𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑶𝒏𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑.

𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

1.1. Cartesian coordinates

It represents a coordinates in which we can represents any pair of points 𝑝(𝑎, 𝑏)
where (𝑎&𝑚) are any real numbers for example 𝑝(−3,4), to begin, draw two
perpendicular coordinate lines that intersect at the (0) point of each line.

EXAMPLE1: Represent the following points in coordinates

[𝑃1 (1, −1), 𝑃2 (4,3), 𝑃3 (5, −1) ].
Sol.: 𝑦

𝑃3 (4,3)

𝑥
(0,0)
𝑃2 (5, −1)
𝑃1 (1, −1)

𝐹𝑖𝑔. (1.1)
1
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑶𝒏𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

1.2. Translations
Of all the isometries, translations are probably the easiest. With a translation, all
we do is move our object in a straight line, that is, every point in the plane is moved
the same distance and the same direction.
A translation, denoted by T(u, v) , is a function that moves every point a given
distance u in the x −direction and a given distance v in the ydirection. We will use
the following matrix to represent translations:

𝐹𝑖𝑔. (1.2)
EXAMPLE 2: Make the translation by (3 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ,4 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛) for
the rectangle which represents by following points
[𝑃1 (−1,1), 𝑃2 (−4,1), 𝑃3 (−4,3), 𝑃4 (−4,3) ].
𝑦
Sol.:
Original points Translation points
𝑃1 (−1,1) 𝑃̅1 (2, −3)
𝑃4 (−4,3) 𝑃3 (1,3)
𝑃2 (−4,1) 𝑃̅2 (−1, −3)
𝑃3 (−1,3) 𝑃̅3 (2, −1) 𝑃1 (−1,1)
𝑃2 (−4,1)
𝑥
𝑃4 (−4,3) 𝑃̅4 (−1, −1)
𝑃̅4 𝑃̅3
𝑃̅2 𝑃̅1

𝐹𝑖𝑔. (1.3) 2
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑶𝒏𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

1.3. Reflection:
A reflection is a function that transforms an object into its mirror image. for
example, the reflection of the "p" shape relative to a vertical line (or a mirror)
becomes the "q" shape. To reflect a two-dimensional plane, a mirror line is used and
is called the reflection axis. Whereas a reflection of a three-dimensional object such
as a cat requires a two-dimensional plane mirror. Inversion is sometimes considered
a special case of inversion. In the engineering sense, to find the reflection of a point,
a perpendicular line is projected onto the line (or plane) used as the reflection axis,
then the line is extended straight on the other side of the axis at the same distance.
To determine the reflection of a drawing, the reflections of all its constituent points
on the other side of the reflection axis are determined.
EXAMPLE 3: Reflect the triangle of the points 𝑃1 (2,1), 𝑃2 (2,5), 𝑃3 (6,3)
(horizontally across the 𝑦 axis).
Sol.: In this case 𝑦 values of the coordinates remain the same and the 𝑥 values change
sign.
Original points Reflected points
𝑃1 (2,1) 𝑃̅1 (−2,1)
𝑃2 (2,5) 𝑃̅2 (−2,5)
𝑃3 (6,3) 𝑃̅3 (−6,3)
𝐹𝑖𝑔. (1.4)

EXAMPLE 4: Reflect the triangle of the points 𝑃1 (4,3), 𝑃2 (4,7), 𝑃3 (0,5) (vertically
across the 𝑥 axis).
Sol.: In this case 𝑥 values of the coordinates remain the same and the 𝑦 values change
sign.
Original points Reflected points
𝑃1 (4,3) 𝑃̅1 (4, −3)
𝑃2 (4,7) 𝑃̅2 (4,7)
𝑃3 (0,5) 𝑃̅3 (0,5)

𝐹𝑖𝑔. (1.5)
3
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑶𝒏𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

EXAMPLE 5: Graph △ 𝐴𝐵𝐶 with vertices 𝐴(1, 3), 𝐵(5, 2), 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶(2, 1) and its
image after the reflection described. a. In the line 𝑛: 𝑥 = 3 , b. In the line 𝑚: 𝑦 =
1
Sol.:
a. Point 𝐴 is 2 units left of line n, so its reflection 𝐴̅ is 2 units right of line 𝑛 at (5, 3).
Also, 𝐵̅is 2 units left of line 𝑛 at (1, 2), and 𝐶̅ is 1 unit right of line n at (4, 1).

𝐹𝑖𝑔. (1.6)
b. Point 𝐴 is 2 units above line m, so 𝐴̅ is 2 units below line m at (1, −1). Also, 𝐵̅ is
1 unit below line m at (5, 0). Because point 𝐶 is on line 𝑚, you know that 𝐶 = 𝐶̅ .

EXAMPLE 6: Graph 𝐹— 𝐺 with endpoints 𝐹(−1, 2) and

𝐺(1, 2) and its image after a reflection in the line 𝑦 = 𝑥.
Sol.:
The slope of 𝑦 = 𝑥 is 1. The segment from 𝐹 to
its image, 𝐹— 𝐹̅ , is perpendicular to the line of reflection 𝐹𝑖𝑔. (1.7)
𝑦 = 𝑥, so the slope of 𝐹— 𝐹̅ , will be −1 (because 1(−1) = −1).
From 𝐹, move 1.5 units right and 1.5 units down to 𝑦 = 𝑥.
From that point, move 1.5 units right and 1.5 units down to locate 𝐹̅ (2, −1). The
slope of 𝐺— 𝐺̅ will also be −1. From 𝐺, move 0.5 unit right and 0.5 unit down to
𝑦 = 𝑥. Then move 0.5 unit right and 0.5 unit down to locate 𝐺̅ (2, 1).

HW: Reflect the triangle of the points 𝑃1 (4,3), 𝑃2 (4,7), 𝑃3 (0,5)

across the line 𝑦 = 2 − 𝑥.

𝐹𝑖𝑔. (1.8)
4
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑶𝒏𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

1.4. Increment and straight line:

When a particle moves from one point in the plane to another, the net changes in
its coordinates are called increments. They are calculated by subtracting the
coordinates of the starting point from the coordinates of the ending point. If 𝑥
changes from 𝑥1 to 𝑥2 the increment in 𝑥 is 𝑥1 , ∆𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1

EXAMPLE 7: A Particle moves from 𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝐵 in coordinate plane as shown in figure

(1.9). Find the increment ∆𝑥 and ∆𝑦 in the particles coordinate.
Sol.:
𝑥1 = 4 , 𝑥2 = 2
𝑦1 = −3, 𝑦2 = 5
∆𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 → ∆𝑥 = 2 − 4 = −2
∆𝑦 = 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 → ∆𝑦 = 5 − (−3) = 8

𝐹𝑖𝑔. (1.9)

1.5. The slop of straight line:

∆𝑦 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
Any non-vertical line in the plane has the property that the ratio = has
∆𝑥 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
the same value for every choice of the two points and on the line (figure 1.9).

EXAMPLE 8: Find the slope

(if any) of the line they determine.
1) 𝐴 (−1 , 2) 𝐵 (−2 , −1)
2) 𝐴 (2 , 3) 𝐵 (−1 , 3)

Sol.:
∆𝑦 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 −1−2
1) 𝑚 = = →𝑚= ∴𝑚=3
∆𝑥 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 −2+1
∆𝑦 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 3−3
2) 𝑚 = = →𝑚= ∴𝑚=0 𝐹𝑖𝑔. (1.9)
∆𝑥 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 −1−2

5
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑶𝒏𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

1.7. The angle of inclination:

angle of inclination of a line that crosses the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 is the smallest
counterclockwise angle from the x-axis to the line. The relationship between the
slope of a non-vertical line and the line’s angle of inclination ∅ is shown in Figure
1.10.

𝐹𝑖𝑔. (1.10)
EXAMPLE 9: Find the slop of the line that make angle 60 with x- axis?
Sol.:
𝑚 = tan(∅)
𝑚 = tan(60)
= √3
Note that:
1- Lines that are parallel have equal angles of inclination, so they have the same
slope (if they are not vertical) see figure 1.11
since:
𝐿1 ∥ 𝐿2 , then
∅1 = ∅2 & 𝑚1 = 𝑚2
2- The slope of vertical line is undefined ∆𝑥 = 0.
3- The slope of horizontal line is equal zero, ∆𝑦 = 0.
4- If two non-vertical lines and are perpendicular, their slopes 𝑚1 & 𝑚2 and satisfy
𝑚1 𝑚2 = −1. Figure (1.12)

𝐹𝑖𝑔. (1.12) 𝐹𝑖𝑔. (1.11)

6
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑶𝒏𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

sin(𝜃2 )
𝑚2 = tan 𝜃2 =
cos(𝜃2 )
cos(𝜃1 )
sin(90 + 𝜃1 ) = cos(𝜃1 ) & cos(90 + 𝜃1 ) = −sin(𝜃1 ) → tan 𝜃2 =
−sin(𝜃1 )
−1 −1
→ tan 𝜃2 = ∴ 𝑚2 = .
tan(𝜃1 ) 𝑚1
−𝑎1
5- The slop of 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑦 = 𝑎 is 𝑚 =
𝑎2
EXAMPLE10: Find the slope of 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 5
Sol.:
−4 4
𝑚= → 𝑚= .
−3 3
6- Angle 𝜃 between the two lines having slopes 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 is given by
𝑚 −𝑚
7- 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 | 1 2 | , if the lines are parallel, then 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 , and if the lines
1+ 𝑚1 𝑚2
are perpendicular, then 𝑚1 𝑚2 = −1.
8- If a line is at a distance (𝑎 )and parallel to 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠, then the equation of the
line is 𝑦 = ± 𝑎.
9- If a line is parallel to y-axis at a distance b from 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 then its equation is
𝑥 = ± 𝑏.
10- Point−slope form: The equation of a line having slope 𝑚 and passing through
the point (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) is given by 𝑦 – 𝑦0 = 𝑚 (𝑥 – 𝑥0 ).
11- Two-point−form: The equation of a line passing through two points (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )
and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) is given by
𝑦 −𝑦
𝑦 – 𝑦1 = 2 1 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑥2 −𝑥1
12- Slope intercept form: The equation of the line making an intercept c on 𝑦 −
𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 and having slope m is given by 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐, note that the value of
𝑐 will be positive or negative as the intercept is made on the positive or
negative side of the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠, respectively.
13- Intercept form: The equation of the line making intercepts (𝑎) and b on 𝑥 −
𝑥 𝑦
𝑎𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 respectively is given by + = 1.
𝑎 𝑏
14- Normal form: Suppose a non-vertical line is known to us with following data:
(a) Length of the perpendicular (normal) 𝑝 from origin to the line.
(b) Angle w which normal makes with the positive direction of 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠,then the
equation of such a line is given by 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑤 + 𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤 = 𝑝.
15- Any equation of the form 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0, where 𝐴 and 𝐵 are
simultaneously not zero, is called the general equation of a line. Different
forms of 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0.The general form of the line can be reduced to
various forms as given below: (i) Slope intercept form : If 𝐵 ≠ 0, then 𝐴𝑥 +

7
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑶𝒏𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

−𝐴𝑥 −𝐶 −𝐴
𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0 can be written as 𝑦 = + . Or 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐, 𝑚 = ,
𝐵 𝐵 𝐵
−𝐶
𝑐 =
𝐵
16- Normal Form : The normal form of the equation 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0 is
𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑤 + 𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑤 = 𝑝 where,
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
cos(𝑤) = ∓ 2 2 , sin(𝑤) = ∓ 2 2 & 𝑃 = = ∓ 2 2 .
√𝐴 +𝐵 √𝐴 +𝐵 √𝐴 +𝐵
17- Distance of a point from a line, the perpendicular distance (or simply
distance) 𝑑 of a point 𝑃 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) from the line 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0 is given
|𝐴𝑥1 + 𝐵 𝑦1 + 𝐶|
by 𝑑 = .
√𝐴2 +𝐵2
18- Distance between two parallel lines, the distance d between two parallel lines
|𝐶 − 𝐶 |
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝐶1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝐶2 is given by 𝑑 = 1 22 .
√1+𝑚
19- Intersection of two given lines Two lines 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 = 0 and 𝑎2 𝑥 +
𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 = 0 are
𝑎 𝑏
 intersecting if 1 ≠ 1
𝑎2 𝑏2
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
 parallel and distinct if = ≠
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
 coincident if = =
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
3
EXAMPLE11: If the slope of a line passing through the point 𝐴(3, 2) is , then
4
find
points on the line which are 5 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 away from the point 𝐴.
3
Sol.: Equation of the line passing through (3, 2) having slope is given by
4
3
𝑦 – 2 = (𝑥 – 3) 𝑜𝑟 4𝑦 – 3𝑥 + 1 = 0
4
Let (h, k) be the points on the line such that (ℎ – 3)2 + (𝑘 – 2)2 = 25
Also, we have
3ℎ−1
4𝑘 – 3ℎ + 1 = 0 → 𝑘 = → 25ℎ2 – 150ℎ – 175 = 0 →
4
ℎ2 – 6ℎ – 7 = 0
𝑜𝑟 (ℎ + 1)(ℎ – 7) = 0 Þ ℎ = – 1, ℎ = 7 → 𝑘 = – 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 = 5.
Therefore, the coordinates of the required points are either (– 1, – 1) 𝑜𝑟 (7, 5).
EXAMPLE12: Find the equation to the straight line passing through the point of
intersection of the lines 5𝑥 – 6𝑦 – 1 = 0 and 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 5 = 0 and
perpendicular to the line 3𝑥 – 5𝑦 + 11 = 0.
Sol.: First we find the point of intersection of lines 5𝑥 – 6𝑦 – 1 = 0 and 3𝑥 +
2𝑦 + 5 = 0 which is (– 1, – 1). Also the slope of the line 3𝑥 – 5𝑦 + 11 = 0,
3 −5
is . Therefore, the slope of the line perpendicular to this line is . Hence, the
5 3

8
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑶𝒏𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

−5
equation of the required line is given by: 𝑦 + 1 = (𝑥 + 1) 𝑜𝑟 5𝑥 + 3𝑦 +
3
8 = 0.

EXAMPLE13: Find the slope of the line determined by two points 𝐴(2,1) and
𝐵(−1,3)
and find the common slope of the line perpendicular to 𝐴𝐵.
Sol.:
𝑦 −𝑦
𝑚= 2 1
𝑥2 −𝑥1
3−1 2
= =
−1−2 −3
−1 3
Slope of line perpendicular to 𝐴𝐵 is: =
𝑚 2
EXAMPLE14: Use slopes to determine in each case whether the points are collinear
(lie on a common straight line):
a) 𝐴(1,0) , 𝐵(0,1) , 𝐶(2,1) .
b) 𝐴(−3, −2) , 𝐵(−2,0) , 𝐶(−1,2) , 𝐷(1,6) .
Sol.:
1−0 1−1
𝑚𝐴𝐵 = = −1 & 𝑚𝐵𝐶 = = 0 ≠ 𝑚𝐴𝐵
0−1 2−0
The points 𝐴 , 𝐵 and 𝐶 are not lie on a common straight line .
0−(−2) 2−0 6−2
𝑚𝐴𝐵 = = 2, 𝑚𝐵𝐶 = = 2, & 𝑚𝐶𝐷 = =2
−2−(−3) −1−(−2) 1−(−1)
Since 𝑚𝐴𝐵 = 𝑚𝐵𝐶 = 𝑚𝐶𝐷
Hence the points 𝐴 , 𝐵 , 𝐶 , and 𝐷 are collinear .
EXAMPLE15: Write an equation for the line that passes through point:
a) 𝑃( −1 , 3 ) with slope 𝑚 = −2 .
b) 𝑃1 ( −2 , 0 ) and 𝑃2 ( 2 , −2 ).
Sol.:
a) 𝑦 – 𝑦1 = 𝑚 ( 𝑥 – 𝑥1 ) → 𝑦 – 3 = −2 ( 𝑥 – (−1)) → 𝑦 + 2𝑥 = 1
𝑦 −𝑦
b) 𝑚 = 2 1
𝑥2 −𝑥1
−2−0 −1
= =
2−(−2) 2
−1
𝑦 – 𝑦1 = 𝑚 ( 𝑥 – 𝑥1 ) → 𝑦 – 0 =
2
( 𝑥 – (−2)) → 2𝑦 + 𝑥 + 2 = 0
EXAMPLE16: Find:
a) an equation for the line through 𝑃( 2 ,1 ) parallel to 𝐿: 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2 .
b) an equation for the line through 𝑃 perpendicular to 𝐿.
c) the distance from 𝑃 𝑡𝑜 𝐿 .
Sol.:
a)since 𝐿2 // 𝐿1 𝑚𝐿2 = 𝑚𝐿1 = 1 → 𝑦 − 1 = 1( 𝑥 − 2 ) → 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 1
b) Since 𝐿1 and 𝐿3 are perpendicular lines then:
9
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑶𝒏𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

𝑚𝐿3 = −1 → 𝑦 − 1 = − ( 𝑥 − 2 ) → 𝑦 + 𝑥 = 3
1 5 1 5
c) 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2, 𝑦 + 𝑥 = 3 → 𝑥 = , and 𝑦 = , → 𝑃( 2,1 ) and 𝑄( , )
2 2 2 2
𝑑 = √(𝑥𝑄 − 𝑥𝑃 )2 + (𝑦𝑄 − 𝑦𝑃 )2 = √4.5
1.8. Functions:
A function ƒ from a set 𝐷 to a set 𝑌 is a rule that assigns a unique (single) element
ƒ(𝑥) ∈ 𝑌 to each element 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷. The set 𝐷 of all possible input values is called the
domain of the function. The set of all output values of ƒ(𝑥) 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 varies throughout
𝐷 is called the range of the function. The range may not include every element in
the set 𝑌.
EXAMPLE17: Find the domain and range for the following functions:
1- 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 1
1
2- 𝑦 =
√𝑥
4
3- 𝑦 = √8 − 𝑥
Sol.:
1- The formula 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 1 gives a real 𝑦 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 for any real number 𝑥, so the
domain is (−∞, ∞). The range of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 1is [0, ∞),because the square of
any real number is nonnegative and every nonnegative number y is the square
of its own square root.
1
2- The formula 𝑦 = gives a real 𝑦 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 for every x except 𝑥 > 0. For
√𝑥
consistency in the rules of arithmetic, we cannot divide any number by zero,
or take root of negative numbers in 𝑅. The range of 𝑦 ≠ 0.
4
3- The formula 𝑦 = √8 − 𝑥 gives a real 𝑦 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 for 𝑥 < 8. The range of this
function all real numbers.

Not that: The open interval is the set of all real numbers that be strictly between
two fixed numbers 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏: (𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏
Half open interval is the set of all real numbers that contain one endpoint but not
both: (𝑎, 𝑏] = 𝑎 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏, [𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝑏
The closed interval is the set of all real numbers that contain both endpoints: [𝑎, 𝑏] =
𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏.
Composition of functions: suppose that the outputs of a function 𝑓 can be used as
inputs of a function 𝑔. We can then hook 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 together to form a new function
whose inputs are the inputs of f and whose outputs are the numbers: (𝑔𝑜𝑓)(𝑥) =
𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)).

10
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑶𝒏𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

1
EXAMPLE18: if 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 2 , 𝑔(𝑥) = , find (𝑔𝑜𝑓)(𝑥) & (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥).
2−𝑥
1
Sol.: (𝑔𝑜𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) → 𝑔(√𝑥 + 2 ) =
2−√𝑥+2
1 1 1+4−2𝑥
(𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) → 𝑓 ( ) = √2−𝑥 + 2 = √
2−𝑥 2−𝑥
1.9. Graphs of Functions
If ƒ is a function with domain 𝐷, its graph consists of the points in the Cartesian
plane whose coordinates are the input-output pairs for ƒ. In set notation, the graph is
{(𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥)), 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷}.
The graph of the function ƒ(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2 is the set of points with coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦)
for which 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2. Its graph is the straight line sketched in Figure 1.13. The
graph of a function ƒ is a useful picture of its behavior. If (𝑥, 𝑦) is a point on the
graph, then 𝑦 = ƒ(𝑥) is the height of the graph above (or below) the point 𝑥. The
height may be positive or negative, depending on the sign of ƒ(𝑥) (Figure 1.14).

𝐹𝑖𝑔. (1.13) 𝐹𝑖𝑔. (1.14)

EXAMPLE19: Graph the function 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 over the interval [−2,2]

Sol.: Make a table of 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑠 that satisfy the equation 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 . Plot the points
(𝑥, 𝑦) whose coordinates appear in the table, and draw a smooth curve (labeled with
its equation) through the plotted points (Figure 15). How do we know that the graph
of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 doesn’t look like one of these curves?
𝑥2 𝑦 = 𝑥2
−2 4
−1 1
0 0
1 1
3 9
2 4
2 4
𝐹𝑖𝑔. (1.15)
11
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑶𝒏𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

−𝑥 𝑥<0
EXAMPLE19: Draw the following function𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥 2
0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1}
1 𝑥>1
Sol.: Is defined on the entire real line but has values given by different formulas,
depending on the position of 𝑥. The values of ƒ are given by 𝑦 = −𝑥 when 𝑥 < 0,
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 when0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1, and 𝑦 = 1 when 𝑥 > 1. The function, however, is just one
function whose domain is the entire set of real numbers (Figure 1.16).

𝑥 𝑦 = −𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑥2 𝑦=1
−2 2 − −
−1 1 − −
0 0 0 −
1 − 1 1
2 − − 1
𝐹𝑖𝑔. (1.16)
Note that: If the graph of a function climbs or rises as you move from left to right,
we say that the function is increasing. If the graph descends or falls as you move
from left to right, the function is decreasing. If 𝑓(𝑥2 ) > 𝑓(𝑥1 ) whenever 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 ,
then ƒ is said to be increasing on 𝐼., and if 𝑓(𝑥2 ) < 𝑓(𝑥1 ) whenever 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 , then
ƒ is said to be decreasing on 𝐼.
A function 𝑦 = ƒ(𝑥) is an even function of x if ƒ(−𝑥) = ƒ(𝑥), odd function of 𝑥 if
ƒ(−𝑥) = −ƒ(𝑥), for every 𝑥 in the function’s domain. The names even and odd
come from powers of 𝑥. If 𝑦 is an even power of 𝑥, as in
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 or 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 , it is an even function of x because (−𝑥)2 = 𝑥 2 and (−𝑥)4 = 𝑥 4 .
If y is an odd power of 𝑥, as in 𝑦 = 𝑥 or 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 , it is an odd function of 𝑥 because
(−𝑥)1 = −𝑥 and (−𝑥)3 = −𝑥 3 . The graph of an even function is symmetric about
the y-axis. Since ƒ(−𝑥) = ƒ(𝑥), a point (x, y) lies on the graph if and only if the
point (−𝑥, 𝑦) lies on the graph (Figure 1.17a). A reflection across the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
leaves the graph unchanged. The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the
origin. Since ƒ(−𝑥) = −ƒ(𝑥), a point (𝑥, 𝑦) lies on the graph if and only if the point
(−𝑥, −𝑦) lies on the graph (Figure 1.17b). Equivalently, a graph is symmetric about
the origin if a rotation of 180° about the origin leaves the graph unchanged. Notice
that the definitions imply that both 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 𝑥 must be in the domain of ( ƒ ).

12
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊 𝐹𝑖𝑔. (1.17)
 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑶𝒏𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

1.10. Types of functions:

A variety of important types of functions are frequently encountered in calculus.
We identify and briefly describe them here.
1- Linear Functions
A function of the form ƒ(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏, for constants 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏, is called a
linear function. Figure 1.18a shows an array of lines ƒ(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 where 𝑏 = 0,
so these lines pass through the origin. The function ƒ(𝑥) = 𝑥 where 𝑚 = 1 and
𝑏 = 0 is called the identity function. Constant functions result when the slope
𝑚 = 0 (Figure 1.18b). A linear function with positive slope whose graph passes
through the origin is called a proportionality relationship.

𝐹𝑖𝑔. (1.18)

Two variables 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 are proportional (to one another) if one is always a constant
multiple of the other; that is, if 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥 for some nonzero constant 𝑘. If the variable
1
y is proportional to the reciprocal , then sometimes it is said that y is inversely
𝑥
1
proportional to 𝑥 (because is the multiplicative inverse of 𝑥).
𝑥
2- Power Functions
A function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑎 , where a is a constant, is called a power function. There
are several important cases to consider. Where 𝑎 = 𝑛, either 𝑎 is positive integer.
The graphs of ƒ(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 , for 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, are displayed in Figure 1.19. These
functions are defined for all real values of 𝑥. Notice that as the power n gets larger,
the curves tend to flatten toward the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 on the interval (−1, 1), and to rise
more steeply for 𝑥 > 1. Each curve passes through the point (1, 1) and through the
origin. The graphs of functions with even powers are symmetric about the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠;
those with odd powers are symmetric about the origin. The even-powered functions
are decreasing on the interval (−∞, 0] and increasing on [0, ∞) the odd-powered
functions are increasing over the entire real line (−∞, ∞).

13
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑶𝒏𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

𝐹𝑖𝑔. (1.19)
1
Or 𝑎 is negative integer. The graphs of the functions 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 −1 = and𝑔(𝑥) =
𝑥
1
𝑥 −2 = 2, are shown in Figure 1.20 . Both functions are defined for all 𝑥 ≠ 0 . The
𝑥
graph of 𝑦 = 1/𝑥 is the hyperbola 𝑥𝑦 = 1, which approaches the coordinate axes
far from the origin. The graph of 𝑦 = 1/𝑥 2 also approaches the coordinate axes.
The graph of the function ƒ is symmetric about the origin; ƒ is decreasing on the
intervals (−∞, 0) and (0, ∞). The graph of the function 𝑔 is symmetric about the
𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠; 𝑔 is increasing on (−∞, 0) and decreasing on (0, ∞).

𝐹𝑖𝑔. (1.20)
1 1 3 2
If 𝑎 = , , , 𝑎𝑛𝑑
2 3 2 3
1 1
3
The functions ƒ(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 = √𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 = √ 𝑥, 𝑥 are the square root and
cube root functions, respectively. The domain of the square root function is [0, ∞),
but the cube root function is defined for all real 𝑥. Their graphs are displayed in
2 3
Figure 1.21, along with the graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 .

14
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊 𝐹𝑖𝑔. (1.21)
 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑶𝒏𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

3- Polynomials
A function p is a polynomial if 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑜
where n is a nonnegative integer and the numbers 𝑎𝑜 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎3 , ….., 𝑎𝑛 are real
constants (called the coefficients of the polynomial). All polynomials have domain
(−∞, ∞) If the leading coefficient 𝑎𝑛 ≠ and 𝑛 > 0, then n is called the degree of the
polynomial. Linear functions with 𝑚 ≠ 0 are polynomials of degree 1. Polynomials
of degree 2, usually written as 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, are called quadratic
functions. Likewise, cubic functions are polynomials 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 +
𝑑 of degree 3. Figure 1.22 shows the graphs of three polynomials.

𝐹𝑖𝑔. (1.22)
Rational Functions A rational function is a quotient or ratio ƒ(𝑥) = 𝑝(𝑥)/𝑞(𝑥),
where 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 are polynomials. The domain of a rational function is the set of all
real 𝑥 for which 𝑞(𝑥) ≠ 0. The graphs of several rational functions are shown in
Figure 1.23.

𝐹𝑖𝑔. (1.23)
4- Algebraic Functions
Any function constructed from polynomials using algebraic operations (addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, and taking roots) lies within the class of
algebraic functions. All rational functions are algebraic, but also included are more
complicated functions (such as those satisfying an equation like

15
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑶𝒏𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

𝑦 3 − 9xy + − 9xy + x3 = 0. Figure 1.24 displays the graphs of three algebraic

functions.

𝐹𝑖𝑔. (1.24)

5- Trigonometric Functions
The graphs of the sine and cosine functions are shown in Figure 1.25.

𝐹𝑖𝑔. (1.25)

6- Exponential Functions
Functions of the form 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 , where the base 𝑎 > 0 is a positive constant and
𝑎 ≠ 1, are called exponential functions. All exponential functions have domain
(−∞, ∞) and range (0, ∞), so an exponential function never assumes the value 0.
The graphs of some exponential functions are shown in Figure 1.26.

7- Logarithmic Functions
16
𝐹𝑖𝑔. (1.26)
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑶𝒏𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

These are the functions ƒ(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥, where the base 𝑎 ≠ 1, is a positive
constant. They are the inverse functions of the exponential functions. Figure 1.27
shows the graphs of four logarithmic functions with various bases. In each case the
domain is (0, ∞), and the range is (−∞, ∞).

𝐹𝑖𝑔. (1.27)
Note that, sometimes we have a simple graph and we have to know the equation of
function as given in the following example.
EXAMPLE20: Find the equation of the function that represents the figure 1.28.
Sol.: The simple form of line equation is 𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
Where 𝑚 is the slop of line &
∅
𝑐 represents the intersection of
line or its extension with y − axis,
for the first interval [−3, 0] 𝑥
2
𝑚 = , 𝑐 = 4, then the equation of the line
3
2
𝑦= 𝑥+4
3
for the first interval [0, 4]
−3
𝑚= , 𝑐 = 3, then the equation of the line
4 𝐹𝑖𝑔. (1.28)
−3
𝑦= 𝑥 + 3.
4
1.11. Circle
A circle of radius a is the set of all points 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) whose distance from some
center 𝐶(ℎ, 𝑘) equals a (Figure 1.26). From the distance formula, 𝑃 lies on the
circle if and only if √(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑎, which means that:
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑎2
Equation (1) is the standard equation of a circle with center (ℎ, 𝑘) and radius
𝑎. The circle of radius 𝑎 = 1 and centered at the origin is the unit circle with
equation x 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1.

17
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑶𝒏𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

EXAMPLE20: Find the standard equation for the circle of radius 4 centered at
(-2, 1).
Sol.:
(𝑥 + 2)2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 = 42
EXAMPLE21: Find the center and radius of the circle given in
𝑥 2 + (𝑦 + 4)2 = 6
Sol.:
From the standard circle equation (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑎2 ,the center is
(0, −4), and the radius is √6
EXAMPLE22:
Find the center and radius of the circle 𝑥 2 + y 2 + 4x − 6y − 3 = 0.
Sol.:
Convert the equation to standard form by completing the squares in 𝑥 and 𝑦:
𝑥 2 + y 2 + 4x − 6y − 3 = 0.
(𝑥 2 + 4x) (y 2 − 6y) = 3.→
4 −6 4 −6
(𝑥 2 + 4x + ( )2 ) (y 2 − 6y + ( )2 ) = 3 + ( )2 + ( )2 )
2 2 2 2
(𝑥 2 + 4x + 4) + (𝑦 2 - 6y + 9) = 3 + 4 + 9
(𝑥 + 2)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 = 16
The center is (−2, 3) and the radius is 𝑎 = 4.
1.11. parabola

Consider the equation 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 . Some points whose coordinates satisfy this

3 9
equation are (0, 0), (1, 1), ( , ), (−1, 1), (2, 4), and (−2, 4). These points (and
2 4
all others satisfying the equation) make up a smooth curve called a parabola
(Figure 1.29). The graph of an equation of the form 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2
is a parabola whose axis (axis of symmetry) is the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠. The parabola’s
vertex (point where the parabola and axis cross) lies at the origin. The parabola
opens upward if 𝑎 > 0 and downward if 𝑎 < 0. The larger the value of |𝑎| the
narrower the parabola (Figure 1.30). Generally, the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
is a shifted and scaled version of the parabola 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 .

18
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏𝐹𝑖𝑔.
𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊
(1.29) 𝐹𝑖𝑔. (1.30)
 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 − 𝑰 𝑳𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑶𝒏𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒑. 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈

The graph of the equation 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, 𝑎 ≠ 0 is a parabola. The parabola

−𝑏
opens upward if 𝑎 > 0 and downward if 𝑎 < 0. The axis is the line 𝑥 = , the
2𝑎
vertex of the parabola is the point where the axis and parabola intersect. Its
𝑥 −coordinate is 𝑥 = −𝑏/2𝑎; its 𝑦 −coordinate is found by substituting 𝑥 =
−𝑏
in the parabola’s equation.
2𝑎
−1
EXAMPLE23: Graph the equation 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 4.
2
Sol.:
−1
Comparing the equation with 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 we see that 𝑎 = , 𝑏 =
2
−1, 𝑐 = 4. Since 𝑎 < 0, the parabola opens downward. From Equation (2) the
−𝑏 (−1)
axis is the vertical line 𝑥 = = −1 = −1When 𝑥 = −1, we have
2𝑎 2( )
2
−1 9 9
𝑦 = (−1)2 − (−1) + 4 = , The vertex is (−1, ).
2 2 2
The 𝑥 −intercepts are where 𝑦 = 0:
−1
0 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 4 → 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 8 = 0
2
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 4) = 0
𝑥 = 2, 𝑥 = −4
We plot some points, sketch the axis, and use the direction of opening to
complete the graph in Figure 1.31

𝐹𝑖𝑔. (1.31)

References:
1- George B. Thomas and Ross L. Finney, “Calculus and Analytic Geometry,
Addison- Wesley
2- Thomas Calculus, by George B. Thomas, Jr, Eleventh Edition Media Upgrade
2008
3- Advanced Calculus Third Edition.

19
𝑳𝒆𝒄. 𝑯𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏 𝒀. 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒉𝒊