse RCA
can be used in crating RCA concretes, which can be used in high strength applications with
durability and engineering properties similar to natural aggregate concrete (Karim et al., 2016). To
ensure the higher strength property is achieved, water-to-cement ratio adjustment is crucial in
mixing higher proportions of RCA (Karim et al., 2016).
Investigation into the properties of recycled aggregates from construction demolition has shown
that such aggregates have worse gradation, specific gravity, soundness, wear resistance, and water
absorption capacity than natural aggregates due to residual impurities and mortar (Karim et al.,
2016). When the coarse RCA concrete's mechanical properties were compared to those of natural
aggregate concrete with the same mix proportions, it was discovered that the 28-day cylinder and
cube indirect shear strength and compressive strength of the RCA were, on average, 90% of those
of NCA (Karim et al., 2016). The modulus of elasticity of RCA was only 3% below that of
conventional aggregate concrete for concrete with cylindrical strength properties between 25 and
30 MPa (Karim et al., 2016). There was a similarity between the shear and comprehensive strength
between RCA and NCA. After 28 days, flexural strength, compressive, and split tensile tests on
concrete made with various percentages of silica fume as a partial replacement for cement showed
that strength increased with the inclusion of silica fume but that the ideal replacement percentage

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ultimately depends on the water-to-cement-material ratio of the matrix (Karim et al., 2016).
It was discovered that mixes with 50% slag performed the best overall. Concrete containing RA
benefited particularly from slag, which could decrease strength losses (Karim et al., 2016). When
employing recycled concrete aggregate, durability tests revealed small improvements in the
chloride diffusion coefficient and permeability coefficient. Values were still below acceptable
limits for long-lasting concrete, and adding slag to the mix enhanced the chloride diffusion
coefficient. Concrete containing up to 50% fly ash performed particularly poorly for the materials
and mix qualities utilized in this investigation (Karim et al., 2016). The investigation of
compressive, split tensile, and flexural strength after 28 days showed that the strengths described
above increased with the inclusion of silica fume. However, the ideal replacement percentage
ultimately depends on the material's water-to-cement ratio (Karim et al., 2016).
Properties of RCA derived from the parent concrete, including compressive stress, water-cement
ratio, and aggregate-cement ratio, were investigated (Karim et al., 2016). It was established that
RCA requires less water-cement ratio as compared to parent concrete. The concrete strength
difference between RAC and parent concrete increases with the increasing strength of the concrete
(Karim et al., 2016).

4.3 Composition and Key Properties of Recycled

4.3.1 Chemical Composition and Characteristics of RCA
RCA composition depends on the source, whether masonry, concrete, roads, or bricks. The
composition varies with the location and initial activity of the source. The construction sector is
recognized to have a high production of Construction and Demolition Waste (CDW). The chart
below shows the composition of construction waste. The chart shows that minerals and solidified
wastes comprise the largest percentage of, 76%, mainly from construction and demolition
activities. Many types of waste are generated, which can also be mixed in the CDW. Hence,
impacting the composition of the RCA. The composition affects the ability of waste to be reused or
recycled; if recycled, the quality of the RCA is different from the natural aggregates. The type of
aggregates utilized in their production, such as the type of sand, cement, or siliceous aggregates,
greatly influences the composition of the aggregates.

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Figure 11: Composition of most of the Construction and Demolition Wastes

4.3.1.1 Water Absorption
Durability and resistance to natural environmental degradation of material are highly affected by
the degree of water absorption of the material. Construction material durability depends mainly on
the permeability of the concrete. When a structure has high permeability, it increases the
penetration of ions and water, which reacts with the structures’ cement paste leading to chemical
instability. On the other hand, when a structure has low permeability, the structures resist
degradation, increasing its durability. The water absorption values of natural aggregates range from
0.5% to 1.5%, typically left out for most concrete applications. Though, more caution is required
when employing RAs since their higher porosity can result in water absorption values of up to
12%. As a result, mixes containing 1,000 kg of RCA in 1 m3 of concrete might easily include 100
liters of absorbed water.
The existence of old mortar contributes to RCA's high water absorption rate. The high
concentration of mortar adhering to the surface of recycled aggregates results in a higher porosity
of the aggregate, which in turn affects the quantity of water present for mixing, influences the
hydration of the cement and ultimately causes issues with concrete workability at the fresh state as
well as durability and mechanical performances over the long term. The reduction in concrete
durability and density is caused by the excessive amount of attached mortar, which increases the

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water absorption and porosity of the aggregate. In general, RCA has high water absorption, which
disadvantages the durability of RCA as compared to NCA. Research showed that the water
absorption of RCA was higher than that of NCA. After removing the attached mortar on RCA, the
water absorption values reduced from 4.07% to 2.89%. Also, the microcracking of the parent
concrete facilitates high water absorption.
4.3.1.2 Density
Density defines the quality of material and controls several properties in relation to the hardness of
RCA. The RCA’s density has been proven to be lower than that of NCA, which is associated with
the presence of old mortar. The typical density values of RCA range between 2.2 g/m3 and 2.6
g/cm3. When the content of old mortar is higher, the RCA’s density becomes lower. The density of
the final aggregate is only moderately influenced by the original strength of the crushed concrete.
Topçu and Sengel (2016) assessed the impact of recycled aggregate added to create new concrete.
The fresh-state data demonstrated, as predicted, a reduction in density and workability brought on
by the substitution of RCA for NCA. According to Limbachiya et al. (2017), recycled concrete had
worse mechanical characteristics because the variability of the particle density of the RCA was 7-
9% lower than that of the NCA.

4.4 Physical Properties of RCA

The RCA's physical properties significantly influence the properties of concrete and mix
proportions. Physical properties such as specific gravity, adsorption, shape and texture, pore
volume, and bulk density of RCA are worse than Natural Coarse Aggregate (NCA) due to existing
impurities and cement mortar residual (Nedeljković et al., 2021). The extent of the effect depends
on the quantity and nature of the reclaimed cement mortar that is present in RCA. The basic
physical properties of RCA are discussed below;
4.4.1 Particle Shape and Texture
The crushing of old concrete and constructions produces RCA materials which are rough and
angular in shape. The crushing of the hardened cement mortar breaks into rough and angular
aggregates. Depending on the RCA particles' aggregate size, the particles contain 30-60% old
cement mortar (Nedeljković et al., 2021). The smaller percentages of coarse aggregate have a
higher concentration of old cement mortar adhered to them. The particle shape of RCA is
comparable to that of crushed rock, but the grading and other features of crushed concrete depend
on the crushing machinery used.
4.4.2 Specific Gravity
Compared to NCA, the RCA material have lower specific gravity. RCA materials have lower
specific gravity due to old mortar on the surface of the particles making them less dense than the
NCA particles due to higher porosity (Verian et al., 2018). RCA materials have specific gravity
ranging from 2.1 to 2.5 under the saturated surface-dry condition, which is 5-10% lower than
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specify gravity of NCA (Nedeljković et al., 2021).

4.4.3 Bulk Density
RCA particles have lower bulk density than NCA particles. It has been determined that the bulk
density of RCA is 9.8% less than that of natural aggregate (Nedeljković et al., 2021). This is mostly
caused by RCA's increased porosity when cement paste or mortar is present and bonded.
4.4.4 Pore Volume
Compared to NCA, RCA has a significantly larger pore capacity. This is because the mortar or
cement paste that has been applied is porous and comes from old concrete (Verian et al., 2018).
Compared to NCA, RCA is weaker and less dense due to its greater pore volume.
4.4.5 Absorption
Compared to NCA, RCA has a much higher absorption rate. Cement mortar from the old concrete
is left bonded to RCA particles when the concrete is crushed. The bonded cement mortar is more
porous than the original aggregate, which is mostly responsible for the increased absorption of
RCA (Verian et al., 2018).
The table figure below shows the basic physical properties of RCA and NCA;

Figure 12: The basic physical properties of RCA and NCA (McGinnisf et al., 2017)

4.5 Mechanical Properties of RCA

4.5.1 Comprehensive Strength
The comprehensive strength of concrete is highly impacted by parameters such as the water-cement
ratio. When the water-cement ratio increases, the comprehensive strength decreases, and for the
RCA, the comprehensive strength decreases with an increasing replacement level of RCA material
in the concrete. Research by Shrimali et al. (2017) indicated that comprehensive strength reduction
mostly ranges between 12%-30% and can get to 60% when there is 100% replacement of RA in the
concrete. The comprehensive strength can also be influenced by the un-hydrated coating of the
original concrete over RA due to the curing condition, which may hinder the hydration process.
Shrimali et al. (2017) established that when the parent ratio's water-cement ratio is kept equal or
lower than the old parent rock, the comprehensive strength of concrete at 100% replacement of
RCA is equal to or higher than that of NCA. However, Ridzuan et al. (2016) revealed that
RCA had greater compressive strength than NCA concrete. When high water-cement ratios of 0.40,
0.55, and 0.70 for RCA were studied, the results indicated an increase in the compressive strength
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of RCA as compared to NCA (Shrimali et al., 2017). This could be because people are unaware of
the parent concrete's properties or because they use high-quality RA, which may absorb less water
and cause the water-cement ratio to increase. Most studies indicate that the maximum allowable
replacement level of RA in concrete is 30% (Shrimali et al., 2017).
Research by Pedro et al. (2017) showed that strength variation of RAC when compared to NCA
decreased by 3%-9%, 7%-10%, and 13%-15% with replacement levels of 25%, 50%, and 100%,
respectively. They explained the varying strength with the fraction of mortar in the RCA materials
used in the study (Pedro et al., 2017). The higher the mortar fraction, the lower the strength of RCA
concrete.
4.5.2 Tensile Strength
Flexure Strength: Studies show that using various levels of RA in concrete production can result
in a flexure strength loss of between 10% and 24% (Shrimali et al., 2017). A significant flexural
strength variation was recorded when alternative water-cement ratios were tested and compared to
standard concrete (Shrimali et al., 2017). Flexure strength reduces as the RA replacement ratio
rises.
Split Tensile Strength: RCA reportedly possesses a stronger or comparable strength parameter to
conventional concrete. Because RA has a high water absorption capacity, a stronger link between
the RA and binder develops in concrete, increasing the split tensile strength. The split tensile
strength is reduced when the RA replacement level is up to 100% with quarry aggregate in concrete
(Shrimali et al., 2017).
Also, on splitting tensile, Pedro et al. (2017) established that the variations of split tensile strength
after 28 days showed that the parent concrete has a tensile value of 4.56 MPa while the RCA
sample showed tensile values of between 2.82MPa and 3.78 MPa. The split tensile strength losses
were due to the RCA's higher porous structure (Pedro et al., 2017).
4.5.3 Creep
The mix proportion, aggregate age, and concrete aggregate type often affect creep deformation.
RCA has been found to have 50% more creep than NCA, and it can be seen that this creep
increases with the replacement level of RA in concrete and is directly influenced by the
composition and qualities of the paste (Shrimali et al., 2017). Other sources also claim that creep
exceeded 50% when RA replacement levels reached 100% (Shrimali et al., 2017). However,
increased creep's negative effects can also be avoided by partially replacing or further
supplementing the mineral content of the binder.
4.5.4 Shrinkage
When wetting or drying processes modify the pore water content, the concrete's volume in load-
free specimens significantly varies. Compared to freshly quarried aggregate, RA absorbs more
water, which reduces the permeability of water in concrete and develops more shrinkage cracks
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(Shrimali et al., 2017). According to reports, shrinkage may be caused by RA's higher stiffness, but
on the other hand, shrinkage also rises as RA concentration in concrete rises. Other studies showed
that RA that has mortar applied shrinks more than NA.
When NA was replaced by 50% rather than 100%, shrinkage was observed to grow by 20% over
the course of six months, and by 100%, it increased to 70% (Shrimali et al., 2017). However, if
concrete uses 30% of RA in place of the NA, shrinkage can still occur, and according to research,
shrinkage increases as more RA is used to replace the NA (Shrimali et al., 2017). Several studies
also suggested that adding certain minerals and admixtures to concrete made using RA would
reduce shrinkage effects.
4.5.5 Modulus Elasticity
Modulus elasticity is directly impacted by the transition zone's characteristics and the aggregate's
thick porosity. According to several investigations, the modulus of elasticity reduces as the amount
of RA is partially replaced. When 100% RA was replaced with NA, some experimental studies
showed a reduction of 20 to 25%, and some of 39% and other research indicated a decrease of up to
45% (Shrimali et al., 2017). According to research, the elasticity modulus reduces when mortar is
coated on RA. Nevertheless, if the replacement level of RA is held at only 30%, the reduction in
modulus of elasticity was 35%, leading researchers to conclude that the reduction in modulus of
elasticity is caused by a fall in concrete stiffness (Shrimali et al., 2017).
Researchers Pedro et al. (2017) performed their tests on RCA and NA material to determine the
modulus elasticity. Their research established that the NA concrete has a modulus elasticity value
of 44.5 GPa, while the RCA modulus elasticity value ranges between 31.9 GPa and 40.7 GPa. The
losses to the modulus elasticity in the RCA materials were associated with the higher tendency of
deformation of the RCA materials (Pedro et al., 2017).

4.6 Limitation on Construction and Demolition Waste (CDW) Composition on its

Applications
RCA from CDW contains various contaminants which can severely degrade the strength of
concrete structures made of RCA from CDW. These materials include glass, metals, rubber,
asphalt, wood, and soil. Research by Hansen (2017) showed that adding 30% by volume of asphalt
when creating RCA concrete can reduce comprehensive strength by more than 30% (Reis et al.,
2021). Another research by Huang (2017) showed that 75% of comprehensive was lost when 64%
of the Asphalt aggregate replacement level was attained in the total weight of concrete (Reis et al.,
2021). Other components, such as glass, are also found in CDW, which can be removed through
density separation techniques (Reis et al., 2021). However, the presence of these contaminants
affects the quality of RCA materials in terms of mechanical, physical, and chemical properties.
Therefore, it is essential to separate the CDW to eliminate impurities and contaminants. Glass
content and other impurities must not be more than 1% by weight of the RCA concrete (Reis et al.,
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2021). Understanding CDWs' chemical compositions, potential applications, or processing

requirements, requires accurate measurement of the elements in CDWs. The performance of
RCA bricks manufactured from CDW could be compromised by the chemical composition of these
materials, given the wide range of settings and situations to which they can be subjected (Reis et
al., 2021).
A study was conducted to establish the effect of soluble sulphate in CDW and NA mixes. The
research established that soluble sulphate concentration values ranged between 0.69% and 0.72%
for CDW mixes and 0.05% for NA (Reis et al., 2021). These values were below the maximum
allowable limit of 1% (Reis et al., 2021). This means that CDW and NA mixes can be utilized since
they have a low concentration of soluble sulphate impurities.
Also, RCA may contain large amounts of soluble alkalis and highly reactive silica, presenting
alkali-silica reactions. When an RCA with a concentration of soluble alkalis and silica is used, the
contaminants cause chemical mechanisms that induce cracking and damage concrete structures
(Reis et al., 2021).

4.7 Environmental Benefits of Using RCA% of the material used

In the construction sector, concretes, cement, and steel are the major components used, and they
constitute more than 85% of Carbon (IV) Oxide (CO2) emissions from construction sites and
projects. Due to the increased debate on growing climate change and increasing global warming
due to the depletion of the ozone, abiotic depletion, and acidification, researchers have conducted
studies on ways to reduce the environmental impact of the construction sector. Kim (2021)
researched to determine the benefits that using RCA could bring. In his research, he developed
various environmental benefits of using RCA. His research noted that the CO2 emission from
concretes containing 30% RCA was 17% lower than NCA.
In most cases, RCA materials are produced on-site. Therefore, minimal transportation reduces CO2
emission compared to NCA materials, which may require long-distance transportation from
manufacturing to construction. Through the cost analysis Kim (2021) established that the best way
to utilize the RCA materials is to perform on-site sorting and recycling since it reduces the
recycling cost by 36%.

4.8 Barriers to Using RCA

Research has shown that with proper treatment and modification of the RCA materials, their
quality can be improved to almost those of NCA materials. However, the presence of various
substances and impurities impacts quality deterioration, and therefore a thorough separation should
be implemented to generate more homogeneous cement resources (Kim, 2021). The uneven quality
of RCA reduces its demand and increases the negative perception among contractors and designers.
To reduce the negative perception, all certified recycled materials should not contain the name

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“recycled” since most contractors view the RCA materials as inferior in terms of mechanical,
physical, and chemical properties (Kim, 2021). Uncertainty regarding the RCA's durability is
another barrier to using recycled construction materials. It is a matter of universal concern that
recovered waste can produce a substandard product, and it is also necessary to take other design
considerations into account, such as buildability and aesthetics difficulties, which recycled
materials may not always offer along with their environmental friendliness (Oyedele et al., 2017).
This presumption is not always accurate, though, regarding RCA. According to research, recycled
products like aggregate created from recycled newsprint CDW function on par with or better than
their NA equivalents (Oyedele et al., 2017).
Another barrier is the perception that RCA materials cannot offer the required safety (Kim, 2021).
Safety is a critical factor of every material used in the construction sector. RCA materials are
perceived to have low mechanical and physical properties compared to NCA materials (Kim,
2021). Therefore, contractors feel like using the RCA material increases the potential risks in the
contractions. The perception is caused by a lack of detailed specifications and guidelines on the
qualities and application of RCA products (Kim, 2021). Recycled items are typically considered
inferior materials with short lifespans and low quality. According to research by Oyedele et al.
(2017), clients are also deeply engaged in choosing the materials that will be utilized in their
projects, in addition to design teams in charge of material specification. Although the study
demonstrates that customers share this bias about RCA, material suppliers and contractors exhibit
the opposite tendency (Oyedele et al., 2017). They are always proud to produce or use RCA,
especially since it increases brand value in today's sustainability-driven global environment.
RA needs to be accessible in sufficient amounts to be used in the construction sector (Oyedele et
al., 2017). Construction and building professionals should be encouraged to reuse RCA since
limitations of potentially useful material will significantly affect their decision-making.
Inefficient institutional frameworks are another barrier to using RCA. Oh, et al. (2017) researched
the need for separate dismantlement to maximize CDW recycling (Kim, 2021) fully. In their
research, demolition companies and orderers agreed on the importance of a separate
dismantlement, but the inefficient institutional framework limited its application (Kim, 2021).
There are insufficient guidelines on its applicability by all stakeholders.
Also, the price of RCA products can sometimes be higher than the NCA products. Contractors will
always choose products that they are confident their qualities and are being sold at favorable prices
(Kim, 2021). Due to price fluctuations, the demand for RCA products may be lower compared to
NCA products. Even if research shows that recycled building materials are more expensive than
virgin ones despite being secondary goods, they are still beneficial when environmental issues are
considered (Oyedele et al., 2017). Although many studies (mostly those published by governments)
assert that recycled products are always less expensive, this may be true for some products, such as
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toilet tissue and a select few others. It's not always the case with products for building. As a result,
this has been a significant barrier to its increased acceptance within the building sector (Oyedele et
al., 2017). It suggests that even though governments in the industrialized nations have pushed for
increased trash recycling, the market would have to be created for the products to be more
affordable (Oyedele et al., 2017). To lower the cost of the RCA materials, the recycling companies
would embrace the use of mobile sorting and recycling machines to promote on-site recycling and
sorting of CDW is achieved (Kim, 2021). Reduction of the transportation cost of waste from
demolition sites to the recycling center and then to customers will ultimately reduce the price of
RCA.

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5 CHAPTER 5

5.1 Conclusion and Recommendation

5.1.1 Recommendation
The recommendations in this paper represent the research need that the construction sector needs to
utilize the RCA further. This is because RCA can be utilized to a certain replacement level of NCA
without affecting the quality of the concrete in terms of durability and hardness. This research
paper has identified several research areas that can be focused on to improve the usability of RSA
in the construction sector. One of the major research that should be conducted is on how RCA
materials can be modified using nanomaterial (nanotechnology) to improve the mechanical,
chemical, and physical properties of the RCA materials. Another research area should be
examining the effect of RCA on the impact, shear, and bond strength of concrete. Extensive
research on the particular effects of RCA on the drying shrinkage, splitting shrinkage, and creep of
concrete is essential in strengthening the mechanical properties of RCA concretes.
5.1.2 Conclusion
The growing need to ensure sustainable development and protection of the environment by
controlling the effect of climate change and global warming is causing the construction sector to
refocus on its strategies. To ensure the sector contributes minimal impact of Climate change, the
stakeholders can focus on utilizing RCA. Significant potential exists in RCA created from
recycling demolished concretes and structures for environmental benefits. The current study has
reviewed the quality and role of RCA in the construction industry and established that RCA is a
useful substitute for NCA materials. However, there are critics of the inconsistent qualities due to
the presence of old mortar and preexisting cracks on the parent rock. However, the RCA material
can obtain standard durability and qualities similar to NCA materials through modification,
screening, and quality-controlled recycling. The crushing values and aggregate abrasion influence
the strength of RCA materials. Apart from the strength, the durability and general quality of the
RCA are impacted by the chemical properties and impurities present. It is feasible to create
concrete with an acceptable quality with 100% RCA. The strength of concrete made using RCA is
typically between 80 and 90 percent of that of concrete made with NCA. The unfavorable physical
characteristics of RCA and an insufficiently dense transition zone between RCA and bulk cement
paste are responsible for the decline in the strength of RCA concrete. To strengthen the adoption of
RCA in the construction sector, new guidelines and standards are needed to develop specifications
that RCA manufactures should meet to gain consumer expectations and confidence. Although there
are differences between NCA and RCA, the RCA concretes can be effectively designed and
standardized to reduce the impact of RA on RCA concretes quality and durability. RCA concretes
are the future of sustainable construction for environmental protection.
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APPENDICES

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