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To identify the period 𝑇, the frequency 𝑓 = or the angular frequency 𝑤 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2𝜋/𝑇 of a given
𝑇
sinusoidal or complex exponential signal, it is always helpful to write it in any of the following
forms
sin(𝑤𝑡) = sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑡) = sin(2𝜋𝑡/𝑇)
The fundamental frequency of a signal is the Greatest Common Divisor (GCD) of all the frequency
components contained in a signal and equivalently, the fundamental period is the Least Common
Multiple (LCM) of all individual periods of the components.
Example 1
Find the fundamental frequency of the following continuous signal
𝟏𝟎𝝅 𝟓𝝅
𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝒕) + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝒕)
𝟑 𝟒
The frequencies and periods of the two terms are, respectively,
𝟏𝟎𝝅 𝟓 𝟑
𝒘𝟏 = , 𝒇𝟏 = , 𝑻𝟏 =
𝟑 𝟑 𝟓
𝟓𝝅 𝟓 𝟖
and 𝒘𝟐 = , 𝒇𝟐 = , 𝑻𝟐 =
𝟒 𝟖 𝟓
The fundamental frequency 𝒇𝟎 is the GCD of 𝒇𝟏 = 𝟓/𝟑 and 𝒇𝟐 = 𝟓/𝟖
𝟓 𝟓 𝟒𝟎 𝟏𝟓 𝟓
𝒇𝟎 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 ( , ) = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 ( , ) =
𝟑 𝟖 𝟐𝟒 𝟐𝟒 𝟐𝟒
𝟑 𝟖
Alternatively, the period of the fundamental 𝑻𝟎 is the LCM of 𝑻𝟏 = and 𝑻𝟏 =
𝟓 𝟓
𝟑 𝟖 𝟐𝟒
𝑻𝟎 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 ( , ) =
𝟓 𝟓 𝟓
𝟐𝝅 𝟓𝝅
Now we get 𝒘𝟎 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝟎 = = and the signal can be written as
𝑻𝟎 𝟏𝟐
𝟓𝝅 𝟓𝝅
𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝟖 𝒕) + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝟑 𝒕) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟖𝒘𝟎 𝒕) + 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟑𝒘𝟎 𝒕)
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐
i.e., the two terms are the 3rd and 8th harmonic of the fundamental frequency 𝒘𝟎 , respectively.
Fundamental Period of Discrete Time Signals
Example 2 5𝜋 3𝜋
𝑥 [𝑛] = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑛) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 𝑛)
6 4
The Least-Common-Multiplier of the denominator is 12. Therefore
10𝜋 9𝜋
𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑛) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 𝑛)
12 12
𝜋 2𝜋
Hence, the fundamental frequency is 𝑤0 =
12, the fundamental period is N = 𝑤0
= 24 and the two
terms are the 9th and 10th harmonic of the fundamental frequency 𝑤0 .
Interconnection of Systems
System 2
H2
System Properties
Memory vs. Memoryless Systems
An accumulator:
y[n] x[k ]
60
30
System Properties
Invertibility
n t
61
System Properties
Causality
y (t ) 2 x(t 4) Non-causal
62
31
System Properties
Stability
Interest system: y[n] 1.01 y[n 1] x[n] unstable (say x[n]=[n], y[n]
grows without bound
63
System Properties
Time-Invariance
32
System Properties
Linearity
System Properties
Linearity
Examples:
y[n] 2 x[n] 3
y (t ) x 2 (t ) y[n] Re{x[n]}
x1[n] 2, x2 [n] 3
x1[n] r[n] js[ n] y1[n] r[n] x1[n] y1[n] 2.2 3 7
x2 [n] ax1[n] j (r[n] js[ n]) for a j x2 [n] y2 [n] 2.3 3 9
nonlinear
x2 [n] s[n] jr[ n]
x1[n] x2 [n] 2 3 5
x2 [n] y2 [ n] s[ n] ay1[n]
x1[n] x2 [n] y1 2 [n] 2.5 3 13
y1[n] y2 [ n] 7 9 16 y1 2 [n]
nonlinear
nonlinear
y[n] 2 x[n 1]
linear
66
33
Superposition in LTI Systems
67
Exercise: Given response y(t) of an LTI system to the input signal x(t) below,
find response of that system to the input signals x1(t) and x2(t) shown below.
x(t)
() y(t)
2
1
t t
1 -1 1
x1(t) x2(t) 4
2
2
1 3 t
t
-1
-1/2 1/2 1
68
34
Example:
Determine whether the system could be memoryless, stable, causal, linear and time-invariant.
For all cases, justify your answers.
y n nx n 1
Solution:
y n nx n 1
IV.
x1[n] y1[n]
y1[n n0 ] n n0 x1 n n0 1
n n0 x1[ n n0 1]
x2 [n] x1[(n n0 )]
y2 [n] n x2 [n 1]
nx1[ n 1 n0 ]
y2 [n] y1[n n0 ]
Time-variance