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OPENING THE FLOOD GATES AT FUKUSHIMA

Discharging radioactive water from the damaged Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant is avoidable,
risky and potentially illegal

By Sarah Hachman and Associate Professor Tilman Ruff AO, University of Melbourne

The Japanese government intends to discharge all 1.34 million tonnes of wastewater from the Fukushima
Daiichi Nuclear Power Station, an operation that began on 24 August 2023
(https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-66578158) . Presumably, it also plans to discharge the wastewater that
will continue to accumulate over the coming decades.

This decision is not only harmful to human and environmental health but is also, in our opinion, in direct
violation (https://digitalcommons.wcl.american.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2110&context=auilr) of
international law. Something the Japanese government disputes (https://www.mofa.go.jp/dns/inec/alps.html) .

The original announcement

(https://www.science.org/content/article/japan-plans-release-fukushima-s-contaminated-water-ocean) , made
in 2021, came 10 years after a 9.0 earthquake and tsunami struck Japan’s east coast, damaging the cooling
mechanisms at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station (FDNPS) and causing three nuclear reactors to
meltdown.

An earthquake and tsunami stuck the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station (FDNPS) on 11 March
2011. Picture: Getty Images

The destruction of the FDNPS released an estimated 520 Peta Becquerels (520 x 10¹⁵ nuclear decays per
second) of various radionuclides (https://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/es405654c) (radioactive elements) into
the atmosphere, including cesium, carbon-14, iodine-129, and tritium. However, this figure excludes noble gases
such as xenon-133, of which the Fukushima release was the largest
(https://acp.copernicus.org/articles/12/2313/2012/) since atmospheric nuclear bomb tests.

AN INCOMPLETE CLEAN-UP

Following the incident, the Japanese government worked with the UN’s International Atomic Energy Agency
(IAEA) and the Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO) on a plan to decommission the plant, efforts which
continue to this day.

The first step of this process was to ensure the reactors remained stable. As such, ocean water was pumped into
the reactors as a replacement for the now-defunct cooling mechanisms. Though necessary, this process, along
with extensive groundwater leakage, has produced over one million tonnes of irradiated wastewater, which
continues to accumulate daily.

This wastewater is being decontaminated using an Advanced Liquid Processing System (ALPS)
(https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/report_1_review_mission_to_tepco_and_meti.pdf) , a filtration
process intended to remove 62 radionuclides from water using a series of chemical reactions. However, this

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system’s consistent effectiveness, even with repeated treatment, has not yet been demonstrated, and ALPS is
incapable of eliminating tritium and carbon-14
(https://www.meti.go.jp/english/earthquake/nuclear/decommissioning/pdf/202104_bp_breifing.pdf) .

As of July (https://www.tepco.co.jp/en/decommission/progress/watertreatment/alps01/index-e.html) 2023

(https://www.tepco.co.jp/en/decommission/progress/watertreatment/alps01/index-e.html) , the ALPS-treated
wastewater was being stored on-site in 1,046 storage tanks that are nearing capacity
(https://world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Local-approval-for-Fukushima-water-release-
facilit#%3A~%3Atext%3DThe%20total%20tank%20storage%20capacity%2Cin%20mid%20to%20late%2D2023)
, hence the claimed need for ocean discharge.

The Japanese government plans

(https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/iaea_comprehensive_alps_report.pdf) to incrementally discharge the
treated wastewater into the Pacific Ocean over the next 30 to 40 years. Though presented with other disposal
options
(https://www.greenpeace.org/static/planet4-japan-stateless/2020/10/5e303093-
greenpeace_stemmingthetide2020_fukushima_radioactive_water_crisis_en_final.pdf)
, such as long-term storage in purpose-built, seismically-safe tanks and solidifying the water in a leakproof form
such as mortar or concrete, the task force declined to explore these avenues due to complexity and cost.

Even after initial cleaning, 70 per cent

(https://www.meti.go.jp/english/earthquake/nuclear/decommissioning/qa.html) of the stored wastewater
contains levels of radionuclides above regulatory standards, in some cases up to 20,000 times higher
(https://www4.tepco.co.jp/en/decommission/progress/watertreatment/images/200827.pdf) . And it’s not just
tritium (more on this substance below) in this water, there are other, more toxic, substances, such as
cesium-137, strontium-90 and cobalt-60.

The Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station clean-up has produced 1.34 million tonnes of wastewater.
Picture: Getty Images

However, the IAEA

(https://www.iaea.org/newscenter/pressreleases/iaea-finds-japans-plans-to-release-treated-water-into-the-sea-at-fukushima-consistent-w
international-safety-
standards#%3A~%3Atext%3DAn%20International%20Atomic%20Energy%20Agency%2Cconsistent%20with%20IAEA%20Safety%20Sta
found that Japan’s plans “are consistent with IAEA Safety Standards” and that the levels of tritium, carbon-14,
and other potential radioactive contaminants will be within international standards when discharged, without
TEPCO having demonstrated its water cleaning can consistently achieve this
(https://ieer.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/Expert-Panel-Memorandum-Summarizing-Our-Views-After-
Meetings-with-Japan-and-Observation-of-PIF-meeeting-with-IAEA-2022-08-11.pdf)
.

Dilution of the wastewater as planned to meet regulatory limits will not alter the total amount of materials
released, which is the key factor.

TEPCO estimates the annual radiation dose to people from the discharged water would be lower than that of a
dental x-ray or a round-trip flight from New York City to Tokyo
(https://www.meti.go.jp/english/earthquake/nuclear/decommissioning/pdf/alps_8pages_en.pdf) .

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However, TEPCO’s checkered history

(https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsta.2014.0379#d3e1195) gives little grounds for confidence
(https://www.nirs.org/wp-content/uploads/fukushima/naiic_report.pdf) in its assurances.

NOT ENOUGH EVIDENCE OF SAFETY

Despite reassurance from the IAEA, the scientific community remains divided on the decision, citing growing
evidence of how tritium may impact human and environmental health
(https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4416674) .

Moreover, environmental scientists have argued that the amount considered to be an environmentally safe level
of radiation is more political than scientific
(https://edition.cnn.com/2023/04/19/asia/japan-fukushima-disaster-wastewater-fishing-concerns-hnk-dst-dg-
intl/index.html)
. National standards invariably lag behind the science, and regulatory limits for tritium in water vary from as
much as 7000 Bq/L (Becquerels per litre) in Canada to 15 Bq/L in California.

Tritium (https://www.nrc.gov/docs/ML0609/ML060970190.pdf) is a naturally occurring, radioactive form of

hydrogen also produced by nuclear reactors and explosions. It is the largest radioactive byproduct of nuclear
power plants. It reacts with oxygen to create tritiated water, which is why ALPS is unable to filter it. Tritium
exposure has been largely considered to be harmless (https://hps.org/documents/tritium_fact_sheet.pdf) in low
concentrations and, when ingested, tritiated water is processed in the body identically to water.

There is strong evidence, however, that tritium, particularly organically-bound forms, may have lasting health
effects similar to other forms of radiation exposure, such as decreased lifespan
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6900138/) , developmental delays and cognitive deficits
(https://academic.oup.com/jrr/article/62/4/557/6256015#267456318) , immunodeficiency
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6900138/) , infertility and birth defects
(https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4614-3414-6_3#Sec1) , and cancer and DNA mutations
(https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4614-3414-6_3#Sec3) among humans, land animals and
aquatic vertebrates and invertebrates who experienced high or prolonged exposure.

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Monitoring tritium exposure in aquatic animals is an insu�cient risk mitigation strategy. Picture: Getty
Images

The International Commission on Radiological Protection considers tritium’s beta radiation overall to be twice
as biologically damaging as X-rays
(https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0146645319896548?icid=int.sj-abstract.similar-articles.2) , and
organically-bound tritium three times as damaging as tritium incorporated into water.

Though the task force has committed to monitoring tritium exposure in aquatic animals, TEPCO
(https://www.tepco.co.jp/en/hd/decommission/information/committee/pdf/2022/technical_22122104-e.pdf)
noted that “fish tritium measurement is very difficult and there are only a few analysis agencies that are capable
of performing this measurement,” and that reports from these agencies are often conflicting, making this an
insufficient risk mitigation strategy.

ILLEGAL UNDER INTERNATIONAL LAW

Japan joined both the 1972 London Convention to prevent marine pollution by waste dumping, and also the
1996 Protocol which specifically prohibits the marine dumping of radioactive waste
(https://wwwcdn.imo.org/localresources/en/KnowledgeCentre/ConferencesMeetings/Documents
/London%20Dumping%20Convention%20%E2%80%93
%20The%20First%20Decade%20and%20Beyond%20(2).pdf)
. In 1996, Japan ratified
(https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetailsIII.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXI-6&chapter=21&
Temp=mtdsg3&clang=_en)
the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
(https://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/unclos_e.pdf) , an international agreement
that established a framework for maritime activities.

By ratifying UNCLOS
(https://digitalcommons.wcl.american.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2110&context=auilr) , Japan committed
itself to “protect and preserve the marine environment” and abstain from polluting waterways from “land-based
sources”.

Additionally, in 1992 Japan committed to the Rio Declaration

(https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/generalassembly/docs/globalcompact
/A_CONF.151_26_Vol.I_Declaration.pdf)
, a collection of goals created by the UN targeting sustainable development and environmental protection that
heavily emphasises the precautionary principle. Article 15 states: “where there are threats of serious or
irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective
measures to prevent environmental degradation.”

Though there is still debate within the scientific community surrounding the effects of tritium and what
constitutes an acceptable level of radiation exposure, two truths remain. One, Japan has committed itself to
environmental protection, and two, the contaminated wastewater is a land-based source of pollution.

Furthermore, the very existence of the debate on tritium’s safety and the knowledge that the discharged water
will contain other, more harmful radioactive pollutants, requires Japan to employ the precautionary principle
just as they agreed to in 1992.

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The planned discharge led to protests in Seoul on 12 August 2023. Picture: Getty Images

The Japanese government moving forward with the discharge plan, disregarding its commitments to the global
community and international efforts for environmental protection sets a precedent for how the global
community responds to modern nuclear crises.

Approving this plan means approving a compromise on human and environmental health, inflicting a
transboundary and transgenerational problem on peoples around the Pacific with no offsetting benefit or say in
the decision, and a failure to engage state and non-state actors with stakes in the nuclear industry to question
what’s acceptable.

As such, the Japanese government must follow through on its commitments to the international community
and critically consider alternatives for wastewater disposal. The discharge is planned to go on for 30-40 years
and radioactive wastewater will continue to accumulate.

Even though it has already started, it can still be stopped and a better alternative implemented.

A version of this essay was written for the subject Planetary and Global Health
(https://handbook.unimelb.edu.au/2023/subjects/poph90230) in the Master of Environment
(https://study.unimelb.edu.au/find/courses/graduate/master-of-environment/) at the University of Melbourne.

Banner: Getty Images

First published on 28 August 2023 in Health & Wellbeing

NUCLEAR POWER FUKUSHIMA WASTEWATER POLLUTION

JAPAN

Featured

Sarah Hachman
Graduate student, Master of Environment, Office for Environmental Programs, University of
Melbourne

Associate Professor Tilman Ruff AO

Board member, International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War (Nobel Peace Prize
1985); Founding international and Australian Chair, co-founder, Australian Committee
member, International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (ICAN, Nobel Peace Prize
2017); Honorary Principal Fellow, School of Population and Global Health, Faculty of Medicine,
Dentistry and Health Sciences, University of Melbourne

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