Year 12 Curriculum

Personal
Development, Health
and Physical Activity
Study Notes

Emilia Rose Eames

Stage 6 Syllabus, Teacher: Vanessa Penitani
 Core 2 - Factors Affecting Performance
Topic 1 How does training affect Performance?

1.1 Energy Systems

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
ATP is a molecule that provides the body with energy. This occurs when a phosphate atom detaches from the molecule and energy that was stored in the
chemical bonds is released. This energy allows muscle fibres to contract and create movement. After ATP loses a phosphate atom, it becomes adenosine
diphosphate (ADP). Substances such as phosphocreatine (CP) allow for the resynthesis (i.e rebuilding) of ATP from ADP. It is helpful to understand what
ATP is and how it provides the body with energy. This will give you better insights as to how the different energy systems function.

1.1.1 Alactacid System (ATP/PC)

Source of fuel: ​for the first 1-2 seconds, the system utilises approximately 90 g of ATP. After that, it begins to rely on phosphocreatine (CP) to
resynthesis ATP for the next 10-15 seconds.
Efficiency of ATP production:​ ATP is readily available, but supply is very limited and we can only generate energy for a very short period of time (1-15
seconds). There is only enough ATP for one explosive movement which is important in activities like powerlifting or sprinting.
Duration that the system can operate: ​the system operates for 1-2 seconds on ATP and operates for 10-15 seconds on CP.
Cause of fatigue:​ Fatigue is caused by insufficient levels of ATP and CP (which resynthesises ATP).
By-products of energy production:​ Heat is the by-product of the ATP/CP energy system.
Process and rate of recovery: ​In this energy system, ATP breaks down to ADP in order to release energy. CP then breaks down to resynthesise​ ​ATP
from ADP (CP stores usually run out after 10-15 seconds). 50% of CP stores are replenished after 30 seconds, and ATP and CP stores are fully restored
after 2 minutes. This is useful in athletic field events, such as high jump and long jump, where a second attempt is allowed.

Key Point: It is important to remember that the ATP/CP system functions without the presence of oxygen; it is an anaerobic system.

1.2 Lactic Acid System

Source of fuel: ​The lactic acid system utilises glucose in the blood, as well as stored glycogen.
Efficiency of ATP production:​ This system can provide ATP quickly, although it requires large amounts of glucose to do so. From 180g of glycogen, it
can produce 3 moles of ATP.
Duration that the system can operate:​ With maximal effort, the system can function for 30 seconds. For high intensity effort, it can function for up to a
minute and can last for 3-4 minutes with 70-80% effort.
Cause of fatigue: ​Fatigue is caused by a build-up of lactic acid in the muscle cells and the blood which occurs at the lactate threshold. The rate at which
lactic acid is removed varies from person to person. Training increases an individual’s lactic acid tolerance and rate of removal.
By-products of energy production:​ Lactic acid is the by-product of the lactic acid system.
Process and rate of recovery: ​The system utilises immediate glucose supplies in the blood, as well as stored glycogen in the body; this process is called
glycolysis. Similar to the ATP/PC system, it is ​anaerobic​, meaning it functions without the presence of oxygen.

It takes approximately 30 minutes to 1 hour for the lactic acid system to recover, and this occurs with the liver reconverting lactic acid into glycogen.

1.1.3 Aerobic System

Source of fuel:​ The aerobic system uses three different sources of fuel. Initially, it uses ​carbohydrates​ in the body, then it uses ​fat​ (after carbohydrates
stores are depleted), and then it uses ​protein​.
Efficiency of ATP production:​ this is the most efficient system in producing ATP and can therefore allow for sustained physical activity for very long
periods of time. This system can produce 39 moles of ATP from 180g of glycogen, in contrast to the 3 moles of ATP that the lactic acid system produces
from 180g.
Duration that the system can operate:​ with 350g of glycogen, the aerobic system can provide energy for 2 hours of rest, 1 hour of hard work, or 6 hours
of intermittent exercise. The body can use a process called ​glycogen sparing ​where it uses fat earlier to ‘save’ glycogen for later, such as a sprint fish.

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Cause of fatigue: ​Fatigue occurs in the aerobic system due to endurance work that depletes the body of glycogen. Slow-twitch
By-products of energy production:​ carbon dioxide (which is exhaled) and water (which is released by the body’s cells) are the by-products of the
aerobic system.
Process and rate of recovery:​ this energy system allows for sustained physical activity and muscle contraction. Oxygen allows the aerobic system to
produce ATP by breaking down glucose, fat, and protein. The presence of oxygen also prevents the accumulation of lactic acid. The rate of recovery is
dependent on the length of time that the system is used. If the system was only used for a short period of time, it only requires a short recovery time, as
not all of the glycogen stores were used. However, if the system was used for hours, glycogen stores would have been depleted and could take days to
completely recover.

Key Point: It is good to know which activities or sports rely on which system for energy population.
- Alactacid (ATP/CP) system (e.g. 100m sprint, weight lifting)
- Lactic Acid system (e.g. basketball)
- Aerobic system (e.g. marathon running)

1.2 Types of training and training methods

1.2.1 Aerobic

Continuous Training:​ This type of training involves a ​sustained aerobic effort​ without rest intervals for at least 20 minutes. During this type of
training, the heart rate remains above the aerobic threshold and within the aerobic target zone. Examples of things include jogging and cycling.
Fartlek Training: ​This utilises speed play, in which speed varies throughout the training, though the aerobic energy system is the most predominantly
used ​(e.g. jogging)​, with bursts of use of the anaerobic system ​(e.g. sprinting)​. This type of training is very useful in conditioning players and is often used
in pre-season training.
Aerobic Interval Training:​ This type of training requires athletes to execute an activity or task within a given period of time (usually a short period).
Through this, the athlete is able to work at high intensities without fatiguing, as they are given regular recovery periods.
Circuit Training:​ Circuit training involves an athlete moving from one activity to another, after completing a given amount of repetitions​ (e.g. 15 bicep
curls, 15 tricep dips, then 15 shoulder presses)​. This type of training is more effective when the principle of​ ​progressive overload​ is incorporated.​ (
Relevant to 1.2.5 )

1.2.2 Anaerobic

An example of anaerobic training is anaerobic interval training, which involves high-intensity work, with limited recovery. This type of training is used to
develop anaerobic energy systems (ATP/CP and anaerobic), which are systems that do not require oxygen to function. During anaerobic interval training,
the athlete works at maximal effort for less than two minutes, and then rests; however, this rest period does not allow for full recovery before beginning
work again.

1.2.3 Flexibility Training

Each athlete has different abilities in flexibility which is often affected by:
- Age (As a person ages, they become less flexible)
- Gender (Females are usually more flexible than males)
- Temperature (When a person is warmed up, they are usually more flexible. It is also safer to stretch after warming up)
Flexibility is trained by stretching, which is important for the prevention of injuries, coordination, reducing soreness after physical activity ​(especially
high intensity)​, and increasing a joint’s range of movement.

Static Stretching
This type of stretch involves the athlete slowing stretching into position and holding it for 30 seconds. There is no discomfort in this type of stretch and is
often used for rehabilitation and for warm-up and cool-down phases of an exercise program.
Ballistic Stretching
Ballistic stretching involves movement of swinging and bouncing for extra stretch and forces the joint to go beyond its normal range of movement. This is
considered to be the least safe form of stretching as it creates a potential risk for injury with the force placed on the joint and muscle. This type of
stretching activates the​ stretch reflex​, which is an involuntary muscle contraction that stops a stretch and prevents damage to the muscle fibre when it is
stretched beyond its normal range of movement.

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Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretching
This is considered to be a safe form of stretching involving lengthening the muscle against resistance, and can be done with a partner. This type of
stretching follows a particular method:
1. Identity the muscle group being stretched
2. Static contraction / stretch
3. Isometric contraction / stretch
4. Relaxation period
5. Static contraction or stretch
6. Isometric contraction or stretch

Key Point: You do not need to worry about remembering the full name ​(proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation)​ - you only need to remember it as
PNFI
Dynamic Stretching
This type of stretch utilises movement speed in order to gain momentum. It steadily ​(Slowly and in a controlled way)​ warms up the muscle fibres. It
places tension on the muscles and joint, and is not as safe as static or PNF stretching. However, it is safer than ballistic stretching. An example of this type
of stretch is a golfer swinging a club before hitting a golf ball.

1.2.4 Strength Training

Strength Training aims to increase a muscle’s strength and power, it can also be used for rehabilitation, muscular endurance, bodybuilding, and fitness.

Key Point: Here is some terminology that will be helpful in understanding and applying strength training. Using this language will enhance your
answers!
- Strength​: the muscle’s ability to apply force against a resistance.
- Power:​ the muscle’s ability to apply force at a quick rate.
- Strength​ ​Endurance:​ the muscle's ability to tolerate fatigue over a period of time.
- Absolute Strength:​ the maximum force that a muscle can generate.
- Relative Strength:​ the strength / mass generated by a muscle relative to a person’s weight.
- Isotonic program:​ exercises that contract the muscle by either shortening it concentrically or extending it eccentrically (e.g. bicep curl)
- Repetition:​ the number of times that exercise that is repeated, without stopping.
- Set:​ a fixed number of groups of repetitions
- Resistance:​ the load​ (i.e. mass or weight)​ that is used in the exercise ​(e.g. weight of a dumbbell)​.
- Volume:​ repetition × set × resistance
You should also remember the following two definitions for physiological adaptations in response to training.
- Hypertrophy:​ muscle growth; the size of the muscle cell increases.
- Atrophy:​ opposite of hypertrophy; the size of the muscle cell decreases.

❏ Fixed or free weights strength training:​ Involves fixed weights on a weights machine which allow for constant weight throughout the full
range of movement and is good for isolating a specific group of muscles that the athlete wants to train. A wide range of exercises can be done
using free weights like dumbbells, kettlebells, and barbells. However, it is important that the athlete has good technique, or they may incur
injury.
❏ Elastic or resistance strength training:​ elastic and resistance bands are cheaper than fixed and free weights and are becoming increasingly
popular. Different bands can have different ranges if resistance. They are also used for rehabilitation, as they are good for a number of different
muscular contractions​ (e.g. they may be used by physiotherapists to rehabilitate someone who has experienced a shoulder injury)
❏ Hydraulic strength training: ​provides a constant resistance throughout the full range of movement with a hydraulic resistance exercise
machine. Resistance is increased by increasing the speed of the movement.

1.2.5 Relevant training and training methods for a variety of sports

Which types of training are best suited to different sports, and which training methods would be most appropriate?
When analysing what training and training methods are best for each sport use the following method.
1. Think of a sport.
2. Break that sport down into periods of aerobic or anaerobic sections or whether it is continuous for the whole / part of the time.
3. Assign the training type of aerobic or anaerobic or both depending on your answer (2).
4. Assign the training method as a few of the most specific to the sport​ (remembering that variety is key).
5. Keep in mind that strength and flexibility training for almost every sport is beneficial and that specific versions of these are best as well.

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How would this training affect performance?
The more specific a training method is to the physical demands of the sport the more benefit it will have on the athlete.

Aerobic Training​ will increase the cardiovascular system's ability to supply the muscles with oxygen and will increase endurance.
Anaerobic Training​ will stimulate an increase in sprinting repetitions and longer sprints.
Strength​ will increase the athlete’s ability and improves all areas.
Flexibility​ will for the most part prevent injury and faster recovery.

1.3 Principles of Training

1.3.1 Progressive overload

Progressive overload refers to the increase ​(in either volume or load)​ that results in greater fitness gains​ (i.e physiological adaptations)​ when training.
Adaptations will not occur if the load is too big or too small, as the body can not train effectivelyly or properly. For instance, gradually increasing the
weight of the load being used in strength training will generate muscle hypertrophy. The aerobic system can be trained using progressvie overload by
increasing the time or distance that the athlete must work​ (e.g. increasing the distance from 400m to 500m)​.

1.3.2 Specificity
Training is the most advantageous when activities and skills in the training session resemble the skills performed during the game or competition. There is
also metabolic specificity, which refers to targeting a particular energy system to train.

1.3.3 Reversibility
Reversibility refers to the detraining effect in which the athlete experiences a loss in their fitness gains when they stop training. For instance, when an
athlete stops strength training, they will experience muscle atrophy. In order to maintain fitness gains, athletes must participate in active training. The
detraining effect is equal across aerobic capacity, strength and flexibility.

1.3.4 Variety

Constantly repeated and routine training can bring about boredom. Therefore, it is important to incorporate creativity and implement different activities to
engage the athlete. New activities should also challenge the athlete in order to generate greater levels of motivation.

1.3.5 Training Threshold

There are a number of training thresholds at which fitness gains can be made.
- The ​aerobic threshold​ is achieved at 70% of the athlete’s maximum heart rate (MHR), and is the point at which the training effect can take
place.
- The ​aerobic training zone​ is at 70-85% MHR, which is sufficient to create significant fitness gains.
- The ​anaerobic threshold​ is the point at which lactic acid accumulates in the blood at a rapid rate.
- The ​lactate inflection point​ is the point at which the body can no longer generate output and lactic acid accumulates quickly and the time to
fatigue decreases. This usually occurs at 85-100% MHR.

1.3.6 Warm up and Cool Down

A ​warm up ​should be included in a training session, in order to reduce the risk of injury. This is done by gradually increasing body temperature, blood
circulation, stimulating the cardiorespiratory system, as well as mentally preparing the athlete. Warm-up should be of low to moderate intensity, and
should include aerobic activities, flexibility stretches or callisthenics, such as push ups and star jumps.

Additionally, a training session should end with a cool down that is designed to return the body to the pre-workout state, as well as reduce muscle
soreness. The cool down should gradually decrease in intensity and include stretching - ideally, activities in the cool down are not the same as the
activities in the main part of training sessions. ​(e.g. running).

1.3.7 Applying principles of training to aerobic and resistance training

Aerobic Training
To progressively overload aerobically think back to Year 11 and the ​FITT principle​, where we increase the

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 - F​requency
- I​nterval
- T​ime, and lastly the
- T​ype
Of activity in order to activate a larger stress over time. The key to working aerobically is specificity. You want to mimic the sport you are training for in
the most specific way possible. Think also in terms of frequency, intervals, and time in this regard. Reversibility apples as usual. Taking time off from
aerobic training will decrease your aerobic ability.

It is crucial to vary your aerobic workouts as it is very easy to become stale and lose motivation if you do the same workout every time. By taking the
time to mix up the workouts you enhance your motivation and work all muscle groups associated in the body for maximum stability and injury
prevention. Training thresholds are very important for aerobic training as this is how we specifically target different sport specific levels. If your sport is
soccer you may want to work at your aerobic threshold for two sessions a week then work at anaerobic threshold to increase your tolerance to lactic acid.
Warming up and cooling down for each session is always crucial as aerobic sessions can put a lot of stress on the muscles in the body. This is key for
injury prevention and optimally performing in each workout to get the most benefit.

Resistance Training
Progressive overload can be applied by increasing the amount of weight or resistance in each rep of an exercise, or by increasing the amount of reps and
sets of an exercise. Specificity is also fundamental here. By working on the muscle groups most specific to your sport in the most sport specific way, you
are optimally enhancing the benefit on your sporting performance. Reversibility as always occurs usually in the form of atrophy or decreased strength
when too much time is taken away from strength training. Variety is also key in building up all parts of the surrounding stabilising muscles in order to
stay injury free and be an all rounded athlete.

Training thresholds are less important in resistance training and are very hard to measure. They are usually always anaerobic. Warm up and cool down is
very important in resistance training as the muscles are usually being stressed to their max. An improper warm up can lead to muscle tears and strings
which can lead to time off sport and long times in rehabilitation. Cool downs are also very important utilising stretching to counteract the muscle stiffness
caused by heavy resistance training.

1.4 Physiological adaptations to training

An athlete’s body responds with physiological adaptations to training. This is a result of the body adjusting to the level of stress placed on it. It takes
approximately twelve weeks for all the adaptations to the resting heart rate, cardiac output, oxygen uptake, haemoglobin levels, muscle hypertrophy, and
the effect of fast and slow twitch muscles to noticeably improve performance.

1.4.1 Resting Heart rate

Progressive aerobic training results in a decrease in the athlete's resting heart rate. This is measurement of heart beats per minute (bpm), when the body is
at rest. The more trained an athlete is, the lower their resting heart rate will be. It is a direct result of the cardiovascular system’s efficiency; for instance,
an inactive person’s resting heart rate is about 72bpm, whereas an elite athlete can have 40 bpm at rest.

1.4.2 Stroke volume and cardiac output

Another long-term adaptation to aerobic training is an increase in stroke volume; this is the blood pumped out of the left ventricle of the heart during each
contraction, and is measured by milliliters per beat. This adaptation allows for greater blood circulation during diastole ​(relaxation)​, meaning more
oxygen is becoming transported around the body, making the aerobic system more efficient, thus improving performance. Moreover, aerobic training
increases cardiac output, which is calculated by multiplying heart rate with stroke volume. It is the total volume of blood pumped by the heart per minute
and is a good indicator of aerobic training. Trained athletes usually have 25-40 litres per minute, while for untrained athletes, this is closer to 15-20 litres
per minute.

1.4.3 Oxygen uptake and lung capacity

Aerobic training significantly improves the muscles ability to utilise oxygen being delivered to it. Oxygen uptake of muscles is assessed in V O2 max, and
it is considered to be the most accurate measure of cardiorespiratory endurance. A high V O2 max denotes a highly efficient system of oxygen delivery to
muscles, which significantly enhances performance. An individual’s lung capacity is usually not altered with aerobic training, but remains a significant
factor in supplying enough energy to support the cardiovascular system. There is a slight increase in vital capacity (i.e. air which is expelled after
maximal respiration), and a small decrease in residual volume (i.e. the amount of air that must always be present in the lungs). Tidal volume tends to
increase during maximal effort exercise where the individual breathes in and out more oxygen.

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 1.4.4 Haemoglobin level
Haemoglobin levels of athletes tend to increase with sustained aerobic over time. Haemoglobin transports oxygen in the blood and delivers it to the
body’s muscles; thus, an increase in haemoglobin levels allows for a greater volume of oxygen to be delivered around the body. The most effective way
to increase haemoglobin levels is with altitude training.

1.4.5 Muscle hypertrophy

Training, especially strength training, stimulates muscle fibres and results in muscle hy[ertrophy. This refers to the growth in muscle cells and mass,
although there is no change in the length of the muscle. Hypertrophy relies upon the muscle type, frequency of training, type of training, and body
hormones ​(e.g. men experience greater muscle hypertrophy due to the presence of testosterone.)

1.4.6 Effect on fast and slow-twitch muscle fibres

Training affects both fast and slow-twitch muscle fibres. Fast twitch muscle fibres are often referred to as white fibres and respond to anaerobic training.
There are two types of fast-twitch muscle fibres; the first is white fibres FTa, which can work for lengthy periods, as uses both the anaerobic and aerobic
system, while the second, FTb, only use the anaerobic system and therefore has high levels of glycolytic enzymes. Anaerobic training causes an increase
in the ATP/PC supply, glycolytic enzymes, hypertrophy, and lactic acid tolerance, which all improve performance. For slow twitch muscles, also known
as red fibres, aerobic training is the most beneficial. Aerobic training increases hypertrophy, capillary supply, mitochondrial function, myoglobin content,
and oxidative enzymes.

1.4.7 Evaluating performance scenarios to determine the appropriate forms of motivation

Motivation depends solely on the athlete. A golfer and a boxer may both be intrinsically or extrinsically motivated and also pushed by positive or negative
motivation. However, it is important to realise that certain sports have a higher affinity for positive, negative motivation than others. More aggressive,
greater muscle group activation sports such as boxing may benefit from more negative motivation.

The relationship between positive and negative motivation may be seen through the inverted ‘U’ Hypothesis where higher muscle activation sports have a
shifted “U” to the right where more arousal is necessary which can be achieved through negative motivation.

In saying this, the primary factors to consider are the type of athletes involved, and their own social and psychological conditioning to different forms of
motivation. The following section will cover these ideas in more detail.

Core 2 - Factors Affecting Performance

Topic 2 How can psychology affect performance?

2.1 Motivation
Motivation is the athlete’s driving force behind performing in an activity, game, or competition, and is aroused by setting a goal to achieve. Levels of
motivation influence how much attention an athlete gives to the task they are performing. The level of motivation that an athlete can be determined by:
- Their own self-drive and determination
- Expectations set by the athlete, and those set by external forces such as a coach, team, family, or supporters
- General pressures to perform
- Level of competition or challenge ​(usually high levels of competition generate high levels of motivation, while low levels can fail to generate
much motivation at all)
- Support ​(e.g. for coaches, teammates, family, crowds, etc.)

2.1.1 Positive and Negative

Positive Motivation:
Involves the reinforcement of the desired action and recognises its achievement. This type of motivation requires reinforcement of the athlete’s skill.

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Positive motivation often involves an incentive, which is a benefit or reward if the desired outcome is achieved. For instance, an athlete may be positively
motivated because they are working towards winning first place in a competition, which may include a trophy, medal, or monetary prize.

Negative
Motivation:
Drives the athlete to succeed in fear of consequences that will occur if they do not achieve the desired goal. This type of motivation is not sustainable and
can affect the athlete’s self-confidence in the long run. An example of this type of motivation in action would be a coach telling team members that they
will be cut from the team if they do not win the match or game. Professional athletes may experience negative motivation if they fear losing sponsorship
for not achieving the required level of success.

2.1.1 Intrinsic and Extrinsic

Intrinsic Motivation:
Refers to motivation that originates from within the athlete. This type of motivation often arises from self-expectations and goals that the athlete has set
out to achieve. For instance, a sprinter may want to break their personal record in sprinting 100metres; breaking this record will indicate their success and
achievement and the athlete will feel intrinsic satisfaction.

Extrinsic
Motivation:
Is sourced from forces outside the athlete, including coaches, team members, family, friends, supporters, crowds, or even rewards or consequences such
as sponsorship, trophies, or losing a position in a competition.

Key Point: Motivation can be ​positive and intrinsic​ (e.g. a golf player practising every day in order to achieve the hole-in-one, which is a goal that
they have set out to achieve), ​positive and extrinsic​ (e.g. an Olympian striving to win the gold medal in the 100m sprint), ​negative and intrinsic​ (e.g.
an athlete telling themselves that if they do not swim 1km in 10 minutes, they will not be chosen for the swim squad and will not bother trying out), or
negative and extrinsic​ (e.g. a coach has told his basketball team that whoever does not scare at least 5 points in the fame will be cut from the team).

2.2 Anxiety and Arousal

Anxiety:
Anxiety is an emotional response associated with fear and can bring about mental and physical unease. As a result, uncontrolled anxiety can cause an
unsuccessful performance.

Arousal:
Arousal is a specific level of anxiety and can be experienced prior to and during a performance. It is different from anxiety. While anxiety is
predominantly a psychological state, arousal is essentially a physiological process. Arousal is a necessary ingredient in sports performance, although its
level can either facilitate or hinder the execution of specific skills or task components.

2.2.1 Trait and State Anxiety

Trait Anxiety:
Is dependent on the individual and refers to one person’s level of stress regardless of the situation. Each person has a different level of trait anxiety, and
this can be managed using psychological strategies (which will be covered in the next section).

State Anxiety:
Is an increased level of stress in response to a specific situation (e.g. before a gymnastics competition where an athlete is performing in front of thousands

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of people). This type of anxiety can bring about fear, nervousness, ‘Stage fright’, and sweating. In some cases, it can significantly hinder an athlete’s
performance. This type of anxiety can also be managed using psychological strategies.

2.2.2 Sources of stress

Stress is a nonspecific response that the body has to the demands placed upon it. Stress can be both good and bad, but both can cause increased blood
supply, breathing (i.e. higher oxygen levels), glucose production, and sweating. Stress can be dependent on the athlete’s previous and personal
experiences, and each individual responds to stress differently. Things that cause stress are called ‘stressors’ - these include:
- Level of competition
- Pressure (e.g. from the athlete, coach, family, etc).
- The environment in which the athletes need to perform (e.g. climate or audience)

2.2.3 Optimum arousal

Optimum arousal refers to the ideal level of arousal that will result in optimal (i.e. the best possible) performance. This can be shown using the ‘inverted-
U hypothesis’.
- Point A​: is the point of under arousal, characterised by disinterest and low levels of
concentration causing poor performance ​(e.g. opponent may be ranked significantly lower than
the athlete and this not pose much of a challenge)​.
- Point B​: Is the point optimum arousal where the athlete is interested but not overly
stressed or anxious. This is where the ebay performances occur ​(e.g. an evenly- matched
opponent).
- Point C​: Is the point of over arousal where high levels of stress and anxiety resulting
in poor performance (e.g. opponent is ranked significantly higher than the athlete).

Additionally, different sports and activities require different levels of arousal. For instance,
sports using a small group of muscles ​(e.g. golf)​ require low levels of arousal. By contrast, sports
that require large groups of muscles, such as weight lifting, require high levels of arousal.

2.3 Psychological strategies

Different Strategies may be used by athletes in order to enhance motivation and manage anxiety, and therefore help them perform at optimal levels.

2.3.1 Concentration and attention skills

This skill refers to the athlete’s ability to remain focused on the task that they are meant to perform. Through this, the athlete focuses on the process,
rather than the outcome of the performance. Athletes can also ‘block’ out any distracting forces ​(e.g. screaming crowds)​. Different sports and activities
require different levels of concentration.
- Intense Concentration​: (e.g. Gymnastics, archery)
- Intervals of high concentration​: (e.g. netball, softball)
- Sustained concentration​: (e.g. marathon, triathlon)

2.3.2 Mental rehearsal and visualisation

This psychological strategy involves the athlete imagining and going through their performance in their head. Visualisation helps an athlete become more
familiar with their performance, and allows for increased concentration. It is important that the athlete is not distracted during mental rehearsal.

Often, when an athlete ‘sees’ a successful performance, they are more likely to execute it. The opposite is also true; if they imagine failure, they will
likely execute a poor performance.

Mental rehearsal is particularly useful when the athlete is unable to physically train due to poor weather, illness or injury.

2.3.3 Relaxation Techniques

Relaxation techniques are usually used when the athlete needs to control or lower their levels of stress, anxiety or arousal.

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Examples of relaxation techniques include:
- Progressive muscular relaxation in which muscle groups are relieved of tension
- Mental relaxation or rehearsal
- Self-hypnosis, where the athlete accepting the feelings of anxiety that they are feeling, and is able to continue without them hindering
performance
- Meditation that narrows the athlete’s thoughts, allowing them to relax
- Controlled breathing to lower heart rate and release tension

2.3.4 Goal Setting

Goals give athletes something to work towards and are useful in empowering athletes, giving them an opportunity to realise their aspirations, and enhance
their focus, direction, and perseverance. There is a significant relationship between goal-setting and the athlete’s level and intensity of training.

Athletes can set different types of Goals:

- Short term Goals​: can be used to monitor progress of long term goals. These goals should be flexible and have a set time period.
- Long term Goals​: Are set to be achieved over a long period of time (i.e. months or years).
- Behavioural Goals​: focus on the athlete’s attitude to training and performance. These goals should be observable and measurable; they are not
merely ambitions. For instance, an athlete may set a goal to be punctual to training sessions.
- Performance Goals​: Relate directly to the athlete’s level of skill and performance. For example, a weight lifter may want to increase the weight
that they squat by 5kg every week.

2.3.5 Case Study of athlete

Nature of motivation and psychological strategies

Apply everything you have learnt from the aforementioned dot points to someone you are interested in. You will remember an example better if you
follow a specific athlete and apply what you have learnt to their lives. Your best bet is to choose a highly defined and specific example that you will be
able to recall in the exam.

Find out their motivation in terms of positive or negative, intrinsic or extrinsic. Also look into any psychological strategies used from focusing, imagery
goal setting and relaxation techniques.

Core 2 - Factors Affecting Performance

Topic 3 How can Nutrition and Recovery Strategies Affect Performance?

3.1 Nutritional Considerations

An athlete’s level of nutrition plays an important role in improving and sustaining performance. Thi relates to the type and amount of food and fluid that
an athlete consumes before, during , and after performance.

3.1.1 Pre-performance
Food and fluid consumed before the events allow the athletes to restore glycogen stores in the body, to adequately hydrate, and to prevent hunger during
the event.
Pre - performance guideline for endurance events include things like:
- A meal consumed 3-4 hours before the event should be rick in low GI and complex carbohydrates found in bread, pasta, and potatoes (i.e.
carbohydrates that allow for a slow release of energy, which is important for endurance events).
- Between 1-2 hours before the event, a small snack should be consumed (e.g. fruit or cereal bar).
- 2-3 hours before the event, the athlete should consume 500-600mL of fluids (e.g. water and sports drinks), and an additional 200-300mL right
before they event.
Carbohydrates Loading​: is an important tool used by endurance athletes in order to increase glycogen stores before an event. It enhances as the body
has more glycogen to generate energy - this can improve performance by 2-3%. Before the event (typically three days before), the athlete significantly

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increases their carbohydrate intake and reduces their volume of training. It is through this that glycogen levels in the body are elevated.

3.1.2 During performance

Nutritional considerations are different for each athlete as they depend on the type of physical activity the athlete is participating in, as well as the
duration and intensity of the work, the clinare they’re in, and the rate at which they sweat.

During performance (during an event), it is important that muscle glycogen and blood sugar levels are maintained as this will help the athlete avoid
fatigue.
It is also vital that athletes have adequate fluid intake. During physical activity, athletes should be consuming 200-300mL of water for every 20 minutes
of activity. Ideally, athletes should consume water or sports drinks as drinks like soft drinks are not recommended.

3.1.3 Post performance

After an event, it is important that athletes replace their body’s glycogen stores, which are likely to have depleted during the event - this is especially
important for endurance athletes. It is also important that athletes replace the fluid lost during the event. Athletes can determine how much fluid they have
lost by weighing themselves - each kilo lost is equal to a litre of fluid lost. For instance, if an athlete weighs 70kg before an event, and after 68kg after,
they have lost 2 litres of fluid.

Post-performance nutrition plays an important role in restoring the body to its pre-event state. Food and drink consumed after an event can aid in repairing
muscle tissue that may have been damaged during the event, as well as supporting the body’s immune system (preventing the athlete from becoming
sick).

Immediately after the event, the athlete may consume food and drinks such as fruit juice, sport drinks, and toast. Later on, they should consume a
post-performance meal that is rich in carbohydrates and protein.

3.1.4 Comparing dietary requirements of athletes in different sports: pre, during and post
Once again, you want to use two specific examples which you can relate to in your own life. It is a bad idea to just copy someone else’s two examples if
they don’t apply to you! Use a sport, athlete, or activity that you are knowledgeable about.

There are a few things to keep in mind here though. First of all, make sure to compare two very different sports (in all aspects). A couple of great pairs are
gymnastics vs marathon running, or ironman competitions vs 500 m rowing events.

For ​pre​ it is good to compare a sport that benefits from carbohydrates loading to a sport which doesn’t require it.
For ​during,​ compare a sport which requires refueling to one which does not.
For ​post​, compare sports which are similar in terms of an energy resupply but differ in protein levels due to the explosivity of the sport and also in the
amount of refuelling required (e.g. an Ironman athlete would require a much larger refuelling than a 100m sprinter).

3.2 Supplementation
Athletes may use supplements to support the nutritional demands of their body as they engage in physical activity and exercise. Many athletes may use
vitamins, minerals, protein, caffeine, and creatine products.

3.2.1 Vitamins and Minerals

The body requires vitamins and minerals for metabolic function and energy release. However, the body only needs these in small quantities. Often, the
necessary vitamins (e.g. iron and calcium), can be obtained through a nutritious and balanced diet. Therefore, vitamin and mineral supplementation is not
a necessity, vitamins and minerals may have side effects on the athlete’s body, including fatigue, headaches, nausea, or difficulty sleeping.

3.2.2 Protein
Protein is a popular supplement used by athletes (especially weight lifters), as it aids in the growth and repair of muscle tissue, as well as recovery rates.
Protein supplements often come in the form of powders. Athletes should not consume additional protein if they are receiving adequate levels of it in their
diet; without an adequate level of exercise, additional protein will result in excess body fat.

3.2.3 Caffeine

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Caffeine is a stimulant of the body’s nervous system, and can enhance an athlete’s level of alertness and concentration. It can also be used to spare
glycogen, in which the body utilises fat stores to generate energy. The effects of caffeine are more prominent 40-60 minutes after consumption.

Despite its benefits, there are many disadvantages to using caffeine, and they usually outweigh its benefits. Caffeine can increase heart rate (which is not
ideal as heart rate us already increasing with physical activity). It is also a diuretic (i.e. a substance that makes the body lose water), and can potentially
cause dehydration. Consuming caffeine can also cause nausea, anxiety, vomiting, and can impair fine motor skills. Therefore, caffeine is not useful in
large quantities to enhance performance.

3.2.4 Creatine products

Creatine is a substance that forms creatine phosphate, and it is part of the body's energy production systems by resynthesizing ATP. Creatine can come
from an athlete’s diet, especially through meat; however, athletes may increase creatine levels with creatine supplementation.

Creatine supplementation can enhance the body’s ability to resynthesis ATP, which is particularly advantageous for anaerobic activities ​(e.g. athletic
events like long jump and sprinting)​. IT can also increase muscle hypertrophy. However, the body can only store a limited amount of creatine, so excess
creatine is excreted through urine. Creatine supplementation can also lead to weight gain, muscle cramps or tears, and renal disease, and can affect kidney
and liver function.

3.2.5 Evidence for and against supplementation for improved performance

The argument for and against supplementation is a contentious topic, and there is evidence on both sides. Some athletes at the top of their athletic field
swear by using supplements while others do not. In some cases, the placebo effect may take the place of any actual physiological benefit; still leading to
an increase in performance.

Vitamins and Minerals

Vitamins and minerals exist naturally in the food we eat, and therefore should all be obtained in a healthy balanced diet. Excess vitamins pass through the
body and thus excess supplementation is just expensive and useless. In fact, some vitamins​ ( such as Vitamin A, E and D)​ when consumed in excess can
have adverse effects on the body. However, the effects on performance are numerous and considerable when an athlete is not obtaining the right vitamins
or minerals. For example an iron-deficient runner would see their performance severely negatively impacted, as iron and haemoglobin is key in the
oxygen binding process needed for the aerobic energy system.

Protein
Once again, the act of taking protein supplements is dependent on how much protein the athlete has in their diet. If they have a well-balanced diet then
taking too much protein may lead to adverse effects. However, for athletes that are not receiving enough the proven effects of protein on strength training
and muscle buildings are well-established.

Caffeine
The negative side effect of caffeine is its diuretic properties. However, this is balanced out by its potential focus boost and carbohydrates blocking ability
to ensure enhanced reserves for late game or race energy surges.

Creatine Products
Water weight gain is of high concern here, especially if your sport is dependent on running, jumping, or power. If your diet does not have enough
creatine, then the effects of a supplement are overwhelmingly positive. However, a well-balanced diet will typically provide sufficient amounts.

By critically analysing the evidence in each specific case, it can be seen that for the most part, a healthy, well-balanced diet provides athletes with all the
nutrients they need. However, if there are any deficiencies in an athlete’s absorption of some vitamins, minerals, protein or creatine,then closely
monitored supplementation will be beneficial. Caffeine has a more individualised effect, with some individuals responding better or worse. Therefore, an
athlete may increase their performance through supplementation as long as careful consideration is taken to analyse deficiencies in vitamins, minerals
protein and creatine.

3.3 Recovery Strategies

Recovery is important in returning the body to the pre-workout state which helps avoid fatigue and optimising physiological adaptations. Recovery will
also allow the athlete to return to training faster.

3.3.1 Physiological strategies

Cooling Down:​ is one of the principles of training. It involves light exercise that is designed to return the body to its pre-workout state, reducing heart

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rate and lowering body temperature. It also aids in removing lactic acid from the body’s working muscles. A cool down should relax the muscles and help
reduce ​delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS)​ which is muscle pain that makes athletes experience after exercise or physical activity, particularly
athletes that participate in weight lifting.

Hydration:​ Athletes can lose significant amounts of fluid through sweat while exercising. Therefore, it is vital that athletes hydrate after physical activity
in order to replace the lost fluids - this will ensure that the athlete does not experience dehydration. Water and sports drinks are good examples of fluids
that athletes should consume after performance. Additionally, athletes should avoid alcohol after physical activity.

3.3.2 Neutral strategies

Neutral strategies are aimed at the nervous system's recovery after exercise and physical activity.

Hydrotherapy​: involves the use of water to relax and massage the body’s muscles after exercise. There are two different types of hydrotherapy, one
involving the use of warm water or hot water, and the other using cold water.

Hot water may be used to promote blood flow and increase the body’s ,muscles and skin temperature, which will help to reduce stiffness in muscles.
Athletes may go into a hot water spa after an event or exercise . This type of hydrotherapy recovery strategy is called ​hot water immersion​.

On the other hand, cold water may also be used. Cold water is used to reduce or prevent inflammation and pain in the body, after exercise. This
hydrotherapy recovery strategy is called ​contrast water therapy.

Key Point: It is important to know the difference between hydration and hydrotherapy! Their names are very similar to each other, but they are very
different recovery strategies!

Massage: ​another hydrotherapy recovery strategie is a deep tissue massage. This will help relax the body’s muscles that have been used during exercise
by reducing swelling. It also helps remove lactic acid in the muscles, as it promotes blood flow

3.3.3 Tissue damage strategies

Many sports, especially those that involve heavy contact (e.g. rugby league) or activities that put significant stress on muscles ​(e.g. weight lifting)​ may
tear and damage muscle fibres. Therefore, athletes that participate in this type of activity should implement tissue damage strategies in their
post-performance recovery plan.

Cryotherapy: ​involves athletes going into a cold water bath (usually with ice) after an event or exercise for approximately 10 minutes. Through this
vasoconstriction, swelling and inflammation are reduced, which can assist in reducing the effect of DOMS.

3.3.4 Psychological Strategies

After an event or exercise, it is important that athletes utilise psychological recovery strategies to relax both their body and mind after an event. Effective
recovery takes place when psychological strategies are used in conjunction with physiological, neural and tissue damage recovery strategies.

Relaxation: is important in controlling an athlete’s anxiety or excitement levels after an event. High levels of anxiety or excitement increase an athlete’s
heart rate and impair the body’s physiological recovery. This mental relaxation is an important tool in aiding the body’s ability to recover ​(e.g. athletes
can meditate, read, listen to music, participate in yoga, or use a flotation tank.)

Additionally, ​sleep​ is a very important recovery strategie as it relaxes both the athlete’s body and mind.

Core 2 - Factors Affecting Performance

Topic 4 How does acquisition of skill affect performance?

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 4.1 Stages of Skill acquisition

4.1.1 Cognitive
The cognitive stage is also known as the planning stage where the learner games and understanding of a skill through from demonstration. The learner
May begin to practice the skill, and will experience many problems, errors, and may be awkward when trying to execute it. their coach should provide
continuous feedback, so that they know what they are doing wrong and learn how to perform the skill correctly. Often complex skills (such as a basketball
layup) are broken into different parts from the learning to practice. Coaches shouldn't also encourage learners and give positive reinforcement, and share
that they do not focus on what the learner is doing wrong, but rather on what they are doing right. When learners have positive feedback they are more
likely to engage with the skill mock. If learners are constantly exposed to negative criticism, or they may become this hardened and feel like they were
never learning this skill.

4.1.2 Associative
The Associated stage is also known as the practice stage where the learner constantly repeats the skill in order to improve the execution. During this stage,
the learner will experience some errors, but will be able to recognise them. The learner will also begin to develop kinesthetic sense, meaning that they
develop their sense of movement while executing the skill. They will also develop temporal patterning, in which subroutines of a skill are put together to
execute the skill as a whole. For instance, the different parts of a basketball lay-up our practice in one go (i.e. dribbling, holding the ball with both hands,
jumping off one foot and shooting with one hand). During the associate stage, the learner has not yet perfectly performed the skill.

4.1.3 Autonomous
The Economist age is also known as the automatic state. At this point in skill acquisition, the learner becomes an expert in the skill and experience is very
few errors; If they do encounter errors, they are able to automatically correct them. Through this, the athlete is able to focus on other aspects of the game
like strategies and tactics to gain an advantage over their opponent. The athlete is able to perform the skill automatically and is able to adapt to different
environments and situations, such as loud crowds or the movements and strategies of their opponents .

4.1.4 Characteristics of the learner

The characteristics of the learner can influence their ability to learn and perform skills.

Personality:​ refers To the learners behaviour and attitude towards training and the activity. Successful learners usually have high levels of motivation.
They should also have a positive attitude towards training, being enthusiastic, dedicated, and determined to learn and improve their skills. Learner's that
are not interested in training or the sport itself usually do not become proficient in the skill, due to low levels of motivation, determination, and
willingness to learn.
Hereditary Characteristics:​ Are Genetically inherited from one family, meaning that we are born with them. these factors include:
- Muscle fibre composition:​ If an athlete has more fast twitch muscle fibres, they are usually best suited to explosive activities (example,
sprinting or long jump) where is athlete to have more slow Twitch muscle fibres are usually best suited to endurance events (example,
marathons)
- Somatotype: ​Refers to the athletes body type and shape each body type may be better suited into a particular sport or activity.
a. Ectomorphic:​ Usually a smaller build; suited for sports such as gymnast.
b. Mesomorphic:​ Usually have a medium build; suited for sprinting.
c. Endomorphic:​ Usually have a large build; suited for activities such as weightlifting.
- Gender:​ Males are usually stronger than females because they have significantly higher levels of testosterone
- Height:​ Some athletes may be More advantages or disadvantages in a sport due to their height. for instance, it is likely that a person that is 190
cm tall is better at basketball than someone who is 160 cm.
- Conceptual Ability:​ Is a learner's ability to visualise a movement and then executed correctly – some athletes are better at this than others.
Confidence: ​Refers To the learners attitude and belief in themselves to performer skill. Learners who believe that they are correctly executing a skill are
more likely to be successful than learners who believe that they cannot perform the skill. Initially, a learner may have low levels of confidence, especially
at the cognitive stage of skill acquisition. However, as they develop their skills and transition to the associated Veer and auto Norma stage, learners
usually experience high levels of confidence, as they experience more success performing their skill. Confidence can also come from external forces, such
as coaches.
Prior Experience: ​Involves an athlete who has previous experience in a skill that is similar to the one that they are learning being more likely to learn
another school at a faster pace then someone who does not have the experience. For instance, a goal shooter in netball is likely to learn how to shoot in
basketball faster than someone who does not have any experience with netball. This is called the ​transfer of skill of learning​ - this can be applied to
many skills and sports that are similar to each other
Ability: ​Refers The learners capacity to learn an executor skill. This can be dependent on their kinaesthetic sense, Decision making, planning,

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intelligence, reaction time, and problem solving. Some learners are more developed inability or naturally better than other learners.

4.2 The learning environment

The learning environment refers to the external factors that affect the physical environment in which the athlete learns and performs a skill.

4.2.1 Nature of the Skill

- Open: The way the skills perform changes depending on external factors like weather, climate, field of plate, audience, and the opponent (e.g. A
tackle in rugby league, or returning a tennis serve).
- Closed: Where how the skill is performed is constant and the same every time (example, bowling).
- Gross Motor: Uses a large muscle group (example, swimming and running).
- Fine Motor: Uses small muscle group (example, writing).
- Discrete: The skill has a definite beginning and end (example, swinging a golf club).
- Serial: A number of discrete skills performed together (example, dribbling in basketball and soccer).
- Continuous: A skill that does not have a distinct beginning or end (example, Running).
- Self-paced: The speed and the timing at which the skill is performed is determined by the athlete (example, a tennis serve).
- Externally-paced: A source outside of the athlete determines the speed and timing of the skill (example, a dance routine set to music).

4.2.2 Performance elements

The performance elements refer to the decision making and strategic, tactical development during a game situation. It focuses on how an athlete should
respond in the circumstances.

Decision-making:​ Refers to the athletes ability to take into account their own and their opponents strength, weaknesses, and actions in the game situation,
and use those factors to help them respond.

During a match or a game, athletes are required to make decisions in very short periods of time. For instance, a tennis player only has seconds to decide
which way to move after their opponents I have served the ball. Another example is when a soccer player decides whether to shoot the ball or pasta
another team member for a member.

In order to enhance an athlete's skills, coaches should create environments where athletes can practice this decision making seals, making them more
effective and efficient during the game.

Strategic and tactical development:​ Refers to the importance of individual athletes and the team as a whole developing strategies and tactics that allow
them to gain an advantage during a game situation. athletes should be able to adapt to different situations. For instance, when defending their teams goal
or basket, athletes make each choose a player for the opposing team to mark.

4.2.3 Practice Methods

These refer to how an athlete's learning of a skill is influenced by the way that they practice the skill.

Massed Practice:​ is usually Most appropriate for learners that are in the automatic stage of skill acquisition. Massed practice usually involves length of
sessions that have few and short rest breaks for athletes. This requires athletes to have high levels of motivation and endurance, and is particularly useful
in conditioning athletes during the preseason of competition.

Massed practice Is good for practicing skills, decision-making, and strategic and tactical development as it allows athletes to have a training session that
has a holistic approach to the game. it is also convenient when athletes have limited sessions in which they can train.

Distributed Practice:​ Is often best suited for athletes in the associated and cognitive stage of skill acquisition. In distributed practice, The practice
session is divided into various sessions and allows for longer rest periods. This ensures athletes are not fatigued easily and are able to sustain high levels
of motivation and interest. This type of practice may involve a number of different skills (example, dribbling, passing, shooting, and defending).

Part Practice:​ Involves breaking down complex Skills in two different subroutines that learners can practice. This allows athletes to gradually learn new
skills, and to learn each component of the school before putting it together, meaning they develop better technique. Part practice is particularly important
during the cognitive stage of skill acquisition.

Whole Practice: ​Is when the athlete practises The complete skill in its entirety. This type of practice combines a skills subroutine (example, the different
components of a layup in basketball), and allows the athlete to implement the skill in a game situation. Whole practice usually occurs during the

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associative and automatic stage of skill acquisition.

4.2.4 Feedback
Feedback gives an athlete information about their performance, telling them what they have done right, but they have done wrong, and can be used to
motivate athletes. Feedback is best when it helps the athlete improve their current or future performance.
- Internal feedback:​ Comes from within the athlete. This relates to the kinesthetic sense and feelings during and after a performance. An
example of internal feedback is what the bat felt like after an athlete hit a cricket ball.
- External Feedback:​ Is sourced from outside the athlete (e.g. Feedback coming from the coach, judge's, or the crowd).
- Concurrent Feedback:​ Is feedback that the athlete received as they perform. it occurs through the body's proprioceptive mechanism (i.e. What
the body centres through touch, site, or sound). For instance, and athlete on a skateboard or a surfboard would constantly adjust their position in
order to stay balance on their board
- Delayed Feedback:​ Is feedback that an athlete received after they have performed the skills. For instance, watching a basketball shot and
seeing whether it goes into the hoop or Mrs is an example of delayed feedback. The performance cannot be changed after the school has been
executed.
- Knowledge of Result:​ Refers to the quantitative feedback that an athlete receives on their performance. This is usually reflected by a score of a
game or a score given by judge's.
- Knowledge of Performance:​ Refers To the quantitative feedback that an athlete receives about their performance. This type of feedback is
usually given in the form of comments given by the judge or the coach. it can also be viewed by the athlete and a video of their performance, so
that they are able to see how they performed or executed a particular skill.

4.3 Assessment of skill and performance

4.3.1 Characteristics of skilled performers

Skilled performers have advanced levels in kinesthetic sense, anticipation, consistencies and technique; these characteristics can be used to differentiate
between Skilled and unskilled athletes or performers.

​Kinaesthetic sense:​ refers to the body's ability to sense movement. Athletes with advanced levels of kinesthetic sense have greater ability and
coordination. Often, skilled performance can ‘feel’ if they have successfully executed a skill while they are performing. This allows them to change their
position or movement in order to correct the execution of the skill.

​Anticipation:​ is The Athletes ability to sense and predict future situations that may occur as they execute their skill. It is particularly important for
externally-paced skills; for instance, a skilled tennis player can determine where they should position themselves in order to return a serve based on how
their opponent hit the ball and the speed at which the ball is travelling.

Consistency:​ refers To help skilled athletes are able to execute skills over and over again with very little or no error while adapting to the new game
situation or the environment. This differs from unskilled athletes who would experience more errors and may not be able to focus on other tasks while
executing the skill full stop for instance, a skilled basketball player is able to successfully dribble and shoot the ball into the basket, whilst ensuring their
opponent does not steal the ball off them.

Technique:​ refers To the way in which an athlete approaches or executes a skill. skilled athletes are able to perform whilst being efficient with their body
energy and execute an aesthetically pleasing performance (i.e. It is nice to look at and can seem ‘effortless’). Skilled athletes can continue to perform
under pressure or fatigue without compromising their consistency or technique. For instance, a skilled gymnast would be able to successfully complete
their routine despite being under the pressure of a competition.

4.3.2 Objective and subjective performance measures

Objective performance measures:​ Involve quantitative data that determine and assess an athlete's performance. During a competition, it is important
that performance is judged using objective measures to ensure fairness. This is easy for sports that have a scoring system (e.g tennis, basketball and
soccer clothes bracket where the winner is easily determined.

Meanwhile, in sports such as high jump, Winners Are determined by the height that they cleared, whereas sprinting uses an electronic timer. These are all
quantitative, objective measures of performance.

However, It is more difficult with sports such as gymnastics, diving, or surfing we're judge's need to use particular criteria or a checklist to judge A
performance. also, there is usually a panel of judges and not just a single judge. Ideally, competitions are judged using objective measures to eliminate
bias.

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Subjective appraisal of performance:​ Is Dependent on the judge's personal feelings, experience and expectations of the performance or a specific
athlete. Plus, multiple judge's may have different appraisals of one performance. An example of subjective appraisal can be the poor technique used by a
goalkeeper that allowed the opposition to score.

4.3.3 Validity and reliability of tests

It is important that tests measure performance fair and honest in order to accurately reflect The Athletes ability to help them improve. This is done by
ensuring the validity and reliability of a test and is particularly important at competition levels.

A valid test is one that tests and measures what is meant to be tested. For instance, the marking criteria for a gymnastics routine should be based on The
Athletes technique and performance, and not on what they are wearing.

A reliable test should be consistent, meaning it will produce the same results if it is testing the same thing over and over again. This will allow for famous
as each athlete in the same competition is tested in the exact same way.

4.3.4 Personal versus prescribed judging criteria

Personal criteria are based on an individual's own experiences, ideas, and expectations of a performance. This is not ideal for competition judging, as each
judge would have their own personal criteria and testing would not be reliable or consistent fullstop personal criteria are often used by the general
audience to George and athlete's performance, which is subjective because feelings, emotions, and biases play a role in this assessment.

By contrast, prescribing judging criteria increases objectivity. These criteria are usually provided by a professional organisation and used to judge official
competition, ensuring fairness for all athletes so that the best and rightful athlete wins.

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