Factors Affecting Performance

Energy systems

ATP/PC or Alactacid Lactic Acid system Aerobic Energy system

- Functions in absence of oxygen and
dependant on fast twitch - relies upon
creatine phosphate as source of fuel to
resynthesis ADP molecule
- Very fast and efficient ATP production, but
fuel is limited
- System operates between 8-12 seconds
depending on intensity
- Depletion of creatine phosphate causes
fatigue, releasing heat as a by-product
- Rate of recovery, and process of PC
replenishment takes up to 2-5minutes
- Source of fuel includes complex carbohydrates
that are stored in muscles as glycogen or in the
bloodstream as glucose
- Produces 2 ATP molecules at a very efficient
rate for each glucose molecule broken down
- System operates between 30 seconds to 3 min
- depending on intensity
- Accumulation of pyruvic acid that in absence of
O₂, converted into lactate (by-product) - slows
down enzymes needed for glycolysis, ↑ muscle
acidity = burning sensation
- Recovery rate between 20min - 2hours, and is
broken down by O₂ presence
- Source of fuel includes complex
carbohydrates, fats and proteins
- 38 ATP molecules produced slowly per carb
and 136 ATP per fat
- As long as fuel source available, the system
operates
- Cause of fatigue results in a reduction in
intensity, when Carb stores are depleted, as
more O₂ required to convert fats
- CO₂ lost from muscles as by-product and take
out via lungs, and H₂O removed by sweat =
muscle stiffness
- 12-48 hours rate of recovery and supported
with proper nutritional considerations

Types of Training and Training Methods

Aerobic Anaerobic

- Continuous: same activity at the same intensity for a specified duration of
time (marathon runner progressively overload until reaching 24km)
- Fartlek: singular activity with varying changes in intensities
- Aerobic Interval: single activity with specific changes in intensity at specific
times (walk at 4km/h - sprint at 20km/h - slow down to 10km/h before going
back up to 14km/h)
- Circuit: Various activities that are normally done for a set time before
moving on to the next activity. Intensity can vary or stay the same.
- Anaerobic Interval: Training comprised of short durations (10-60sec) of
high intensity (85-100% MHR) followed by 2min rests. (100m sprints,
followed by rest, repeat 10x) - ↑ FTF efficiency = high myosin ATPase
activity which catalyses the breakdown of ATP to ADP quicker. Also,
Myosin and actin filaments help build cross-bridges that make muscles
stronger = and more forceful muscle contractions - ↑ speed and power of
take-off
- Calisthenics program that integrates multiple sets of high vol/reps -
microtrauma stimulate protein synthesis = lean mass by muscular
hypertrophy.

Flexibility training Strength training

- Static: A muscle is slowly taken to the end point of its range of movement
and held for a period of time. (Butterfly, calf stretch, hip flexor, thoracic
extension)
- PNF: involves an isometric contraction, with progressive cycles of static
stretches of muscles against a set resistance (Contract hamstring and push
your leg against your partner's hand while they resist the movement)
- Dynamic: active movements that take their joints through their ROM to
produce temporal stretches of selected muscles (walking lunges, high kicks)
- Ballistic: bounce or swing (squat jumps, arm swings)
- Elastic Training: use of an elastic band or spring to create resistance
- Hydraulic: training where resistance is produced by compression of
air/liquid. (50m swimmer will use stroke catalyst pads - greater distance
per stroke). The rower will use a rowing machine
- Fixed weight training uses machines for correct technique and
experience resistance throughout ROM
- Free weights: is the use of dumbbells, plates or barbells that develops
strength of stabiliser muscles
 Principles of overtraining
Definition
Progressively overload: gradually increasing
workload to place sufficient stress upon the body
Specificity: training program utilising relevant
movement, muscles and metabolic zone that
replicate the nature of the sport
Reversibility: athletes loss of adaptation due to
off-season with lack of physical activity, or long term
injury
Variety: use of various types of exercise, facilities or
setting in training, helping ↑ motivation & ↓ boredom
- but not at expense of specificity
Training threshold: refers to the level of intensity
needed in order to stress the body enough to cause
an adaptation.
Warm-up ↑ muscle temperature and cardiac output
enhance blood flow and place joints through ROM,
activating relevant motor patterns. It also mentally
prepares one for the physical demands of sports
Cool Down: ↓ heart rate promotes blood circulation
and delays the onset of muscle soreness. Stretching
avoids blood pooling in veins and removes lactate to
↓ recovery time.
Aerobic sport
Continuous training by running at 5km at 80%, ↑ to
7km whilst maintaining intensity, until reaching 42km
Fartlek training by running at submaximal intensity
for 3km, then decreasing to 70% for 5km before
increasing to 80% for remaining 2kms, whilst using
quads, hamstring and calves
- Increase in mitochondrial density and
size, allowing greater oxygen levels to
convert glucose into ATP.
Triathlon athlete who suffered broken wrist can
undergo stationary bike 2x a week, to prevent loss
of stroke volume and decrease in HR
Soccer player/ marathon runner can undergo hill
runs, where incline causes muscles to work harder
and propel body up, expanding stride length and
enhances running economy
- Acclimation to high altitudes above
7000ft for 10-21 days exposes runner to
limited oxygen, stimulating RBC’s and
Hb
involves activity or session at an anaerobic energy
zone of 85% MHR
- Greater concentration of capillary and
myoglobin, enhancing oxygen supply to
working muscles, delaying lactate
inflexion point
Dynamic and ballistic stretches for soccer athletes -
adapting to relevant motor patterns
Aqua aerobics alleviate the pressure off joints, and
stationary bikes deliver oxygen to muscles + use a
foam roller to realign muscle fibres
Anaerobic sport
Implement a training program that involves 90% of 1RM for
3-5 sets at 1-3 reps. Eg. 120kg bench press, then increase
by 5kg increments once correct posture is maintained and
comfortable
50m Swimmer uses stroke catalyst pads whilst doing
freestyle - maintaining relevant skill execution, working
deltoids, latissimus dorsi and triceps = greater distance per
stroke by developing speed and power
Weight lifter with Achilles tendon rupture, should not
compromise the opposing limb - to avoid muscle atrophy
Basketball player who uses fixed weight machines can
partake in plyometric training - vertical jumps, power
cleans, and power snatches) - ensures pre-stretch of the
muscle followed by rapid contraction = producing maximum
force
- 1-6RM = maximal strength and power gains.
- 8-12RM = increases in strength and is most
effective in order to produce muscular
hypertrophy.
- 12-15RM =improve local muscular endurance.
Weightlifters will use light resistance elastic bands or free
weights to activate surrounding stabiliser muscles for
support
Weight lifters after an intense workout, can do dynamic
stretches and yoga to bring down HR, whilst ensuring
lymphatic drainage of lactate accumulation.
 Physiological adaptations

- Resting heart rate: number of times heart beats per minute

- Stroke volume: volume of blood pumped out by ventricles per heartbeat
- Cardiac output: volume of blood pumped each minute
- Oxygen uptake: body ability to absorb oxygen through the lungs into the bloodstream
- Lung capacity: the amount of oxygen the lungs can hold
- Haemoglobin levels: are protein located in red blood cells, binding O₂ with help of Iron (II)
- Muscular hypertrophy: the increase in the size of muscle at the cross-sectional area due to increase in myofibres within myocytes
- Fast twitch: muscle fibres used for strength and movements of high intensity and short duration
- Slow twitch: muscle fibres responsible for longer durations with slower contractions

Isometric Isotonic Isokinetic

Contraction of muscle with no changes lin length Tension of muscle created via shortening of length Movement that occurs at equal or constant velocity,
(concentric) or lengthening (eccentric) and usually involve special machines

Motivation

Internal External

Self-propelling force that encourages athletes to achieve because they have an motivation that comes from external sources - tends to have an outcome or ego
interest in the sport and enjoy learning and performing new movements. It is orientation. It is an unsustainable source of motivation

self-sustaining because effort and personal accomplishment become a reward.

- Positive: Liverpool FC stadium has an amazing fan base that creates an
atmosphere, promoting players to win by generating confidence, and
- Positive: 100m sprinter desire and ambition to beat a personal record,
representing the pride of the club
and win a gold medal in Olympics
- Negative: Cate Campbell an Australian swimmer calls 100m greatest
- Negative: athlete degrades themselves after a poor performance, with
freestyle to choke in history - having to deal with the media scrutiny,
constant self-doubts and decreased confidence of retaining position on
fanbase and fear of returning
team

Anxiety (psychological) stimulates our “fight or flight” response, releasing adrenaline into the bloodstream

State Anxiety: Emotional response to a particular situation, and can arise in Trait Anxiety: Genetically predisposed and part of one's personality, and often
pressurised moments anxious about unknown outcomes

- Penalty kick within 90min of the world cup final in front of millions of - Returning from long-term ACL injury creates negative thoughts when
people - lack of concentration, irregular heartbeat, and constant competing - increasing heart rate, swearing and breathing
muscle twitches - Serena Williams

Arousal (physiological): level of alertness or excitement athlete feels prior to performance, depicted with inerted U graph

Complex, fine motor skills Simple, gross motor skills

- Throwing dart requires less level of optimal arousal, due to greater
focus on hand-eye concentration
- Over arousal - unable to focus, nerves activating many muscle
groups and increased in blood pressure can alter accuracy of shot
- Rugby requires relatively high levels of arousal to reduce risk of injury
when applying force into collisions
- Under arousal - too relaxed, disinterested, lethargic or lack of
motivation can alter biomechanical technique and provoke concussions
or shoulder dislocations
 Sources of stress: vary from person to person and is usually referred to the amount of pressure and tension placed upon ones physical or mental
state.

● In football, significant pressure placed upon Romelu Lukaku who signed for chelsea for a total of $140 million dollars. This created much
tension by the fans, media and sponsors, leaving the athlete to experience stress, due to high expectations of scoring goals, assisting and
helping win many trophies. This negatively impacted his abilities, only to score 15 goals in 44 games - thus sent out on loan due to
consistently poor performance

● Stress can come from opponents played - as seen in the semi-final champions league match between Liverpool fc & Barcelona in 2019.
The spanish side had lost 4-0 after winning the first leg 3-0, as players were unable to cope with the loud atmosphered created by the fans -
resulting in post-traumatic stress, as this resulted in 3 consecutive loses

Psychological strategies

Concentration & Attention skill Mental rehearsal & Visualisation

Involes athletes to focus on task at hand & paying fine attentiveness to
game-plan, aiming to block out any external distractions
- Chicago Bulls, NBA basketball team, performed zen-style meditation
techniques on professional athletes including Micheal Jordan. Phil
jackson the coach implemented this Buddhist style strategy, ensuring
athletes maintain complete concentration and self-discipline -
disregarding the constant headlines produced by the media, or the
pressures placed upon them by fans, which can ultimately result in
stress and anxiety. Thus, chicago Bulls side had won 6
championships consecutively, dominating the NBA as athletes paid
attention to the tactics and strategy required, allowing optimal levels
of performance
Refers to individual picturing a successful execution by thinking of accurate
technique in sport. Additionally, Mental rehearsal means imagining external
factors, including fan booing, or preparing for the worst scenarios
- As for american swimmer, Micheal Phelps was motivated to
consitienly imagine himself winning a rice prior to competition to an
extent “every time he had got up on the blick he had won the race a
hundred times”. For this to be effective, Phelps also took into account
the atmospher before an olympic game, or uncomfortable situations
such as goggles filling up with water = allowing him to remain
composed under pressure. By overcoming adversity, Phelps
decreased levels of state anxiety and stress, instead building self
confidence as he won a total of 5 gold medals In 2016 Rio Olympics.

Relaxation technique Goal Setting

Involves centred breathing, progressive muscular contractions or listening to Goal setting provides athletes with objectives to focus on, develops intrinsic
music - helping to manage anxiety motivation by incorporating SMARTER

- As for 23 grand slam american female champion, Serena Williams
whom despite her profoun results, would often feel insecure and
fearful on the cour due to trait anxietyt. Inorder to decrease the level
of stress, she would sing ‘Flashdance what a feeling’ within her head,
to effectively decrease her heart rate, and regain optimal focus to
concentrate on the opponent. She would also engage in regular
massage to help protect her piece of mind, ensuring optimal levels of
arousal upon returning to competition
- Usain bolt, Jamaican track athlete recorded fastest 100m & 200m
sprint, since Goal setting was ‘important in his life and he ‘set his to
the highest standards. Over 4-year training program leading up to the
Olympics, he would implement short term goals, then progressively
overload whilst monitoring through tests. Here, through evaluations,
modify FITT to ↑ motivation.
 Nutritional Considerations

- Training needs to be supported with proper nutritional consideration and a balanced diet = physical health + max performance

Marathon Runner 100m sprinter

Pre-performance:
- Carbohydrate loading: the process by athletes maximise glycogen
stores in muscles & liver with complex carbs (pasta, potatoes, oats)
and simple carbs of about 7-12kg body weight per day. Towards
competition, taper training 2-4 days before - decreasing duration or
intensity or exercise = improves performance by 2-3%
- Hydration: maximises water intake 24 hours prior to avoid negative
effects of dehydration in hot and humid conditions. 500ml water 2
hours before and 300ml 15min before
- Last meal should be eaten 3 hours before, consisting of 100g
complex carbs. For less than 3 hours, athletes should eat high-GI
foods (quickly absorbed and digested); bananas, and fruit snacks
with simple carbs (jelly beans) for a quick energy supply - avoid
High fibre and fatty foods = longer to break down
Pre-performance
- Stay hydrated and maintain sugar levels through simple carbs. 1
hour proper eat low fibre snacks; smoothie and yoghurt. Both
athletes should avoid new dietary consumption on the day to avoid
stomach upset.
During performance
- Anaerobic is not needed, as a sport only lasts 10s seconds
Post-Performance
- Small amounts of simple carbs to kick start glycogen replacement.
Then eat rich protein-based foods (eggs, fish, red meat, poultry)
30min after in a 1:3 carb to protein ration. This can also come in form
of protein shakes that are easily digestible and aid in repairing
microtrauma of muscle tears

During performance
- Endurance athletes lasting longer than 1 hour can consume high
concentrated forms of glucose through energy gels, whilst staying
hydrated with Gatorade containing sodium and potassium
electrolytes that are vital in salt replacement that is lost through
sweat. This helps prevent dehydration = which leads to ↑ blood
viscosity, making it difficult for muscles to contract due to a limited
supply of oxygen

Post-Performance
- Initially eat a high serving of High GI food for benign recovery in the
first 2 hours after the comp, then eat 50-100 g complex, low Gi
carbs until 500g consumed. Incorporate protein in 3: a 1 protein
ratio, to help with tissue damage by supplementing with chicken
and lean meat
- Rehydrate with 500ml of water, juice or sports drink. In the first 4-6
hours, drink 150% of fluid deficit - that's 1.5kg for everybody kg lost
through sweat & urine
- Avoid alcohol due to dieretic properties - slowing down rehydration.
 Supplementation: any addition to an athlete's regular diet that aims to achieve a particular nutritional goal

Evidence Against A Balanced nutritional diet will provide enough vitamins and minerals. Overdose may cause side effects: headache, nausea, and
muscle and joint point. Also leads to increased urination, stomach bleeding, irregular heartbeat or hindered respiration

Minerals Vitamins

- Inorganic substances typically known as electrolytes which
support in recovery and maximising boosting performance
- Sodium & Potassium: responsible for salt replacement and is
found in fruits, vegetables and seafood - helps maintain fluidity of
blood cells, controls blood pressure and prevents dehydration
- Calcium: found in dairy products (milk, yoghurt, cheese) - helps
with bone formation - crucial for high contact sports (NRL) or hard
landing skills in gymnastics
- Organic substances that aid converting food into usable energy -
helping metabolic and physiological processes
- Vitamin B1: found in brown rice, corn and oatmeal also called
thiamine help convert carbohydrates into glucose for body to
breakdown and supply ATP molecules
- Vitamin C: known as ascorbic acid maximises iron absorption, aids
with female athletes who lose significant blood through
menstruation, allowing maintenance of hemoglobin concentration.
- Vitamin D: ensures calcium absorption to help promote bone
health, and is obtained through exposure to sun UV rays.

Protein Caffeine Creatine products

Organic compounds - the main role is the growth and
repair of microtears that occur in muscle tissue via
protein synthesis. Proteins are made up of 20 amino
acids, 8 essential and 12 non-essential = and found in
eggs, red meat, seafood, and poultry
- Protein helps with increased muscle mass,
and also supports metabolic processes,
burning calories more efficiently = important
for athletes seeking to change body
composition, or undergo high interval
training
- Vegans can obtain from nuts, legumes,
edamame & lentils.
Stimulant and ergogenic acid that enhances Helps replenish ADP back into ATP, and naturally created
energy production - for athletes requiring by liver or consumed through red meat or milk. Creatine
increased levels of alertness and products come in the form of powder, tablets, capsule or
concentration - lasts up to 3 hours. The source stabilised liquid.
comes from coffee, energy drinks and tea
- Accelerates gain in muscle size by causing
- Responsible for fat metabolism by water molecules to be readily drawn into
mobilising fat stores and myocytes - improving performance by 3-5%
converting them into free fatty
acids. It forces the muscles to
utilise fats, leading to glycogen
sparing

Evidence Against Evidence Against Evidence Against

- Excessive amounts can result in stored fat =
damaging kidneys and liver
- Protein rich food also ↑ the concentration of
calcium removed from the body through
urination = ↓ bone strength
- Muscle tightness, uncontrolled - Excessive intake = fluid retention and
twitches, elevated heart rate, possible kidney failure. Also, more
over-arousal and dehydration due susceptible to muscle gramps, tentanic
to diuretic properties spasms and tissue tears
 Recovery Strategies: training or competition can be extremely demanding, producing a great deal of both psychological and physiological stress -
important to manage fatigue and refresh physical health
Physiological strategies
- Cool down: ↓ heart rate promotes blood circulation and delays the
onset of muscle soreness. Light aerobic activity (aqua aerobics,
stationary bike) avoids blood pooling in veins and removes lactate to
↓ recovery time. Use of foam roller promotes realignment of muscle
fibres and decreases muscle tension
- Hydration crucial to replenish lost fluids - sports drinks (gatorade)
provide simple carbs and electrolytes (K+, Na+) helps replace salts
lost through sweat for sports > 1 hour
- Hydrate with water (1.5L for every body kg lost) as it contains key
nutrients that make up synovial fluid, lubricating joints for eased
movements: Include Post performance nutrition
Tissue damage strategies
- Cryotherapy: Use of ice to facilitate recovery. Eg. placing an ice pack
on the injured site with compression bandage
- Ice bath: 4-12°C for 3-5min = reduces blood flow, as the
body warms, eliminates waste and releases endorphins in
feelings of pain
- Cryochambers: -85 to -145°C for 4 minutes - helps repair
tissue damage = healing
Neural Strategies
- Hydrotherapy: involves immersion into hot water or contrast water
therapy
- Hot waters: including spas at around 37-38°C or saunas
65-90°C promotes vasodilation, help delay onset of muscle
soreness, & ↓ muscle fatigue
- Contrast water therapy: alternate cycle of hot and cold
water - vasoconstriction & vasodilation introduces fresh new
blood through pumping motion = removing metabolic waste,
↓ muscle spasms, inflammation & pain, buoyancy of water
helps alleviate pressure on joints/muscles
- Massage: theocratic practice of manipulating muscles & limb to ease
pain and tension = also aids in mental recovery - improves mood,
decreases anxiety and releases endorphins
Psychological strategies
- Relaxation: listening to music, reading, watching TV, meditation, &
controlled breathing. Social activities: mini golf
- bowling with friends to remove negative thoughts, anxiousness, or
stress
- Sleep: recommended 7-9hours for mental recharge, physical
restoration & strength of the immune system. When returning to
training, enhance confidence levels & improve concentration
 Skill Acquisition
Cognitive stage
Characterised by learner processing & understanding
task requirements, Stage involves coach providing a
clear image of skill by breaking down into
sub-components through videos or photos. Since at
the beginning stages of developing coordination -
make frequent gross errors
- Eg. A coach teaching tennis serve will
breakdown movements into discrete
sections of a ball toss, racquet approach,
contact and follow through - with aim of
only getting the ball over the net - instead
of serve box. Here, to avoid information
overload, will provide KOR (eg. 4/10
shots were successful). Important to
provide encouragement and positive
feedback to avoid frustration and persist
in learning.
- Also, complete distributed practice in a
closed environment that's self-paced =
avoids mental fatigue or distractions that
can hinder confidence levels. Learners at
this stage unable to self-assess or
recognise errors in movement, meaning
during long rest breaks coach can provide
minimal KOP to avoid inaccurate
biomechanical techniques such as
planting the foot in direction of the target
or ball toss must be vertical
Thus, the stage is all about thinking and learning,
meaning players are inconsistent, and the whole aim
is to execute skill to a basic level with a rough idea of
technique. Depending on the complexity, some skills
will take longer than others.
Associate stage
Learner initiates the practice of skill in a closed
environment to begin synchronising mind and muscles to
commit far fewer errors. The main focus is to refine
through repetition and rehearsal.
- Since the basics of technique are learnt and
gradually learners developing consistency -
athletes will begin recognising mistakes over
the course of practice, due to some degree of
intrinsic and concurrent feedback. Eg. the
player knows incorrect movement in lay-up,
but however unsure. Thus, by knowing
vaguely, important coach help overcomes
errors through KOP = jump a second too late.
- When athletes perfect their skills in a closed
environment and have complete control over
movement, important to adapt to changing
and unpredictable environments - to develop
K.S. Also means considering other variables:
opposition positioning or timing.
with sufficient practice in an externally paced setting
against opponents and further challenging themselves to
refine movements - players will move into autonomy.
Keep in mind It is not uncommon for individuals to
plateau, due to the high difficulty of the skill or the lack of
frequency with which they practice.
Autonomous stage
Athletes perform skills without thought and are
committed to long-term memory. A Skilled performer
will appear smooth, fluent and sharp due to correct
technique.
- Due to highly refined motor patterns and
kinesthetic sense, athletes undergo whole
and massed practice, meaning perform
the skill in its entirety with minimal breaks.
Eg. tennis players can do 10 tennis serves
in 1 minute due to low levels of fatigue
and far fewer errors = technique is not
hindered - provide concurrent feedback to
adjust and minimise mistakes
- Incorporate Tactics by targeting the
specific area in the serve box if the
opponent has a weak forehand. Also if the
opponent plays defensive, practice drop
shots so the ball bounces just over the
net.
- If the drill becomes too easy, the coach or
trainer can increase the difficulty by
adding more opposition players, speeding
up the drill or having the individual perform
the skills in the drill under greater fatigue.
Important to still have a coach to provide KOP,
showcasing different perspectives to a particular
approach that's more effective to gain an advantage.
 Characteristics of a Learner: All learners possess a range of unique and individual characteristics which influence the degree and rate of
development.

Personality - Developed throughout life experiences, determines how we react to different sporting situations = impacts communication between
teammates, coach or ability to overcome challenges. Favourable traits are willingness and desire to attempt a new skill and persist in
learning them - traits help athletes avoid frustration over errors or a lack of progress.

Heredity - Characteristics inherited from parents & non-modifiable.

- Tall height easier for basketball players to shoot from distance, lay-ups and blocking shots, whereas gymnasts are more
beneficial to be short, helping in rotation in the air at high speeds.
- A Greater percentage of fast twitch helps in anaerobic-based sports (100m) for faster and more explosive movements

Confidence - Vital in one's ability to continue practising and risk failure. The Coach should provide feedback depending on the level of skill
acquisition to maintain self-esteem and avoid internal doubt. Confident individuals are not put off by early learning difficulties as they
have the confidence to rise to the challenge. They adopt a positive ‘can do’ attitude which enhances the learner's determination and
persistence with a skill. Over-confident athletes can try new skills that are difficult, and whoever is not ready - ↑ the risk of injury

Prior experience - Certain sports have common traits, enabling athletes to transfer skills from one sport to another.
- Zlatan Ibrahimovic once played Taekwando, and now a 6ft 5 man plays soccer with remarkable agility, flexibility and timing.
He's able to pluck balls out of the air that others can't reach and score goals we haven't seen before.
- Negative impact: In tennis and badminton serve, the player needs to unwind and relearn skills - usually takes weeks/
months since they need to understand in a different manner.

Ability - Recognised by learners' capability to process, learn and implement new skills at a quicker rate. Greater development of kinaesthetic
sense, spatial/ tactical awareness, coordination and reaction
- Soccer players with fast movements and decision-making = quickly & easily predict the possible flight path of the ball,
speed and direction in which an opponent may move or pass

The learning Environment

Nature of skill

Open skill: occur in environment thats
unpredictable and constantly changing -
athletes have lack of control and
respond to external stimuli
- Surfing affected by dynamic
changes in waves, wind,
temperature
Closed skill: predictable and stable
environment - athlete has full control
over skill execution at own desired pace
- Diving from 10m platform,
tennis serve
Gross motor: use of large muscle
groups to perform task
- Rugby tackle use quads,
hamstrings, deltoids
Fine motor skill: use of small or
isolated muscles - requires high levels
of hand-eye concentration
- Throwing a dart
Discrete: have clear beginning and Self-paced: performer control rate at
end - short duration which skill is executed
- 100m sprint Externally-paced: the environment
Serial: sequence of discrete skill that including opponents or time, control
are put together to form larger skill the rate at which performing skill.
- Tennis serve
Continuous: no clear beginning or
end - ongoing in nature
- Marathon,
 The Performance Elements

Decision Making Strategies Tactics

Individual's ability to assess factors; opponents'
weaknesses or the position of teammates and
then create decisions accordingly. Imperative for a
coach to provide opportunities in game-like
settings to develop practical experience and
expose one to a range of scenarios
- 3 on 4 mini-games, force one to make
decisions and find solutions under
pressure rather than relying on a
coach - as part of KOP, show different
perspectives or approaches to improve
quality
Overall method to achieve a particular goal; winning a match
or season of competition - often involves SWOT
- Strength: look at individual/ team strength to
select appropriate players for a game. (13% of
LFC come from opp corners since salah & Mane
remain up the field due to pace)
- Weakness: analysing weaknesses and how they
overcome them. (LFC play a high line, hence
targeted training = keep defenders back)
- Opportunities: allows team to look for news
methods of style, change line-up or formation to
adapt and make comp more competitive (federer
practice defence & offence)
- Threats: come from opposition, & coach must
analyse to determine challenges may be faced,
creating variation to take advantage
Team or athletes gaining advantage over
opponent, links with game-sense
- Drop shot in tennis, slighly hittig ball
so that it barely goes over net, or in
soccer using specific tricks to move
past players with changing speeds,
forcing defender to go in certain
direction
- tactics - simpl day-day steps;
engaging in plyometrics, improving
comradery, participate in camps, or
challenges to develop bond

Practice methods

Part Practice Whole Practice Distributed Practice Massed Practice

Applied when skill broken into
smaller components with each
discrete sub-skill praciced separately
Skill performed in its entirety, often
used for serial/continous skills -
requires high level of organisation due
to parts being interrelated and
dependant on one another
Short periods of practice, with longer Continous session with smaller rest
breaks from skill rehearsal - ensures periods - works for suited and motivated
delayed and external feedback athletes
 Assessment of Skill + Performance
Characteristics of skilled performer
Kinasthetic Sense
Ability to interpret information from our senses and react appropriately - heavily
linked with autonomous level
- High level of K.S enables athletes such as divers to come out of pike
position a second earlier to water entrance due to recognition of error
in over-rotation = minimises splash and decreases risk of injury.
Revolves around one spatial awareness and body position in space -
becoming alert and reacting quickly. Judging skill execution is fair due
to prescribed criteria, however, K.S remarks are more subjective than
results produced - not as reliable
Consistency
Ability to regularly repeat a movement correctly, associated with those at the
autonomous level and provides outcomes of performance
- Sunwolves fly half Hayden parker has 92% conversion success rate &
2.2x as good as than ‘average kicker’ - High level of consistency by
demonstrating repeated success in similar environments
- Measuring and monitoring results help track 100m sprinters or
swimmers. Objective measures and provides athletes KOR - since no
personal opinion imposed
Objective + Subjective measures
Objective
Where an assessment is not based on human interpretation or analysis, where
results are clear and concise that involve measuring instrument.
Prescribed Criteria
Use of set guidelines and checklists established by a judge or governing body to
increase objectivity required for official competition. These involve a rating scale to
minimise the chance of error or bias that may affect results.
● In Aerial skiing, 20% of the scores is based off airtime, 50% based on
form, and landing is 30% - then multiplied by difficulty to determine
score for overall jump
Anticipation
Elite athlete's ability to predict what is about to happen and respond appropriately
.
- NRL players with high levels can anticipate the long passes, an
opportunity to intercept and move through on goal. If relying on
reaction, they'd never make it to the ball in time - David Epstein
‘reaction in sports is too slow’. Thus, Athletes require a high degree of
understanding and game-based intelligence as well as risk-taking - to
execute the most thrilling plays in sport. An appraisal is subjective
and mostly used for single players rather than teams, as positional
differences in various sports impact the reliability of judgment
Technique
Refer to the ability to execute movement with precision, skill is described as fluid,
smooth and sharp
- Biomechanical analysis of swimmer performing butterfly. Coach as part
of KOP, will relay information that the angle of arms during the pull
phase should be 60 degrees, helping generate greater speed and
power per stroke - especially when minimal improvements make a
massive difference for a world record. Difficult to appraise as it
requires a high level of expertise and sport is subjective in nature
Subjective
Assessment that relies on personal opinions on the quality of skill execution.
Personal Criteria
Preconceived attitude brought to performance and is highly subjective. Spectators
and coaches use personal judging criteria that rely on feelings, impressions - a set
of human bias is involved.
● Selecting ‘man of the match’ in footbal or rugby is determined by
coaches expectations of a player, regarding ther hard work or attitude
● Team selection is based off the managers own opinions, and as for
Englad international team, the coach Gareth southgate purposely
leaves out Alexander Arnold as he is defensively naive, however in his
premier league team Jurgen Klopp starts him every game.
 Validity + Reliability
Validity
Tests the ability to measure skill or fitness that replicate nature of the sport.
- Beep test done by soccer athletes to identify their level of
cardiorepiratory endurance. It involves continuous running with
gradually increasing intensity across a 20m marked track, where
players run back and forth.
- Stop watch to test the speed of 100m sprinter, however becomes
invalid if same technology was used to test the flexibility of a
gymnasts, simply because its not what its intended to measure
Reliability
Refers to one's ability to produce similar results when conducted in similar
conditions.
- 100m sprinter who can record 10.55 + in alsmot identical environments
such as same rubber track field, weather conditions and the type of
shoes worn.
- Surfing where windy environment or different height of waves, makes
testing unreliable due to unpredictable nature of sport where athlete
cannot complete same manouvers in different scenarios.