ECE 314B Principles of Communication Systems WK10to13 Module

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TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES VISAYAS

Capt. Sabi St., City of Talisay, Negros Occidental
College of Engineering
Office of the Program Coordinator
LEARNING MODULE
ECE 314B: Principles of

Communications Systems
DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
COMPILED BY:
ENGR. DONNIE SENOMIO
2020
This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
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LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: __10__
I. TOPIC/S
 Sideband
o Introduction to SSB
o Modulation and demodulation
o Types of SB
II. LEARNING OUTCOMES

 Be able to understand the main purpose of an electronic communications system how
to transfer analog or digital information from one place to another.
 Be able to explain how electronic communications can be viewed as the transmission,
reception and processing of information between two or more locations using electronic
circuit/device.
III. CONTENT/TECHNICAL INFORMATION
SINGLE SIDEBAND
 Purpose: to reduce the bandwidth requirement of AM by one-half. This is achieved by
transmitting only the upper sideband or the lower sideband of the DSB AM signal.
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SSB FREQUENCY
SSB MATH
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SSB HILBERT
 SSB signal can be expressed in terms of m(t) and its Hilbert transform
SSB GENERATOR
 Selective Filtering using filters with sharp cutoff characteristics. Sharp cutoff
filters are difficult to design. The audio signal spectrum has no dc component;
therefore, the spectrum of the modulated audio signal has a null around the
carrier frequency. This means a less than perfect filter can do a reasonably good
job of filtering the DSB to produce SSB signals.
 Baseband signal must be bandpass
 Filter design challenges
 No low frequency components
 Phase shift method using Hilbert transformer

 Non-causal filter, approximations
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SSB DEMODULATION
 Synchronous, SSB-SC demodulation
𝜑𝑆𝑆𝐵 (𝑡) cos(𝜔𝑐 𝑡) = [𝑚(𝑡) cos(𝜔𝑐 𝑡) ± 𝑗𝑚ℎ (𝑡) sin(𝜔𝑐 𝑡)] cos(𝑛𝜔𝑐 𝑡)
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= [𝑚(𝑡)(1 + cos(𝜔𝑐 𝑡)) ± 𝑗𝑚ℎ (𝑡)sin⁡(2𝜔𝑐 𝑡)
2
1
A lowpass filter can be used to get 2 𝑚(𝑡).
SSB+C, envelop detection
𝜑𝑆𝑆𝐵+𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑐 𝑡) + [𝑚(𝑡) cos(𝜔𝑐 𝑡) ± 𝑚ℎ (𝑡) sin(𝜔𝑐 𝑡)]
An envelope detector can be used to demodulate such SSB signals
What is the envelope of?
𝜑𝑆𝑆𝐵+𝐶 (𝑡) = (𝐴 + 𝑚(𝑡))(cos(𝜔𝑐 𝑡)) + 𝑚ℎ (𝑡) sin(𝜔𝑐 𝑡) = 𝐸(𝑡) cos(𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝛳)
SSB VS AM
 Since the carrier is not transmitted, there is a reduction by 67% of the
transmitted power (-4.7dBm). --In AM @100% modulation: 2/3 of the power
is comprised of the carrier; with the remaining (1/3) power in both sidebands.
 Because in SSB, only one sideband is transmitted, there is a further reduction by
50% in transmitted power
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 Finally, because only one sideband is received, the receiver's needed bandwidth
is reduced by one half--thus effectively reducing the required power by the
transmitter another 50%
 (-4.7dBm (+) -3dBm (+) -3dBm = -10.7dBm).
 Relative expensive receiver
VESTIGIAL SIDEBAND
 VSB is a compromise between DSB and SSB. To produce SSB signal from
DSB signal ideal filters should be used to split the spectrum in the middle so
that the bandwidth of bandpass signal is reduced by one half. In VSB system
one sideband and a vestige of other sideband are transmitted together. The
resulting signal has a bandwidth > the bandwidth of the modulating (baseband)
signal but < the DSB signal bandwidth.
FILTERING SCHEME FOR THE GENERATION OF VSB MODULATED WAVE
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VSB TRANSCEIVER
 Envelope detection of VSB+C

 Analog TV:
 DSB, SSB and VSB
o DSB bandwidth too high
o SSB: baseband has low frequency component, receiver cost
o Relax the filter and baseband requirement with modest increase in
bandwidth
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(a) Idealized magnitude spectrum of a

transmitted TV signal.
(b) Magnitude response of VSB

shaping filter in the receiver.
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COMPARISON:
IV. PROGRESS CHECK:

1. A modulating signal 𝑚(𝑡) is given by 𝑚(𝑡) = cos(200𝜋𝑡) + 8cos⁡(600𝜋𝑡). The
message is transmitted with AM single side band modulation using a carrier
frequency, 𝑓𝑐 = 10𝑘𝐻𝑧. Find a time domain expression for the upper side band signal
𝜑𝑈𝑆𝐵 (𝑡). (10pts)
2. Over an interval |𝑡| ≤ 1, an angle modulated signal is given by 𝜑𝐸𝑀 (𝑡) =
5cos⁡(90,000𝑡). It is known that the carrier frequency is 𝜔𝑐 = 80,000 radians per
second. (a) If this is assumed to be a phase-modulated (PM) signal with 𝑘𝑝 = 5000,
find an expression for 𝑚(𝑡) over the interval |𝑡| ≤ 1. (b) If this is assumed to be a
frequency modulated (FM) signal with 𝑘𝑓 = 10,000, find an expression for 𝑚(𝑡)
over the interval |𝑡| ≤ 1. (20pts)
3. Consider the following indirect FM generator. The input to the generator is a
narrowband FM signal with 𝑓𝑐 = 20𝑘𝐻𝑧 and 𝛥𝑓 = 10𝐻𝑧. (20pts)
Frequency A B Frequency C
multiplier Mixer + Filter multiplier
X1000 X100
Oscillator
5MHz
Give both 𝑓𝑐 and 𝛥𝑓 at the following points in the circuit.

a) Point A
b) Point B
c) Point C
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LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: __11__
V. TOPIC/S
 Frequency Modulation
o Architecture
o Design
o Modulation
VI. LEARNING OUTCOMES

circuit/device.
VII. CONTENT/TECHNICAL INFORMATION
FREQUENCY MODULATION
 FM is a system in which the amplitude of the modulated carrier is kept constant while
its frequency and rate of change are varied by the modulating signal.
 PM is a similar system in which the phase of the carrier is varied instead of frequency
and the amplitude of the carrier remains constant.
 The amplitude of the frequency modulated wave remains constant at all times.
ADVANTAGES OF FM OVER AM
 The amplitude of FM wave is constant. Independent of the modulation depth. All
the transmitted power in FM is useful.
 FM receivers can be fitted with amplitude limiters to remove the amplitude
variations caused by noise. Making FM reception more immune to noise.
 Possibility to further increase the deviation. It can exceed 100 percent modulation
without causing severe distortion.
 Standard frequency allocations by CCIR of ITU. Guard band has been provided
between commercial FM stations, for less adjacent-channel interference.
 Operates in the upper VHF and UHF frequency range, in which lesser noise than in
MF and HF ranges.
 Space wave is used for propagation, radius of operation is limited to slightly more
than the LOS. Possible to operate several independent transmitters on the same
frequency with less interference.
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DISADVANTAGE OF FM OVER AM
 A much wider channel is required, up to 10 times as large as that needed by
AM.
 FM transmitters and receivers device are more complex, particularly for
modulation and demodulation.
 The area of reception is limited due to LOS. This may be an advantages for co-
channel allocations but disadvantage for FM mobile communications over wide
area.
FREQUENCY MODULATION
 The deviation of the carrier is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating voltage.
 DEVIATION RATIO- the shift in the carrier frequency from its resting point
compared to the amplitude of the modulating voltage.
 Deviation ratio of 5 is the maximum allowed in commercially broadcast FM.
𝑓𝑑𝑒𝑣 (𝑚𝑎𝑥)
 𝐷𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛⁡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑓𝐴𝐹 (𝑚𝑎𝑥)
MODULATION INDEX
 If the frequency deviation of the carrier is known and the frequency of the
modulating voltage AF is known, we can establish the modulation index, MI.
𝑓𝑑𝑒𝑣
 𝑀𝐼 = 𝑓𝐴𝐹
SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
 The general equation of an unmodulated wave or carrier is
𝑥 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
Where:
𝑥 = instantaneous value (of voltage or current)
𝐴 = maximum amplitude
𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜔 = angular velocity, 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝛷 = phase angle, 𝑟𝑎𝑑
Note:
𝜔𝑡 represents an angle in radians.
 If any of the three parameters is varied in accordance with another signal, normally
of a lower frequency, then the second signal is called the modulation, and the first is
said to be modulated by the second.
 AM is achieved when amplitude A is varied.
 Alteration of the phase angle phi will yield phase modulation.
 If the frequency of the carrier is made to vary, FM waves are obtained.
 If any of the three parameters is varied in accordance with another signal, normally
of a lower frequency, then the second signal is called the modulation, and the first is
said to be modulated by the second.
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 AM is achieved when amplitude A is varied.

 Alteration of the phase angle phi will yield phase modulation.
 If the frequency of the carrier is made to vary, FM waves are obtained.
FM REPRESENTATION
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FM VOLTAGE
 Note that as the modulating frequency decreases and the modulating voltage amplitude
(δ) remains constant, the modulation index increases.
 Note as well that 𝑚_𝑓 which is the ratio of two frequencies, is measured in radians.
EXAMPLE:
In an FM system, when the audio frequency (AF) is 500 Hz and the AF voltage is 2.4V,
the deviation is 4.8 kHz. If the AF voltage is now increased to 7.2V, what is the new
deviation? If the AF voltage is raised to 10V while the AF is dropped to 200 Hz, what
is the deviation? Find the modulation index in each case.
SOLUTION:
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INSTANTANEOUS FREQUENCY DEVIATION

 Instantaneous change in the frequency of the carrier and is defined as the first
time derivative of the instantaneous phase deviation.
𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠⁡𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦⁡𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝛳′ (𝑡)
𝑠
′ (𝑡) 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝛳 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑠
𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑠
= 𝐻𝑧
2𝜋 𝑠
s
INSTANTANEOUS FREQUENCY
 The precise frequency of the carrier at any given instant of time and is defined
as the first time derivative of the instantaneous phase.
𝑑
𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠⁡𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = ⁡ 𝜔𝑖 (𝑡) = [𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝛳(𝑡)]
𝑑𝑡
𝑟𝑎𝑑
= 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝛳′(𝑡) ,
𝑠
 Substituting 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 for 𝜔𝑐 gives
𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠⁡𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑓𝑖 (𝑡)
𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜔𝑖 (𝑡) = (2𝜋, ) (𝑓𝑐 , ) + 𝛳′ 𝑡 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 + 𝛳′ (𝑡), ⁡
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
 Frequency modulation is angle modulation in which the instantaneous
frequency deviation, 𝛳′(𝑡), is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating
signal, and the instantaneous phase deviation is proportional to the integral of
the modulating signal voltage.
DEVIATION SENSITIVITY
 For modulating frequency, 𝑉𝑚 (𝑡), the frequency modulation are
𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑓𝑚 = 𝛳′ 𝑡 = 𝑘𝑓 𝑉𝑚 (𝑡),
𝑠
 Where 𝑘𝑓 are constant and are the deviation sensitivities of the frequency
modulator.
 Deviation sensitivities are the output-versus-input transfer function for the
modulators, which gave the relationship between what output parameter
changes in respect to specified changes in the input signal.
𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝛥𝜔
 Frequency Modulator, 𝑘𝑓 = 𝑠
( 𝛥𝑉 )
𝑉
𝑑𝛳
 Variation of ⁡produces Frequency Modulation
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝛳
 Frequency modulation implies that is proportional to the modulating signal.
𝑑𝑡
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FM WAVEFORM
 Carrier amplitude remains constant

 Carrier frequency is changed by the modulating signal.
o amplitude of the information signal varies, the carrier frequency shift
proportionately.
o modulating signal amplitude increases, the carrier frequency increases.
o modulating signal amplitude varies, the carrier frequency varies below
and above it normal center or resting, frequency with no modulation.
 The amount of the change in carrier frequency produced by the modulating
signal known as frequency deviation fd.
 Maximum frequency deviation occurs at the maximum amplitude of the
modulating signal.
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 The frequency of the modulating signal determines the frequency deviation rate
MODULATION INDEX
 Directly proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal and inversely
proportional to the frequency of the modulating signal.
 Ratio of the frequency deviation and the modulating frequency.
𝑣𝐹𝑀 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑐 sin⁡[𝜔𝑐 𝑡 − 𝛽𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑚 (𝑡)]
 𝛽 as modulation index:
𝛥𝑓𝑐
𝑚𝑓 = 𝛽 =
𝑓𝑚
EXAMPLE:
Determine the modulation index for FM signal with modulating frequency is
10KHz deviated by ±10kHz.
Answer: (20KHz/10KHz) = 2 .0 (unitless)
The total frequency change, 10kHz x 2 is called the carrier swing = frequency
deviation x 2.
PERCENT MODULATION
 Simply the ratio of the frequency deviation actually produced to the maximum
frequency deviation allowed by law stated in percent form.
𝛥𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
%𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝛥𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥
VIII. PROGRESS CHECK:

1. What is the frequency swing of an FM broadcast transmitter when modulated 80%
2. An FM signal has a center frequency of 10MHz but is swinging between 100.01 MHz
and 99.999 MHz at a rate of 100 times per second. What is the modulation index of the
signal?
3. An FM wave is represented by, 𝑣𝐹𝑀 = 24𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡(7𝑥108 𝑡 + 4 sin(1800𝑡)). Find the
power dissipated in an 8Ω antenna.
4. If a given modulating signal produces ±50kHz frequency deviation, and the law stated
that maximum frequency deviation allowed is ±75kHz. Find the %modulation.
5. Find the carrier and modulating frequencies, the modulation index and the maximum
deviation of the FM wave represented by the voltage equation 𝑣 = 12sin⁡(6𝑥108 𝑡 +
5𝑠𝑖𝑛1250𝑡). What power will this FM wave dissipate in a 10 ohm resistor?
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LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: __12__
I. TOPIC/S
 Radio Wave Propagation
o Electromagnetic Waves
o Electric ang Magnetic Fields
o Power Density
o Polarization
o Attenuation
o Propagation
o Losses
II. LEARNING OUTCOMES

circuit/device.
III. CONTENT/TECHNICAL INFORMATION
INTRODUCTION
 Radio waves are one form of electromagnetic radiation
 Electromagnetic radiation has a dual nature:
o In some cases, it behaves as waves
o In other cases, it behaves as particles (photons)
 For radio frequencies the wave model is generally more appropriate
 Electromagnetic waves can be generated by many means, but all of them involve the
movement of electrical charges
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
 Electromagnetic transmissions move in space as Transverse waves
 Waves are characterized by frequency and wavelength:
𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆
ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

 An electromagnetic wave propagating through space consists of electric and magnetic
fields, perpendicular both to each other and to the direction of travel of the wave
 The relationship between electric and magnetic field intensities is analogous to the
relation between voltage and current in circuits
 This relationship is expressed by:
𝐸 Where:
𝑍=𝐻
𝑉
E = rms value of field strength, 𝑚
𝐴
H = rms value of magnetic field strength, 𝑚
Z = characteristics impedance of a medium,
𝜇 Where:
𝑍=√ μ = permeability of medium (inductance)
𝜀
ε = electric permittivity of medium (capacitance)
For free space:

𝐻
𝜇 = 4𝜋𝑥10−7 = 1.257𝑥10−6 𝑚
1 𝐹
𝜀= 𝑥109 = 8.854𝑥10−12
36𝜋 𝑚
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POWER DENSITY
 Power density in space is the amount of power that flows through each square meter of
a surface perpendicular to the direction of travel.
𝐸2 𝑃𝑡
𝑃𝐷 = =
𝑍 4𝜋𝑟 2
PLANE AND SPHERICAL WAVES

 The simplest source of electromagnetic waves would be a point in space, with waves
radiating equally in all directions. This is called an isotropic radiator.
 A wavefront that has a surface on which all the waves are the same phase would be a
sphere.
POLARIZATION
 The polarization of a plane wave is simply the direction of its electric field vector
 The wave can rotate in either direction - it is called right-handed if it rotates clockwise
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CIRCULAR
 Circularly polarized light consists of two perpendicular electromagnetic plane
waves of equal amplitude and 90° difference in phase. The light illustrated is
right- circularly polarized.
LINEAR POLARIZATION
 A plane electromagnetic wave is said to be linearly polarized. The transverse
electric field wave is accompanied by a magnetic field wave as illustrated.
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ELLIPTICAL POLARIZATION
 Elliptically polarized light consists of two perpendicular waves of unequal
amplitude which differ in phase by 90°. The illustration shows right-
elliptically polarized light.
COMPARISON BETWEEN LINEAR POLARIZATION (HORIZONTAL VS.

VERTICAL)
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PROPAGATION
FREE SPACE PROPAGATION

 Radio waves propagate through free space in a straight line with a velocity of
the speed of light (300,000,000 m/s)
 There is no loss of energy in free space, but there is attenuation due to the
spreading of the waves
ATTENUATION OF FREE SPACE

 An isotropic radiator would produce spherical waves
 The power density of an isotropic radiator is simply be the total power divided
by the surface area of the sphere, according to the square-law:
𝑃𝑡
𝑃𝐷 =
4𝜋𝑟 2
TRANSMITTING ANTENNA GAIN

 In practical communication systems, it is important to know the signal strength
at the receiver input
 It depends on the transmitter power and the distance from the transmitter to the
receiver, but also upon the transmitting and receiving antennas
 Two important antenna characteristics are:
o Gain for the transmitting antenna
o Effective area for the receiving antenna
 Antennas are said to have gain in those directions in which the most power is
radiated
𝑃𝐷𝐴 Where:
𝐺𝑡 =
𝑃𝐷𝐼 𝐺𝑡 = transmitting antenna gain
𝑃𝐷𝐴 = power density in a given direction from
the real antenna
𝑃𝐷𝐼 = power density at the same distance from
an isotropic radiator with the same 𝑃𝑡
Effective Isotropic Radiated Power:
𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃 = 𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡
𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃
𝑃𝐷 =
4𝜋𝑟 2
RECEIVING ANTENNA GAIN

 A receiving antenna absorbs some of the energy from radio waves that pass it
 A larger antenna receives more power than a smaller antenna (in relation to
surface area)
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 Receiving antennas are considered to have gain just as transmitting antennas do

 The power extracted from a receiving antenna is a function of its physical size
and its gain
𝑃𝑟 𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 Where:
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 = =
𝑃𝐷 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 = effective area of the antenna in 𝑚2
𝑃𝑟 = power delivered to the receiver in W
𝑊
𝑃𝐷 = power density of the wave in 𝑚2
𝜆2 𝐺𝑟
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝐺𝑟 = antenna gain, as a power ratio
4𝜋 λ = wavelength of the signal
PATH LOSS
 Free-space attenuation is the ratio of received power to transmitted power
 The decibel gain between transmitter and receiver is negative (loss) and the loss
found this way is called free-space loss or path loss
Where:
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝑃𝑟 = receiver power in 𝑑𝐵𝑚
𝑃𝑡 =
4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑃𝑡 = transmitted power in 𝑑𝐵𝑚
𝐺𝑡 = transmitting antenna gain
in 𝑑𝐵𝑖
𝑃𝑟 = 𝑃𝑡 + 𝐺𝑡 + 𝐺𝑟 − (32.44 + 20𝐿𝑜𝑔⁡𝑑 + 20𝐿𝑜𝑔⁡𝑓) 𝐺𝑟 = receiving antenna gain in
𝑑𝐵𝑖
𝑑 = distance between
transmitter and receiver, in 𝑘𝑚
𝑓 = frequency in 𝑀𝐻𝑧
PHYSICS OF WAVE BEHAVIOUR

 These three properties are shared by light and radio waves
 For both reflection and refraction, it is assumed that the surfaces involved are
much larger than the wavelength; if not, diffraction will occur
 Reflection of waves from a smooth surface (specular reflection) results in the
angle of reflection being equal to the angle of incidence
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REFLECTION
 Any conducting surface looks like a mirror to a radio wave, and so radio waves
are reflected by any conducting surface they encounter.
 Radio-wave reflection follows the principles of light-wave reflection.
 The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence.

 The direction of the electric field approaching the reflecting surface is reversed
from that leaving the surface. This is equivalent to a 180° phase shift.
 Other types of reflection:
Corner reflection Parabolic reflection Diffuse reflection
REFRACTION
 It is the bending of a wave due to the physical makeup of the medium through
which the wave passes.
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 Index of refraction is obtained by dividing the speed of a light (or radio) wave
in a vacuum and the speed of a light (or radio) wave in the medium that causes
the wave to be bent.
 The relationship between the angles and the indices of refraction is given by a
formula known as Snell’s law:
𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛳1 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛳2 Where:

𝑛1 = index of refraction of initial medium
𝑛2 = index of refraction of next medium
𝛳1 = angle of incidence
𝛳2 = angle of refraction
DIFFRACTION
 It is the bending of waves around an object.
 Diffraction is explained by Huygen’s principle:
o Assuming that all electromagnetic waves radiate as spherical waveforms
from a source, each point on a wave front can be considered as a point
source for additional spherical waves.
26
o When the waves encounter an obstacle, they pass around it, above it, and
on either side.
o As the wave front passes the object, the point sources of waves at the
edge of the obstacle create additional spherical waves that penetrate and
fill in the shadow zone.
RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION MODES

 Most of the time, radio waves are not quite in free space.
𝑍ℎ𝑡 ℎ𝑟 𝐼
𝑉=
𝜆𝑑
 The three basic paths that a radio signal can take through space are:
o Ground wave or surface wave
 Are radio waves that travel or progress along the
surface of the earth.
 The ground wave must be vertically polarized to
propagate from an antenna.
 It follows the curvature of the earth and can, therefore, travel at
distances beyond the horizon.
 Ground-wave propagation is strongest at the low- and medium-
frequency ranges.
 AM broadcast signals are propagated primarily by ground waves
during the day & by sky waves at night.
27
o Sky wave or Ionospheric Propagation

 Are radio waves that are radiated by the antenna into the upper
atmosphere, where they are bent back to earth.
 When a radio signal goes into the ionosphere, the different levels
of ionization cause the radio waves to be gradually bent.
 Skip/ Hop/ Ionospheric Wave) is the propagation of radio waves
bent (refracted) back to the Earth's surface by the ionosphere.
 HF radio communication (3 and 30 MHz) is a result of sky wave
propagation.
 A radio wave transmitted into an ionized layer is refracted (bent)
as it abruptly changes velocity while entering a new medium
 Long-range communication in the high-frequency band is
possible because of refraction in a region of the upper
atmosphere called the ionosphere
 The ionosphere is divided into three regions known as the D, E,
and F layers
 Ionization is different at different heights above the earth and is
affected by time of day and solar activity
28
o Space wave or Line of Sight wave

 It is propagation of waves travelling in a straight line.
 These waves are deviated (reflected) by obstructions and cannot
travel over the horizon or behind obstacles.
 travel directly from an antenna to another without reflection on
the ground.
 Occurs when both antennas are w/in LOS of each another.
 characteristic of most radio signals with a frequency above 30
MHz, particularly VHF, UHF, and microwave signals.
 Signals in the VHF and higher range are not usually returned to
earth by the ionosphere
 Most terrestrial communication at these frequencies uses direct
radiation from the transmitter to the receiver
Where:
𝑑 = √2ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 4√ℎ𝑡 ℎ𝑡 = height of transmitting antenna, ft
𝑑 = distance from the transmitter to horizon, mi
This is called the radio horizon
𝐷 = √2ℎ𝑡 + √2ℎ𝑟 The practical transmission distance, D
 Other type of radio wave propagation is Tropospheric Scatter

o This makes use of the scattering of radio waves in the troposphere to
propagate signals in the 250 MHz –5 GHz range
29
 Ducting
o Under certain conditions, especially over water, a superrefractive layer
can form in the troposphere and return signals to earth
o The signals can then propagate over long distances by alternately
reflecting from the earth and refracting from the superrefractive layer
o A related condition involves a thin tropospheric layer with a high
refractive index, so that a duct forms
 Meteor Trail Propagation

o Meteors are constantly entering the earth’s atmosphere and being
destroyed
o The meteors that enter the atmosphere leave behind an ionized trail
that can be used for communication. It is not suitable for voice
communication
IV. PROGRESS CHECK:

I. Problem Solving:
𝜇𝑊
a. At 20Km in free space from a point source, the power density is 200 .
𝑚2
What is the power density 25Km away from the source? The field strength
present in both locations?
b. Calculate the power density (a) 500m from a 500 – W source and (b)
36,000Km from a 3-KW source. Both are assumed to be omnidirectional
point sources. The field strength present in both locations?
c. At 20Km in free space from a point source, the power density is 200
μW/m^2 . What is the power density 25Km away from the source? The
field strength present in both locations?
d. Calculate the power density (a) 500m from a 500 – W source and (b)
e. At 20Km in free space from a point source, the power density is 200
μW/m^2 . What is the power density 25Km away from the source? The
field strength present in both locations?
f. Calculate the power density (a) 500m from a 500 – W source and (b)
30
g. A 150m antenna, transmitting at 1.2MHz (therefore by ground wave), has

an antenna current of 8A. What voltage is received by a receiving antenna
40Km away, with a height of 2m?
LIST OF REFERENCES
 Haykin & Moher. (2009). Communication Systems

 Frenzel, Louis. (2016). Principles of Electronic Communication Systems
 Rao. (2013). Communication Systems
 3G Learning. (2014). Digital and Analog Communication
 Carlson. (2010), Communication Systems, 5th ed., Carlson, McGraw-Hill
 www.google.com
 www.electrical4u.com
 www.electronics-tutorial.ws
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
ENGR. DONNIE SENOMIO

o Master of Engineering Major in Electronics and Communication Engineering
(MEECE)
o College of Engineering – Electronics Engineering Instructor
o Electronics Engineering Communications Engineering Subject Matter Expert
o Technological University of the Philippines Visayas UITC Systems
Administrator
o Technological University of the Philippines Visayas UITC Web Administrator
o Institute of Electronics and Communications Engineers of the Philippines
Resource Speaker
o Electronics Engineering Communications Engineering Resource Speaker
o Mechatronics and Robotics Society of the Philippines Training Officer

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1

TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES VISAYAS

ECE 314B: Principles of

DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

ENGR. DONNIE SENOMIO

Week No.: __10__

II. LEARNING OUTCOMES

III. CONTENT/TECHNICAL INFORMATION

 Phase shift method using Hilbert transformer

FILTERING SCHEME FOR THE GENERATION OF VSB MODULATED WAVE

 Envelope detection of VSB+C

(a) Idealized magnitude spectrum of a

(b) Magnitude response of VSB

IV. PROGRESS CHECK:

Give both 𝑓𝑐 and 𝛥𝑓 at the following points in the circuit.

Week No.: __11__

VI. LEARNING OUTCOMES

VII. CONTENT/TECHNICAL INFORMATION

 AM is achieved when amplitude A is varied.

INSTANTANEOUS FREQUENCY DEVIATION

 Carrier amplitude remains constant

VIII. PROGRESS CHECK:

Week No.: __12__

II. LEARNING OUTCOMES

III. CONTENT/TECHNICAL INFORMATION

ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

For free space:

PLANE AND SPHERICAL WAVES

COMPARISON BETWEEN LINEAR POLARIZATION (HORIZONTAL VS.

FREE SPACE PROPAGATION

ATTENUATION OF FREE SPACE

TRANSMITTING ANTENNA GAIN

Effective Isotropic Radiated Power:

RECEIVING ANTENNA GAIN

 Receiving antennas are considered to have gain just as transmitting antennas do

PHYSICS OF WAVE BEHAVIOUR

 The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence.

Corner reflection Parabolic reflection Diffuse reflection

𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛳1 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛳2 Where:

RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION MODES

o Sky wave or Ionospheric Propagation

o Space wave or Line of Sight wave

This is called the radio horizon

𝐷 = √2ℎ𝑡 + √2ℎ𝑟 The practical transmission distance, D

 Other type of radio wave propagation is Tropospheric Scatter

 Meteor Trail Propagation

IV. PROGRESS CHECK:

g. A 150m antenna, transmitting at 1.2MHz (therefore by ground wave), has

 Haykin & Moher. (2009). Communication Systems

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

ENGR. DONNIE SENOMIO

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Week No.: 10

Week No.: 11

Week No.: 12