C I V I C E D U C AT I DN

S 0 0 1 OLOGI CA L F0 UN DA TI ON 8
A N D COURSES

BY DAVID SN EDDEN
P f f Ed fo l
ro essor o S i l gy uco i na oc o o

a nd Vocational Education Teachers College,

Columbia Unioersity N ew York ,

in M assachusetts

Y ON KE RS ON H U DSON , N E W Y O RK
’
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W OR LD BOO K C O MP A N Y
1 9 2 2
CA;
W O R L D BO O K C O MP A N Y
TH E H OU S E OF AP PLI E D KN OW LE DG E

E stabl ish e d 1906 by Ca po: W . Hodgson

Yomm w on -H tmso x. N o w Yo u

Th e mnkiog of com e tent c t p i izens is the

most importsnt function ol the sch ools ol s

e ver. hu as ye t little uoditio n. m d less sci

enco d i ts o wn I ts ms toriah are no t less
.

a b unda nt in th e soc iol gro upo ob out us thnn

is nitm ge o in the air in whic h wc live ut th e m

w isdom I t is the prohlem to which this b ook

.

is addressed Th us Cim Education is de

.

g ne d
si to follow th e ideal ol aervi
c e as e x

w ooin th e motto of the W orld Book

d “
Books that apply the world s
’

Com pany .
know le dge ho the world s needs
” ’

4 41 0 51
C

no n-l

Copyrigh t 1922 by Wa l d Book Company

Copyright in Grea t
-
itain -

Aa riah s ra m ed
 PRE FA C E

H U N DR E DS probably thousands of the teachers and others

, ,

in terested in schools are now wrestling with th e problems

of civic education They believe that our country needs
.

more and better education for citizen ship than it is now

getting I t appears to them that our public and private
.

schools both higher and lower have thus far made but
, ,

partial an d insufficient contributions toward the civic knowl

edge and idealism that our country with its complex eco ,

nomic and politica l life certain ly needs These schools do

, .

achieve much in general education ; but of purposi ve civ ic

educa tion they give little and that little is too often made
,

futile by its formalism or w asted by its puerility .

Ameri ca needs more and better education for citizenship

to that proposition all will give re ady assent Man y com .

missions are studying ways and means of ci vic and other

forms of social educati on Special efforts are being made
.

everywhere in teacher training institutions to inspire and

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equip regular or special teachers for this difi cult work .

”
Philanthropy finam es the scouting education of the
B o y Scout movement in large part because of its promis

ing contributions to good citizenship The exactions of .

the war and the economic perturbations co nsequent on the

war have forced us to see that our political institutions ,

serviceable as they h av e become are not fully eq ual to the

,

social loads they must carry .

Hence the current varied and intense aspirations for more

especially those that claim our children from their twelfth

to th eir eigh teenth years Statesmen and other students of
.

social life are ins ist ent in their demands Progre ssive edu .

catora are generally awake to the need I t is only when .

we try to define specific objective s that W e find ourselves

iii
iv PR E F A C E

in a jungle as ye t largely unexplored Naturally we make .

little progress in devisin g effective means and methods

where our act ual goals are so obscure I t does not take .

memorization of formal texts and rigid ,

recitation treatment of dry didactic materials will rarely

.
, ,

in presen t day school life contribute to the functioning

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,

habits and knowledge to say nothing of the appreciations

.

and ideals that blend in approved civic behavior

, .

This book is designed to aid teachers and other educators

who are serio usly trying to find and develop more purposive
and e fiect ua l objectives and means of ci v ic education The
'

discussions and conclusions here presented are based upon

these convictions : ( a) that the aims or objectives of any
proposed type of education must first of all be derived from
studies essentially sociological in their nature of the needs
, ,

of contemporary societ ies especially as evidenced in the

,

ad ult members thereof ; ( b) that it is just as practicable and

desirable to use a prec ise and specific term inology in educa
tio na l discussion as in other fields of applied science ; and
(c ) that what should properly be called civic education is
o nly one part or type of educat i on — a part of incr easing
,

re lative importance indeed

, and that as respects specific
,
-

aim 8 and essential methods it will di ffer grea tly from o ther
types .

Teac hers and other ed ucators m ay conveniently and not

inaccurately be divided into two classes — those endowed
wi th some ability possessors of some disposition to be
,

curious inquisitive inve ntive and progressive in their

, , ,

work ; and those who find little time and have little desire
to do other than prescribed and routine work .

The prosa it book is des igned for th e former class only .

The writer is convinced that much valuable and necessary

work in ed ucation will always have to be done by teachers
w ho can preten d to no originality ; and much more by those
 PRE FAC E

who even if endowed with some gifts of creativeness are

, ,

nevertheless too much preoccupied in meeting the routine

requiremen ts of their tasks to permit the development of

The educator who can do little origin al work may be

very serviceable in well established fields of training in
-
,

struction and growt h control ; but he h as as yet little plac e

,
-

in direct civic education The field is too new the really

.
,

serviceable means and methods too undefined if not elusive , .

For 5m m from twelve to eighteen at least better no , ,

purposive civic education at all than the bungli ng and bruis

in g efforts of men and women who can only employ the
crude didactic tools of in tellectual apprehension that have
evolved in co nn ection wit h the cen turies of effort to enforce
the learning of foreign languages mathem atics and history
, , .

Because of the character of the audience addressed there ,

fore the writer has not hesitated to introduce numberless

,

questions an d problems that will doubtless require yea rs

for their answer and solution Neither has he refrained from
.

setting forth provisional interpretations and solutions where

it has seemed that these might contribute to further under
standing or provoke more concrete discu ssion .

Each of th e first two parts of this book traverses in a

mm the same ground I n Part I the general aspects
.
,

of the problems considered are presented Part II is devoted .

to a more detailed study of certain of the problems found

in Part L
Civic education w ill for th e present be largely a localized
st udv i n its best developments that 15 it will be 1n par ,

tic ula r comm un iti e s schools or under particular teac hers

, ,

that its most signifi cant ac hievements may b e expected . !

.

C ertain portion s of the su bject mu st indeed l ike good , ,

nature study always sprin g from local conditions repu di

, at ,

ing form al texts and cut and dried procedures

- - Certain .
vi P RE FA C E

ot h e r por tio ns may b e b ased on m anuals and texts that

jeeta of civics and economics many forerunners have long

,

been on the market For the present however e ach school

.
, , ,

or at any rate the schools of each progre ssi ve co m munity ,

must outside the more formalized subjects initia te their

, ,

own e fio rts and develop their own le aders Tow ard such .

The reader must remember that we have as yet no object

.

ive criteria or standards of educational values and certainly

’
none in the field of civic education ; hence here one man s
opinion may be held to be as good as another s — and
’

“ ”
perhaps a good sight better as the recent imm igrant
,

still contend tha t history as a chro nologically organized ,

co mpendious subject has been or can be so taught as to

be functional of civic results .

But the t ime has passed when the partisan s of any par
ticular subject or gro up of related subjects can claim im
portan t shares of school time and energy without at least
indicating their attitude toward claims of ot her subjects
and the defenders of other educational values In fact a .
,

very heavy burden of proof should now be carried by the

special pleaders for the prescription of any particular group
of su bjects in secondary educa tion Undoubtedly all th e .

subjects co m monly urged for inclusion in secondary schools

are valuable — but not necessarily valuable for all classes

is toward each having his own subject made compulsory

for all learners Th e w ealth of knowledge now available
.

for teaching purposes our increased un derstanding of the

,

variabilit i es in powers interests and probable future re

, ,
 P RE F A C E v ii

spo nsib ilitie sof learners coupled with cleare r perceptions

,

of th e significance of educational values justify us in up

,

holding i dea ls o f very flexible curricula for secondary schools .

C ertainly the time has not yet arrived when we should

make universally pre scriptive in se condary sch ools anything
but the briefest prese ntations even un der civics But we
.

should develop according to the resour ces of our schools

, ,

a wealth of elective o fferings from service projects and

sc outing to h ard problems in contemporary politics from
,

inspirational readings to detailed studies of th e historical

roots of the econo m ic and other social problems th at must
vex the minds and try the souls of th e next generation
of voters .
 C ON TE N TS

PA RT ON E SUGGE STI O N S TO T EA CH ER S
C H A PT ER PAG E

I . SUG G E STI ON S TO T E ACH E RS : INT RO D U CTOR Y C ON

SI DERA TIONS
Social betterment
The re cre ation of social groups
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E ducation one process in social be tterment

C urrent demands for civic education
The example of vocational education
The aims of education
The aims of social education
Federate groups develop needs O ani z
f org ed
civic education
S U GGESTI ON S T O T EA CH ER S C IVIC E D U CA TION IN
.

SE CO N D AR Y SCH OOLS
The pe nding reorganiz ation of S e co n
dary
education
Re sults as shown m an a dultci en
ti z
The socially efficient man
Ed ucational object ives
Standard of social worth
The m eaning of civic education
Some further problems of definitio n
Objectives of civic education
Just ification of civic education
The general need of civic ed ucation
Society s nee d of civic education 1n schoo ls
’

D i fferentiations of the specific objectives of

civic education
C ivic education and the teac her o f social
science
Th e province of the socialscien ce teacher
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 CONTENTS

MI CELLA
FAB !

III . SU G G m r rON S TO T EACHBRB: S N EOUS

To teach ers in sm all high sch oo ls .

To teac h ers in seventh and eigh th grades In

urban schools
'

To a superintenden t of schools

PA RT Tw o SOCIO LOG I CA L FO U N nA rI ON S'

or

CIVI C E D U CA TION
IV . IN TRO D U CTO R Y C ON aI DERAr I ON S '

V . TH E SOCI OLO G I CAI . MA

E N IN G o r E D U CA TI ON
What is education ?
Education in the br oade st se nse
Schoo l education
Q ualitative distinctions in eduw tio n
C lassification of aims based on social objectives
Physical and vocational education
C ultural and social education

VI . TH E MAN
E I N G or SOCIA L E D U CA TION

Condit ions of social educat i on

Some problems in social psychology
Some educational presuppositions
Other varieties of social education
Social groupi ngs : Som e problems su mmari sed
Social evaluatio ns
Crude social valuations
Re lative standards
Weighting of ci vic qualities
Soom r r N EE D C iv l C EDU CA TI O N
’
s or

Social control
 CONTE NTS xi

Developmental civic education

Needs for civic education
C ontemporary esti m ates of needs
The use of the case group study of needs .

Avoi ding excessive abstractn ess

The dire ction of specialist m ice
TH E OBJ ECTIVES or CI VI C E DU CATI O N
Methods of determination
“
Determination of civic shortages
C ivic shortage s in social classes
How teach princ iplesi ’
.

Adaptations of objectives to groups of l arners

e

IX . EDU CATI O N FO R D EM OCRA CY

Sociological conditio ns of democrac y
’
Nature s limitations

What is democracy ?

Educ ationas a me ans to democracy

Education for democracy

PA R T TR R E E PROB LEMS or OBJ EC TIVES, CO U R SES ,

AN D RESEA RCH I N C IVI C EDU CATION

Preliminary analyses
Construction of courses
Effects of schoo l enviro nmen t
xii CONTE NTS
CHAPTER PA C E

Sources in social practices of adults

General principles of method
Specific objectives
C ivic pro gnosis
Means and methods classi fied
School d i scipline as a mean s of civic education
H istory studies
Social sciences by didactic presentation
Project methods
D evelopmental readings
“ ”
Problem methods
C O U R SES OF STUD Y F OR C IVIC E DU CATIO N
F irst six grades
Second six grades
PR OB LE MS OF RESEA RCH
“ ”
The case group method
N eeds of c i vic ed ucation
Extra sch ool civic education
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V alues of school s ubjects

Related problems
X III . FRE E D OM OF T E ACH IN G SOCIA L SCI EN CES
Problems of freedom in teaching th e soc i al

W hat is meant by teaching P

Realistic cases
Social science teachers
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G uiding principles
SA M PLE STU D I ES
I. Propo sed courses in civic
“
education for case group owning
”
farmers
 PART ON E

SU GG E STION S TO TE A C HE RS
 C I VI C E D U C A TI O N

C H AP T E R ON E

S U G G EST I ON S To T EA CH ER S ; I N TR O D U C T ORY
C ON S I D ERA T I ON S
aim s , or obj ectives of all education find
cation in the increased social well be ing -

right education But on ly from sociology

.

what are valid standards and conditions

of social well being I n a certain sense any one who proposes
-
.

educat i on rests his case on founds

o r assumption Consciously or
.

o express himself as a sociologist .

human beings as they live and

He seeks first to find the facts
of group behavior and then to control the struct ures and
,

group behavior to w ard better ends .

of social groups or societies can thus be studied .

the busin ess partnership and the schoolroom

,

a nation or a race , .

good
ing of
other sentient beings ) ; they may be incipien t
complete or incomplete e fi c ient or ine fficient
, .

SOCI AL BETT E RLEE N T

'

( or social economists as many prefer to

,

is with the better

help ing the people who compose them )
ther well informed men human societies
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,

capable of improvemen t They think .

2 CIVIC EDUC ATION

bette r streets They see en dless possibilities of extending

.

human happiness through be tter stock better government , ,

bet ter education bett er economic production better wo rship

, , ,

“ ”
better recreation ( Perhaps the word well being is to be .
-

“ ”
preferred sin ce the notion of happiness seems too closely
,

“
associated with that of pleasure as an end in
Co operation The general real ization on earth of lives
.

that shall be richer in the things that we call good or pleasant

( in the long run) and less subject to the things we call evil
or unpleasant depends above everything else as sociologis ts
, ,

see it on increase in varieties scope and efficiency of cc

, . ,

operative action Throughout all his history m an has been

.
,

indeed very co Operative Som e of the structures that b e

, .

long ago evolved for that purpose were wonderfully effective

the family the clan the village co m m unity the partner
, , ,

ship the militant nation the worshiping congregation the

, , ,

master appren tice combination and the buyer seller com

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,
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bination for econ o mic exchange Some of the social proc .

esses create d during th e last te n tho usan d years are as

y e t to o near to call fo rth th e full admiratio n th ey deserv e

processes of collective defense of administering j ustice of , ,

inven tion of recording and diffusing knowledge of exch ang

, ,

ing products of organizing productive effort un der the

,

But the very increase of social knowledge upon wh ich

we now pride ourselves reveals endless possibiliti e s still
ahea d Our social groups are like the bodies that na ture
.

gives despite their fundamental healthiness they st ill ,

aboun d in frailties they are very liable to disorders and . ,

they frequently prove un equal to th e new needs that an

evolving world imposes upon them To the social econ omist : .

’
all expe ri
e nce is an arc h whe ret hro

Fore ver and fore ve r w hen I mo ve .

 IN TROD UCTORY CON S IDERATION S 3

TH E
CR EA TI ON O F SOCIA L G RO U PS
Bil-

The most important social groups of h uman beings resem

ble organic specie 8 in this the groups are relatively per»
manent whils t their indi vidual members come and go
, .

N ew York F rance the Mohammedan Church the Republi

, , ,

ca n Party and a university are social entities that have

,

witnessed the infil tration and the silent departure of nu

numbered members Even that re latively transient group
.
,

the family with its usual span of less than sixty years
, .

witnesses periodically the accession of plast ic children and

their withdrawal twenty years later as shaped adults to

pe t ua l
processes by which every type of social grou p from ,

a boys gang to an empire must be perpetually renewing

’
,

its membership domesticating and training its recruits

, ,

“ ”
educating its plastic novices The w orld has gradually .

tutio ns as well as mac hines highways cleared lands and , , ,

subj ugated beasts All this wealth the social inheritance

.

pu ses on steadily from the older to the younger generations

ciate and wisely to use the ancestral fortunes and in due

season to add to them .

Not only is all this true of those vast groupings which

”
we call our country or a Christ ian denomination or
,

civilization or society a t large ; it is no less true also of

,
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particu lar social groupings The Methodist Church the . ,

c ity of Philadelphia the I ndependent Order of Odd Fellows

, ,

the Am erica n F ederation of Labor the New York Central ,

Railroad the Adams family the lovers of M endelssohn s

, ,
’

mu sic the Sierra Club an d unnumbered ot h er social groups

, ,

e ac h of these h as lik e w i
se its pecul iar social or association s]
-

inhe ritance which attac hes to the corporate entity an d is

4 C I VI C ZDUC A
’

MN
ohu e d in lry a ch ne w re cru it as he m me full stxtm e

“W ir th e m fi afly ce ntn l b ct in th e dn m
d ood nliu tion —
th e pro e eu u pu tly of indm ing ench m
m um in m ie ty to enw upon his m h a itm a nd pu fi y ,

unde r m m uditiona o f w m mlling him to do am or at

who wo uld do so . I t is the dn ma o f an e dua tion th nt is no t

of w h oo ls alo ne , inde ed b ut is earrie d on in e ve ry h o m e
, .

ch urch.

police court lib ru y and convention in the world Oft en

,
'
, .

these ed uc ative processes are unobtrusive and silw t some ,

ti mes they are sen sational and shocking E A Ro ss in . . .

hin b oo k Soc ial Control has sur v ey e d the

on
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v eI y we b of

proc esses by wh ich both young and old are educa ted
toward good group membership Sumner I n his Folkways . ,

Turtle i n his I mitatio n as well as other sociologists have

. ,

shown the magnitude and complexity of the pm

histo rically develope d .

Literature and oth er art loves to dwell upon the indi viduals
who have refused tamely to submit to socialization I ndeed
— —
.
,

tlI e y o ung except th e vcry young are oft e n re h icta nt to

nettle i nto the harness of group cooperation espec ially int o ,

that of the larger groups At all times and ev erywhere we .

fi nd those who wish to share in th e feast but not to pay

the price They wan t the social goods of family sta te
. , ,

private property culture and personal freedom without

. ,

makin g the perso nal concess ions and even sacrifices nece ssary
“ "
to keep up these agencies
—
.

C iviliza tion in deed presen ts two kinds of dra m a

. , and
like the popular shows of today the performances are con ,

tinuo us! On the one hand we have tens of thousands of

societi es lit tle an d big accessioning disciplining do m esti
, , , ,

cating a nd assim ilatin g new members On the other are

. .
6 CIVIC EDUCATION

on or utilize I n highly developed special form it may

.

also seek to prepare choice spirits to add to the world s ’

goods that the next generation may be the rich er by new

knowledge new beauty new aspirations
, , .

Difi ere ntiation of education in purposes follows the sa me

“
l ine s along which the goods of society are differentiated
the social values or worths found in various forms of security ,

he alth wealth righteousness knowledge beauty religion

, , , , , ,

and sociability The history of education as well as any

.
,

cro ss section of contemporary prac tice shows hundreds of

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,

aven ues along which men have worked to make of oncoming

generations competent defenders workers voters thinkers , , , ,

and players By numberless means these have been foste red

.

toward being healthy and stron g of body fear less in battle , ,

diligent in industry moral in family l ife public spirited in

, ,
-

the community loyal to the state reverent toward God

, , .

y et achieved perfection in its educational processes I n a .

dynamic or progre ssive society it is safe to predict that

final perfection is never to be achieved since new and higher ,

go als always reveal themselves far beyond pre sent stages of

prac ticable accomplishment B ut it is cle ar that civilized
.

societies are steadily shifting to those specialized types of

“ ”
edu cational agencies that we ca ll sch ools a constantly
in creasing share of respo nsibility for difficult and complicate d
forms of education Agencies ot her than schools have in
.
,

many cases done well enough in the past ; but they will
,

not suffice for present and future needs .

That is the meaning of contemporary demands t h at m any

an d varied schools shall be pro vided for vocational educa

tion inst ead of a few for those aristocratic vocations the

, ,

professions as here tofore That explains why contempor ary

, .

social economists forced to see the wastes of happine ss

,

resulting from physical defect seek through general or ,

 INTRODUCTORY CON S IDE RATION S 7

special schools the varieties of physical education that shall

assure to the next ge neration bett er health and physique
than have been the portio ns of the present gen eration .

C U RR ENT DEMA N DS N R CIVI C ED U CA TION

And that too explains current demands for civic educa
, ,

tion in and th rough schools America needs and wants mor e .

and bet ter education for citizenship T he m ajority of adult .

Americans are of course not bad citizens as judged by

, , ,

of social l ife that the task of citizenship in a democracy as

large and economically complex as ours imposes he avier
respo nsibilities every year The men who set tled the colonies
.
,

and those wh o built up the states as frontiers were pushed

westward were in the main good citizens for their t imes and
,

plac es in spite of the fac t that their schooling gave them

,
“
little purposive civic educ ation So were the Boys of .

as well as those of 1812 of 186 1 and again of 1898 And

, , .

when the latest crisis came America found that she cou ld
confidently rely upon the higher civic behavior of her sons
and daughters to play a fine part in the Great War .

American life in the home on the farm in the shop , , ,

as given by publ ic and private schools churches the , ,

pre ss the stag e and numberless agencies of less direct infl u

, ,

ence has give n us a citizen ship that on the whole is law

abiding progressive and possessed of social good will toward
, ,

all the world .

Future social evoluti on Why then do we find statesmen

.
, , ,

educators and other students of contemporary social life

,

not only keenly interested but even uneasy an d urgent in , ,

education ? I t might appear superficially that th ey were , ,

reflecting severely upon the ideals and achievements of our

8 CIVIC EDUCATION

forebea rs At bottom however that is not the case I t is

.
, , .

true that for purposes of propaganda we all revert occasion)

ally to historic inst ances of corrupt politics of national ,

greed of the ineptitudes of adolescent democracy B ut we

, .

are after all not blind to the devotion honesty cooperation

, , , , ,

g ood will and intel

, ligence that have made America what it
is Most of our fathers as well as ou rselve s have been and
.

are pret ty good citizens as the qualities of citizen shi p must

be judged by proper sociological standards .

I t is not the past but the future that now concerns us

, , .

We are anxious not to lose the momentum of our three

centuries of social evolution We are certain that the future
.

presents difficulties and responsibilities not faced by th e pa st .

We ha v e grown to be a very numerous people ; our free lands

have been absorbed ; our raw re sources have been largely
preempted if not consumed Our eco nomic life has becom e
, .

complex beyond all previous example and our econom i c ,

interdependence correspondingly far reaching and acute -

—
.

”
Asp irations for more democrac y political social cul , ,

tural ind ustrial religious

, , increase in all parts of society ,

and thus grea tly complicate if they do not arrest the opera
, ,

tion of oth er means ma k in g for social efficiency I n a hundre d .

respects it is certain that the average Ame rican citizen of

the future will face responsibi lit ies calling for degrees of
intelligen ce and kinds of cooperative effort which in the
past have been dem anded only of a few leaders .

Th e civi c ed ucati on upon which we have built this republ i c

has been lar gely of an i ndirect order Home and church and .

school inculcated the simpler pre civic social vi rtues -

that
is ev eryday morals Publ ic and private schools have in
,
.

sured a cons ta nt increase of literacy which our forefathers ,

stones of good democratic citizen sh ip In spite of instances .

and occasio nal tendencies of a harm ful ch aracter the Ameri .

 IN TROD UC PORY CON SIDE RATION S
'
9

can pre ss has contributed immeasurably to the upbuilding

of intelligen t civic co nsciousness and ideals Scores of other .

enterpr ises international intercourse scien tific resea rch an d

, , ,

finally war itself .

But of conscious and p urposive civic edu cation based

upon a clear diagnos is of probable needs of ad ults we have ,

had heretofore little indeed beyond the instruction in ver

,

nac ular reading which ea rly became the central objective

in all public schools Am erican history and geography in

.

very formal and somewhat meag er meas ure we have also

included in elementary school curricula primarily for the
purposes of imparting civic vision and ideals Studies in .

civil governm ent and community civics have been developed

experim entally in progressive schools b u t so far neither
,

specific aims nor methods in th e se subjects have been at all

The pressing educational pro blems of the present then , ,

as regards pr eparation for citizenship are to be found not

,

so much in the domains of in direct education as in those ,

of direct and purposi v e instruct ion an d train ing towar d

clearly defined goals An analogy from another coordinate
.

field of education will illustrate this .

TH E EX A M P LE O F V OCA TI ONA L ED U C A TI ON
There began in our more progressive states some fifteen
or twenty years ago a mov em ent for publicly supported
“ ”
vocational educatio n I t was felt that many youths were
.

deprived of Oppo rtuniti e s to acqu ire vocationa l skills and

knowledge ; that industri e s agriculture and homemaking
, ,

were suffering because of the incompetency of young w ork

ers ; and that social well be ing on the whole was impaired
-

for the se reasons I t took time for us to gain proper per

.

spec tiv e in the campaign for voca tional education Finally .

10 CIVIC ED UCATION

now and in t he past , h av e followe d v ocat i

ons, and, sinc e

it follows that all these adu lts have by one me ans or anothe r , ,

received voca tional education using that term in a broad , ,

but sociolo gically justifiable sense ( 6) The metho ds of , .

of thre e kin ds namely : ( 1) school vocation al educa tion

, ,

w hich giv es us ab o ut 5 per ce nt of all adult wo rkers, chi

e fly

physicians army officers sten ographers pharmacists engi

, , , ,

neers agricultu ral experts elementary school te achers and

, , ,

ministers ; ( 2) apprenticeship vocational education giving ,

from 5 per cent to 6 per cent of all our workers ch iefly ,

carpen te rs machinists electricians tailors and other skilled

, , , ,

“
artisans ; and ( 3 ) what may properly be designated pick
”
up vocational education giving us approximately 90 per ,

cent of our workers among whom must be numbered nearly

,

all farmers homemakers factory workers clerks and casual

, , , ,

“
laborers In essence then the current movement for voca
.
, ,
”
t ion al education is in reality a social effort to substitute
“ ”
for pick up vocational education more efiect ual forms
-

that is more dire ct purposive and pedagogical forms

, , , .

T he leaders of this movement do not condemn as worth

l ess the vocational education of the past ; they perceive that
it has brought us to the wonderful stage of economic devel
o pme n t we have re ached today : b ut they strongly hold that

the old system is not sufficien t for future needs any more ,

“ ”
than was the private hit o r miss literary education of - -

former ages sufficien t for modern cultural and social ne eds .

Civic ed ucation Similarly must we in terpret the curren t

.

tion The win e of the new c itizenship inevitably deman ded

.

by our complex social order can no longer be preserved in

 IN TRODUCTORY CON SIDE RATION S 1l

the old bottles Domestic and community virtues indispe n

. ,

“ ”
sable as the y must continue to be for social group solidar
ity may be expected to play relatively diminishing rules in
,

that citizenship which must increasingly participate in a

“ ” “
hundre d responsibilitie s growing out of federate or large
political economic sanitary cul
, , ,

even martial .

educator s encounter many obstacles in

civic education Perhaps the most i m me
.

the prevailing confusion of term in o log .

Then too available means and methods of work are but

, ,

H e nce it w ill b e th e first purpose of this b ook to analy z e

those essentially sociological problems that must be so lved

before we can do effective work on courses and programs .

TH E A IMS O F ED U CA TION
civic education should at the outset there
, ,

accurately descriptive of certain distinctive

procedures in the total scheme of ed ucation .

the term but also ,

include almost an ything .

loath to say what their favorite shib

a lysis of all the qualities found in an approved

and segregat i on of those due to education
12 CIVIC EDUCATION

( school and non school ) ; or else by survey of all types of

-

education now consciously promoted by schools homes and , ,

other agen cies we can secure a conspectus of the hundre ds

,

of aims and procedures that can properly be called educa ~

tion al These we can proceed to group or classify as is done

.

with the phenomena studied in any science .

Within the entire field of educational object ives toward

” “ ” “ ”
good manh ood good citizenship
, social efficien cy , ,

sound charac ter etc these classifications may be based

, .
,

upon the principal ends controlling :

( 1) Ph ysical ed ucati on One set of educational procedure s
.

ai ms primar ily at promot ing development of body ph ysical ,

strength in general ideals of health special physical po wers

, , ,

recreative interests beauty longevity health knowledge ( pe n

, , ,

sonal hygiene and social sanitation ) I nc ide nta lb

, but only .
'

secondarily — these aims affect vocational success cultural ,

success and social success

, .

( )
2 V o cation a l e du cati on An other set of educational p
.ro

ce dures aims primarily at vocational success in terms of

th e skills technical knowledge appreciations and social
, , ,

ideals required to succeed in a specifi ed vocation — cg ,

carpenter poultry grower or electrica l engineer I nciden

, , .

tal ly th ese aims overlap with those o f physical c ultural

, , ,

and social education .

( )
8 Cultur a l e d u c ati on A third set of objectives
. cen ters
in th e cultivation of those intellectual an d aesthetic inte re st s .

appreciations and non vocational powers that enrich the

,
-

personal or in dividual life apart from social or vocational ,

“
ends These objectives involve chiefly development of high
.

"
grade consumers appreciations ( in art literature trav el
’
, , ,

general knowledg e history sci ence an d the like) some

, , , ,

“
times acco mpanied by powers o amateur execution
( painti n g music
, cr aftsmanship
, re search ) Cultural educa , .

tion as here defined has incidental but not prim ary relation
I4 CIVI C EDUCATI ON

clau ifie d in only o ne o f t he ab o v e cate gories Be ading as .

taugh t to sm all ch ildren will late r function pe rha ps e q ually , ,

in re alizati on of cultural vocation al and social objecti ve s

, , .

Physical play in some forms may give re sults of equal

i mportance to physical and to social development But in .

la ter stages every scientific ten dency in education is toward

differen tia tion of specific obje ctives as a condition of effective

tion and comparative valuation of a ids to be achiev ed ,

in gen eral but finally with referenc e to specific type s classes

, , ,

or grade s of individuals and particular societies .

Kinds of social ed u cation Within the gen eral field of

.

social education then we can distinguish three large divi

, ,

si ons : ( a) that wh ich fits the indi vidual primarily for g ood
membership in family and non politica l associate groups -

moral education ; ( 6) that which fits for membership in

—
political an d all other federate groups civic ed ucation ; and
( c) that which fits for religious relationsh ips with deity
religious education .

The evolution of early social life took plac e chiefly in

connection with associate groups and relig ion s relationships .

Primitive social groups were small and intergroup relation ,

ships infrequent and of the sim plest order usually war

or barter The evolution of federate groupings of po litical
.

kinds phratries federated clans expanded tribes sub

, , ,

j ugated are as city states provinces ki ngdoms nati ons

,
-
, , , ,

federations alliances
, is but of th e sociological ye sterday .

Si nce this political evolution has involved terrific strains ,

federate groups I n the bas ic ev olution of social qualities

”
.

it is probable that the village ranks next to the family in

 ON SI D E RATI ON S I5

historians find little to re c ord in the cease

social forces in village life .

G RO UPS D EVE LO P N E E DS or o m a m z m) CIVI C

E DU C ATI ON

thus again interpret curren t publ ic interest in

as a school function State hood in its m odern
.

nationalism municipal relationships the

, ,

state for only

upon it for

others Some of us want

.

hou se building coal min ing

-
.
-
,

political functions of societ y that

have long transcended

of modern exchange of

to us as
technical
manual labor unionise
fro m one boundary of
organize themselves in

diminish distance and other bar

16 CIVIC EDUC ATION

riera to social intercourse but they so multiply and ma gnib

,
'

social interdependencies that face to face contac ts come to

-

play a negligible part in many of the m ost vital of human

relationships Current aspirations for democracy seeking
.
,

to exalt not only the individual but every kind of individual

, ,

complicate social structure and processes st ill more D emo .

cratic conditions are hard enough to secu re within pri mary

groups where the w armth of face to face co ntacts prevails ;
- -

but the difficulties are enhanced tenfold when dist ance

begets impersonality and the social magnitudes to be dealt
“
with override the possibilities of pe rsonal likings and small
”
group appeals .

Hence the persistent even if on ly half articula te demands

,
-
,

in all civilized countries for varietie s and amounts of civic

,

ed ucation adequate to prepare men for the ir recently de

ve lope d responsibilities an d op portunitie s in the social order

now so rapidly evolvin g Th e empires develop ed through

.

conquest i n the past were indeed complex but only a special ,

“ ”
i sed governing class needed to be educa ted for the func
“ ”
tions of social control over those large groups Now we .

diffuse that control very widely Civic virtues have hereto

.

fore been simply the moral virtues expan ded but tha t ,

process of providing for dem o cratic social control of right

kinds will no longer suffice Society must addre ss itself
.

more than ever for securi ty to te achers not in civic ,

matters so much to teachers in general perhaps as to

, , ,

specialized teachers of civic education .

 C H AP T E R T W O

S U G G E S TI O N S To T E A C HE RS : C IV I C E DU C A TI O N IN

S EC ON D A RY S CH OO LS

T H E P EN D IN G H E ORG AN I ZA TI ON O F SECONDA R Y
ED U CA TION
TI I E E E
is a ne w and better secondary education now in
process of forma tion in America The hist oric stereotyped
.

high school subjects of st udy are being exam ined from new
angle s Heretofore it has been a matter of un questioned
.

academic faith that their educa tional worth was great .

Hen ce education al discussion was chiefly concerned with

best met hods of teaching and testing them Now many .

educators are daring to quest ion whether after all the , ,

study of algebra is so important that all high school pupils

should be req uired to take it Some are losing confidence
.

in the educational values of French Ancient H istory and

, ,

Physics as now taught They even suggest that the ob jec

.

tives of the E nglish st udies ought carefully to be reexamined

fro m the standpo int of ascertained socia l needs and learners ’

m ands .I n the meantime new demands upon

educat i on are also bein g made Many laymen .

educators believe that the public high schools

should devote far more attention and effort to

l or liberal arts high school should concern

“ ”
cultural education insist that more
,

special forms of insight that raise the

resources wherewith richly to
life Vocational guidance and
.

others to be of much potential

18 CIVIC EDUCATION

importance in secondary education All seem now to be

.

agre e d th a t i
n th t h or I Ot t ade t here sh ou ld b e a co urse
-

“
in gen eral scien ce the objectives of which should be
“ “ ”
essentially cultural rather than practical in the voca ,

t io na l sense .

Demands for more and better civic ed ucation are a part

of the new movement The pu b lic su pport of high schoo ls
.

has long claimed just i fication on the ground that these were
“ "
essentially schoo ls of good c i t izenship This claim does
.

not now stand up well under critical analysis it is true ; but ,

there can h e no doubt that it has alwa ys embodied stro ng

aspirations We all know that high sch ool grad uates will
.

'

furnish to soc i ety a far larger pro po rtio n o f leaders in busi

n e ss follow ers of the h ighest voca tions and men and wom en
, ,

of influ ence generally than will those young persons who

,

do not enter high schools Naturally we desire that in pro

.

portion to their opportunit i es these gradua tes shall be dis »

posed and able to be ex cellent citiz en s .

Now there are many prospects that we are as a people , ,

bent upon translating our asp irat i ons more de finitely into
programs of ac hiev e ment than heretofore We are especially .

determ ined that more of the soc i al sc i ences shall be taught

—
in our secondary schools under which term are to be included
the junior high schools which will probably incr easingly
repla ce the upper grade organ ization of the elementary school
in all progressive communities .

In fact we are seeking something more comprehen si ve

,

and better than the tea ching of the social sciences We .

want to assure better civic educatio n whether by means of

,

“ ”
formal st udies or by any oth er me ans which will function
, .

The proposed reorganiz at i on of secondary education

may well involve some rearrangem ents or extensions of
dep artmen tal teaching We ought soon to have in all our
.

high schools specialists who know much about the aims and
CIVIC EDUCATION IN SECONDAR Y SC H OO LS 19

y sil education Our larger secondary

c a . schools
have specialists in vocat ional guidan ce .

8.profe ssion al group of specialists in civic educa

present we usually assign to te achers of history
su bjects There is of course no i nherent reason
.

ed in historical studies should he found

organiz e and adm inister civic education ,

tor ic al scien ces are pro perly to be in

“
ng the soc i al sciences But many history
.

college develop also exceptional interests in

pol i tical science sociology and other social
, ,

From them will come probably during the next

a large proportion of the departme ntal teac hers
other subjects making up the courses in civic

assumed that the reader is either now or i n

a teacher employed in a combin ed junior
,

school to organiz e and conduct a ll the

,

educa tio n direct ly designed to produce good

has had several college courses in history
Consulting his own ease he would
only b ut he has become doubtful
,

history as now taught in a scheme

, ,

He would be glad to teach high school

formal economics which he h i mself had in
again he is aware that economics is but
g civic education i n grades
by various activities or projects of which scout
regarded as simply an exceptionally successfu l
example The purpose here is to su rvey the field
.

to indicate its few solved and its

and to suggest mea ns for the
mld b e expe c te d fm m these teac hers? W ha t w ill

is the meaning of ci vic ed ucation ?

are the pre sent needs of civic educa tion ?

shall be the objectives of civic education ?

we now find sociolo g ical source s or foundation s

base replies to the foregoing questions ?

shall be the methods of civic education ?
e now find psychological guidance to the di scov

methods and also to the testing of the re sults ?

B
‘
U I /I S AS SHOW N I N AN A D U LT CI TIZ EN
he case oe . B , who at th e age of forty is
I tialrespects a m an to be approved both for
l and for his social qualitie s We should speak .

“ ”
good man or loosely as a good citizen All
, , , .

le qualities resting on foundations of go od hered

,

ture re flect the education to which he h as been

,

-
the education of his home church and com , ,

iro nm e nt the education of the schools he has

,

I d finally the self imposed education of h i s later

—
-

d Ire ct i
on .

afi cie ncy . On the physical side Mr B possesses .

Dd st rength essential to work and ge neral happi

as a reasonable knowledge of personal hygiene .

enou gh to employ expert medical se rvice when

But the kinds of education that have contributed

.

in the needs and po ssib ih ties of public sa nitation

educate him that later he would consciouab
I sanita ry regulations and laws and in addition , ,

ive part in promoting the further development

22 CIVIC EDUCATION

cultural efficiency social efi c ie ncy in the more specific sense

—
.

That means that as a member of social groups sm all or

large he will be a good conformist and a positive force
-
.

He will be moral law abi ding cooperative friendly patri

,
-

—
, , ,
“ ”
otic and religious
. a good grou p member He will be .

“ “ "
strong and soun d in family relations as a church man , ,

in conn ection with political parties and as a pro m o ter of ,

“ ”
community well being These qualiti es of social efi c ien cy
-
.

w ill incidenta lly contribute to his h e alth voc ational succe ss , .

and cultural growth ; but from the standpoint of educationa l

processes all history proves that they can and should be
made en ds in themselves .

TH E SOCIA LLY EFF ICI ENT M

AN

The efficient man (or woman ) as we know him then is , ,

a compos ite of many parts and qua lities One set of these .

q ualities we recognize as being primarily physical physica l

health physical strength physical endurance physical
, , ,

grace Another set of his qualities we think of as primarily

.

vocational the skills technical knowledge an d workers

, ,
’

ideals that from small beginn ings acquired between twelve

,

and twenty years of age have grown to be a su bstan tial ,

part of his tot al character and product i ve powers A third .

group of his qualit i es we describe as cultural his enduring

personal interest s in good speech good rea ding good music , , ,

good pict ures travel nature history refined manners and

, , , , ,

the like A fourth Se t of the qualities which make him

.

worth while are essentially social the qualities which are

directly reflected in his moral civic and religious behavior , , .

So urce s of efi ciency Toward the production of the array

.

of approved qualities foun d in the man who is socially and

individually efficien t many agencies have contributed His .

stock ancest ry or heredity provided the foundations of

, ,

body and i nstincts Th e conditio ns of his nurture shaped

.
 CIVIC EDUCATION IN S ECONDAR Y SCH OOLS 23

and reshaped these d uring the en tire period of his prenatal

and postnatal growth Taking him as we find him we may .
,

safely guess that his parents were healthy intelligent moral , , ,

and industrious people ; that they insured to him during his

prolonged in fancy am ple food shelter and rest ; and that , ,

they made i t poss i ble for him to have an abundance of

play assoc iation with others of his own age and a wide
, ,

“
range of exper ience But they also trained him in the way
.

”
he should go forcin g him where imita tion and suggestion
, ,

“ ”
did not suffice to behave properly , to exhibit decent ,

manners to work and to take care of his body

, , .

When he first went to school at six years of age he was

a lready well advanced in the w ays of the world that w as
becoming increasingly his He had acquired vernacular .

speech numberless motor powers and a host of forms of

, ,

social behavior toward parents older brothers playfellows , , ,

“ ”
adult acquaintances and strangers He only played at
, .

wor k as yet but on the cultural side his hom e and neigh
,

b or ho o d en vironment had al ready given him man y likin gs ,

“ ”
disliking s interest s tastes appreciations
, , , .

F or the next ten or fifteen years his schools played a

large but in only a few particular respects a paramount
, ,

part in mak ing him what he eventually became To his .

ear ly schools he owed almost wholly his mastery of the

mechanics of reading writ ing compos i tion and num bers
, , ,
.

H is later schools did much to increase and deepen his

kn owledge of na ture history other languages and literature
, , ,
.

They added something to what his par ents had taught him
of hygiene and current events By the grou ps cr eated within .

schoo lroo m school building laboratory or library he was

, , ,

induced or if necessary forced to learn and to practice

, , , ,

new forms of socia l behavior Also he soon adapted himself .

to the various social groupings growing around the fringes

of his schools his home and his neighborhood
, , .
24 CIVIC EDUCATION

Growth after sch ool . Pim e ntly he wen t to work — partly

to th at m inority w h o fin d opportuni
ty to b e b -
aine d for
their work in vocational schools But in his v om tional .

school or in the pursui t of his vocation itself b e st eadily ,

tio nal, but secondarily physical social and cultural , , . As

these or iented and molded by his environment in and ou t

,

of schools eventually gave final shape to his personal ch w

,

acter an d his place among men .

a p ict ure o f t h e proces ses sugg este d ab o ve I n TI w Edw .

w him of Henry A dams one of the stro ng and sensiti ve m en

of th e last gen erati o n has told suc h a sto ry wi th m uc h
literary and som e psychological power
, , . Perhaps educators
sh o uld often read m any kinds of b io graphy in orde r to
see their own contribution m true perspectiv e something
that is hardly practicable when the eye s rest on sch ool

I t is fro m st udy of this kind th at we can b est analy se ,

classify and ev entually evaluate the desirable

, and practica

besides schools Schools are th e primary agencies of educa

.

tio n only in certain l imited respects The ver nacular speech .

,
“ ”
the small group morals the vocational pow ers as well
, ,

as a large pro portion of the cultural tastes and interests of

our fellow men and women were chiefly acquired from nom

agencies in giving powers of reading writing number and . , ,

in con tributing some data of science history and art H ow , , .

far the active interests of a typical man or woman of forty

 CIVIC EDUCATION IN SECONDARY SC H OOLS 25

in literature civic affairs co nte m mrary ev ents and recrea

, , ,

tion are trac eable more than incidentally to what schools

have done must finally be solved by educational studies

EDU CA TI ONA L o m sc rrv ss

The first and fundamental groupings of educational oh

qualities of efficient adults are as implied above the four

, ,

classe s physical vocational cultural and social These

, , , , .

classes are not rigid or alto gether mutually exclusive but ,

for the present they will serve many useful purposes in

provided we do not waste time
extent The facts of physical
.

b o th as to results seen in ad ults

patent The word cultu re is itself

.

flic ult ie s can easily arise in trying to

of c ultural education But it is .

to interpret culture ( as one major

ts non utilitarian -

as having litt le connect ion

ac tivitie s .

m an express themselve s in his

to postulated supernatural
a member of scores rising to hundreds , ,

is born into some forced into others , ,

st ill o thers These social groups may

.

most obvious
efficient man
son brother husband father Among those
, , , .

he wor ks vocatio n ally he is according to cir ,

“ "
a good servant employee foreman com
, , ,

sport and perhaps gentleman As

, , , .
96 CIVIC ED UCATION

a community member he is characterized as i

publ c spirited
-
,

progre ssive safe law ab idin g generous o pen handed I n

, ,
o

, ,
-
.

relation to municipality and st ate he will be an upholde r

of the laws a conservator ( believi ng in conservation of
,

social goods ) a sound voter a willing taxpayer a good

, , ,

“ ”
party man a good worker 1n giving unpaid service a true
, ,

“ "
reformer a radica l in his disposi tion to correct vested
,

evils Toward h is coun try he will be a patriot a good soldier

. ,

in tim e of da nger a helpful cou nselor a liberal for progress

, , .

Since no na tion can live unto itself alone the socially efficient ,

man reflects al so certain sentiments knowledge and deter , ,

m inat ion s in spheres of international action He favors .

“ ”
peace but also just ice and the square deal as bet ween
, ,

nation an d nation He di sl ikes rac e prej udices and fights

.

their promptings in h i mself F inally as a member of a .

,

society that includes by hypothesis invisible divinities and , ,

malevolent bein gs he gives to God rev erence the sac rifice

, ,

of worship and conformity to divine will as he beli e ves it

,

revealed to him .

STA N DA R D O F SOC IAL ‘

VO RT H

Any t pe or spec i es of education that 18 directed primarily

y
toward im provin g one or man y of the social relationships
is social education History abounds 1n examples of educa
.

tio nal efforts to make youth or ad ults bett er sons fathers , ,

servants employers mixers comm unity mem bers patriots

, , , , ,

worshipers I ncidenta lly these efforts may enhance we alth

.
,

vocat ional proficiency or personal culture ; but that is not ,

th e ir primary justifica tion All such efforts presuppose .

“
st an dards of group excellence as fixed by custom even ,

if not always held consciously Any one of us can eas ily .

give expre ssion to conceptions as to wha t constitu tes a

“ ”
good family vocational grouping ( partners employees
, ,

an d employers or corporation) community municipality

, , , ,

state nation world party church or social company

, , , , , .
 CIVIC EDUCATION IN SECONDARY SC HOOLS 27

Social virtues There are certa in virt ues that appear

.

in more or less specialized forms in various social groups .

Truthfulness is apparently a relatively essential virtue in

all group life ; so also is toleration de signed to unify for
some purpose individuals largely unlike and strange to eac h
“ ”
other The word cooperation may be appl i ed to virtues
.

that seem to possess so me co m mon characterist ic but which

certainly vary in such groups as the family the nation and , ,

industrial organ iz ations Property ho nesty is held as a.

virtue whereve r it is important for the group to increase or

conserve indi vidual possessions especi ally of a mater ial ,
.

character Only in some group relations h ips such as those

.
,

of husband and wife employees and employers and a gov

, ,
“ ”
ernin g group toward indi vidual subject s does justice ,

become an important v irtue I n other special connections .

m ercy piety chas tity temperance an d the l ike assume

, , , ,

importance as social virtues Loyalty fidelity courage .

, , ,

kindliness are of many very distinct ive species according

, ,

to the character of the social groups in which they are

E xperience prov es that individuals are often more or less

in co nflict with the requirements of their social groups .

Co ns tant friction results The individual tries to escape the

.

group or to lessen i ts control over his action Everywhere .

abou t us we see childre n rebelling against parental control ,

“ ”
p arty member s bre aking with their party men leaving ,

the church wives divorcing their husbands employees

, ,

striking partnerships dissolving trai tors and anarchists

, ,

figh t i ng governments robbers p illaging the community

, .

Hence as re spects indi viduals we get dissent un truthfulness

, , ,

revolt rebellion delinquen cy sin crime disloyalty and the

, , , , , ,

Social coerc ion Nor is it the individual who is always

.

in th e wrong — “ ” “
if we use the words ri ght an d wrong
”
28 CIVI C EDUCATION

to mean the conduct which ten ds respe ctively to make or

“
bre ak the well being of the greatest number in the long
-

”
run . I t is easily po ssible for the group 1m duly to coerce
the individual to lay too he avy a burden on him to cut
, ,

o ff possibilities for his personality ei ther physically men ,

tally socially or vocationally At times pare nts expect to o

, , .

munity browbeats the co nscientious member Art in all its

—
.

forms — bu t e specially in drama story and son g re , ,

hearses endless tales of revolt Perhaps this is because unda .

vidual in justifying his dissent ,

—
self determi n ation , or revolt .

Of m ore interest to m ode rn socie t ies at least aae th e co m

pe t i
t i
v e e fl o rts of variou s groups for the contribution s tha t
a m an ca n m a k e to the colle cti v e success of eac h gm np .

The time energy an d devotion that an individual can give

, ,

to various groups are obviously limited ; and many of his

groups are often 1n potential if not actual conflict for what , ,

he can give A man s fam ily h as prior claims on a large

’
.

devotion his time He may easily so give of these that

, .

he 13 niggardly to political party church the community , , ,

and the state Similarly a man may easily so center his

.

“ ”
efforts in his business or his fellowship societies as to
,

neglect his family Through taxation and conscription the

.

state may ass ert i ts paramount claim s in the interest of

public safety ; but it som etimes doe s so to a degree that
deprives other groups of their j ust dues .

Com pe titi on for ascendancy But of st ill greater momen t .

is the nev er ending struggle of social gro ups for ascen dency .

Nation is i n compet ition with nation church with church , ,

party with party indust rial group with industrial group

, .

Also state is in competiti o n with church sociability grou ps ,

30 CIVIC EDUCATION

not merely the exercise of civic or even in a mo re limited ,

sense po litical functions but also the possession of basic

,

qualities which condi tion in large measure the exercise of

those qualities .

Indirect factors of citiz en sh ip For example a man s

’
. ,

s uccess in his vocation or his potential vocational proficien cy

are not in any ordinary sense a part of his citizenship I t .

is clear however that what he will be able to do as a citizen

, , ,

“ ”
through his virtues as a follower or by those of lead ership
, ,

w i ll be largely con ditioned by h is vocational appreciation s

and powers .

The same applies in the field of physical h ms Heal th

a
.

and citizenship in the ordin ary sense are things far apart .

Nevertheless it can well be held that the man who is physi

cally unfi t is thereby precluded in large measure from the
exercise of civic responsibilities and functions that are easi ly
possible to the ph ysically well m an .

Similar cons i derati ons apply to those areas of social life

"
involving what for the sociologist are the small group
relationships E ducation for citizenship normally would not
.

i nclude education for fami ly m embershi p I t is certain .

,

however that the m an whose fam ily m embership is open

,

to serious social criticism is thereby impaired as to his

abilities to exercise civic funct ions .

“ ” “
The words citizen and citizenship may therefore , ,

be probably too inclusive too confused with varied conn o

,

ta tion s to be profitably employed as embracing only th e

,

proper objectives of civ i c education We must wait and see.

whethe r popular usage will have its way here ; we may be

forced to admit that all good educa tion contributes to the
“ " “
ma king of the ap provable citizen it is all good Ameri
”
cani sm , perhaps But we need not thus extend the useful
.

“ ”
words ci vic educat i on .
 CIVIC EDUCATION IN SECONDARY SCH OOLS 31

SOME FU R TH ER PR OB LEMS OF DEFI NITI ON

I t is necessary to recognize that there are many kin ds
of education beca use there are many kinds of results to
,

be ac hieved t hrough education Schools teach handwri ting

.
,

dancing and a foreign language toward very unlike ends

, .

The methods employed also di ffer greatly Similarly such .

more generalized forms of education as physical and voca

t ion al must differ fundamentally not only in practical pur
pose but in essential me thods as well .

U nfort unately these distinctions are not wil lingly accepted

in the p resent sta te of educational discussion Con .

fusion also arises from present tendencies everywhere to

“ ”
stretch the values of ed ucation I t is cla imed that ath
.

letics are v aluable means of education for citizenship ; that

“ ”
the study of mathematics makes a clear thinkin g citizen ;
-

that music should be st udied as a means of ci vic education .

Vari ous purpos e s of edu cati on For the sake of practical

.

efficiency in their work educators must learn to cons i der

separately the various specific purposes that at any given ,

age should cont rol at least all direct and purposive educa
,

t i on I n no other way can efficient means and methods

.

be devised I n all other affairs of civilized l ife we recognize

.

that one ( and almost always only one ) primary purpose sho uld
determine and control a given course of action A factory .

or any given part of it is erected to produce a specified

in deed be many b y products just as
-
,

cation A child being taught b and

.

ro duc ts some physi cal and

the e ssential reasons for
are not to be found in
32 CIVIC ED UCATION

use the term citizenship as little as practicable and then ,

only in the limited sense heretofore specified .

F irst civic education does not include trainin g in reading

, ,

spelling handwriting or simple arithmetic or in other fun da

, , ,

mental processes such as drawing the re ad ing o f a foreign

,

language or fo rms of laboratory manipula tion I t inclu de s

, .

none of the prim ary forms of physical or vocatio nal educa

tion F inally it excludes many forms of cultural education
. ,

where the controlling purpose is to establish enduring in ter

ests of an e sthetic or in te llectual nature toward the enrich
ment of the individual life .

O BJ ECTIVES O F C IVI C ED U CA TI ON
The special objectives of civic education then have to , ,
“ ”
do lar gely with political and other large group member
ship including compliance wi th laws of state municipality
, , ,

a The promotion of the appreciations ide als att itudes

. , , ,

and minor amounts of understanding necessary to procure

conformity being always measured in terms of specific forms

of social activity such as honesty in property relatio nships
, ,

obedience to traffic law s et c ,

b Promotion of th e kin ds and degrees of evotion to

.

these types of devot ion can well be calle

d patriotism , but
CIVIC EDUCATION IN SECONDAR Y SC H OOLS 33

nal religious and other

, ,

al objectives of civic education

often best be understood by
com
such
may be called
that may we ll

racial groups F rom another

.

be made on the basis of culture ,

further subdivide on the bas is of com

more of the foregoing qual ifying condi
are typical of the questions that suggest

on the basis of their civic qualit ies in

superior average inferior and poor
, , ,

presen t assuming the application of the same

all groups what are the proportions of citizens
,

or grade in the city of A ?

among 1000 women fac

proportions respectively among men of at least

ed ucation no w in business ?
proportions respectively among 100 negro manual

analysis pre supposes a composite estimate

Many kinds of refinements are possib le .

various groups could be rated purely with

cc with the laws of the common

reference to their activity in party

disposition to initiate
34 CIVIC EDUCATION

Var i abl e ivi c pate rnialities I t is evident however that

c .
, ,

such ratin gs of citizens will be l imi ted in usefuln e ss because

they presuppose uniform poten tial civic powers Society .

has a right to expect that 100 men who have had the ad
vantages o f the native ab i l i ties and environm ents that enable
them to gradua te from college shall be held for very d ifferent
am oun ts and kinds of civic virtue from those who have
had no such advantages Consequently a still more com
.

plet a sys te m of evaluating citizenship would su ggest ques

tions like th e following :
a . In terms of the standards of civic worth deemed appro
pris te by a competent jury for men who are college grad
ua te s who are su cce ssful in business and who are from 30
, ,

to 5 0 years of age what are the relative proportions of men

,

of each c i vic grad e found in 100 college graduates of this

description in the cit y of B ?
b I n ter m s of civic standards appropriate to unmarried
.
,

negro manual workers in Northern cities of from 25 to 40

years of age what are the proportions of good citizens as
, ,

judged only with referen ce to compliance with laws found ,

among 100 negroes chosen at random in the city of C ?

Ult i mately for studies of this character we must derive
not only the qualities of civic worth that shall be sought
through school education but standards of reasonable expec
tancy of civic v irtues for different social classes .

Such ana lysis may reveal for example that negro ch ildren
, ,

of less than average intelligence in our publ i c schools should ,

between the ages of 12 and 15 be trained in compliance

,

wi th laws given ideals of good conforming citiz enship and

, ,

given considerable drill in the most simple of economic

principles .

On the other hand in a junior high school offering a con

siderab le range of electives in social science subjects the ,

kinds of civic instruction that would be pro vi ded and recom

 CIVIC EDUCATION IN SECONDAR Y SC HOOLS 35

mended for those brighter and better circumstanced indi

v idua ls who will very probably go th rough high school and

into college and thence into the higher vocations might ,

"
well include training in reasoning about a large number
of deba table problems in social sciences as well as a very ,

considera b le experience of the kind of leadership that scout

ing and commu nity ser v ice work prov ide .

J USTIFICA TI ON O F CIVI C ED U CA TI ON
, Why to what extent and toward what specific goals or
, ,

objectives does modern society and conspicuously that of ,

America need more and better civ i c education ? Sooner or

,

later we must be ab le to give reasonably scientific answers

to this questio n .

Our popular faiths here are important They serve as .

Pole Star ideals of ori e ntation at least even if they gi ve ,

no idea of dis tances or character of courses Let us review .

some of them :
Ou r state its gov e rnmental institutions and our individual
, ,

relations to these rest on constitutions representative gov ,

ernm e nt general suffrage and ideals of de m ocracy

, I n all
, .

re spects these tend to exalt the place and importance of the

individual which means more specifically all kinds of ind i
,

vid ua ls good and h ad i nformed and un informed far , ,

“ “
s i ghted or short sighted little group minded or b i g
-
,

”
group minded More than under other polit i cal system s
.

the average man in America is able to help the welfare of

his fello ws throughout the sta te according to the degree to
“ ”
which he is able minded and rightly predisposed
-
.

Hence one need of more and better civic education even ,

than that which gave us the boys of 76 of 186 1 and of ’

, ,

19 17. Good citizens in some cases very good cit izens can
, ,

still be made when the school only ad ds l i teracy and a slight

knowledge of Am erican history and geography to the moral
36 CIVIC EDUCATION

considerations it is des irable as in the case of hygien e

, , ,

that we reduce mortality an d morbidity rate s We should . .

proportions at any level of Grades C and D citizens and

, ,

increase the proportions of Grades A and B cit iz ens We .

can do this not so much per haps by follow ing the methods
, ,

with specific new ob jec ti

TH E GEN ERA L NEED OF CIVI C ED UCA TI ON

How would the soc iologist determine the needs of civic
education at any time and in any given socie ty ?
He would first define what is meant by the civic virtues
as these show the mselves in the behavior of adults Any one .

can readily en umerate scores of these virtues by name I t .

is hard of course to avoid the use of excessiv ely abstract

, ,

words in describing them and it is almost impossible for

,

even the sociologist as yet to indicate their relative im

It helps here to classify some civic virtues as virtues of

”
conformity and others as virtues of initiativ e Obeying the .

laws conformi ng to the ordinary requirements of the socia l

,

order and accepting grace q y the conscriptive requirements

—
.

of society to attend school serve in the army serve o n

—
, ,

juries pay taxes

. are among the conformist virtues B ut .

forci ng others to obey the laws forming parties to e fi ect

,

particular reforms an d scrutinizing the acts of o fi cials are

,

among the virtu es of initiative .

We ofte n need stil l more special definitions What is .

“ "
mean t by good political party membership and what is ,

the i mportance of various forms of party behavior ? Wha t

38 CIVIC EDUCATION
so m n v s me an mc ED U CA TION
’

or c m sc a oo ns

What are the evidences of the need for civ ic educa tion
in schools ?
To discover these needs it is des irable that we first pr oceed
to eval uate civic education of no n school agen cie s such as
-

family church nei gh borhood environment party and

, , , ,

vocation I n all of the se cases we are dealing principally

.

with what Cooley calls primary grou ps These agencies are .

very effective for particular forms of m oral educat i on They .

culti v ate the soil out of which may be expected to spring

“ ”
some large group V irtues But modern social organization
.

makes increasing demands for the civic virtues of political

and other large groups which these primary associations do
not ade quately meet .

Crim i nal i ty as a m eas ure The general prevale nce of crime

.

is sometimes urged as a reason for civic educat i on through

sch ools Ordinarily however pleas put on this basis overlook
.
, ,

certain social facts On the one hand criminal classes are

.

recruited very largely from family and other small groups

that are themselves socially deficient On the other han d .

criminal classes show an abnormal proportion of mental sub

normality More and better education could undoubtedly
.

reduce the proportion of criminals but to be effective it ,

would have to be specialized education at least for all ages

upwards of 10 or 1 1 I t will have to be special ized in the
.

first place to offset the disa dvantage s of home environment .

I n the second plac e it will have to be specialized in order

to make the most of deficient mental powers .

But the real needs of civic education must be considered

first of all with respect to the 7 0 to 90 per cent of adult
men and women of the country today who alre ady compose
a body of moderately good but not suffici ently good ci tize ns .

The needs of civic educa tion are sometimes derived from

stu dy of contemporary po litics I t requires no very compe
.
 C I VIC EDUCATION IN SECONDAR Y SC H OOLS 39

tent powers of observat i on to see in contemporary politics

much of inefficiency indifference and even corrupt i on So
, , .

far however no satisfactory ev i dence has been adduced to

, ,

show that persons who have received the smalles t amounts

of civic education now offered are relatively to their abilities
,

and opportunities in ferior in civic virtues to those who

,

have received lar ge amounts of such education I t is not .

certain for example that the co llege graduates of America

, , ,

having in view their superior native abilities and the excel

len t environmen t in which they were reared are propor ,

tionately better in civic virtues than less fortunate citizens

Grow ing com plexity of social lif e M uch more satisfactory

.

ar e the arguments growing out of the increasing complexity

of social life on the one hand and increasing needs for

,

dem ocrac y on the other Our modern economic life has

.

become enormously specialized and the component com

,

munity and other groups in our society are interdependent

in degrees that did not exist former ly B ut social control .

must extend over the larger groups and the funct io n s of

government are obviously beco m ing more complex I t is .

therefore a fair inference that society must find in all or at ,

lea st in some of its members powers of civic understanding

,

and ac tion far surpassing those formerly called for .

Another set of valid arguments can be built upon modern

conceptions of social economics Our ancestors could largely
.
,

becam e they must tolerate high morta lity an d morbidity

,

rates as well as much poverty and general social deficiency .

One large goal of modern societ y is the lessening of these

various sources of personal unha ppiness We are striving .

steadily to lessen the rate of disease and to preven t thriftless

ness and low efficien cy generally .

For exac tly the same reasons modern social economics

aims to low er the ratios o f lawless vicious and corrupt in
, ,
40 CIVIC EDUCATION

all social groups Our forefathers could tolerate a cer tain

.

amount of venal ity in politics perhaps because they were

,

it We have set ourselves higher standards and civ ic edu

.
,

cation becomes one of the means of achieving them .

DI F F E R E NTI A TI O N B O F TH E S P EC IFI C O BJ ECTIV ES O F C IVIC

ED U CA TI ON
As stated earl ier by objectives is here meant som et hing
,

more than aims pu rposes or intentio ns Rather the term

, , .

“ ”
means the goals to be re alised the achievem ents an d ,

attainments that are definitely expected Aims may be

—
.

qualitative without being quantita tive that is they may ,

designate direction without distance The Pole Sta r is ofte n

.

“ ”
an orien ting ideal or aim for mariners but it is never ,

a goal Lightho uses are often goa ls or stations partly to

.
,

steer by but partly also to pass

, .

The objectives of civic education like those of many ot her

,

forms of education can profitably be divi ded into two classe s

,

or orders the dev elopmental ( beta) and the projective

( alpha ) .The resul ts in adult life of the pursuit of dev elop
mental object ives can hardly be tested at least by any ,

methods now kn own B ut the results of the pursuit of pro

.

jec t iv e objectives ought to be within the powers of socio

logical science to determine .

The derivation of objectives of civic educa tion can best

be made on the same basis as that previously su gge s ted
for the st udy of the needs of su ch education — “
the case

Ca se Group M
N I n certain New E ngland cities large
.

numbers of girls (from 16 to 22) and smaller num b m of

women ( unm arri ed from 28 to 40) are employed m textile
 CIVIC EDUCATION IN SECONDAR Y SC H OOLS 41

We ca n assume that 60 per cent of them have more than

a s ixth grade and less than a ten th grade education ; 15 per
- -

cent have tenth grade education or more and 25 per cent

-
,

( some foreign born ) less than a sixth grad e education -

.

M ost of these workers live fairly moral but rather ding , ,

th ey depend heavily upon the photo d rama consider ably -

,

upon comm ercia lized dances much upon street visiting , ,

only slightly upon home associations and hardly at all ,

upon cooperative activities of an amateur character They .

read freely afternoon newspapers and 40 per cen t patron ,

ize freely the fict ion of the public library Alm ost none read .

articles or books on civic afi airs .

Some are membe rs of unions but take little inte rest ,

exce pt in t im es of m isis
'
. Th ey are highly speciali
ze d in
their work earning fairly good wages b u t having little to
,

anticipate of economic advancement Some are careful .

savers but by ordinary standards most of them are extrav a

,

gant spenders .

Their polit ical interests are m eager and e ssentially con

ve ntion al — that is they leave to others all act ivities pre
,

liminary to voting and in votin g follow behests of leaders

,

heard or read about They know very little indeed abou t

.

pr oblems of contemporary politics Th ey cherish many .

Their extra school education

-
home church n eighbor , ,

hood sh Op
,
— has made them fairly good citizens as regards
ob m a nce of laws and socially approved con ventions .

Th e sing gen eration Growing up in these cities are

ri .

today thousands of girls who will follow vocationally in the

foot steps of their elders of the above case group On the .

average their parents have had slightly more contact with

49 CIVIC EDUCATION

American institutions and th ey themse lve s may be expected

to average about one grade more of schooling be side s 140 ,

hours of continuation school ing between age s 14 and 16 .

The problem is set us of providin g for the newer gener ation

more e ffective civic educatio n than that h ad by the el ders .

For the presen t we shall consider possibilities in connection

with all those who attend sev enth and eighth grades but
who will not go farther ( except for 140 or 280 hours part
time school attendance the possibilities of which for civic
educa tion are st ill uncertain ) .

Assume fu rther that in the seventh and eighth grades

one fourth of all available school time ( or a total of 7 20
hours within an d wi thout the school ) is avai lable for civic
educa tion to include all that is given of history Assume
, .

that in the first six grades civic education remains sub stan
t ia lly as at presen t developmental readin gs projects and , ,

discipline with about 100 hours system atic American histcn y

,
v

an d 100 hours social geography in Grades 5 and 6 .

By such sociol ogica l analysis we can br ing o ume lves to

the place where the making of constructive proposals becomes
p rofitable I n later chapters some methods for such work
.

are suggested .

CI VI C ED U CA TI ON AND TH E T EA CH ER O I" SOCIA L SCI ENC E

Q uestions l ike the following will be of the utmost impor
tance during the next few years to teachers of social sciences :
0 .Have we now sociologica lly valid bases for proposals
for civic education ?
b D oes sociology itself suggest the means of provid ing
.

such bases ?

0 .From what startin g points shall we move in search

for them ?
The following answers for the tim e being seem valid
(1 .All contemporary proposals for civic education are
 ith rather than upon assured knowledge .

not the nominal ) foundations for the teaching

cultural rath er than civic .

certain that such subjects as ci vil govern

civics and the like as now taught are
,

functio nal in civic values We ha v e very stro ng

.

scouting and good boys club work are so func

’

we are certainly far from possessing any valid

to that effect taking account of the selective
,

with whom these systems based upon volunteer ,

membership deal
, .

8 of program s I t ought to be entirely prac

.

sociologically val i d bases for program s of

Some methods for such research are ih
it be repeated that the most effective
is to proceed from an an alysis of the
defects found now among adults to ,

proposals for the prevention of such

method would at l east give us certa in criteria

now wanting For exam ple we can think in
.
,

conformist virtues of citizenship and especially

with laws regarding property .

various distinguishable groups of citizens wi ll

r only partial compliance w ith such laws and ,

to which it is found wi ll vary from group to

s or otherwise
, .

point then we can propose par

, ,

in fluen ce the next

various
44 CIVIC EDUCATION

behavior enterin g into citizenship . Needs of civic ed uc ation

to b e me t are th us re veale d, afl er w hich wifl nah rrafly

follow proposa ls for ways and means for me eting these ne eds .

f Social
. scien ce te achers as w ell as school aut h or ities ,

responsible for the formulation of courses for civic education ,

will be constantly under temptation to tea ch the formal

“ ”
science of the subject forgetting that the final test of
,

the efi cac y of th eir wo rk is c iv i

c b eha vio r, no t po sse ss i
o n

of civic knowledge The rich content of such books as

.

Ash ley s The N ew Civics is very comparable to the rich

’

content of some modern texts in geography Am erican his ,

tory arithmetic or physics But all the state ments of facts

, , .

and interpretations th us assembled and organized may or

may not be impor tant fro m the standpoint of a program
of civic education The book like a good cyclopedia will
.
, ,

work ; but it is doubtful if it should be studie d textually .

T H E PR OVI NC E OF TH E SOCIA L SCI ENC E T EA CH ER

Teach ers of the social scien ces are not now profe ssionally
trained even to the ext ent that high school te achers of
foreign languages English language chemistry mathematics
, , , ,

and home economics can be called profe ssionally trained .

I n many cases teachers of the hist ory studies are bein g given
that w ork .

I n the meantime astonishin g numbers of studen ts are

studying the social sciences in colleges Very probably from .

these will be drawn the soci al science teachers of the early

future They will be well informed in econ omics and soc iol
.

ogy but at first as has been the case with college graduates
, ,

who have majored in natural science or E nglish literature ,

they may be expected to teac h over the heads of their learn

ers Nev ertheless from these sources only will at first come
. ,

teach ers of civic education .

 C HAPTE R THR EE

S no o ss n o ns '
ro Tm c n sss : M rsc s nu m ao o s

TO R URA L EL EMENTA R Y SCH OOL T EA CH ERS

Lm '
us assume the case of a young woman teach ing her .

first year in a rural one room elemen tary school having

-

t wenty fiv e pupils the first seven grades bein g represen ted

-
, .

She graduated from an ordinary type of hig h school and ,

she has h ad two years of normal school training As she .

looks bac k her general and professional educa tion seem to

,

have been rather congested Sh e seems not to have received

.

much of the specific appreciations and powers apparently

needed to meet her present needs in giving civic education .

I n diagnosis of her problems and for advisory purposes , ,

the following considerations are addressed to her :

“
Th e teach er s work As a conscientio us teacher you are
'

still seriou sly disconcerted by co nflicti ng ideas as to what

your work actually is or should be Mem ories of your own .

elemen tary school life revolve around lessons in arithmetic ,

spellin g geograph y and American h istory wi th incidental

, , ,

hygiene nature study music and cardboard work Y ou

, , , .

recall much rather fu tile drill in oral read ing and composition
writing Your high school studies were even more stereo
.

typed but from them you derived q uite extraneous satis

,

fac t ions because you had a good mind and could e as ily
,

outdistance your competitors Your two years of normal .

school work have resu lted in confused recollect ions of very

lively an d pleasant social experiences demands for class ,

room results that you could never more than partially meet ,

and an intellectual swallowing of vastly more materials than

you felt you could proper ly assimilate You still have an .

uneasy feeling that whilst you have bee n trained in some

,

few noteworthy respects and instructed somewhat super

,

46
 MISCELLANEOUS S U G G E STION S 47

fic ially ,perhaps i n en dle ss reaches of knowledge and ideals

, ,

y o u a re st i ll very im per f e ct L
v educated — which of course , ,

if you knew it raises an old question that even the philoso

,

p h er s can only an swer by expressions of opin i on couched m

vague and by no means uneq uivocal terms .

“
But from m any sources you have ac qui red convictions ,

still he ld largely as mixtures of beliefs and aspirations that ,

‘
somehow the new education for which you among others
’

, ,

are to be in part responsible must be vastly better than

, ,

‘
and different fro m the old The war we have been often
, .
’

told clearly dem onstrated our national needs of civic educa

,

tion and of better physical education I t did not need the

.

war to prove to many of us that our rural schools were

fall ing far short of meeting the needs of our time .

“
Mode rn theo ri e s . Back of all this however it has been
, ,

incessantly borne in upon you th at in th e past our schools

have taught subjects too much and ch ildren too little
’

and that the teac her was too often the slave of the textbook

instead of its compet ent master Throughout your period

.

of professional training you responded with much sympa

cloudy understanding ,

‘
ls of utiliz ing activities in teac hing ’
,

‘ ’ ’
ruct ion to the life or l ife s interests
‘
using projects as valuable means of
’

sc hool at last you are ,

heavily on the
and the like .

some prescribed
and make s no mention of civics until
Y ou learn that there h as been complaint
on account of their failures sufficiently
48 CIVIC EDUCATION

to ad v anc e or

discipline Some of the pupils were allowe d

.

and abusive .

“
The situation co nfronting you is very like
tens of thousands of young teac hers each y ear
last quarter of
a maj ority it ,
’
be boun d tight to the wheel of the day s needs
tional school rout ine They gave most of the
.

and always

the staples ,

at in normal school
procedure and methods of
b ark ing bac k to their own
quently ev en than to their normal school training classes .

“
Like man
n either time
lose hold on
po sa ls of the

at institutes and association meetings but they fail d the

necessary re solution and inven ti v eness to carry the ir t e
k ind led ideals into practice .

“
Gifted te ach ers At the opposite pole are the half dozen
.
-

gifted and in ventive spirits that any

beings will produce Th se
e
.

fiber of their being . They have exceptional courage often

,
 MI SCELLANEOU S S UGGE STION S 49

excep t ional energy They are full of social sympathies and

.

‘
are good mixers Above all they have en terprise Some
. .
’

time s in an excess of zeal they are mercurial running

, , ,

always after new ideals an d not v ery stable in discharging ,

ac ce pted responsibil ities But at the ir best they find ways .

of do ing well the day s work and also of keepin g their

’

aspirations fresh whilst throwing themselves into new and

,

promising enterprises for the go od of the school or the com

Perhaps we shall have to co nfess sadly that people of , ,

the latter type are born ‘ — and born but seldom Like
’
.

the great explorers they may discover lands that others of

,

more common clay can inhabit and they bre ak the paths ,

which the averag e of humanity can readily tre ad But .

occ upying their lands and following their paths do not endow
the rest of us with their energy inventiveness social leader , ,

ship, o r love of enterprise institute lect urers to the con

trary notwithstanding .

Avera ge teach ers Betw een these two extreme groups are
.

many y oung teachers who are every year contributing much

that is good to American educa tion Th ey soon learn to .

‘
disti ngu i sh betw een Pole Star ideals
’
by which men may
‘
steer b u t which they can never hope to reach
, and light
house ideals which are guiding lights that may be ap
’
,

p ro a c h e d pas sed,and left behind as new

, goals come into
View These are the teac hers w h o know that in their imma
.

turi ty an d inexperien ce they can neither hope at once to

‘ ’ ‘ ‘ ’
le ad ( or horrid words reform or uplift ) their com
, ,
’

munit ies nor to initiate sweeping changes in curricula and

,

school c ourses that have been in process of slow evolu tion

for decades if no t centuries The y do not hope to see the

, .

fundamen tal aims of the schools changed overnight nor ,

the m ethods of instruction and training revolutionize d

readily Nevertheless they are convinced that progress is
.
50 C I VIC EDUCA TION

taking plac e and will take plac e in e duca tio n

fields of human efi o rt, pe rhaps thro ugh rather

and success met hods for the present

- .

of eac h day s w orh w hilst keeping fresh

’

ideals . They are eage r to try t he ne w

fast to th a t w hic h is goo d . Th e y are

ploratory , even rad i a l ,

yet only slightly beyond appre ntice ship stages .

What can the rural teacher of the

do in the field o f civic educ ation ? She
ve lo p the power s o f the departm e ntal special ist .

e na g i m u t b g i n t th e y o unge r ldren
ch i
'
es s e ve o

l . historic sub j ects

Th e She ean see.

part the older school subjects play in educati on

ship The forefathers were right in thinking of
.

the very foundation of civic education They .

right in believing that moderate amounts of

English composition American history and
, ,

the ideals of vocational and cul tural life to

produces the civic confidence and intellectual tools
for further study The rural teacher should do
.

as lies in her power to see that in these subjects

is focused chiefly on essen tials and that these
“
2 . The rural teacher can school herself
re alization that the group of pupils whom she

membership in which is itself one contribution

to develop and promote school l

se f government
for it -

usually takes very strong and experienced leaders to insure

 MI SCELLA NEOU S S U GG ESTION S 51

safe self government ; but it may well be within the powers

~

of en thusiast ic beginn ers to promote some degrees of cc

8 . I n all grades and with comparati vely little expandi

,

ture o f te ac h ing e nergy , t he rural teac he r can keep alive ,

wealths in their various evolutionary stage s from colonial

or front i er settlements to modern sovereign states ; interest s

in the h istoric events that have marked salien t po ints in

of the trials and dimcult ies that have been overcome in

developing democracy republican inst itutions and our
, ,

prominent national position in the w orld of affairs today .

The pursui t of these objective s need not severely tax the

teacher sin ce to a large exte nt th ey can b e ac h iev ed b y
-
,

keeping at the disposal of the learners some of the stories ,

biographies an d other readings that should be found in any

,

rural school library ; and in supplemen ting these wi th occa

sioual talks com memo ration day celebrations
, and the like , .

“
4 .I n the upper grades American history will be taught
in a systematic way Here the teacher can use all the infl u
.

mce sh e po sse sse s o v er t h e presc rib e d co urse of st udy to

eliminate all the dry and needless details of history and in
tin ling out for full discussion and idealization those phases
g
of our history that are chiefly sign ificant to citizens of today

and to mo rro w Within limits the sam e proce dure is pos

.

Sible i
n the te aching of geography and even literature .

5 “ Th e rm al sch ool teach er can well afi o rd in the in

.
-
,

tcrest of civic education to give special attention to the

,

N est minds among her pupils A large proportion of .

52 CIVIC EDUCATION

the political a nd other leaders of this country spen d their

early y ea rs i
n m ral sc h o ols and are pro b a b ly to an im porta nt
degree shaped for subsequent leadership by the enviro nment
and independent activit i es that co untry l ife affords E v ery .

rural school teacher has opportunities to in spire the se pote n

tial l e aders with ideals that m ay beco m e of the grea test
importance in orien t ing their subsequent lives .

“
. On the negative side she should not feel oblige d to
put herself into competition with specialized or depart
mental teachers in the junior and senior high schools of
villages or cities Her responsibilities are primarily to the
.

younger childre n in any event The m ultiplicity of her

, .

tasks renders it impo ssible that she should successfq com

pete with departm ental specialists Hence th e importance of .

selecting from the en tire field of civic education a few e ssen

tials ( and this applies equally to physical educ atio n ) and

in doing these fairly well in the time left after meeting

her primary obligations in the regular school subjects and
in m aintaining good school order .

“
7 Comm unity l eadersh ip
.
This is not the place to
.

teac her herself as a citiz en in dependent of her functions as

,

teacher The tendency of our recent educational literature

.

has been hopelessly U topian in its ambitions on behalf of

rural school teac hers I t is repeatedly suggested that these
.

teachers in spite of their immaturity and inexperience

, ,

should play a leading not to say directing r61e in rural

, ,

comm unity affairs Clear ly the u tterances of U topian

.

os a ls As a rule young doct o rs lawyers eng i neers military

p . , , ,

o flice rs and the rest do not play prominen t parts certainly

,
,

not directive rdles during their years of profe ssional appre n

,

t iceship They .
are expected first of all to do well
. specific ,

work assigned them ; next to fit conformably and with out

54 CIVIC EDUC ATION
even bet ter re sults than their fathers produced . That is
”
not an im possible not ev en a very difficul t task
, , .

TO TEA CH ERS I N SMA LL HI GH SCHOOLS

Out of high schools reporting to the C ommissioner
of Education in the U nited States in 19 18 7042 had not ,

to exceed 50 pupils Seventy five per cent of all high schools

.
-
,

repre senting an enrollment of nea rly pupils out of ,

a to tal of found in all the public high schools

of the U nited State s had e ach 100 or few er pupils
, .

Such high schools receive almost all th e rural and village

youths who care for secondary education Litt le sc ien tific .

study seems to have gone to the making of curricula for

“ ”
these smaller schools Only two clearly de fined large
.

objectives seem to be held in view ( a) Because a few of

.

their ablest and best enviro ned pupils will each ye ar go to

-

“ ”
college or normal school the college preparatory subjects
,

are e ssentially well taught as a rule ( b) I n many of the se

, .

“ ”
schools a commercial departm ent is found which appeals
to not a few students beca use the studies are probably less
difficult than those of the college preparato ry curri c ulum ,

and desirable vocational goals are temptingly held forth .

“ ”
A few small high schools of agriculture are now found ,

“ ”
but as a rule their vocati o nal coating or fifl o r is just
“
sufi c i e nt to serve the purpose of holding pupils in school .

Sm all high schools have not yet defined schemes of o h

jec t i
v es that should constitute a curricul um of genuinely
“ "
liberal education for that majority of their pupi ls w ho
will neit her go to college nor take up stm og raph y as a
vocation ( The commercial curricula are usually illusory as
.

vocational preparation for any vocation except sten og ~

raph y )
. Great difficulties will obvio usly be encountered in
doing this so long as the requirements of the tw o curricula
j ust men tio ned are st anda rdize d as at presen t The time
 MI SCELLANEOU S S U GG ESTION S 55

and energy of the small faculty will nece ssarily be wholly

employed in meet ing tradi tional objectives .

Nevertheless ch anges will eventually take plac e Every

,
.

where there is now very keen interest in three groups of

studies for these schools English literature general sci
—
,

“ ”
ence and civics or the social sciences
, that point
toward truer realizat i ons of cultural and civic ( or together , ,

liberal ) education than have heretofore prevailed Around .

what a functioning liberal education is can build long or

,

“ ” “ ”
short courses in some cases of alpha or projective
“ ” ”
type in others of the be ta or developmental type
,

that should prove especially significant to those youths who

can spen d o nly from o ne to th re e y ears in h ig h sch o ol .

H i story teach ers . These paragraphs are addressed pri

ofl eri
’

ngs in history with perhaps the begin n ings of civics

,

or economics He will naturally be interested in the obice

.

tive s of civic education and in various possible answ ers to

the questions What can be done for the small co mmunity ?

,

and especially What can be don e in the small high school ?

It is obvious ly unsatisfactory to make the small high school ,

eith m as a whole or in particular parts a small and weak

, ,

enterprise s that must be quite beyond the powers of the

te ach er in a small school to whom is assigned from twenty
five to thirty hours of instruction per w eek in from three

mitted as sugge stions looking to the most feasible and

profitable l ines of effort for that teacher in every small
high school most interested in civic educati o n :
a He can study the objectives of civic education in term s
.
56 CIVIC EDUCATION

of the adult ci tize nship no w found in the re gion o f the school

M
.

ost of th e adults the re fro m 30 t0 70 ye ars of age are

now moderately good citizen s A few are not Of those

. .

who have h ad at le ast the equivalent of a full elementary

“ ”
educa tion probably very few are undesirable citize ns in
a ny ordinary meanin g of that term Probably the majo rity
.

“ ”
of the obviously had citizens were e ith e r indisposed or
unable to profit by any considerable amount of schooling .

As indicated in detail elsewhere in this book the first .

business of the educator interested in ci vic objectives is to

fo recast the probable citizenship of the children of today in
terms of resemblan ce to and differences from that of the
, ,

ad ults of

education through schools or by other

available means of civic educa tion in
questionably be a highly
an d short courses — and f
first those elements which local conditions
urgent and second those courses which the
,

handle .

6 M uch th e most available means of

.

als ought to experience no

,

very considerable group of

keenly interested in these readings

c The th ird opportun ity lies in the grad

.

history studies so as to red uce to the mini .

or strictly
formal history and to enlar
ge
 MI SCELLANEOU S S U GG E STION S 57

not prove easy unt il a new order

been written These starting with
.
,

light of history can be shed to the advantage

ts appreciations and ideals
, , .

CH ERS I N SEVE NTH AN D EI G H TH G RA DES I N

U RBA N SCHOOLS
proportion of Am erican children between 12
f age in villages and cities are sti ll taught
”
school conditions ; th at is one teacher is
,

for all subjects except man ual traini ng and

arts I n a few graded schools departmental
.

found ; and wherever the junior high school

nominally carried out departmental
,

few schools abroad carry

extent that America
dren over 12 years of age The .

of course largely a survival of

,

it io ns .

s even th grad e an d only to a somewhat

eighth grades will be found many pupils
will close at 14 or 15
and particularly those of
iro nm en t will go for two or more years to
,

The ir civic future is in a sense much more

, ,

is that of the less capable and less favorably

who early dro p ou t of school .

ordinary comm uni ties ( except sele ct

work
the assumption
1 They should
.
 58 CIVIC EDUCATION

com pose th e modal gro ups in i

soc e ty in po int of ea rn i
ngs,

civic in terests stan dards of living and cultural attainm ents

, . .

of the individual teacher to master the conten t and te aching

methods in particular fields or departments Very few m en .

or women have the ab ilities to become good teac hers in

such varied subjects as E nglish language arithmetic geog , ,

raphy American history English literature civics music

, , , , ,

drawi ng hygiene and general science in accordance with

, ,

the standards usu ally appropriate to pupils 12 to 14 or 15

y e ars of ag e U nder th
. e se condi tions a given subject must
be adapted no less to the capacities of teachers than to
the needs of learners What is the scope an d character of
.

possible civic education in seven th and e ighth grade s under

conditions of u n de partmentalised teachin g ?
The sugge stions made to rural elementary school te a chers
in an other section all apply as well to the upperW e -

teachers here considered C ertainly their richest opportuni

.

ties for group civic education l ie in the promotion of stim u

“ ”
latin g readings ca lculated to give civic appreciations ,
“
ideals a d insights Opportunitie s for valuable work i n ser
n
.
,

civic projects dramatic or service may be important .

G rade d schools The peculiar advantage of the g rade d

.

school over the rural school from the standpoint of the

teacher s work is found of course in the relative hom o
’
, ,

ge ne i
t y of groups of pupils But the peculiar tempt
. a tion
of this situation is excessively to organize and formal ize
 MI SCELLANEOU S S U GG ESTION S 59

congested The language of presentation is v ery abstract

. .

U ndue systematization or logical organization of content

gives to each subject a rigidity of form and angularity
of outline not unlike that of the human skeleton Good .

in tentions of textbook makers to the contrary notw ith st and

ing their products inevitably show the characteristics of
,

compendiums reference works or di gests No important

, , .

fact is omitted C oncrete de scriptions or amplified treat

.

ment such as might lend attrac tiveness of style or artistry

,

of co ntent are usual ly not permitted The book must omit

, .

nothing yet it must all be co mpressed within the customary

,

All good department al teachers of course use texts merely

, ,

as adj uncts or even as refere nce books and guides But only .

one gr ade teacher in a hundred can find the time or m o urces

for such a procedure These teac hers must lean heavily on
.

the text often leaving it as almost t he sole source of in

,

sp i
ra tion and guidance to the learner U nder these condi .

tions it is little won der that neither history nor civics pr oves ,

usually an interesting or informing subject of study for

,

any but pupils of extraordinary pom s of imagination the

Availab l e re sources However until we can get aids to

.
,

learning built along lin es very different from those of ordin ary
textbooks teach ers must use such resources as are available
, .

But they can often exercise discretion in their use Here .

lie some available opportunities for grade teac hers in civic

educa tion If they can come to see what are the things
.

that coun t most they can often shape textbook treatment

,

to the ends thus conceived They have already learned to

.

do so in go od language and arithmetic teac hing American .

history offers rich opportunitie s for further efforts of this

kind .
60 CIVIC EDUCATION

The authori ties are not y et ce rtain whether all the oh

je c t iv es o f American history sh ould lie in the fie ld of civic
education But teachers in se venth and eigh th gra de s are
.

justified in assum ing that the maj or functions of this study

h
s ou ld h e th c e sta b lishm e n t o f ce rta i
n kinds of civ ic ide als ,

civic attitude s and civic insights Toward these ends a

, .

large part of the minute data or information found in the

typical textbook is probably quite irrelevant Often h ow .
,

ever the pers onal characteristics of heroic figure s real or

, ,

fictitious as given in tale anecdote or poem may be v ery

, , .

significant By shifting emphasis from m inutiae dear to

.

’
the historian 8 hea rt to massive considerations co m pre h ensi
,

b le by average learners the teacher can probably do much ,

to ma ke American hi story a li ve su bject not only culturally

but more important in produci ng civic appre ciati on s and
, ,

attit udes of much significance and functioning worth in la ter

civic behavior Materials foun d in books other than texts
.

“ ”
is possible ev en within areas of the big facts of American
history that is toward the things that have a vital signifi
,

cance to th e problems of citizenship today and in the near

future For example the numbe rless contest s of ou r anc es
. ,

tors wi th I ndians furnish in dw d pictu re sque materials for

study but such studies are probably quite without civic
,

significan ce to presen t and to future gener ations of citisens .

Le ave them to the cultu ral education of the lower grades .

E ven slavery long the most tremendous and porta rto us

,

source of pr oblems for American voters and statesmen , is

now a dead and buried issue The strenuous st rug gles it .

occasioned make important chapters in cultural history b u t ,

have l i ttle relev ancy for the hist ory that is to help in th e
m aki ng of c i
t mens ca pabl e of fa ci ng the new probl e m s of
 62 CIVIC EDUCATION

pa rtic ular doc trines in o rde r to do th is in fe ct for, pur

po se s h e re under c o nsi
dera tion it is b e tt er th a t they b e
non partisan and scien tific but much in tereste d m dire cting
-
,

the thoughts of their pupils toward all aspects of the ques

tions involved In the tangled regions of these problems no
.

simple form ula will save us ; wisdom com es o nly from gen
e ro us kn owledge and appreciat i on and a wide range of

understandin g even if only partially developed

, .

Coupled with this is the other conception that we can use

the cum ulative impressions of histo ry st u dy to deepen and
expand these things : apprecia tion and respect for fore
runners voluntary leaders and the self sacrific ing ones of
, ,
-

pas t and present ; wholesome admiration for ourselve s as a

people ; convictions that safety an d progress for a republ ic
are o nly possible when a large proportion of cit mens help
to dire ct an d fo rward the sh i
p of sta t e ; and faith in th e
wisdom of abiding patiently by the will of the majorit y
and of trusting the outcome of tolerant discussion in he ated
issues Here lie large possibilities of making history a truly
.

“ " “
civic subject The historian solicito us for the logical
.
,

”
integrity of his su bject will probably object ; but he is
,

prone to forget that in the grades most studies are not

ends in themselves but means Will he tell us in clear and
,
.

certain language to what mem orization of the chronologically

arranged data and generalizations of hi story as he records ,

it in the ordinary text leads that is of gene ral educa tion al

,

v alue ?
Similar suggestions apply in the case of civics for the

t he text first re adin g purposes Le t h e r sele ct

of all for .

a few large topics for special study by individual pupils .

Promote ideals and insigh ts in a few are as of major sig

nifi canc e and mm Avoid drill and memorization d
.

det ails as far as practicable .

 MI SCE LLANEOUS S U GG ESTION S 63

TO A S UP E RI NT E NDENT O F SCHOOLS

officers of a school system re sponsible for the organization

,

of courses and employme nt of teachers to strike happy ,

ti
o na l specialists and other partisans today I n the upper .

grade s and high school nearly all writers on educational

subjects are special plead ers and partisans of particular
interests All want their pet subjects made obligatory since
.
,

they see them as of transcendent importance The recent .

histo ry of various committees appointed to consider the

place of history in secondary education ab undantly demon
str ate s this They have worked out elaborate series of
.

courses generally with the sugge stion that these he made

,

prescribed for the intermediate grades and sometimes even

the high schools The partisans of modern languages have
.

succeeded in having their favorites established as specific

requ irements for admission to college H ome economics .

teachers in many cases feel very keenly that all girls should
to take home economics I t is a matter of
.

required algebra and plane geometry have held

in high schools We are now confronted wi th
.

various demands .

the new demands for civic

of the needs of our country

community it is not difficult to make out

as yet sadly in need of the sociological analysis

64 CIVIC EDUC ATION

not yet
even in individuals within classes I n on .

are apt to overlook the fact that just as a ,

human beings are reasonably healthy so ,

majority of adults are also reasonably m

civic cul tu re .

The fundamenta l responsibilities of the

achievement of the objecti ves established in

The following are submitted as considerations
to su perintendents at the present stage in the
ii
c v c e
'
duca t ion :
1 . All
school education may be re garded
consequence Educational mystic s are
.

may be found either in historic types

or in proposed new types Soun .

the number less q ualities that are

men and women wh o m we agree to
sho w that many probably valuable
indirect ou tg rowths or b y products of-

that have h ad other ends than civic

vocational proficiency a man cannot be a

try needs no matter how good their in tentions

,

Nevertheless physical education is not to be

,

primarily designed for ci vic purposes .

 MI SCELLANEOU S S U GG ESTION S 65

2 The social demand of our ti me for more dir ect and

.

m ore purposive civic education is very strong and without

doubt ju stified by the increasing complexity of our social
relationships But our interest in better civic education
.

need not blind us to the remarkable achievements of the

3 . I t is doubtful if any new and important discoveries

in the field of civic education wi ll materially change work
in th e first six grades o r w ith ch ildre n under l ears o f

age D oubtless considerable improvemen t of means and

.

methods can be devised in these grad es The discipline of

.

the scho ols and the use of literature and h istoric story as
a me ans of promo ting ideals and appreciations can be con
si derab ly extended . By informal means the teacher can
p ro m ote so m ewhat gre ater insight i
nto neighborhood social
rela tionships than is now achieved .

4 Future po ss i b iliti es The largest poss i b ilities for the

. .

evolution of civic education in the near future are undoubt

edly to be foun d in the gr ades or schools that contain chi l
dren from 1 2 to 16 years of age Here we have the last
.

full time school atten dance made compulsory by law Here

-
.

also will increasingly be found departmental teach ing and

the use of specially prepared instructors Throughout this
.

book will be found many references to possible means of

providing for better ci vic education i n this area These
. may
be sum marized as follow s
(1 Less rather than more space in these grades should be
.

given to formal or didactic American history This subject.

’
now occupies usually from 15 to 20 per cent of the pupil s
time for two grad es and as commonly taught from the
,

difficult textbooks in use is probably without important

,

civic results for large proportions of pupils At any rate

.

the superintendent should shift upon the history specialist

the burden of proving more in detail than has yet been
66 CIVIC EDUC ATION

do ne the actual functional values to w ard civic

pages of the typical textbook of American

b All prevailing textbooks in civics that
.

“ ”
the method of didactic inculcation should be
the standpoint of their probable functionin g
at least 90 per cen t of the pupils .

c The very large possibilities of

.

should be exploited

pe rie n shows that

ce

too difi c ult of administratio n every incentive

,

means .

d Probably the
. problem metho d
found of very grea t value in
p resent it must wait upon the
problems and of manuals and
5 Th e junior h igh sch ool
. .

ciate the possib ilities of the j unior high

high school of the future will almost certainly

ised by a very great flexibility in curricu la ,

possible a consider able diversity of offerings

dominant
probably prove advis able to
havi ng primary responsibil ity for
ed ucation including not only the instruction al aspec ts b ut
, ,
“ ”
the activity aspects as well .

6 What will be the place of scouting in the public schoo ls?

.

( )
a I t must be recogni se d that the fundamental virtu e in

scouting at the present time is its dependen ce on volun teer

service ( b) Scouting is at its best always when the me m bers
.
 MISCELLANEOUS S U GG E STION S 67

composing the troop are voluntarily enl i sted Obviously .

,

this and the first condition cannot be re alized under pu blic

sch ool conditions (0) I t does seem highly desirable to
.

have something analogous to scouting developed under pub

lic school auspices Probably this should take the form of
.

educational organization of volunteer groups formed so m e ,

t imes for exploration sometimes for home service sometimes

, ,

for the promotion of physical training or practic al arts .

Each one of these groups should have the dire ction of a

teacher appreciative of the extent to which the cooperative

ends of ci vic education .

I n framing co urses of civic education superintendents

sh ould be on guard against too much reliance upon the
cooperative aspects of games sports and athletics as means
, , .

All group play is of course greatly productive of social

, ,

expand from the limits of small groups and as between very

8 . H istory stu di es For the present , as stated above

. , it
can b e assum e d th at Am erica n hist o ry w ill rem ain o ne of

grades The writer is personally convinced that American

.

history will especially in the j unior high school eventually

, ,

be vm y m uch reorganized so as grea tly to reduce th e

'

strictly chron ological portions and gre atly to increase the

utilisation through the social science subjects of the mate

, ,

rials of American history in shaping the ideals appre ciations , .

and especially comprehensions centering in particular social,

science problems or topics .

But the practical sugg estion that might well be urged

now is that teachers shall re duce the amount of attention

given to the memorization of the formal fac ts of American

msto ry and correspondingly extend the treatment and ,
68 CIVIC ED UC ATION
espe ci
al b of anthat
interp re tive nat ure of ,

that have a visible and tangible connection wi th

problems of today or tomorrow .

9 The way is now clear to the fuller devel

.

co mm unity ci vics as a live and vital topic in

high school This comm u ni .

in those local and changea ble

do with political action and s ,

com prehension of the social life about

little texts are now ava ilable in this
sponsibility of superintendents here is
teachers who c an themselves organize as j unior
subjects on a strictly modern pedagogical basis
accessible materials of comm unity civics — no
even under most favorable conditions .

School governm ent Most administrators have

.

considered often the possibilities of school self g o -

from the standpoint of civic education They .

usu ally agreed in this : un der the influence of l ive

or even more
ment in any one of its numerous forms
, ,

thing But it seems doubtful whet her it

.

or effective means of maintaining school

building order if that h e intended as its
,

this respect it rem i nds one very much of the

that are made by commun itie s at joint or
keting The attem pt s work very well an d
. ,

a while but when interest lags they cease

,

10 Self government should ther efore

.
-
, ,

means of civic education and therefore ,

should be un dertaken from time to time

of joint civic project Arrangements sh.

due planning whereby the pupils of

as a group of individuals should be
 PART TW O

SOC IOLOG I C AL FOUN D ATION S OF C I V I C

ED U C ATION
 C HAPTE R FOUR

Im o o n c ro a r
'
C ON S I D ERA T I ON S
EA CH and every variety of conscious educational procedure
has its aims purposes or objectives The se as we find them
, , .
,

at any cm ssm tio ning of societies are usually crystallized ,

as faiths or customs with their attendant appreciations , .

ideals and half insights I n so m e cases ( and these bulk

,
-
.

large indeed in the hist ory of education ) aspirations for

chang e rather than customs give us th e principal literat ure
of educational aims .

Social confli cts As with nearly all other valuable ends

.

“
or social worths which are made the objectives of fam ily .

“ ”
guild or state action conflicts between individual good
, ,

“ "
and the good of all ( or of the group ) are always to be
found in education Parents naturally desire the social
.

advance the moral uprightness the religious orthodoxy

, , ,

and the vocational success of their children They desire .

and support educational programs to these ends The .

church the army the old gu ild the state and perhaps
, , , ,

even a class conscious proletariat or aristocrac y desires and

-

supports education that contributes to their respective

objectives of control greatness or service Sociologically , , .

‘‘ ”
speaking small groups
, the family village community , ,

vocational group and sect ten d to be narrow intense and

, , ,

often short sighted but very articu late in their educat ional
-
, ,

“ ” —
desires ; whilst large groups municipal i ty federation , ,

political party province nation ten d to be difluse inde

'

, , ,

termina te and in articulate

, .

Educati o n now tends to become sc ientific in aims and

methods Heretofore its immediately basic sciences
.
p y
a

cho lo gy and sociology have been too imperfectly devel

oped to per mit this H ence as a field of practice it has.

lagg ed behin d man ufacturing transportation distance com , ,

73
74 CIVIC EDUCATION
m unica tio n , agriculture and medicine in su pplanting beliefs
,

and customs by scientific determination of purposes and

me thods .

The me th od s of achievi ng known educational objectiv es

from training in skill of handwriting to the evoking of desired
ideals are increasingly to be determined and tested by pay
c h o lo gy The discovery of specific objectives most worth while is
.

increasingly to be achieved through the he lp of sociology to ,

which we must turn for prognostications as to the probable

future opportunities for life and service of those whom we
seek to educate — service that is to themselves and to
, ,

their fellows The following are a few samples of the num

.

b erless problems requiring conside ration in this co nnection :

visional answers c an be obtained through analyses suggested

in these questions :
a . How does sociology compare with astronomy chemis ,

try physics mathematics geology biology bacteriology

, , , , , ,

and psychology as to possession of bodies of tested kn owledge ,

laws means of quantitative description etc ?

, ,

b How does education compare with medicine war

.
, ,

agricult ure architecture ( as building engineering) » mining

, ,

manufac turin g distance commun i cation navigation elec

, , ,

trice l work and worship as to evolution of extensi ve systems

, ,

of practice e ffective use of trial and error methods per

,
- -
,

sistence of untested tradition use of scientific knowledge , ,

disposition of workers to employ science e tc ? ,

c . How does educa tional sociology compare as to organ ,

ization usefulness availability of tested materials and fu ture

, ,

pro spects with : navigational astronomy agricultural chem

, ,

istry engineering physics m ining geology medical biology

, , , ,

educational architecture educational psychology b usine ss

, ,

economics ?
d I t i s alleged that sociology itself is only a scientific
.
 INTRODUCTO RY CON SIDE RATION S 75

patchwork ; that its methods are chiefly philosophical

( m e aning ? ) rather than scientific ; and that it has few con
trib ut io ns to make to education in any event What are .

possibilitie s ?
e
. I n working in a field of applied science how far is
it necessary to be assured of tested kn owledge in the related
“ ”
pure fields ? I n practice what examples can we cite of
problems in the applied field itself being sta ted a nd studied ?
Illustrations are possible from agriculture navigation , ,

war etc , .

f
. What are the uses of the stud y of : educational p y
s

ch olo gy educational economics (or finance) educational

, ,

medicine (or hygiene ) educational history (or history of

,

edu cation ) ?
9 . What are the possib le uses of educational soci ology
in ascer taining : (a) the social characteristics ( including in
stin ct s an d effects of enviro n ment) of those whom we edu

cate ; ( b) the specific aims which for a specified group

, ,

should be pursued in schools ; (0) the organization of means

and methods of education to serve ascerta i ned specific needs
not now met ; (d) the re adj ustment of existing me ans ( sub

jec ts ) and methods so as to meet current needs or more ,

2 .Subj ects of study and rese arch in educational sociology

sh ould have one or more of the following characteristics :
( )
a th e evident practicability of applying organized knowl
edge of individual facts or principles now approved m soci
olo g anthropology ethn ology government politics crim
, , , , ,

ino lo w relie f migration economics politics history etc ;

, , , , , , .

( )
b the practicability of proceeding from analysis of a sup
posed educational need to the social conditi o ns now resultin g
where this need is not met and evaluating consequent losses
,

to society or to certain individuals in it ; (c) the practicability

of providin g improved means and methods of meeting
76 CIVIC EDUCATION

asce rta i m d needs of individuals or of groups or of society

as a whole .

In view of the yet cha otic character of sociological science s

and the domin ance of philosophical methods in the study
of their larger problems it is probable that m ost pro blems
,

to be studied in educationa l sociology during the ne xt fiv e

years will be derived directly from consideration of current
or approachin g educ ational needs For example
.

0 . Is it desirable that public resources be used to su pport

the teaching of modern languages in the United Sta tes ?
What needs will be served by such studies ? What languages ?
What kinds of attainmen t in each prescribed or ad vised
, ,

or permitted ? for how many ?

b Is it desirable that th e public schools en ter more
.

“ ”
exten sively upon the teaching of citizenship ? What is
citizenship ? What is education (or traini ng) for citizen ship ?
In what respects is presen t adult citizenship ( the product
o f th e teac hing o f 5 t0 80 yea rs ago ) bad ? i n wh at g ro ups

or classes ? by what standards ? What preparation for citi

zensh i is given by non school
-
agencie s? How can we
p
ascertain for specified groups the e fi cac y of this ? Should
sch ool ci vic education replac e or supplement it ? Is America n
history a val uable m eans of civic education ? How do we

—
kn ow ? What are the mo st effective school contributions
now mad e to ward citizen ship at ages 4 6 ; 6 12 ; 12 14
—
- -

14 16 ; 16 18 ; 18 90 ; exten sion etc ? Do voca tional educa

- -
, .

tio n physical education an d cultural educa tion make i mpor

, ,

tan t or distinctive con t ributio ns to civic objectives ?

c . Is it desirable that provision be made at public expense
for vocational education in C ity B ? What are occupation al
fields now open in City B ? What occupational pursu its are
followed away from City B by persons re ared in that city ?
How have adults now following vocations in C ity B been
t rained therefor ? What have be en defi cien cies of socia l
78 CIVIC EDUCATION

defined social groups specifically described as to prev a iling

,

age of members economic position civic status etc ; (d)

, , , .

concret e expression of social values as product of composite

opinion (and especially of persons of know n criteria of
evalua ti o n )
.

Clear and definite thinking can for the prese nt

“
facilitated by the use of the case

E ngland to work in factories are largely homo

regards language religion culture
, , ,

domestic life I t is alleged that

.

to 50 years of age certain politi

prepossessions aspirations) are prevalent
, .

men can readily be studied in respec t to their

civic behavior that is they can be taken as a
,

“ ”
cret e realistic and peculiar case group
, , Their
.

”
form s of civic behavior
conclusions reached as to what pro
be anticipated and provided against

a large proportion of the boys from

of modal in telligen ce will probably
of their fathers except for certain
,

shortages similar to those of their fathers ?

 INTRODUCTO R Y CON S IDE RATION S 79

c .I n practice much educational proce dure has always

been based on the assumption of distinctive group or class
”
characteristics Children in schools are formed into classes
.
,

pro m oted and admitted to higher institutions on basis of

,

cer tain qualities renderi ng the groups relati vely homogene

ous The blind have special schools because of the defect
.

which they possess in common .

«1 Sociologi cal surveys of population now open the way

.

“ ”
to discrimination of numberless case groups many of ,

which deserve careful analysis from th e standpoint of the

distinctive educational needs to which they give rise E ven .

where we postulate as desirable a common goal in the edu

“ ”
cation of all e g certa in basic qualities of Americanism
. .
,

“ ”
it will be found that the start toward this goal alr ad y
e
provided for varying groups by heredity and social environ
ment varies greatly Only by considering each group in
.

respect to its needs and po ssibilities can effective procedures

be devised a truth long ago l earned in medicine milita ry ,

4 . Vague o bj ectives A large proportion of present

.

termin ologies general terms and indeterm inate asp irations

, , .

For example it is often urged that the schools should teach

,

cooperation I n fact it is now a general belief that social

.
,

education under its differentiations of moral civic and

, , ,

relig o us education should aim to intensify diversify extend , , ,

or otherwise increase co operation among men But as pre .

,

liminary to any effective planning for such education it is ,

very desirable that preliminary study be given to quest ions

like th ese :

A . DEFIN ITI ONS

( )
1 What is the de rivation of the word co operation
( )
Q Give any single example of its mo st common usage .
80 CIVIC EDUCATION

( )
8 Frame two or more definitions .

( )
4 Do es it s eem related to : physical health ; i
n te lli
g e n

age ; sex ; race ; character of work ; education ?

B FR OM P ERSONAL EX P ERI ENCE

.

What were your strong co operative qualities at ages ,

6 ; 12; 15 ; 21 ; when you first became independent and

self supporting ; when other fundamental changes in
-

your life had occ urred ?

Similar questions as to noticea bly weak qualities of
cooperation ?
I n what respects have assoc iates tried to educate you
toward better co operation ?
In what respects have schools done so ?
What circumstances as to associates have impaired
your powers of co operation ?
In what respects have powers of co operation been so
instinct ive as to be practically unconscious ?
I n what respects have forms of co operation become
habitual with you ?
D iscovering some respect in wh ich your co operati ve
abilities are i nferior or unsatisfactory how would you
,

proceed toward self education for improvement ?

-

C FROM Y O UR O BSER VA TI ON O F OT HER S

.

What species of animals have you observed closely

co operating ?
Do children from 2 to 5 years of age co operate ?
When children are 7 to 10 years of age is there co
,

operation in a classroom dur ing penmanship exerci ses ?

Report instances of co operation between employer and
employee .

Do physi cian s and patients cooperate ?

When you b uy an article in a store is there co operation ?
,
82 CI VIC EDUCATI ON

( )
84 How w ould you disting uish c ooperation as fo und
am ong pi ra tes from tha t fo un d am o ng the m e n of
177 6 in the co lo nies ?
( 35) How would you disting uish the coo peratio ns of an
a d ult E ast Side gang from tho se of a churc h con

g g
re at io n ?
From deta ile d analysis si m ila r to the fore g oing w e should
b e able to div est ourselves of t he ha bits ha mperin g m any
”
writers and spea kers of thi nking of co operatio n as
,

“ ”
simple We ca n proce e d to det ermine an d designa te
.

vario us species and intensively to st udy o ne or mo re of

these .
 C HAPTE R FI VE

T H E S oc xo w o xc u . M EA N I N G or E DU CA T I ON

W HA T IS ED U CA TI ON ?
“
Tun term
education has been variously used in recent
literature of the subject Perhaps its philosophical con
.

notations are now hopelessly confused For sociological .

pu rposes it seems best to agree upon certain definitions

mo re or less inductively derived .

M en and women in their maturity and at the m axim um

of their powers are the products of the two sets of influences ,

“ "
respectively referred to under the words heredity and
“ ”
environment H ered i ty is assumed to be uncontrollable
.

as far as the i ndividual is concerned ( C ollectively of .

,

course it is contro llable through selection of po ten tial

,

parents eugenics ) B ut environment both material

.
,

and social is within limits controllable

, , , .

Every group of human beings from the family to the ,

nation exerts controls over the social environm ents of its

,

members consciously or unconsciously accidentally or

, ,

intentionally through material or through human agencies

, , , .

Wher e control of environmental conditions extending to such

specific forms as instruction and training is directed toward ,

incre asing hindering or otherwise modifying

, , natural
"
growth in any of its myriad forms we have what will ,

here be ca lled education Obviously such control may be

.

consciously purposive or its purposes subconsciously de

, ,

rived may be obscured in custom and unconscious social

,

routines The resultin g effects m ay appear in bodily changes

.
,

or in mental h ab its appreciatio ns ideals and knowledge

, , , .

H ered i ty and environm ent Pro fi tless debate is often

.

“ " “ ”
indulged m as to whether heredity or environment is
“
the more important Obvi o usly one might as well ask
.

83
84 CIVIC EDUCATION

indi vid ual economy Without the peculiar plasticities of

.

nerve and othe r tissue enviro nments of course could produce

,

not hi ng ; whilst such tissu e must be acted upon at least

by th ose environmen tal influences called nurtu re to be of

Any one of scores of functions may profitably be examined

as illustrative here — for example speech He redity gives , .

voc al organs and th eir directive nerve structures E nviron

—
.

ment nurtural including social example

, gi ves forms

or reinforces the growths stimulated by enviro nmen t and

thus gives correct or effective spw ch Similarly the in .
,

qu i
s itiv e l e arner will trace the so urces an d development of
adult appreciations and powers of : running ; handwriting ,

nm ternal care ; love of literature ; gang cooperations ; religious

asp irations ; and hundreds of others .

The ease with which appreciations and powers are ao

quired depends obvio usly on limitations set by qualities
of inheritance on the one hand and on the efl ectiv eness
, ,

of educative environmental ad justments on the ot ha ,

'
.

“ ”
N ature ( as we say) has made man unable to thrive upo n
grass to live under water or to fly by muscular po wm
, , .

She makes some people easily able to go far in learn ing

pugilism music or mathematics She den ies large structure
, , .

of body to some of mind to others and probably of mo ral

, , , ,
“ ”
sensibility to still others Th e educability of every indi
.

vidual as respects any function is clearly a limited

, ,

quantity .

I nsufi c ie nt food re st or play stunts the body just as

, , ,

character or narrow range of knowledge But on the positive

, .

side in all organization of educational me ans a poin t of ,

“ ”
diminishing ret urns is soon e r or later re ached .
86 CIVIC ED UCATION

some cases the most effective one partly because the mo st ,

economical one .

Education or ed ucative processes can profitably be ana

l y sed with reference to the social groups for whose further ance ,

or in terests they are effected from the family local com ,

munity clique and par ty at one end to the federation

, , , ,

nation and hierarchical system ( including serv ice to God )

,

at the oth er The in c essant interactions of individual and

.

group here should be understood M uch education is con .

“ ”
sc i o usly designed for the good of the individual but in ,

“ ”
turn the good of the individual is seldom conceived as
“ ”
an end i n itself The good in dividual bec omes in turn
.

“ ”
good for one or another social group perhaps for that ,

“
abstract collectivity of social groups called soc iety or
“
human ity .

Educative proce ss e s m ay profitably be studied with

relation to the agencies which pro m inently carry them on .

The home the playground the church the work plac e the
, , , ,

club the press the stage the library the police power are
, , , ,

notable agen cies whose educa tional purposiveness is com

"
m o nly less direct or comprehensive than that of the school ,

which is generally an agency created primarily to promote

, ,

some form of education Several or all of thes e agen cies

.

may obviously be more or less influenced by any social

group as to the aims or methods of the education it permi ts
or consciously gives Sometimes the family somet imes the
.
,

church an d for the present the state is given re lative

, ,

ascendency here The home is only slightly affected by state

.

oversight ; in America the church stage press playground , , , ,

club shop and private school are essentially private agencies ;

, ,

whilst the library police power and public school are very
, ,

much under public dire ction .

 SOC I OI D G I C AL ME ANIN G OF EDUCATION 87

SCHOOL ED U CA TION
E ducators are prone naturally to exaggerate the potency
, ,

of school education Helpful methods of evaluating c on

.

trib u tio ns of various agencies can be devised by takin g ( a)

an adult case group and ( b) a specific form of bodily or
men tal quality kn own to be possessed by them and trac ing ,

the latter to its origins For example :

—
.

a. C o llege gradua tes men aged 40 60 in business exhibit

, ,

moderate ( or very modest ) rea ding knowledge of French .

Sour ces will of course usually be found in schools b Same . .

ladies To what extent probably have home sociability

.
, , ,

association an d schools respectively contributed ? 0 Same

, .

exhibit certa in varieties of vocatio nal su ccess Sources in .

“ ”
home schools shop experience ? d Same exhibit certain
, , .

characteristic ci vic qualities Sources ?

—
.

6
. African savage men aged 30 40 exh ibit certain pre , ,

vailing qualiti es of physical well bein g Trace so urces -

.
,

apart from hered ity to fa m ily nurture tribal customs

, , ,

wa rrior training etc f Same exhibit certain d istinctive

, .

moral qualities Trace to sources . .

“ ”
g. The own ing farmers 40 to 5 0 years of age of North , ,

Ifi ississippi Valley states exhib i t d i st i nct i ve types of voca

tio na l proficiency health moral traits civic and cultural
, , ,

qualities Trace to so urces the ir : habitual literary interests ;

.

abilities to apply prin ciples of scientific agriculture ; defects

in cooperative enterprise ; general good health .

“ ”
It I t is alle ged that
. m iddle cl a ss married American
women of high school education or more between ages of ,

“ ”
30 and 40 are prevailingly of the
, nervous housewife
order as respects health
,
— that s are excessively su b ject
'

to neurasthenia in spite of property social posit i on sub

, , ,

normal number of children and small amount of work , .

Trace defects to probable so urces in heredity or env ironmen t .

S CIVIC EDUCATION

call th e atural le arning and the second artifid al

first n

lea r n in g U nder favorable

. ci rc u m sta nm objective s o f
m fi rs t o rder w ill usually best be re alism in the play “ ”

‘
"

ft and those of the second 1n the work t

”
.

“The child is instin ctively a lu rnc r it is often sa d i .

,

i d
’
O
lh le in certa n a re as of life s a n up t o a
ce rt a i n de an s of finene s s or of
a W .
ort B u t in .

“ther areas and beyond certain points the

. , of fear
u .

“
at l a v a and of. d e sire for goods to be sw erved o nly

»
z provided by societ ie s la rge ly to pre vide ju st
ll are

t
.

h es e co erc io ns and the controlled conditions aw d e d for the

w elt C oercion
. is more necessary to t e ach ro utine c o rn
ng than to teach fishi ng Th e multiplication table is
.

less eas ily than the vernacular Im itative singing .

n
a m e s more readily than notation read ing .
90 CIVIC EDUCATION

as fou nd in a large proportion of the individuals under

,
“
consideration are satisfactory ”
— or the reverse Fro m .

this sociological starting point ought to begin processes ,

first of evaluating the education which these men have had ,

and seco nd of plannin g for bet ter or otherwise different

education for the next generation Pro bably only through
, .

some su ch processes as this can we finally learn how to

trace respectively to heredity and to various phases of
environm ental influence in clud ing conscious education the
, ,

ori gins of the qualities we find .

P H YSI CA L AN D V OCA TI ONA L ED U C A TION

From the composites of qualities that we find in adults
it is even now practicable to derive certain groupings which
are very useful as throwing light on possible means and
methods of producing similar or di fferent qualities in the
next gene ration Thus a large variet y of qualities c omposing
.

“ ”
physical w ell being stand out
-
the healthful functioning
of teeth and l u ngs and heart the ability to withstand co m
,

m unic ab le disease the posse ssion of strength and endurance

,

easily to sustain th e strains of vocation the tastes for physi ,

cal activity that make leisure tim e a zestful experience .

“ "
Physical education can therefore be made a convenien t
, ,

bracket for all those forms of more or less purposive co ntrols

of nurturing enviro nme n t tra inings of bodily function ,

"
instruction in hygi ene and 1dealiz atio n of th e sound body
,

which are des igned to minister in minor m e asure to the

immediate p hysical well being of the infant and in m ajor
-
,

measure to that of the adult .

Similarly the qualities that distinctively make for th e

"
vocational efficien cy of adults stand out Job analy sis .

“ ”
on the one hand and individual diagnosis ( vocational)
on the other are now in process of rapid developmen t in
acco rdance with sci en t ific met hod Presently we shall be .
 SOCIOLOG IC AL MEANIN G OF ED UCATION 91

able it would seem after measuring the success of an ia

, ,

dividual in his vocation to trace to their respec tive sou rce s

,

in h ere dity nurturing environment general educa tion pick

, , ,

”
up vocational education and school vocational education
,

the fac tors of this succe ss The next step naturally wo uld
.
, ,

be t o improve in spe cifi c measure s upon the discovered

educational means for the benefit of the next generation .

C ULTURA L AN D SOCIA L ED U CA TI ON
A variety of qualities lyin g largely apart from the voca~
,

tio nal and health categories have been hist orically com ,
“
prehe nded by the elastic word culture Man ifestly the .

abilities of adults to use the vernac ular in oral and written

forms for purpo ses of general and social intercourse should
be included h ere So also should those numerous intellectual
.

“ ”
and wsth e t ic non ut ilitarian interests that are capable of
-

u t e nsiv e ly enriching l ife E ven the arithmetic read ing

.
, ,

nature study and geography of the elementary school can

,

“
well be included here since their vocational and civic func
,
”
tio nin g in ad ult activities are relatively minor to their
“
cont ributions to personal culture as found in high grade -

“ ”
utilization .Some at least of the c ultural shortage s or
, ,

defects of adult case groups are easi ly capable of determina»

tion as a basis of discovering specific objectives for the
better education of the rising generation .

F inally there can readily be diagnosed in any group of

adults a host of moral civic an d religious qualities that
, ,

“ ”
primarily affect their social group relationships To these .

we often app ly the standards of ethical ev aluation good ,

moral righteous honorable fair decent altruistic lovable

, , , , , , ,

etc on the one hand :and bad i m moral sinful d ishonorable

.
, , , , ,

unfair indec e nt self seeking etc on the other Since all

. ,
-
, .
, .

m e n have lived fro m infancy in social groups the educative ,

“ ”
influences that have operated to shape the social natures
92 CIVIC EDU CATION

gi ven by original here dity have been all but n umberle ss .

original nature does not materially change with successive

“ ”
generations the field of purposive social education ( a
,

good term to include moral civic and religious education )

, ,

Oth er cla ssifications of educational ob j ectiv es may prove

helpful Sociological analysis shows that a large propo rtion
.

of the ac ti vities of m en fall into two groups indicated by ,

“ ” “ ”
the words produc tiv e and utilizing Of gre at sociolo gi .

cal significance is the fac t that the processes of social e vo lu

tion persisten tly narrow and specialize the field of any
individual s effecti ve production whilst at the same time
’

expanding his field of utilization The me n and wom en of .

America follow accordin g to fin eness of classification from

, ,

two thousand to five thousand distinctive vocations ; but

as util iz ers of the world s sci en ce mus i c archit ecture useful
'

, , ,

arts civic service transportation foodstuffs fabrics and

, , , , ,

housing the scope of their utilization widens continuously

,

and the quality of su ch utilizati o n improves partly as our

schools train in right tastes and judgments In pr odu ct ion .

m en become increas in gly dependent on environmen t whilst in ,

ut il ization they become relatively independent of it .

“Education for leisure ” and education for good family

”
membership denote groups of objectiv es urged for special
co nsideration by some educators .

“ ”
The disciplined mind is obviously an impor tant possible
objective 1n education but probably not apart from specific
,

fun ctio ning s 1n use ful or pleasing forms of vocational civic , ,

and cultural po wers and appreciations I t is poor logic and .

” “
worse science to spea k of the tra ined body or the trained
”
hand apa rt from the service rendering functi o ns given by
,
-

those mechanisms Similarly it is valid to assume that

.
,

no great importance attaches to specific fo rms of menta l

 CHAPTE R SI X

TH E M EA N I N G or S OC IA L E DU CA TI ON

Tm : specific objectives of social education can be st be

considered in connection with the particular group relation
ships which are inten ded to be a ffect ed Some social groups .

are properly civic groups some are not Many social virtues
, .

or social v ice s are capable of course of a ffect ing a man s

, ,
’

relationships to several kinds of groups ; but effective pro

ce d ure wi ll often req uire that in education the pr incipal

group relationship be kept in the foregroun d The chief .

social groups requiring consideration are :

a
. Th e fam ily or dom e stic groups , involving the relation
ships of ch ildren to parents parents to children brothers , ,

to brothers husbands to wives etc The principal moral

, , .

virtues here are various fairly tangible varietie s or species

of co operation fidelity loyalty tolerance truthfulness
, , , , ,

chast ity frankness reticence kindliness obedience leader

, , , , ,

ship submission respect for authority self restraint self

, , ,
-
,

denial etc Recall the connotations or implications of such

, .

words as : filial fratern al parental conj ugal

, , , .

The principal moral vices are certa in ea sily recognized

forms of antagonism conflict anger brutality jealousy , , , , ,

sulkiness insuho rdinatio n irresponsibility of lead ership

, , ,

The following sociological conditions should be noted .

( 1) The membership of the family group is very heterogene

na
. H ence subord ination and superordination play a large
part and failures of proper functioning eas i ly become
,

grievous sources of disharmony ( 2) The membership is .

exceedingly intimate ( 8) Instinctive react i ons play a large

.

role often and easily overriding habits formed educationally

, ,

94
 MEANING or SOCIAL ED UCATI ON as

frequen tly for bad sometimes for good ends (4) The , , .

family is the cen ter of cooperati ve utilization and although ,

in lessening degree of cooperative production , Hence .

sumptu ary and industrial disharmonies easily arise .

b N eighborhood group s in their non political relationships

.
-
.

M any of the traditions and perhaps some of the instinctive

react i ons in neighborhood groups derive from a time when
kinship w as a determining bond U nder primitive social .

cond i tions neighborhood groupings assured cooperative pro

du ction including defense and sometimes cooperat ive utili
, ,

za t i
on They have always contributed to sociability friendly
.
,

int e rcourse relief of distress joint worship cultural coopera

, , ,
’

tion etc At any age sex or occupational level they are

, .
, ,

usually quite homogeneous as respects composition by family

“
groups subject to well known m inor forms of aristocrac y
,
-
.

The conspicuous v irtues here are certain eas ily defined

forms of to lm ation kindliness mutual aid chastity rega rd
-
, , , ,

for property rights truthfulness moral courage self denial

, , ,
-
,

friendliness reticence etc , , .

The co nspicuous vices are certain varieties of : selfishness ,

intolerance pugnacity backbiting cliquishness tale bea ring

, , , ,
-
,

“ ”
g g
a n i
s h n ess unfriendliness ,jealousy envy unchastity , , , ,

property dishonesty obscene speech gossip etc , , , .

c Vocati onal groups , formed for cooperation in production

.

or in meet i ng conditions inc i dent to production Consp i cuous .

relationships are those of mas ter an d ap p rentice employer ,

and employee partners agent and principal etc ( School

, , , .

groups may be regarded as primarily vocation al grOU ps ) .

The conspicuous virtue s here are specific varieties of : in

dustrio usneas honesty truthfulness loyalty tolerance co
, , , , ,

operati on subord ination responsibil it y conscientiousness etc

, , , , .

The consp i c uo us vices are recogni z ed varieties of : idleness ,

deceit insubordination d isloyalty dishonesty scamping

, , , , ,

disorderliness etc , .
 CIVIC EDUCATION

(1. Re ligiou s gro ups

formed for purposes of joint worship .

Conspic uous virtues are varieties of : piety humility , .

loyalty fidelit y faithfulness C hristian fellowship cere m o

, , , ,

nial observance su b mission etc Conspicuous v ice s are :

, , .

i nfidelity hypocrisy disbelief heterodoxy insubordination

, , , , ,

irreverence profanity idolatry etc

, , , .

a
. Political groups , formed for the purpose of promo ting
by concert of ac tion such en ds as common security e nforce ,

ment of just ice and prov ision of public utilities The se

, .

confederations organized for defense aggression adm inis , ,

t rat io n of justice and provision of utilities ( coinage roads

, , ,

education colonizatio n
, political pa rtie s or other
,

volun tary or partisan groupings centering about promotio n

The conspicuous civ ic virtues are certain as yet imper ,

fectly defined varieties of : confor mity to laws ord inances

, , ,

conventions ; submission to duly constituted authority in

cluding in democracies the expressed will of majorities ;
, ,

loyalty to approved institutions and policies ; fearlem and

active participation in polit ical party group activiti es ; self
sacrifice ( in the co m mon defense or other em erm cy ) ; and
political honesty .

The conspicuous civic ( including martial ) v ices are certain

varieties of : poltroonery disloyalty insubordination law , , ,

lessness criminality dishonesty graft ing self centered

, , , ,
-

individualism irresponsibility intolerance sediti o usness

, , , ,

predatoriness etc , .

f
. C ultur al or m u tua l m
i prov em en t gro u s
p , such as scien

tifi c associations clubs for prom otion of intellect ual or

,

aesthet ic en ds etc , .

M an s relationsh ip to a imals co stitute a special

’

g. n n s

field of social ethics Virtues are tolerance human eness

.
, ,

e tc ; the vices cruelty brutality neglect etc

, , , , .
98 CIVIC EDUCATION

are being co nsidme d are largely natural groups or are mod

'
, ,

ern products of the condi tions of civili sation that is rela ,

tiv ely artificial groups .

a .For such relationships as mother and children husband ,

and wife playfellows sm all and local sociability groups

, , ,

“ ’
there exist ancient instinctive foundations in man s original
”
nature Si milar instinctive foundations are also found for
.

th e relationships ( toleration mut ual aid subjection to , ,

leadership etc ) involved in more or less sporadic economic

, .

groups productive work partnership master and servant , , ,

and also simple politi cal groups committees mobs gangs , , ,

martial bands Self defe nse and predatory instincts often

.
-

give bases for very strong groups among primiti ve peoples .

6 But for many of the groups and group relationships

.

required in civ ili z ed life instinctive foundations in the ,

individual are weak sometimes antagonistic This is con

, .

spi cuo usly the case where ( a ) extens i ve groups must be

formed — cities states nations large worship ing coopera

, , , ,

tive and cultural groups etc ; ( b) where unlike human beings

, , .

must be brought into relations of tolerance and cooperati o n

blacks and whites cultured and un cultured men and women
, , ,

”
rich and poor etc ; and (c) wha e the goods re sulting
, .

from cooperation are uncertain o r likely to go to certa in

parts of the group only stockholders and unionized
employees mercenary soldiers distant consum ers skeptica l
, , ,

c . Si nce
civic groupings are those for which there exist
fewest instinctive foundations ; in which the visible values
are hardest to discern (except in t ime of danger from war) ;
and which necessarily enforce or at least need participation
of most heterogeneous soc i al elements therefore for them ,

there is requ ired the maximum of positive or direct education .

d U nder conditions of civilization nearly all forms of

.

group life become more complicated more delica tely ad ,

 MEANIN G OF SOCIAL EDUCATION 99

j usted more liable to dera ngement Hence the growing

, .

need for spe cified forms of social education that shall con
form to the conditions imposed by decline of authoritarian
control by rise of effecti ve dem ands for da nocracy for
, ,

fre edom of thought etc This need seems to be especially

, .

great in all ci vic groupings .

SO ME PRO B LEMS I N SOCIA L PSYCHOLOGY

Social psychology is yet deficient in analyses of the motives
and directives of civic action But perso nal experience and .

observation enable us to use for practical purposes some

popularly understood classifications and valuations .

0 . Among the motive forces we easily recogniz e

( )
1 F ear of punishment of disapproval of failure , , ,

of death etc (endless special varieties may be

, .

traced ) .

( 2) Lo ve ambition desire sent iment

, in endless , ,

variety as toward self realization aggrandize

,
-
,

men t approval security gratification of senses

, , , ,

et c .

( )
3 C onscience sense of honor etc perhaps irrad ia
, , .
,

tions or sublimations of more primitive qualities .

All of these have foundations in instincts of ,

course and their activity has strong emotional

,

or pleasure pa in accompaniments All of them

-
.

tend toward certain kinds of fixitie s in habits ,

attitudes appreciations ideals crystallized

, , ,
“ ”
character .

b . Amo ng the directive me ans of social or civic action in

the indiv idual we can recogniz e :
( 1) I nsti ncts impulses and intuitions
,
— social i
n , ,

div id ua list ic etc , .

100 CIVIC EDUCATION

(2) Appreciations feeling attitudes likes and dis , ,

likes prejudices tast es valuati o ns preferences

, , , , ,

Habits non emotional attitudes inertias o h

,
-
, ,

sessions etc ( these merge with ( 1) and (2) but

, .

are supposed to be relatively non emotional -

except when frustrated ) .

Knowledge intelligence insight understanding

, , , .

( Note that motiw and directive qualities con

stantly interact perhaps blend in practice , , .

But their handling for educational purposes

probably ta kes di fferent methods ) .

Aspirations ideals and the like in their dynamic

, ,

aspects .

In the processes by which the adult citiz en becomes

what he is in motives habits understandings etc , , ,

there has been a great deal of sifting growth and , ,

fixation of qualiti e s The final products give us the .

“ ”
relatively stable composite called character good
or bad Those specific qualities of ch aracter that can be
.

“ "
co un te d o n in action we can best call v irtu esand vices .

Note the terms and their opposites in common

use to describe th e se : alert inventive artistic rational , , , ,

since e thorough useful adaptable attentive cautious

-
, , , , , ,

co operative decisive directive executive industrious

, , , , ,

obedient persistent purposeful responsible teachable

, , , , ,

thrifty conscientious independent magnan imous pru

, , , ,

dent refined self controlled self respecting thoughtful

, ,
-
,
-
, ,

considerate congenial courteous faithful genuine

, , , , ,

harmonious helpful honest honorable just law

, , , , ,

of others sociable tac tful trustful truthful ambi

, , , , ,

tious appreciative hopeful courageous self c o nfident

, , , ,
-
,
we c1v10 ? sh sc s rmN
'

apprec iations idealsg attitude s Po ssibly relatively general

,
i
.

‘
ideals may em e rge frb m int en se particular experien ces but
the psy ch olo gy of this is ob w ure and dubious
'

Is it naui ral b r usual for the mind or sp irit to gene ralize

certain residual qualities

‘

valuations appreciations i deals , , ,

from a few specific experience s ? C o m mon

0 answer affirmatively as it formerly di d ,
“ ” “ ”
whether observation reaso ning and , ,

other generalized mental powers could be ta ught Moral .

and civic education find it urgently necessary to determine

how far specific training instruction or idealization in or
, ,

of honesty truthfulness reverence civic interest law and

, , , ,

order patriotic sac rifice international sympathy and the

, , ,

like will produce general qualities as a dependable part of

,

civic an d moral character .

M oral di scipli nes Social psychologists seem to be sub at a n

.

tially agreed upon these principles

(1
. That as respects the neural basis or fo undations of
moral as well as intellectua l qualities and including there
un der instincts as well as learning plasticities or teachable
ness — individuals probably differ gre atly as they do in ,

potentialities for size color of hair musical ab ilitie s fear

, , , ,
“ ”
and other physical qualities Men are in general more .

combative than women ; women seem to have greater sym

pathy for helpless children some persons have mud i keener
,

social sympathies than others ; whilst similar native differ .

en ces per haps very gr e at exist as regards parental affection

, , ,

sociability gregariousness al truism ( toward feder ates ) and

, , ,

other dist inctively social qualiti e s .

in new situations will ten d to revive similar attit ude s . For

m m ple a ch ild made afraid b y a dog will fear o th e r anim als
behav ing like or resembling dogs as long as contrary experi
 MEANIN G OF SOC IAL EDUCATION 103

ence is not strong A man made reveren tial in the believed

.

pre sence of one Deit y will transfer attitude to a situation

involving a spirit related to that Deity .

c. That for the highly rational man it is possible on the ,

basis of limited experience to re ason more or less deductively

,

hurts me and I e as ily learn that it hurts my friendly asso

,

ciate s ; by inference it hurts my enemies distant people

, , ,

”
perhaps certain an imals Now if the m a n s motiv es not
.
’

to hurt have somehow become general then action will ,

follow combined motive and understa nding unle ss coun ter ,

d That wha e a strong motive alre ady

. to exists — due
natural quali ties plus experience in a very general ran ge of
activities then intellect ual identification of a part icular
possible act as co m ing within that range will except for ,

countervailing pulls insure performance in line with the

,

moti v e A child is very anxious to please his mother ;

.

authority tells him that a certain form of behavior will do

“ ”
so ; h is action follow s A club man is very anxious to
.

avoid the ill op inion of his club associates ; some on e who

-

” “
knows says of a certain possible co urse of action I t is not ,

”
done you know
, A man in stinctively fears physical inj ury ;
.

therefore he avoids action that is alleged to promise it A .

man cherishes a reputa tion for business honesty ; he will

eschew conduct otherwise promising which might interfere
, ,

with this reputation Self analysis will show that ea ch one

.
-

of us holds scores or hundreds of these guidin g motives

root ed in ideals appreciations ideas
, , .

e
. That the mo ral and civic struggle s mista ke s and , ,

trage dies of life arise chiefly from these sources :

( 1) We have not the right motiv es in consci ousn ess .

( 2) We have right and wrong motiv es in consciou sn ess ,

but in acting the wrong are str onger than the right .
104 CIVIC EDUC ATION

( )
3 We have right motives of adequate st rength but we ,

are ignorant of right courses of action .

f .That social disharmo n ies result largely from the fact

that average persons are prone :
( )
1 To serve their individual interest s or de sire s before
those of their kin and fellows .

( )
2 To serve the interest s of their kin in family groups
before those of their associates and fada stes ( subject ‘

to the exception that when one is bre aking away from the
filial group and has not w elded himself strongly in marital

instincti v e associate group gang club band may hold

, ,

him more strongly than his family group ) .

( )
8 To serve the interes ts of associates before th o se of
federates .

The foregoing may be called defects due to excess of

”
natural tendency .

g That
. at times social d isharmonies result from in version
“
of natural tendencies These may be called excesses of
.

9,

( )
1 A man sam ifices himself to others
'
.

( )
2 A man neglects his fami ly for associate or federate
groups .

( )
8 He serves spiritual beings to the neglect of humans .

( )
4 H e devotes himse lf excessively to an abstract ideal
justice art scien ce exploration invention
, , , , .

regar ding transfer ( more accurately gene ral spread ,

from particular experiences habits ideals et c ) of mor al

, , , .

and ci vic qualities powers or appreciations the follow

a . W h y should we no t devote our educational resources

and e fi orts to producing good moral and civic conduct or
behavior on the part of the individual toward the groups
106 CIVIC EDUCATION

6 . Under teachin g guidance learners may readily be ia

duc e d to respo nd in appreciations and idea ls to particular
social situations where factors of feelin g are large The
M
.

llaise arouses patriotic fervor Blac k Beauty evokes

arse i ,

love of horses The Song of the Shirl begets aspirations for

,

the oppressed Note large use of drama paint ing fiction

.
, , ,

poetry moving pictures cere m onial page an tr y for these

, , , ,

purpose s What have been the social functions of Art here ?

.

Note also how oratory sermon religious observanc e serv e

, ,

same ends None question that when related conduct is

.

possible soon after emo tional appeal effects are strong , .

“ ”
But will results keep long if action (behavior conduct , , ,

exp ression performance ) is not at once called for ? This is

,

doubtful Excessive reliance on the method is of dubious

.

worth at presen t .

c U nder teaching guidance moral or civic problems ( as

.

these perplex adults ) may be studie d elucidated on the part ,

of youths If these are st ill problems when youth is con

.

fronte d by needs for ac tion knowledge may carry over , .

( But no te that when these are controversial tea chers may ,

be esto pped by partisan zeal from extensive analytical treat

ment of them especially if harm or good to vested interests
,

and cherished prepossessions might result ) .

(1 Information about structure and functions of govern

.

mental and other social agencies and institutions can be

ta ught as knowledge as one can teach facts of history
, ,

principles of physics e tc But , .

( )
1 Such teach i ng is formal where no active motive for
lea rning exists .

( )
2 I ts use fuln e ss is often not clear .

( )
3 S h ould such stored and organ ized knowledge be
regarded as one regards the dictionary railro ad time tables , ,

collectio ns of statutes gazetteers encyclopedias etc

, to
, , .

be available and organized for ready use when needed ?

 M
EAN IN G OF SOCIAL EDUCATION 1 07

Experience clea rly shows great varia b ilit ies in : ( a) the

size s of the social groups in which man has membership ;

(b ) the efficacy of im itative p ulls to good membership ;

(c ) the efficacy of se l
f inte r est appeals ; (d
-
) the coercive eflic iency
of machinery of social control ; (e) the need of systemati sed

Examp les : ( 0 ) The instincts customs etc of family con , , .

,

trol usually insure good group membership on the part of

children from birth to ten years of age School or ot h er .

supplemental agencies are little needed ( 6) Harmony of .

husband and wife is furth e red as a result of religious and

social education wi th laws and penalties for cases of extreme
,

disharmon y (0 ) Within ordinary conj uga l family group

.

( for example 2 ,adults 4 children ) specific v irtues of tolera

,

tion cooperation truth fulness continence property honesty

, , , , ,

etc are usually assured

.
, Within v illage comm unity
.
,

conformist virtues are largely assured by public opinion ,

Mrs Grundy church and schoo l ; but youngsters often

.
, ,

break conve ntions V irtues of initiative are not assured

.
,

re sulting in weak cooperation except where self interest is -

“
manifestly served ( Consider thesis : In pre énligh te n m en t
.

stages of social evolution the village is the chief nursery

of the true civic ie beyond kinship . v irtue s ; but under
.
,

enlightenment the village is too sma ll and diversified to

,

give foundations for constituent societies and larger cc

”
operations ) (e) Within national or other state groups
conformist virtues are secured by law cool justice influen ce , ,

of voluntary leaders C o operation is secured with difficulty

.

e xcept in the tangible stress of war dangers Here is the .

central area of the true civic vir tues .

virtues will prove profitable in subseq uent studies : ( a) I n

dividual virtues those that m ake the individual strong
, ,
108 CIVIC EDUCATION

successful happy for himself (b) Kinship v irtues those

, , .
,

that insure soli darit y success mutual aid mutual ple asing
, , ,

within family and allied kinship groups (c) Neighborhood .

associate ci vic virtues those that give e flectiv eness to group

,

relationship within component group embracing chiefly ,

usually 10 to 500 persons (E lsewhere included as associa te

.

”
civic virtues ) (d) Commonwealth or federate civic virtues
.
,

those gi ving civic effectiveness in large municipality state , ,

or nation where men re ach each other at seco nd hand

,

thro ugh leaders legislation

, printed matter books etc
, , , .

Consideration must later be given to the sugg estion that

—
—
focal area of school social education ages 4 9 should be , ,

kin ship groups and school communit y groups ; for ages 9 12 ,

neighborhood community groups ; and for ages 12 18 the -

commonwealth groups .

Probl em s I n terms of fundamental social values under

.

normal conditio ns is it essent ial to social soundness that :

( )
a an individual should give first consideration to being
a w ell de v elo ped strongly funct ioning individual personalit y ;
o
,

ship ; (0) that third m order 18 good local community mem

hership ; and (d) that last in order 18 good com monwealth
membership ? Would or should this order be re adj usted ( a)
in time of national danger ? ( b) in time of civil war ? (0) in
time of famine ?
How should this order be considered in special rd e rm ce
to : girls aged 5 to 12; men aged 20 25 ; women age d 30 40
, ,
-
,
-

of less than average abilities ; m en of super average ability -

—
,

and hereditary advantages aged 30 60 ; recent immigrants

,

of low ability and precarious economic conditions ?

I s it reasonable to assume that in view of the e fi c acy ,

of non school ag en cies the responsibiliti es and wo rk of

-
,

schools in social education will be tenfold greater in pro

1 10 CIVIC EDUCATION

d . Federate civ ic virtues 1000 units ( include pa triotism

, ,

contributi ons to repre sentative government state and ,

national politics part icipation in federations of political

,

party religious vocational cultural and sociability groups

, , , , ,

as we ll as overflow of thm in international relati o ns ) .

‘
What different expectation ratings should be p rovided for
C ASE GRO UP DX Co llege educated business men 85 60
.
- — ,

years o ld with some inherited wealth American ancestry

, , ,

res ident in city of population .

W h at expectation rating s would you give Case Group DB

in time of great danger from external war ?
What expectation rat in g woul d you give C ase Group D X
men in time of war ?
Sugge sted analys es Society holds certain crude expect a
.

ti o ns oi its members as to econom ic productiveness and

conservation For example is it no rmal that
.
,

a . A chi ld of six on a farm should have no stored wealth

( capital ) and may e a sily consume te nfold what he produces ?
b A single man aged 22 of good health high school
.
,

education and family environment having discontin ued

, ,

edu cational preparation since 18 should have stored wealth

,

measured at se v a al hundred dollars relatively high ( high

'
,

school graduate standard of li ving) sumptuary prac tices and ,

a productive capac ity 50 per cen t greater t h an consumin g

pract ice ?
.0 That a man of 40 of moderate education poor health , ,

and inferior vocational capacity who ha s elected to build

a family should have $500 worth of stored w ealth low or ,

very econo m ica l consuming practice s and productive powe rs ,

three times as great as his own individual needs of con

su mption ?
Variab l e pot entialiti e s Should society hold expectations
.

sim i larly varied as regards good citizenship ? Analyze fro m

standpoint of ( a ) conformist and (b) dynamic virtues in
 MEANIN G OF SOCIAL EDUCATION III

( )
1 kinship (2) neighborhood and (8) federate groups opti
, , ,

m um ( or reasonable ) expectations from :

Bo y s age d six in goo d fam ilie s o n sm a ll hill farm s ;
—
a .

b . Women elementary school teac h ers in cities , ages 45 60

c Negro illiter ate workers in soft coal mines ;
.

d Well educated married women in prosperous suburban

.
-

fa m ilies ;
e . Yo ung m en unmarried operative laborers sons of
, , ,

recent H ungarian immigrants with whose language and ,

customs they are rapidly losing sympathy ?

SOC IA L EVAL UA TIONS ‘

The worth o f a m an in te rms o f all o r o f so m e o f h is

quali ties is to be est imated from any one of several stand
points Every man of course v alues his qualities in terms
.
, ,

of the sat isfactions they gi ve h imself His health may .

give him a net balance of pa in ; his vocation a large amount

of pleasure ; his convivial associations a large ne t satisfaction ;

The valuation of q ualities from external sources arises

from social relationships A man s vocational industry may .
’

give much value to his family while his moral behavior ,

may give much pain His manners may give his associates
.

a net amount of dissatisfac tion whilst his aggressiveness ,

toward invaders may give large positive values in public

Social itici sm s Wherever and whenever social groups

cr .

are formed social valuations of individual members are

,

incessan tly being made The courage of this man is fair . ,

“ ”
good excellent or marvelous ; of that man poor con
, , , ,

te m pt ib le or infamous The business rec titu de of Brown is

, .

high that of J ones low Patrick is a good mixer a fin e

, , . ,

fellow ; Sandy a dour and close curmudgeon Ferguson .

“
mi nds h is o wn bus i ness Sullivan is a buttinsky , .
IIQ CI VIC EDUC ATION

The Grundys public Opinion the press and e specially

, , ,

persons of influen ce and finally quasi judicial agencies

,
-
,

“ ” “
soon produce party if no t social j udgments The re
, , .

spe ctab le people of the neighborhoo d or possibly the ,

neighborhood as a whole look upon the various Smiths as

,

“ ”
shady vagrant thiev ing immoral or else as upright
, , , , ,

“ ”
thrifty or patte rns of moral character The police classify
, .

certain men as to criminal character ; commercial agencies

rate the credit of business concerns ; an d statutes are enacted
discriminating the kinds of securities insurance compan i es
may invest in .

Social valuations made from the vanta ge ground of any

one kin d of group naturally rank quali ties heavily in ter ms
’ ’
of that group s interests A young ma n s dress and manners
.

are very important to his convivi al assoc iate s but of less ,

relative importance to his em ployers unless these happen to

need his services in making certain kinds of bu siness con
tact s where personal presentableness avails much A man .

of forty with his composite charac ter is very di ffere ntly

valued respectively by his family his clu b his political , ,

pa rty his church and his nation i n time of stress

, , .

”
We not only constantly thus value individuals ; we also
value groups of individuals from cliques and sets to nations
, .

The members of a certa in family are all lo w e and mean ,

or the reverse ; all the pupils in a certain school are given

to cheating ; the men of a certain geographic regi on are all
p evailingly shiftless ; the Adams and th e Walsh famili es
r
give prevailingly high grade citizens ; the business morality
o

of J apanese is lower ( some allege ) than that of C hinese ;

the I rish are more superstitious than the Norwegians ;
Southern Italy yields fewer go od citizens than the V alley
of the Po ; negroes are less moral than whites .

Biase d valuafi m The se v aluat i

ons also refle ct h eav ily ,

of course , th e i
n te resta and pre poasess ms of the gro up
1 14 CIVIC EDUCATION

means of socialization The fo im da tio n of good ci tizenship

.

can be laid i
n the kindergarten Te ac hi ng prospe ctive voters
.

to read is no t in itse lf any guarante e o f go od civ ic b e ha v io r ;

so me ho w we m ust te ac h th e m what to read .

To this effect are numberle ss current tenden cies to rank

or grade either qualitie s expecte d or means of producing
them At best these rankings are indicated by terms of ethi
.

cal derivation and are always h ea v iL

, v affecte d by the sub
je ct iv e prepossessio n s of those making them But these .

pro c e sses are n o t to b e dispa raged , e xcept w hen b et ter are

demonstrably available The social progress of the world

.

to date has been achieved largely th ough just such cr ude

refining of social j udgments as lies back of recent American
“ ”
efforts to provide educationally for be tter citizenship .

Sci entifi c evaluati ons If c ivic education is to be made

.

more purposive and more efficient it is necessary that proc

,

case s of social valuation should become more exact If .

objectives of civic education are to be derived chiefly from

stu dies of the ac ceptable an d unac ceptable qualities now
exhibited by adult ci tizens we must find effective means of
,

distinguishing an d evaluating thw e qualities as now found

not only in individuals but especially in defi nable groups
of individuals .

I n describing simple qualities a few gradings could well

be used ; and these would have much value if they merged
the valuations of several competent judges They would .

have still mo re value if the j udgmen ts thus combined came

from sources represen ting di fferent social backgrounds .

Thus three judges representing respectively the points of

view of the police judge the social worker and the estab
, ,

“ ”
lish ed business man could pass upon the civic worth of
illiterate male negroes or recen t Jewish immigrants or native
American casual workers or high school teachers all from ,

80 to 40 years of age Given sufficien t acquaintance with

.
 MEANIN G OF SOCIAL E DUCATION 115

the in dividuals judged this small j ury would probably

, ,

wi t hout much d ifficu lty agree in grading the in divid uals

,

“ “ "
concerned into such classes as excellent superior , ,

“ ” ”
inferior and bad , Perhaps they could still more readily
.

do this if instead of being asked to grade them in terms

,
“
of the highly co mposite quality good citizenship they ”
,

were required to consider relatively various concrete quali

“ ”
tie s such as business probity attention to voting kind
, , ,

of political read ing habitu ally done volunteer efforts in ,

social reform and the like , .

R ELA TIVE STA ND A R DS

But very soon the p roblem of relative standards would
arise Should all these citizens be meas ured by the sam e
.

y ardstick ? When we say the handwriting of a seven year -

“ ”
old child is good doe s the term denote the same kind
,

and degree of excellen ce that would be similarly defined in

th e handwriting of a bookkeeper ? The courage staying ,

“
powers punch and pugilistic skills of a bantam fighter
, ,

“ ”
are graded by standards for men of his class ; and in

de veloped for heavyweigh ts From the standpoint of the .

expecta tions of societ y for civic conformity and ci vic

”
initiati ve s urely college m en in b usiness recent immigrant ,

“ ”
R ussians Western owning farmers and migrating negro
, ,

wage earners are in d ifferent classes Perhaps in some .

ultimate schem e of social evaluation all the qualities of all

members of society should be measu red in some fundamental
unit as w e now measure various forms of energy in the
,

physical world ; but for present purposes su ch an expectation

is U topian We can only hope to refine upon and render
.

more objective the standards measures and met hods of , ,

social valuation now un iversally even if roughly and par ,

1 16 C I VIC EDUC ATION

Another difficulty is very soon encountered w he n we seek

to ev aluate not composites or resultants of ci v ic q ualities
, ,

but specific component qualities We can re adily rate these .

specific qualities ; but how shall we value them in co m parb o n

with each other ?
Suppo se we are t rying to evaluate the health of two
men The first is e xce lle nt in all re spec ts exce pt inst p
e
.

“ ”
a rc hes which are graded bad ; the second is excellent m
,

all re spects except for serious tubercular infection which

“ ”
causes him to be rated b ad as to respiration or lungs
“ "
or whatever is the species agreed upon Obviously these .

“ ”
two bads are not of equal seriousness Somehow they .

Similarly two negro laborers might be graded as respects

a variety of social qualitie s property honesty interest in ,

good voting thr ift general sociability etc A is rated

, , , .

excellent in all qualities except the first wher e the fact that ,

he steals on all convenient occasions causes him to be rated

“ "
b ad B is rated excellent in all qualities e xcept participa
.

tion in voting in which he is bad Obviously these two vices

, .

are not equal as social liabilities they also must be weighted

by means not as yet well established .

Several initial sta ge s in the processes of social val uation ,

first of indi viduals and then of groups of individuals are ,

now sufficiently established to be capable of profita ble

appli cation These stages include
.

a
. The selection of social groups that are reaso na bly
homogen eous as respects the more prominent qualities that
differentiate hum ans in objective society .

b Analysis by experts of the qualities ( in as concrete

.

terms as practicable ) that make up the compo sites finally

to be evaluated as sources of educational objectives for this
group or for today s youth who are potential members of
'

similar groups ten to forty years hence .

1 18 CIVIC EDUCATION

dit io nsimposed by original nature have be en ac cepte d ,

eac h of these qualit ies can be made the objective of traini ng

or other modifying effort .

The groupings of qualities found in men and women

elsew here proposed (pages 85 93 ) as a basis for analysi s of —
education al objectives can serve as a starting point here
nam ely the physical vocational social and cultural These
, , , , .

are capable of much subdivision .

C ontra sted social groups For il lustrative purposw let us .

assume that the civic worth of two somewhat contraste d

groups of adults is to be estimated from the standpoint of
the local or neighborhood comm unity The two groups
—
.

selected will be men high school teachers age s 3 0 50 and , ,

negro manual workers ( in a Northern city ) of the same

ages The total worth of e ach individual to the co m munity
.

will be rated on the basis of plus or positive points

for his virtues an d minus or negative points
for his vices The high standards of positive worth for eac h
.

group will be those which neighborhood j udgment co m monly

implies by such words as excellent first class A grade best , , , ,

or 100 per cent Similarly the low standards of negati ve

.

“ ”
worth are expressed in social judgments as to lowest grad e ,

“
vicious crim inal vagrant
. a thoroughly bad example
, , ,

depraved and the like , .

The zero point of a virt ue or a vice need not now concern

us We are simply trying to find provisional ratings for the
.

purpose of somewhat refining every day neighborhood j udg

ments We re ad ily recognise the significance of the words
.

“ ”
a first class negro street sweeper ( in terms of voc atio nal
-

pe rformance ) Other workers in thes e groups we can grade or

.

relate to the se st andards down to a point at whid i they would

be found to be doing more harm than good by their alle ge d
service after which we could rate them by nega ti ve points
, .

A high school teacher scrupulously observ ing the laws

,
 MEANIN G OF SOCIAL EDUCATION 1 19

of property paying his debts to the full and the like would
, ,

ra t e up to excellent in this general virtue But if he steals .

,

fails to pay his debts and in general flo uts social needs

,

for pr operty honesty he would be rated as of less than

—
,

no positive wor th h e would be a source of harm For .

the presen t we may expect endless difficulties to arise from

the te ndency to confuse low positive ratings with negative
“ ”
ratin gs I t is of course evident that the points here
.
, ,

used have no absolute values Neither have the points used .

And finally it must be evident that negative and positive

poin ts have no relative values to each other Th ese po ints .

only serve conveniently to indicate relative importance of

the positive or negative qualities of one group to the others .

problems of social education we need not dwell upon methods

,

“ ”
of allocatin g points to other than social qualities Let .

us assume that from the standpoint of the co mmunity the

cration of the physical vocational cultural and social

, , , ,

quali ties are indicated by the allotment of a total of

points for the positive and for the negative qualities
respect ively distributed as follows : physical 1000 positive , ,

1000 negative ; soci al 5000 positive and 5000 negative ;

,

voca tional 8000 positive 8000 negative ; an d cultural 1000

, , ,

positive 1000 negative I n other words in an all round

, .
-

first class citizen ( of optimum efficiency ) from either group

-

the relative im m rt ance as measured of course in terms

, , ,

of social ( or community ) expectancy of excellent health , ,

excellent vocational ability excellent culture and excellent

, ,

social behavior would be in the ratios indicated ; whilst

similarly the low depths of all round badness (pe ssimu m -

efi c i
e n cy ) would be similarly weighted as among the four

types of q ualities .
120 CIVIC EDUCATION

The next step is to fo rm working classificatio

.

qualitie s The first ready division is into the

.

division is into family morals and o ther

Civic behavior rea dily reve als such
observance of laws ( civic conformity)
ideals in all kinds of social interco urse ;
ity and voting ; participati
tion activities apart from political
,

un compensated politica l service ; an

its nonconformity aspects .

Th e following then is submitted as a pro visional

, ,

of points (optimum and pessimum standards) :

Pao ross n Answ e rs W m o nr rxo ; Sr srm sans
M
AN D

C ass: G no u ra AN D N
122 CIVIC EDUC ATION
e ssentially educative . J ust as medicine te n ds to become

all kinds of groups and especially in those having po lit ic al

,

“ ”
functions tends to become educative ( or attractive in
,

the e arlier etymological sense of the term as used by Le ster ,

F Ward ) rather than coercive

. .

There are many re asons why modern politic al groups need

greatly improved and extended civic educ ation of their
members These reasons fall mainly into four gro ups : ( a)
.

M odern politic al groups are becoming vastly more complex

and intricate on the economic side 6
( ) We are demand ing .

more of security health wealth and the other means of

, , ,

happiness from our political groupings than ever before .

( )
0 These groups are increasingly dynamic changing e v o lv , ,

ing instead of static (d) Under the ideals of dem ocracy

, .

“ ”
individuals and small group members are even more
“ ”
insisten t in claiming the maximum of self realization -

and self determination

- .

Hum an beings are probably not now born into the world
wit h greatly different or bett er social instincts and other
“ ”
qualities of original nature than w ere those of our savage
ancestors of ten or fifty thousand years ago H en ce to make .

of these infants soci al men and women suited to the needs

of complex civiliz ation requires from the cradle to manhood
and in some respects even to the grave education of ma ny ,

specific kinds as well as other more ext e rnal means of con

,

trol such as laws parties and governments

, , , .

DEVELO PMEN T A L CIVIC ED U CA TI ON

Developmental education has in the evolution of the race
been accomplished l argely through extra school agenci es -

especially the home comm unity group shop and church

, , , .

A large part of this education has always resulted in the

m oral appreciations habits and ideals essential to group
, ,
 SOCIETY S N EED OF CIVIC EDUCATION 1 23
’

harmo ny and solidarity A portion of it might properly

.

be called civic especially in periods whe n war threatened

,

or nation building w as in process

-
.

Conquest and subjugation of people s led several thousand

ye ars ago to the establishmen t in the more habitable parts ,

ci v ic education adapted to the prospective needs of rulers ,

leaders and dispensers of justice naturally appeared On

, .

the opposite side the civic virtue s of subordination sub

, ,

mission and service w ere ta ug ht to the conquered rarely

, ,

in schools but much through other agencies

, .

The evolution of republican government built upon ,

aspirations for democracy general su ffrage and c o nstitu

, ,

tionalism has quite generally been accompanied by the

,

promotion of public education I n large pa rt this has been .

designed for civic e nds Literacy is conceived as the first

.

essential ; then history with adj uncts of biography patriotic

, ,

song and perhaps geography F inally appear the be ginnings

, .

of civics as a separate study .

Wh at is now the need of more direct civic education in

the United St ates than has heretofore been provided through
the schools ? For the present we answer this question largely
on the basis of faiths and beliefs and generally as partisans ,

of a few rather th an of many kinds of educational o b jec

, ,

tiy es O ur contemporary educational philosophy built so

.
,

extensi d out of aspirations gives little pl ace to the serious

,

treatment of relative educational values Lookin g upon that .

“
vague composite calle d education as a social good it
, , ,

“
is easy to say we cannot have too much education .

The partisans of special ty pe s of education are also prone

“
to say we cannot have too much of hea lth education or
”
vocational or musical or linguistic or historical educat ion
, , , ,

according to the c olor of their respective prepo ssessions .

U nder present conditions educational aim s may be said to

124 CIVIC EDUCATION

be in constant competition and the fittest survives ,

which oft en means the best advertised or the very fashion ,

able o r the most vigorously promoted

M
, .

R elative val ue s I ndam entally of course all questio ns

. , ,

of educational needs and values bri ng us to problems of

rela tive needs and relative values All education must be
.

achieved under limiting conditions Time is the most o h .

vi c us of th ese At the most it is only possible to claim from

.

one thousand to two thousand hours of the child s time per ’

year for from eight to fifteen years for school purposes .

The educability of the child is another limiting fac tor This .

is an extrem ely variable quantity but even the mo st able ,

or brilliant learner eventually reaches his limits A third .

limitation is found in the resources wherewith parents and

the state may support and produce education Education .

can be achieved only through teachers working wi th such

instrum enta lities as subjects of st udy te xts laboratories , , ,

and the like Teachers are human instruments and their

.

mechanica l aids are never perfect Their work must be .

paid for from the products of other labor — itself su bject

to limitations .

There was a time perhaps when the scope and variety

, ,

of the o fferings possible in sc hools were small because few

“
subjects were well enough organised for school pur
poses B ut that time has now go ne by at all school
.

levels Even in the lowest grades many more objectives

.
,

all of demonstrable worth can be set than it is possible

,

to achieve within the li m its of existing abilities time and , ,

pedagogic resourc es .

Hence the central problem in all studies of educational

” —
need today is not I s this thing needed ?
,
o f any par

ticular objective in hygiene language science art voc ation

, , , , ,

“
or culture ; but I s it more needed than something else
, ,
”
the time and learning energy for which it would preempt ?
126 CIVI C EDUCATION

extend and improve the social obje cti ves of pu blic edu ca tion ,

of which civic ed ucation t oward politic al cm pe tency is

am o ng the m o st im po rta nt Th e w c ial sc im ce st udie s, ”
.

we ll as o tb er m ea ns to th is end, should the refore re ce iv e

e The materials for civic education are no w better organ

.

ize d and mo re available than ever befo re E ven hist ory .

studies which as heretofore taught have pr oba bly func

, ,

tio ne d in civic ide als or enlightenment only to a slight

extent ( except possibly in the case of a few vigorous and
aspiring minds) are now in process of fundamental pedagogic
reorganization on a basis more calculated to give valuable
results in civic education Economics h eretofore an abstrac t
. ,

and difficult body of knowledge is being gradually given con

,

Civil government once essentially a study of political

,

anatomy is also being developed into applied and case forms

,

of m uch concreteness and simplicity I t seem s not improbable

.

that other so cial scien ces including sociology itself will soon
, ,

be presen ted in forms suitable for use in school curricula .

f A constantly increasing proportion of American chil

—
.

dren attend school between the years of 12 and 1 8 the

ye ars of transition from childh ood to adult e state which ,

are peculiarly suited to the establishment of civic appre cia

tions and ideals the fixing of at least some important civ ic
,

habits and attitudes and the communication of some salient

,

facts of civic knowledge and enlightenm ent .

Finally the num ber of students of college social sciences

,

who could easily qualify to te ach these subjects 111 schoo ls

increases co nstantly .

CON T EM PO RA RY EST IMA TES O F NEEDS

T he aspirations and proposals thus summ arized are fo und
scattered voluminously throughout the contem porary litera
 SOCI ETY S NEED OF CIVIC EDUCATION
’
127

ture of education U nfortunately they are nea rly all charac

M
.

ta -
d either by vagueness or by unscien tific derivation The .

philosophical proposals are couched in very general terms .

The programs courses texts and pedagogic instrum en tali

, , ,

tie s are apt to be opportunist fadd ish or too severely logica l

, ,

for successful presentation under American school co nditions .

Acco unt must be taken of th e many serious defects in

prev ailing metho ds of estimating contemporary needs of
civic education C h ief in importance probably is the fa ilure
.

to allow in a sociological sense for the educative effects

, ,

of non school agencies on persons of favoring heredity and

-

I t is a co m monplace that a mong the colo nial settlers

preceding and following the American Re volution brought

to the front many excellent citize ns some of whom were ,

giants in their da y A large proportion of the men who

.

gave their efforts and in m any cases their lives to save

, ,

the U nion more than half a century ago were certainly

We often allude to farmers as being the backbone of

American citizenry Well led and patriotic groups of home
.
-

conducting women of artisans of business m en of racial

, , ,

or immigrant representatives every where atte st to the vital

poten tialities I n American life of m aking out of some children
good citizens quit e without p urposive civic education in
,

schools In spite of our misgivings we found that a large

. ,

proportion of the men and wo m an called upon for service

in the Great War were sound not only in body but in patri ,

The sociological fac t is of course that in any group of

, ,

adults differentiated on any other than p urely moral and

,

civic grounds there will be found some exceptionally good

, ,

some very bad and many average citizens No class or

, .
128 CIVIC EDUCATION

other social gro up has now a monopoly either of civic v i rt ue

or of civic vice nor will it have after we shall have de
,

v elo ped a thoroughgoing program of civ ic education through

the schoo ls Some very good citizens m ade such by th e ir

. ,

en v i ro nment and a favoring heredity will be found amo ng ,

“ "
owning farmers v illage handymen domestic serv ants
, , ,

m e n high school teac hers un skilled negro laborers women

, ,

very wealthy by inh eritance frontiersmen recently immi , ,

grated Norwegians bank presidents half nomadic ten ant

, ,

farmers college professors and min isters Bad citize ns too

, , .
, ,

will be found in all these groups .

T H E U SE O F T H E CA SE G RO UP STUDY OF NEEDS
The social efficien cy of a people in its po litical activities
is largely determined not by the fact that bad citiz ens are
found in all its component groups but by their proportions ,

in various groups and especially m those of gre atest civic

,

influence If large proportions of our ministers owning

.
,

farmers merchants college educated men women of good

, ,
-
,

family extraction skilled artisans school teachers and well

, , ,

educated negroe s were venal anarchistic or insurrectionary , ,

in the ir cit izenship then would o ur social state be bad

,

indeed We can stand a few anarchists amo ng recent immi

.

grants o r migratory m anual laborers and some grafters ,

in our political slums so long as the more vital parts of

,

our social body are strong and healthy eno ugh to resist
infection .

Hence as stated elsewhere the first step in the scientific

, ,

study of the need of better civic education requires that

we should evaluate citizenship as we now have it The .

superfic man of course forms judgments on indiv idual

, ,

inst ances Because a half craz ed vagrant assassina tes Presi

M
- »
.

den t c Kinley the public sch ools are denounced Because

,
.

an occasion al im migrant acts the anarchist all immigrants ,

130 CIVIC EDUC ATI ON

prevailingly worse or be tter citizens than men

e duc ation ? as re spects what civic qualitie s ? ( b )

in th e N o rthe rn sta te s b ett er or w o rse ci

tise ns
of the same ability education and
, ,

( ) Do I talians or Hungarians give

c
“ "
of good conforming immigrant

( e) D o men of
better citizens

tics of the same intelligence

regards quali ties of civic co nformity ? civic initiati

In view of the diversities here

be an
about
”
man without reference
”
immigrant without reference to
“ ”
the gainfully employ ed with no
or productivity .C itizenship in ,

sense is to be measured finally

,

performance ; and that must vary

as effective contributions to it an d especially those

,

needs toward which contributions are po ssible fro

can be expected to vary hardly less .

There Is a second very consp icuous weakness

discussions of the need of civic educatio
 SOCIETY S NEED OF CIVIC EDUCATION
’
13 1

m itte d . Here the only road to san e eval uatio ns is something

“ ”
resembling the case group method of approach A few .

further examples will serve as illustrations .

A I n any urban elem entary school can be found sub

.

al proportions of boys of whom the following fac ts

st a nt i

are true enough for all pract ical purposes of providin g school
curricula : They are over 12 years of age ; they are from
one to four grades reta rded ; their in h eren t intelligence is
below average ; th ey are well developed physically ; their
home environment is crude ; they show little interest or
ability in the more abstract studies ; they are very soc ial
“ ”
among themselves inclining toward clan standards of
,

loyalty and co m munity sent iments ; they have real interests

in man ual work and te am sports ; t he am bitions of them
selves and their parents po int not at all toward professional
or even co m mercial careers ; they may be expected to become
manual workers leaving school as soon as the law permits
, .

“ ”
As adults most of these boys will be f a ir co nforming
ci tizen s ; but they will develop few init i atory civic v irtue s ;
and they will frankly d isclaim ability to comprehend the
intricate questions so frequently arising for civic considera
tion and decis i on .

B Contrast with these a somewhat sm aller proportion

.

of girls found in the same elemen ta ry schools ; they are

from 10 to 14 years of age and are all in the seventh and
eighth grades ; they are intellectually keen and ambitious ;
they come from favoring home en vironments and will ,

almost certainly finish high school if not college or pro

,

fe ssio n al school ; they are e specially able in abstract

studies and somewhat disdainful of man ual work ; they and
,

their parents are very sensitive to public opinion unwilling

,

to give excuse for criticism and almost ultra conform ist

,
-

in their morality Lo fty civic ideals can easily be communi

.

ca te d to these girls though the i r civic perform ance in ad ult

,
1 32 CIVIC EDUCATION

y ears will often show l e ss initiative than might be expected .

From the standpoint of their respective possibilities of

civic education th e se two case groups are manifestly no
less unlike than will be th e ir r e spe c tiv e contributions toward
civic life in their adult years To the first group much of .

the material contained in our textbooks of civics must

“ "
remain largely Greek As adults t h ey will indeed develop
. , ,

their own sources and standards of civic action no less than

the other group but on what a very d ifferent basis ! In
,

face of the se po tential differences how naive and fruitle ss ,

seem ma ny of our generalizations as to what sho uld be done

“ ” “
with and for the pupil the ch ild !
,

D IR ECTI ON OF SP ECIA LI ST SERVI CE

TH E
What are the respective respo nsibilit i es of the leadership
of expert serv ice and of followership in the co nduct of the
“ ”
state and other large group social organizations ? F ailure
ad equately to an alyze the elem ents of this problem is the
third conspicuous defect in current aspirational disc ussions
of the need of civic education .

In the non political a ffairs of life m en take action in

-
,

all those complicated situations toward which they are not

themselves specialists only under the guidance of specialists
, .

Few of us are well qualified as phys ic ians bookkeepers , ,

watc h repairers preachers teachers or printe rs O ur needed

, , , .

”
work in these and scores of other fields we hire done
for us The optim um measure of education for us in these
.

fields probably consists in making us able to appreciate

and discover the right kind of service or service products .

In certa i n areas of political service the same principle

is now consciously applied The citizens of well governed
.
-

cities employ directly or indirect ly expert or specialist

, ,

service to provide their water keep their public serv ice .

accounts police their streets teach in their schools adv i se

, , .
134 CIVIC EDUC ATION

complicated econo m ic fiscal j ustici ary educational sump

, , , ,

tuary and other social problems now increa singly fa lling

,

within the purview of government than they can be trained

,

to provide their o w n dental ocular and surgical service

. ,

or to diagnose obscure diseases Somehow citizens must be

.

so educated in civic matters that they will know w hen

and where to rely upon conclusions reached by themselves ,

and under what circ umstances to seek the guidance of

experts Of special importance of co urse is any education
.
, ,

in appreciation and knowled ge that will qualify them to select

and use the right experts The following are sample pro blems :
.

a . I t is known in the state of New York t hat a large

sum of mo ney will be aske d from the next legislatur e for

the forestation of a hilly tract of sta te land in a mountainous

part of the state An enabling amendment to the state
.

constitution is to be voted upon at a general election A .

number of farmers in the Mohawk V alley want guidance

as to how to vote They know little about problems or
.

results of artificial forestation and they know the state

,

is now burdened by taxation To whom shall they go for

.

i nformation ? State o fficials ? The National D epartment of

Agricult ure ? Certain college profe ssors ? Editors Public
?

school men ? Hunters ? Lumbermen and paper company

experts ?
.b A strong effort is be ing made to impose high protective
tari ffs on dyestuffs These were almost exclusively made
.

in Germany before the war but many fac tories were de

,

v e lo pe d in the U nited States during the war A group of .

citize ns wish to use the influence of their ballots and opin io n

in promoting policies which shall be good for Am erica and
fair to the rest of the world By whose advice shall they
.

be guided ? Editors ? Technical experts in chemistry ?

C hemical manufacturers ? Textile manufac t urers in America ?
C ollege professors of economics ? Whom else ?
 C HAPTE R E I G H T

T H E OBJ E CT IV ES or C rv rc E DU CA T I ON

METHO DS O F DET ERM INA TION

B aro ns effective programs of civic education can be
devised for given age levels and sch o ol conditions it is ,

indispen sable that we ha ve clearly defined specific o b jec

tiv es so differentiated that it will prove easy to discover
,

experimentally at what age levels and by what methods

they can best be re alize d As indicated else whm e these
.
‘
,

objectives can best be derived from concrete studies of the

observed performances of social case groups in governmental
or other forms of collective action .

For the purpose of settin g the problem s of objectives

clea rly before us let us assume : ( a) that in all of the normal
adult social groups that will first be studied the majority
of members are at le ast fairly good cit iz ens ; ( b) that through
out all groups will be found some common civ ic defects
( hereafter called sho rta g es of civic vir tue ) charac teri s tic of
nearly all the members ; and (c) that in each group wi ll
be found shortages somewhat peculiar to that group .

Civic sh ortag es How shall these shorta ges be measured

.

or even accurately described ? It must be remembered that

sociology has as yet devised few tests or measures of relative
social values . Nevertheless as indicated in an earlier chapter
, ,

it is certain that men have always followe d the practice of

rating their fellows indi vidually and collectively as to their
, ,

prac tice of civic and other v irtues We spe ak of men as .

good or bad citizens as patriotic or the reverse as devote d

, ,

“ ”
or nigga rdly in public serv ice The terms . grafter ,
“ ” “ “ ” ”
slacker , bribe taker
-
, pro fi tee r anarchist, and ,

scores of others si gnifying social opprobrium are applied

to individuals ; whilst the excessi ve prevalence of such indi
185
13 6 CIVIC EDUCATION

vi
duals in a gro up give s rise to such
a poli tic ally ph rase s as
” “ ” “
corrupt city , the prevalence o f law bre aking political -
,
" “ ” “ "
indifiere nt ism , degraded citizenry bureaucratic rule , ,

an d numberl e ss o thers .

In the absence of other mea ns it is prac ticable to refine

upon and reduce to scientifi c proced ure many of th ese
ch arac terizations For purposes of this cha pter we may
.

employ the crude process previously discussed of consoli

, ,

dating the evaluations o f several j udges representing different

fields of experien ce Ass ume five men o ne a profe ssor of
.
,

political science one a state legislator of long experience

, ,

one a Superior Co urt judge one an artisan and o ne a , ,

merchant ask ed to study the practices of c itw enship found

,

in certain designated groups .

I n trying to determine the prevalent civic shortages

of various groups these men might use as standards of
comparison ( a) past prac tices in similar grou ps (6) con ,

te mporary practices in comparable groups or (c) demon ,

strably practicable ideals o r standards now held by the

well informed .

For example take venality in voting among small farm a s

,
'
.

In a given situation in State X is venality more common ,

there than it is among similar people in State Y ? Is it

dem onstrable that s uch venality is far more exce ssi ve than
it would be if s uitable special civic education and super
vision were provided ? Similar comparisons could b e insti
”
tut e d as to : war time slacking ; corruption in public work ;
-

i nefficient le gislation ; suppo rt of education ; prevalence o f

n eeded forms of cooperation ; and scores of other more or
less prevalent civic shortages .

D E TE RMI NA TION OI " CIVI C SH ORTA OEB

Only provisional inferences can now be mad e as to the

prevailin g shortages upon which the j ury would agree at
138 CIVIC EDUCATION

d International relationships become yearly more ia

.

tries te and m ore v ital to the public welfare But here again
.

only men of considerable education are in a position to

possess the nece ssary information for sound judgments .

Others of less educa tion must be largely influenced by their

j udgments But it appears that men of seconda ry and
.

higher education fall lower both in comprehension of inter

national matters and in disposition to promote international
harmonies than is desirable and proba bly feasible if some
th ing more of time and effort were given to these ends in
secondary schools and colleges .

6
. Among artisan workers it is found that certain eco
nomic doctrines are held which are unsupported by scientific
“
evidence For example they hold that labo r is the only
.
,
”
source of wealth meaning that in corporation production
,

the factors of capital ( seeking interest) and organization

and risk taking ( seeking profits) are not directly productive
-

and therefore are un essential They also fail to distinguish

.

between money as currency ( measure of exchange valu es )

and money as wealth (especially ca pital ) thus giving rise
,

to much confusion in political discussion and action .

The j ury is of the belief that it is practicable and v ery

desirable to provide perhaps in lieu of the nonessential
,

arithmetic now taught in junior high schools a simplified ,

economics especially de signed to promote the formation of

sound con c eptions in these clearly defined fields .

I
. T he own ing farmers of the North Mississippi V alley
states are in gen eral good citizens But by admissions of
.

their own be st informed members their most pro no rm ced

-

ge neral civic defect at present is a failure to enter into

those forms of public and voluntary cooperation which
modern economic conditions seem to necessi tate such as ,

road building cooperative buying and selling the join t

, ,

ownership of expensive and occasionally used tools and ,

 OBJECTIVES OF CIVIC EDUCATION 139

co m munity provision of facilities for diversion an d recrea

tion.

I t is believed that provision of a variety of very simple

and concret e re ad ings in rural sc h ools such read ings to be
,

promoted by teachers in the homes as well as in the schools ,

Many other general and special case situations could thus

be studied by expert commit tees Tenden cies to be con
.

stan tly guarded aga inst are obviously : ( I ) to pursue vague

,

Utopian ideals of social well being ; (2) to fail to take account

-

of positive and val uable qualities now found ; (8) to judge

a class or social group by its worst members ; (4) to propose
objectives th e practicab ility of which is still v ery question
,

able But it is clea r that the method of social inquiry here

.

proposed would grad ually produce for school use a variety

of concrete and feasible objectiv es toward re aliz ing which
throug h didactic instruction development readings service
, ,

projects and the like definite experimental work could be

,

CIVIC SHO RT A GES IN SOCIA L CLA SSES

The objectives of civic education might be sought from
another direction What are some of the specific weaknesses
—
.

diseases or defects if we like

, o f our social life ? U pon
whom class or gro up in the first instance does responsi
b ilit y for these rest ? C a n these defects be corrected in the
next generation ?
Sharp distinctions must of course be m ade between those
, ,

alleged defects or social shortages which are only believed

to be such by certain experts or enthusiasts and those ,

others as to which there is general agreement For example.

,

some persons greatly favor public measure s to conserve or

increase wild game But the value of wild game to society
.

is st ill far from clear except in a few specific re spects A

, .
140 CIVIC EDUC ATION

party forms to prote ct from private exploitation cer tain

forests or waterfalls But it may still be very uncertain as
.

to whether the aesthetic values of these in the natural state

outweigh the values that would accrue from their practical
utilization H und re ds of problems of public policy as to
.

parks water supply specialized forms of education public

, , ,

control of utilities im m igration finance control of co m

, , ,

merce and th e like must remain for years perhaps in the

,
“
limbo of party discussion and propagan da participation ,

in which on the part of schools may have to be very greatly

we need the development of methods by which a large

variety of generally agreed upon social valuations can be
-

given concrete interpretation in such defin ite forms that

defects or shortages can be traced to the social groups
most responsible For example
.

a
. It is desirable that all qualified ci tiz ens should vote
in elections .

( ) Only a small proportion of the citizens of C ommunity

1
A vote I t is foun d that the ca uses are political apathy Pro
. .

ce dures for correction nece ssary in the next generation should

take what form ?

( )
2 I n C ommunity B a few men and many women v o te .

Causes ? Proposed corrections ? 0

( 3) Traveling men and others away from home cannot

,

vote Re medies to be found in other than educati onal

.

means ?
6 I t is desirable that country village s should be physically
.

“
and morally clean F irst very clear definition of pr actical
.
,

“ ”
and sane standards is necessary Then in terms of these
. ,

( )
I V illages A and B are needlessly below par Are edu .

os tional objectives in schools pract icable for corrective pur

poses ?
1 42 CIVIC EDUCATION

educators who rely heavily upon the te achi n gs of principle s

find themselves always more or less defeated in their efforts .

rent psychology still in terpret s this field d pedagog inade

q u a te ly and badly I t may be
. for exa m ple
, that cer tain ,

types of mind perhaps certain grades of intellectual ability

, ,

ac quire vital and enduring comprehensio ns of principles

from th e study of a few vivid cases or exam Nes ; whilst
other types of mind can bu ild them only laboriously from
wi de ranges of concrete experience I t may be that under
.

“ ” ”
some conditions of lea rning interest or will to learn ,

where perhaps emotions are he avily involved or instinctive

, , ,

learning appealed to or authority brings pressure to bear

, ,

a very few experien ces or cases will suffice to give e flect iv e

m ast ery of principles wherea s under other conditions n um
,

b e rless instances may result in only verbal and largely

un usable mastery .

In view of the well known fu t ility of much contemporary

-

teach ing of grammar social science nat ural science mathe

, , ,

m atic s and fine art where important goals are the early
, ,

mastery of principles teachers of the civic subjects would

,

be well advised if they would develop as freely as circum ,

stances permit inductive methods of approac h involv ing

, ,

abundant use of case instances and concrete problems .

A DA PT A TIONS OF O BJ ECTIVES T O G RO UPS O F L EA RN ERS

'

As stated above the large determining obj e ctives of civic

, ,

as of other forms of education must be sought in the firs

,

instance from a study of social needs especially as these ,

manifest themselves among adult s But these objectives .

cannot be made the bases of school programs until they

shall have been select ed and adapted to the educational
possibilities of various levels or other groupings of learners .
 OBJECTIVE S OF C I VIC EDUCATION 1 413

Some phases of civic education can probably be well begun

in the kin dergarten whilst others are appr opriate only in
,

the later grad e s of the liberal arts college The j unior high .

sch ool o ffers excellent opport unities for some kinds of civic
traini n g whilst bright pupils from 16 to 18 yea rs of age
,

“
ought to prove readily responsive to methods of problem
”
solving in economic and other similar fields Very pr obably .

we shall find th at it is quite futile to try to impart certain

kinds of civic knowledge to children of sub average in telli -

gence between the ages of 12 and 15 whereas for those ,

of relatively high intelligence much can be done in guiding

insight into fairly complex problems On the basis of present .

experience it seems fairly probable :

a That in children of ages 4 to 9 can be developed many
.

varieties and substantial depths of civic appreciation and

idealism by means of fest ivals patriotic songs flag saluting , , ,

lives of noteworthy men women and even children stories

, , ,

of adventure etc Properly dev ised commemorative fest i

, .

vals readings music excursions all being of the develop

, , , ,

mental class of objectives can be made to render excellent

,

b . That very co ncrete forms of co m munity civics — ex

perien cegetting and interpreting can be pro fita bly studied
by children from 9 to 12 years of age During these years .

processes of developing civic appreciations and ideals can

0 . That the years from 12 to 15 seem especially val uable

for the varieties of activity developed under scouting .

Probably they are very s uitable too for the production , ,

of civ ic idealism through reading of the materials of history

,

and study of simple concrete problems of economics espe ,

cia lly th o se having v isible projections into their environment .

These are the years of the j unior high school The .

tendency in this school it can hardly be doubted will be

, ,
144 CIVIC EDUC ATION

in th e direct ion of increasing flexibi lity and adaptatio n of ,

studies to different grades of ability and prospects I t will .

certam prove possible at this level to provide ca tain

fairly complex units of study in economics political and ,

other civic problems for pupils of super average intelligence ; -

whilst for pupils of sub average intelligence so mewhat similar

-

purposes may have to be rea lized through concrete e xperi

”
ence giving v ia the project method .

KI NDS O F O BJ ECTIVES O F CIVI C ED U C A TI ON

For many purposes it will prove advantageous to divide
the objectives of civic education into two fun damental
classes : ( a) the developm en tal and ( b) the projective or the ,
“ ”
beta alpha classification used in education al sociology
-
.

During their school lives children are stead ily grow ing
into civic appreciations kn owledge habits ideals Schools
, , , .

can recognize and in a measu re guide retard accelerate

, , . ,

or otherwise m odify these growt h processes according to

desire They can provide new nurtural ma terials for such
.

growt h through story reading school initiated activity

, ,
-
,

school controls U nder many of the objectives suggested

.

later in this book it must be remembered that children

will achieve some kinds of valuable results whether the
school takes part or not .

For example all growing youths learn fro m th eir environ

,

men t to admire heroic personages ( her oic by the standard s

of whatever social influences the learners are subject to) ,

“ ”
to believe in certain public policies to distrust certain ,

social agencies to hope for certa in ty pes of social action

, ,

etc. In many cases these appreciati ons at t it udes beliefs , , ,

“
forms of knowledge and the l i ke will be small group cen
,
-

”
tere d , unpatriotic tribal or otherwise wrong The function
, , .

of the school therefore is to substitute sound (and in

, , ,

some in stances corrective) means of soc ial development

. .
 C H A PT E R NI N E

E DU CA T I ON FO R D EMOCRA CY

An nm c a n government has from its co loni al beginnin gs

rested increasin gly on bases of politically democratic aspira
tions and ideals A large proportion of Ameri cans have
.

consciously sought to co m e and even to extend the social

democracy arising spontaneously from the pri m itive con
dit io ns of frontier settle m ent At le ast some forms of reli
.

gious dem ocracy have also been deliberately fostered There .

finally arises keen interest in so called industrial democracy

-
.

A sound system of civic education will in Am3 ica , ,

naturally aim to promote the aspirations and prac tices of

political democracy A good system of social education will
.

also do what is practicable under present stages of social

evolution to prepare the young to contribute to and par ,

tic ip a te,in the various other forms of democracy .

Th eori es Of the maki ng of books on democracy there

.

has been no en d Many phases of the subject are still

.

philosophically and sociologica lly obscu re To the practical .

m an it appears that not a few of the idea ls of democracy

are hopelessly at variance wi th the realities of mundane life .

H en ce no matter how complete any system of social educa

tion may be there will remain numberless problems of
,

democracy which are still so speculati ve that only the few

keenest minds can hope to attac k them profitably .

For educational purposes therefore it is nece ssary that

, ,

the conditions faiths facts and uncertain ties regarding

, , ,

democracy be given detailed an alysis and arrange d in so me

rough order of authorita tive approval and acceptance I f .

substantial agreemen t of those who must finally dictate

educational policies can be had as to certain general prin
cip le
, s then these can in proper season be made the bas is
of the selection of concrete objectives of instru ction The .

140
 EDUCATION FO R DEMOC RACY 147

following sociological analysis is submitted as such a basis

for proposed specific courses of instruction training and , ,

prac tice of social education in so far as that bears on the

increase and conservation of democracy .

SOCI OLOG IC A L COND ITI ONS O F DEM OCRA CY

son the members of genus homo are very much alike and
by other standards they differ m uch among themselves .

No two normal human beings differ so much in bodily

structure from each other in their maturity as each does
from a horse or an ea gle The differences between a Bantu
.

and an Englishman as regards spee ch powers are less great

than the di fferences between eac h and an ape or a buffalo .

The poorest normal D igger Indian has mental powers ,

w th e t i
c appreciations and a stock of customs which bring
,

him much closer to the professional engineer than the

possessions of the chimpanzee bring him to the Digger .

When therefore we discu ss h uman inequalities or di ffer

, ,

e nce s it is important to remember that these while of very ,

great momentousness by human sta ndards are of less ,

weight by ordinary bi ological standards of measurement .

ing any social group we find many re semblances and many

differen ces Certain groups are deliberately formed of
—
.

perso ns very much alike in some respects foot ball teams ,

political parties worshipin g groups I n others certain

—
, .

elements of heterogeneity are a necessary condition the

family an industrial corporation a village
, , .

But in all natural groups numerous and often grea t in

equalities are found Some of these due to age sex hered
—
.
, ,

ita ry qualities habitat

, are said to derive from natural
conditions ; whilst others are traceable principally to human
148 CIVIC EDUC ATION

powers inferior to the mature Normally therefore the .

, ,

young are su bordinate and liable to possible abuse ex , ,

plo ita t i
o n suppre ssion The
, very aged al so become inferior .
, ,

to the middle aged in physical menta l and other powers

-
, , .

I) Wom en are natively inferior to men of the same ages

.
,

during mature ye ars in physical str ength mob i lity and the , , ,

mental qualities associated with aggres sion aga inst animals

and host ile men Women probably surpass men in social
.

qualities of sympathy aesthetic response and ready su b , ,

ordination to minute routine work Cultures intimately .

rooted in conditions of war and hunting give aggressive

men en dless oppo rtunities to subjugate oppress overwork , , ,

and repress women whic h disab ilities are only slowly ,

moved as s uch cultures shake o ff war influences

, .

N A T UR E LIMITA TI ONS
’
S

c .Th e ea rth s s urface only in portions offers opti mum

’

mate rial environment for means of development Climates .

can be too cold or too warm too dry or too humid , .

too variable or too uniform to give maxim um development

of the individual even apart from conditions of dietetic
,

nurture or shelter The frigid z ones the lowlands of the

. ,

torrid zo ne the de serts the regions of hea vy persistent

, ,

rainfall a Siberia where b arometric variability is slight

,

these seem to develop man poorly as contraste d with those ,

sections of the temperate z ones where cold and hea t not ,

extreme rapidly alternate and where dry days and humid

, ,

days rapidly succeed each other In l esser de gree topo . ,

graphical conditions seem to affect development I t has .

,

for exam ple long been believed that under primi tive con
, ,

ditio ns mountain seashore and de sert folk are more rum d

, , , ,

w during and mobile than plainsmen

, ( But these conc lu .

sions need further examination of occupational co nco m i

150 CIVIC EDUC ATION

munit1e s of substantially similar stocks in dividuals appear ,

of all grade s of na tive su periority and inferiority Army .

and other intelligence tests seem confir ma tory of this cm

A neighborh ood group often shows a condition unde r

which superior heredity tends to repeat in the same fa mily
group and especially when favore d by selecti ve mating
, ,

thus gi ving loc al ( as against conquerin g) aristocracies The .

aggrandizing te nde nc ies of th ese lead to need of so cial re

straints in the intere st of the weaker .

possession of strategi c m entions superior education

, te nd

to m um ulate and b e transm itte d in certa i

n fam ily , caste ,

or other local groups thus again eventually necessita ting

,

co lle ctive interference in intere sts of social j ustice .

coll ective corr ecti on becom es especial ly necessary

when variations in respect to native or social inher itance

ten d to cry stallize into institutional forms hereditary
rulers pries thoods crafts lan downers traders ; or in e ffect
, , , , , ,

to become monopolies of certain kinds of le arning c ulture , ,

sum ptuary right economic direction etc

, , .

W HA T I S o u o s nc n r ?

The numberless inequalities among h uman beings have

always given rise to certain opposed tendencie s which will
“ ” “
here be contrasted as the oligarchic and the democratic .

“
To him that ha s shall be given ; while from him that
”
has not shall be take n away even that which he has 13 ,

the text of oligarchy as it is often indeed that of nature

, , , ,

where not o fl set by co operative or other socially protective

instincts Social groups have advanced and enlarged partly
.

by curbing tra ining orga nizing govern ing and working

, , , ,

individuals or subordinated groups of individuals Th at .

 EDUCATION FO R DEMOC RACY 151

inclusive collecti ve group now called the state claims of ,

course very extensive rights here justified partly on the

, ,

“
ground that it has the sanction Of the majority the safety ,
”
of the republic being the supreme law Any tendency in .

group activity to give to the mature the strong the learned , , ,

the highly ranked the masculine (or feminine ) the wealth

, ,

holding Or the naturally ab le large powe rs of control

, , ,

direction sumptuary advantage and the like can be regarded

, ,

as oligarchic ( without of co urse now raising the que stion

, ,

as n th e lo ng
to w h et h er i run th e kinds an d deg ree s of

superordination thus established are good or ev il ) Simi .

larly any tendency to subordinate an individual or a subject

grou p because of inferi o rities of strength in telligence c c , ,

operati veness productivit y and the like will be called

, ,

oligarchic I n a strictly soci al sense the term can best be

. ,

restricted to man mad e conditions accen tuatin g or prolo ng

-
,

ing i neq ualities deriving from natural causes .

W HA T Is DEM OC RACY ?
”
The term democracy is used to include all tendenc ies
on the part of man to compensate for the inequalities im
posed by nature as well as O f course the corre ction of , ,

those due to human action Within any group systematic .

effort can be made through in dividuals or collective ac tion

to assist liberate upbuild and exalt inferior or subordinated
, , ,

individuals or sub groups In recent decades it has come

-
.

”
to be strongly held as a faith that more democracy is
”
not only a social good for individuals but a necessary ,

—
,

“ ” “
means to larger group efficiency that is in the lo ng ,

”
run .

We can assume that the greatest good of the greatest

”
nu m ber is the final justification of democracy and deter ,

mi nes its des irable l imits subject possibly to correctio ns

, , ,

( )
a from certain Christian tenets that eac h human soul
152 CIVIC EDUCATION

is infinitely precious and that earthly inequalities are w holly

negligible as again st heaven destined perfections ; and (11) -

“ ”
certa in philosophic tenets that the individual is primarily
“ ” “
an end in himself rather than a means to societ y
or to the collective good of many other indi v iduals .

Oligarchy and dem ocracy ha ve been designated social

“ ”
tendencies But the values of these tendenci es now
. ,

held in part as instincts an d partly as fai ths must ultimately ,

be determined from whatever scient ific sources shall give

us standards of other social values All social groups requ ire .

something of oligarchy and they can easily get too much ;

and they all require something Of democracy and perhaps
of it also they can get too much I n their present sta ges .

of evolution most societies move steadily toward certain

kinds of democracy — at l east democracy in ce rtain func
—
,

tions and perhaps they move away fro m it as respects

ot hers They can bes t be understood from the analysis of
.

specific social situ ations .

The struggle between group and individual is of course , ,

ancient and inherent I t is always possible for the indi

—
.

vidual — child so ldier em ployee

, to foster his own ih
,

tercets at the expense of the group at least what b e for

the moment conceives to be his interests of pleasure surv ival , ,

liberty wealth T he selfish member of the family th e

, .
,

grasping partner the shirking employee the craven soldier

, , ,

the ven al voter the idler and the monopolist are always
, ,

doing this .

On the other hand it is no less common for the group

unduly to coerce overwork mentally cramp suppress or
, , , ,

otherwise su bjugate the individual Families clans churche s . , , ,

armies autocrac ies labor unions industrial organizations

, , , ,

an d even the state have done this repeatedly Especially .

have they done it thro ugh oligarchical agencies or mob

co ntrol to children women conquered peoples aliens the
, , , , ,
154 CIVIC EDUCATION

To th ese e nds are addre ssed :

( ) a co nce rted efl orts of se lf

protecting organizations of the oppressed ; ( b) efforts of

ph l
ia n th r O pic bodie s ( including religious and voluntary
political ) on behalf of others than themselves ( and perhaps
using education political action and force) ; and eventual ly
, ,

( )
c the e fforts of the sta te itself led thereto by its
, persuade d

ments contemporary
, movements , and slowly crystallizing
al
soc i ideals of this char ac ter m ay all b e ge neralized as
‘ ”
modern democrac y Some examples are :
.

with childhood do not always suffice to insure the fair

orphan the child born out of wedlock the child prematurely

, ,

forw d to work away from h ome an d the child deprived of ,

have first claim ed concerted effort which now manifests ,

itself in scores Of specific demands and collective movem en ts .

“ ”
Presen t problems include : legitimation of the illegi tima te
“
proper rearing of orphans ; proper l imits to child labor
legislation ; state prot ection of motherhood ; vocational
guidan ce an d training ; heal th supervision ; eugen ic super
vision of rights of parenthood etc , .

b Th e “di sab iliti es of wom e n ”

in corpora te d into law
. ,

religious custom and su bdivision of economic labor have

,

been in process of gradual removal for centuries but the ,

end is not yet Current movements for franchise ; for voca

.

“ ”
tio nal equality ; for equal control within the fam ily ,

gro up of property offsp ring place of habita tion and rights

, , , ,
”
of worship ; and for other forms of independen ce are of ,

poignan t interest partly because in some cases essential

,

social foundations may be in proce ss of being undermined

faster than new supports are building .
 EDUCATION FO R DEMOC RACY 155

c V ested i nequaliti es of various kinds have been m eas ur

.

ably corrected by modern movements for political de moc

“ ” ”
racy originating ih revo lts of guild cities prote sting
, ,

religiou s denominations secedi ng colonies and unenfran

, ,

c hise d majorities Achievem ents can b e trac ed in : impairment

.

men t ; government through elected representatives ; exten

sion of suffrage ; equalization of taxation ; protection of
freedom of speech and press ; dev elopment of public educm
tion ; and numberless mo difications of these in abolition of

Problems appear as to : alien citizenship ; procuring gov

“ ” “ ”
ernm e ntal efficiency under the many bosses of demo
“
cra tic control ; dangers of mass control by those of in
ferio r political experience knowledge or possibly potenti al
, , , ,

abilities — negro caste soviet of man ual laborers warren s

, ,

“ ”
of city a special religious group ; how to educate indi
,

viduals for social efficien cy .

Aspirations for more political democracy wit hin m odm

nations are now chiefly co nfin ed to unenfranch ised adults ,

repressed racial groups ( negroes submerged ,

repressed geographic groups (cities want ing home rule ,

Rhode I sland s opposition to C onstitution ) and victi m s of

'

“ "
political machinery bosse s or bureaucracies
, , .

SOCIA L DEMOC RA CY
(1
“ ”
Und er social dem ocracy we can include aspirations
.
,

programs and achiev ements for correction or mitigation

,

of disabilities due to nature or soc ial art on consumption

, , ,

intermarriage sociability culture migration worship etc

, , , , , .

Formerly as outcomes of totemic religious caste and

, , , ,

the other restrictio ns of social control man y restraints ,

were imposed on cons umption and especially on decoration, .

So m e food taboos are yet imposed by churches and dress ,

15 6 CIVIC EDUCATION

of sexes is still forcibly differentiated But where political .

democracy prevails other sumptuary restraints on th e ih

dividual have dwindled to conven tional forms (coats for
men decorative uniform for soldiers
, ,

Intermarriage of white and blac k castes is now legally

prohibited in many states Strong conventionalities restrain
.

freed om of marriage between indiv iduals of unlike economic ,

ancestral or religi ous conn ections But fre edom of di vorce

, .

operates to give relative independence to women with ,

balance of harm probably for children .

Exclu sive groups I n fellowship co nvi vial an d some cul

.
,

tural groups making of sociability a large purpose a maxi ,

“ ”
mum of democrac y tends to prevail within groups elected
to be homogeneous ; accompanied by markedly exclusive ,
“ ” “ ”
un democratic att itudes toward the non elect Note -
.

“ ”
examples in cliques gangs sets social clubs fraternities
, , , , ,
“ ”
secret societies grades of hotels Pullman cars residen ce
, , ,

districts occupational levels cultural lev els But commer

, , .

ci aliza t i
o n of amusements ( photo drama re staurant dance -
, ,

hall excursion reso rts etc ) and transpo rtation ( street car s
, , , .
,
“ ”
local tra i ns and loca l ships having no classes ) as well
,

as public pro vision of soc i al facilities st reets parks public , ,

lectures public libraries museu ms

, all weaken or remove
,

“ ”
barriers to democratic association .

But free association or sociability is now governed largely

“ "
by sumptuary an d other caste like cleavages Sets or -
.

”
classe s restrict to those able to dress m aintain recreate , , ,

and educate themselves on similar planes Mann ers con .

,

v e n ti
o ns mutual interests thus become stratified in society
, , ,

each plane relatively insulated fro m those abov e and below .

”
Of only somewhat less vitality in preven ting sociability
democracy are rac ial religious and occupational distincti o ns
, , .

“ ”
Formerly culture classes held apart especially the ,

”
erudite and the unlettered Latin and Greek were once .
1 58 C I VIC EDUCATION

proce sses multiplicatio ns of pop ulations rising standards

, ,

of li ving curtailment of natural reso urces etc

, , .

N a tive i nequaliti es of productive ability due to age ,

sex physical stren g th and dexterity endurance mental

, , ,

powers self control avid appetites

- combine everywhere
—
, ,

with socially produced i eq ualities birth 1n poor regions

n
“

and of poor parents or in poor times acquired ill health ,

-
,

deprivation of suita ble education accidental en trance upon ,

“ ”
a badly developed or declining econ omic lead to give
numberl ess and very wide economic inequalities bet ween

levels and classes affected by differen t stages or types of

,

economic evolution ; and stil l wider inequalities among indi

viduals Political democracy general education and free
.
, ,

dom of migration tend to mitigate these inequalities but ,

probably not to the same exten t that these influences gener

ally raise standards of living which are always the torturing
,

provocatives of economic demand Communism ( of own er .

ship and for consumption ) becomes one end of econo mic

democracy ( an end realize d in the fa m ily the pioneering ,

company or industrial crew and many primitive religious

,

communities but with no en during examples among com

,

plex advanced peoples)

, Copartnership profit and loss
.
,
- -

sharing guild co ntrol state operation ( with no

, ,

and cooperati ve exchange are curren t experiments toward

,

other kinds of economic democrac y .

STRIVIN G S FOR MORE DEM OCR ACY

Efforts to realize ideals of democracy as factors in social
efficien cy give rise to many problems of conflicting social
forces Where life is primitive scattered unorganized there
.
, , ,

are few problems of democracy since ( a) man collectively ,

has few m eans of removing nature imposed disabilitie s on -

the individual and ( b) collectively he has had reason to

,
 EDUCATION FOR DEMOC RACY 1 59

im pose o nly a few of h is o wn th a t are n o t e ssen t i

al to sm all

group survival .

But as men multiply organize and expand the social

, ,

inh eritance their powers of helping various kinds and classes

,

of individuals to fuller lives 1n spite of natural limitations

, ,

increase ; and the possibilities of more care ft adjusting

the yokes of social control and economic c ontrol and of so ,

increasing j ustice as to prese rve the social effectivene ss of

the indi vidual and at the sam e time give him the maximum
,

of individual freedom always exist For Great Britain

, .
,

France and America the most pressing current proble s

,

seem to be those of democratizing all those social agencies

m
in which elaborateness of mechanism oppresses or seems ,

to Oppress the individual or sub group

,
- .

Evolution of d em ocracy E verywh e re the radicals strive

.

for more dem cracy of some variety ( sometimes organizing

o
their st ri vings in very undemocratic ways ) and m propaganda
they ignore or depreciate social ac hievements under methods
they would correct or supplant E veryw here the conserva .

t ives strive against hast y or far-reaching action fearing to ,

lose in revolution present gains ,

— fear ing especially of ,

course on behalf of themselves and those nearest them

, .

The mills of the gods meantime grind on and nature ulti

mately gives the final verdict Note some of the problems .

a . Political democracy having achieved general suffrage

,

and removed disability to office holding finds endle ss diffi ,

c ulti
e s in the complexities of the problems it fac es Ofiicia ls .

will not act as majority superfi cially think they should ,

hence corrections sought in recall initiative and referendum , ,

soviet ( economic class ) representation simplification of ,

constitutio n al amendment the short ballot etc Hence , , .

popular opposition to appointm en t of officials to indefinite

b . Freedom of access of women to all wage earning -

1 60 CIVI C EDUCATION

em ployments has been w o n but ultimate effects of this

,

on normal family life still constitute problems .

0
. Production organi sed on corporation basis creates
extensive re gim t io n of workers Initiative lies chiefly
.

with those factors who own or can co mmand capital , ,

wherewith to procure means of production — land m ines , ,

patents machines raw materials franchises technical

, , , ,

know ledge In corporation production

. best exemplified in
railroads factories banks steamships mines some tropical
—
, , , , ,

farming areas of individual initiative are le sm ned for

rank and file an d intens ified for specialists as is military
, ,

initiat i ve for soldiers and o fi cers in the army camp H e nce .

eventually collective dissatisfaction unionization for self ,

protection and emergence of vague but insistent demands

,

“ ”
for industrial de mocracy Can a large army be demo
.

cr atic and e fiic ie nt ? C an the crew effecti v ely dictate or

share in determ inin g the co urse of a steamer ? To what

Who shall take the in itiative in development e g in plan , . .

,

ning new railways or opening new mines ? ( But no te impor

tance of disti nctions between powers to discover course s of
action and capacities to discriminate among courses de
,

vised by speci al ists as basis for democratic control )

, .

ED U CATI ON AS A ME A N S T O DEM OCRA CY

The foregoing analysis of the e ssen tial factors and prob
lems of democracy su ggests that some of these may be
now made the objectiv es of specialized forms of social edu

to wait for the social econo mist to disco ver valid orienta
tions and concrete objectives for co llective actio n .

The most obvious and insistent fact in the recent evolution

of democracy has been the exaltation of the indi vidual
with emphasis naturally first on th m whose natural or
, ,
162 C I VIC EDUCATION

civilization it m ay safely be assum ed that man s instinctive ’

equipment is seriously inadequate and that his deficiencies

must be o v ercome by education which may have to be
at times strenuous The social instind s are in the main
.

“ ”
products of small group needs ; and in so far as they
“ ” “ ”
te nd to be broadly altruistic or humanitarian they ,
“
are easily overcome by self regarding or small group re -

"
garding instincts or acquired attitudes .

I t must always be recognized that in the case of dem oc

racy as of all other comprehensive social aspirations (for
,

C hristianity liberty peace diffused economic well being)

, , ,
-
,

numberless chasms between ideals and attainable ends will

be discovered because of failure to take into account facts
of nature th at may be immutable And nature as thus .
,

interpreted certam include s the original nature of man

,
“ ”

as that may differently exist among : children and adul ts ;

the natively strong and the nativ e b weak as respects muscle '
,

brain combative disposition sympathy or economic need

, , ,

black and white ; Bushman an d Kafiir ; Saxon and In dian .

ED U CA TI ON FOR DEMOCRA CY
How far an d toward what specifi c objectives can civic
or other forms of school education h e direct ed toward th e
realization of the probably sound aspirations of contemporary
democracy ? Approval can be given cert ainly to :
a .All that civic education which assures acceptance in
“
concrete form of the obligations of all of us to respect
”
the rights of others as these are defined by law or majority
‘
public opinion at any t ime .

Pro bably d
h o l in a e m oc rac tha t the
w e m ust d is y ost
m
g y
h
nearl y i
r gh t
"
But
. rac ti. p
c all th e wo r y‘‘
m a orit
.
j
"

“
nau dt y
so m et i oth e r t han a pure ly num eri c al m ea mg One wi th is a
h
'

n
g n .

I n ac t ual soc ial prac t ice at any give n time and in” spite of
'
ma ori
li
“
11 a ws and all o the r e vices to i d
nsure
o

one m a n one v ot e me n do
T he inte llige ri
, .

not weifi i e qually i n de te rm i ning c ivic ac tion t ma m if.

 EDUC ATION FO R DEMOC RACY 163

b All those forms of general or vocatio nal educa tion

.

which wi thout imposing excessive burdens of taxation on

,

others increase the strength confidence ambitions culture

, , , , ,

useful standards of living vocational competency and , ,

several varieties of cooperative abilities of the naturally

or socially handicapped .

c .All those forms of libe ral and vocational educat ion

which increase in the naturally and socially advantaged
( the gifted and environmentally favored ) appreciatio ns of ,

and asp i
‘
rations to render altruistic social se rvice , .

( 1 Obvio usly the optimum resultants of o li

. garchic and
dem ocratic operation for school class groups and th e school
gro up as a whole can be discovered and utilized partly ,

ol i ti lly m a outwe g h h un re s o f unintell

ac ti i d d
p
ca ve
d
m che b y m ajorities or the co urses of
de te rm ined b y th e m are in reality initiate d and dic tnte d b a fe w who nre ,
y
,

for whate ve r reaso ns far-s . te d and to take tro u l

‘There ns th en n from w h om th e results of on r
rem a i , s ,

dissectio n canno t b e h idde n I t a i

tha t troublel those of little faith
. .

M
l hear the m say :
“
But th e Stro ng an a t whose expe nse y ou wi de n y our rea lm of orde r
a nd justi ce ! H o w if this m an th anh to yo ur reve latiom b reaks t he —
ne t in wh i i y
ch soc ety wo uld enclou h i m and sta nds for th fre e ! W h at the n ?
"

M
T o th is wo uld l reply :
The end is no t ye The last word is not said The Strong nn w h o .

has co m e to regard soc ia l co ntrol as the sche me of th e many we ak to bind

do wn the fe w st ro ng may b e b ro gh t to see it in its m ligh t as th e u fe
u
w ding of a ve nerab le come rstin -
m a m -
lone of the la ia s ot b
fi v mg i en for the
n m
selves b ut also l o g
a bors of b y g ne m en for com i ng
nniim erahle

p erso ns. b ut
nn not m ere ly of th e de are st
i
of the s iri tual p th
of i
e h uman rac e y of the —
in ve n ti
o ns and di sc overies th e arts and , i
sc e nces th e secrets of hea li ng, ,

m d the wo rks of de ligh t w h ic h he himse lf is fre e to enter into and en oy .

W hen th us to the ismw be tween h im and th e living m e n who h im

to conc ede to the m no m ore tha n the y conc ede to h im th em is ) o ine d th e f
issue b e tw ee n h im and the de sd m e n who ha ve e ndo wed him w ith th e
fruits of the ir toil
terity , the ancie nt

M
codes a od controls
in the he art of the Stro ng an
oi
.

di i
M
And its v er c t w ll no t b e adv erse to thc c laim s of s c et
om
.

E A Ross . . ,
164 CIVIC EDUCATION

as examples partly as sources of elementary appreciations

, ,

ideals and insights

, .

DEM OCRA TIC ED U CA TION

The degree to which ed ucation is democratic in its ad
mini stration can be measured against these principles
0 .Th e public control a nd support of education in a
society whose dom inant aspirations are for certain kinds of
democracy operate to prevent such control by undemocratic
“ ”
or class minorities The freeing of the pupil or hi s paren ts
.

from financial burdens operates stil l further in the sam e

direction Where higher or special schools must be restrict ed
.

to a few the selection of these on the basis of open com

,

petit i on based on merit only is democratic Hence th e free .

tuition of America s high an d elementary schoo ls free text

’
,

books free transporta tion from distant points to centra l

,

schools as well as the system of admitting to war academies

, ,

normal schools and universities on the basis of merit o nly

, ,

are measures of democratic edu cation .

.b Co st fr ee opportun itie s for learning are however

-
, ,

i nsufficient to overcome the handicaps of the very poor .

Hence public provision of free food free clothes and free , ,

residence as made possible by maintenan ce scholar

s h ips free l unches etc ) is often proposed in order to in

, , .

crease the democracy of education Norm al schools in Grea t .

Britain and war service acad emies in America provide free

maintenance But oth e r handica ps re main Some children
. . ,

upward of 15 years of age are expected to aid in the support

,

of dependent parents To insure complete equality of edu

.

os tional Opportunity to these it would be necessary to relieve

them of their filial burdens .

.c The democrac y of public education can furthermore

be measured by the ext ent to which it p revents segre gation
or promotes association or fraternization Segregation or .
 PART TH RE E

PROB LE MS OF OB JE C T I VE S COURS ES AN D
, ,

RESE ARC H I N C I V I C E D U C AT ION

17 0 CIVIC EDUCATION
N A LYSESPRE LIM IN A R Y A

1 Th e hi storic m ean s of social educat i on em ployed by

.

various school and non school agencies have been almost

-

num ber less Among them may be distinguished :

.

a Those means designed to form in early y ears specific

.

habits attitudes sentimen ts and the like by authorita rian

, , ,

control of the growth of the feelings or so called emoti o ns -

.

Parental religious political military and other kinds of

, , , ,

authority have always been busy kin dling in the spirits o f

youth very specific kinds of fears hates loves ambitions , , , ,

conscious scruples se nse of what is honorable and the like

, , .

These in ti m e crystallize into the enduring mental an d

moral attitudes wh ich constitute good or b ad social char ~

b . Parallel with these have been the practices on the

part of authoritarian agencie s of controlling the formati o n
of ideas interpretations and understandings through such
, ,

specific devices as precept belief dogma and creed The , , , .

product s of these educational processe s also crystallize into

fair ly fixed elements of social character .

0
. Those controls and activities which provide in the ,

en vironm ent of the learner very prolonged attractive ac tiv i

—
,

ties along appro ved social lines cooperations sociable ,

associations property acquisition personal aggrandizement

, , ,

and the like to such an extent as prac t ically to absorb

growth energy and to exclude e ffects of agencies of con
flictin g character E ver ywhere is now recognized the potency
.

in moral civic or religious development of the maintenance

, ,

about the plastic indi vidual of an approved social environ

ment accompanied by the silent invisible exclusion of ,

opportunities for disappro ved social activities .

d Those activities which are designed to promote durin g

. ,

th e early yea rs endu ring personal ideals or approved goal s

,

of social behavior To these ends are designed the historic

.
 MEAN S AND METH ODS OF CIVIC EDUCATION 17 ]

means of hero w orship ancestor exaltation appeals trans , ,

m itt e d thro ugh deities son gs and stories about the great ,

and good biographical readings st imulus of poetry drama

, , , ,

and other art and the urgings of l e ad ers and se ars

, .

0
. Those means which used t hrough direct instruction ,

and wit h only moderate appeal to the feelings aim to ,

give know ledge of and insight into the structures and

, ,

fun ctions of social groups and the events that give these
significance Under this head would be included the great
.

bulk of real istic history study analysis of governmental ,

structures and func tions studies of social institutions and , ,

the various other social sciences that have developed in

recent years such as co m munity civics civil government
, , ,

economics sociology and the like

, , .

f. Those agencies designed to create relatively art ifici a l

environments and activities for the p urpose of giving ele
mental experience knowledge and ideals toward certain
, ,

“ ”
of the less natural forms of social ac tion Well known .
-

examples of these are the training methods of medieval

“ ”
knighthood the extra home apprenticeship of medieval
,
-

guilds the re sidence educa tion of English boarding schools

, ,

together with a variety of modern devices such as scou ting ,

boys clubs sch ool self go v ernment summer camps school

’
,
-
, ,

ships and the like

, .

g .Those which single out for the conscious service of

”
young citizen s activities normally exercised by adults
in either an amateur or a vocational capacity These in clude .

projects in policing guiding of visitors enforcement of, ,

various forms of law and ordin a nce street cleaning road , ,

building reduction of fire hazards improv ement of sanita

, ,

tion and other serv ice pro jects of similar nature

, .

It Of somewhat similar purport are those dramatic

.

projects in which learners dramatize various past or present

social functions for the sake of the resulting appreciations ,
172 C I VIC ED UC ATION

understandings or ideals Amo ng these are to be included

, .

the dramatization of vot ing naturalization explorati on, , ,

defense judicial proce sse s enforceme nt of law legislation

, , , ,

discharge of executive offices and many others of similar,

nature .

.i Those methods which single out for extensive analytical

st udy and perhaps ten tative determination of approved
,

lines of conduct problems which either are now or have

, ,

been in the past of acute concern to adults Sin ce the se

, .

are still social problems that is they involve undetermined ,

issues of fact or interpretation they usually present con

tro v ersial features ei ther of principle or of the applicatio n ,

of accepte d principles I t is obvious that methods of civic

education based upon a study of problems are almost com
p le te ly oppose d to methods of authoritarian co ntrol V arious .

approaches to these problems are obviously possible accord

ing as the more specific or broader social interests of the
individual learner are used as a basis of motive The naive .

and primitive method is to approach through the formula ,

“ " “
Is it to my intere st that P or the other Is it to ,

the interest of my family my party or other small group

, ,

that So und social education employs larger formula

” “
suc h as Is it well for the nation that
, P or Is it
well for humanity that The more ethical approac h
“ " “
would be I s it right that , P or Is it just that
The strictly religious approach would be through the formula
“ ”
Is it th e will of God that P

CONSTR U CTION O F CO URSES

2 . Con stru cti on se s or programs of moral and of
of cour

civic education through schools involves adaptations of one

or more of the above methods Concrete and positive ap .

proa c h es to study of the appl ication of the se methods m u

only be ba sed on ana lytical studies of the needs of h o w n
174 CIVI C EDUCATION

of adolescen ts in re alistically m eeting civic requiremen ts is

suc ce ad ul almost wholly i n proportion to the emplo yme n t

of gifted and magn etic leada sb ip ? Or doe s e v idence in dic at e

'

that some of the se means can be made educationally profit

able with only average leadm sh ip? Separate consideratio n
'

should h ere be given to such ser vice activities as scouting ,

relief of dist re ss school self government organized enter

,
-
,

tainm e nt j unior Red Cross activities in war time coopera

, ,

tive village cleaning and others , .

( 1 I s it educationally prac ti
. cable or desirable that youths
from 15 to 18 years of age should in public schools debat e
and otherwise study such controversial subjects as these :
“ ‘
Is private property ( in any one of its many varieties)
’

” “
a social good ? Are there varie ties of private property
” “
that should be abolished ? Are negroes equal to whites
” “
in intelligence ? Is it right that in an area where negroes
are in a large majority they should be forcibly deprived
” “
of suffrage ? Does the C onstitution of the U nited State s
” “
contain a number of archaic provisions ? Should the
United States impo se obligato ry and universal military
se rvice ? Is it right for a man complying strictly wi t h
,

the law to b uy fo r as little as h e can and to se ll fo r as muc h

,

” “ ‘ ’
as he can ? Are these policies right : freedom of practice
of vivisection in medical education capital punishmen t
, ,

freedom to obtain divorce on gro unds now permitted in

most states prohibition of intermarriage of b lacks and whites
, ,

”
exclusion of Orientals governmental censorship of plays ?
,

e .I s it probable that the exten ded study of the details of

Amer ican history as ordinarily taught enlightens the pro spe c
tive citizen as to right courses of civic action in later years ?

EFFE CT S OF SCHOOL ENVIRON ME NT

3 .C ontributions toward civi c edu cation have in gre ater
or less degree always been made by historic school proced ures
 MEAN S AND METH OD S OF CIVIC ED UCATION 17 5

as well as th e infl uence of extra school agencies Inven tive -

.

teachers can readily find a n umber of special problem s in

ci vic education like the following which will abunda ntly

a .Endeavor to analyze the permanently socializing effects

of several kinds of school discipline ranging from autocratic ,

to democratic self government Give separate consideration

-
.

to each sex and at various age le vels such as 4 to 6 6 to 10 , ,

10 to 14 and 14 to 18 , Perhaps further social analy sis.

would be worth while as for example between urban and , , ,

rural children between children of low and children of

,

high intelligen ce ratings and between classes from di fferent

. ,

types of enviro nment .

.b Trace the establishm ent of purposes stan dards social , ,

values and general ideals through the personal attitudes

,

and interpretations of life reflecte d by teac hers C o m mon .

experience attac hes much value to the example and personal

in fluence of teachers on the appreciations and ideals of the
young Analytical study here could we ll afford to consider
.

particular results in such fields as manners specific co n

, ,

v e ntio ns life career ideals po litical attitudes an d philan

,
-
, ,

th ro pic aspirations .

0
. Study of the creation expansion or modification of , ,

attitudes and ideals through school controlled act ivities in -

studies and in voluntary group performances I t is widely .

believed that such studies as history literature and music , ,

can be utiliz ed and are under some circumstances actually

,

now utilize d for the formation of various specific social

,

ideals or attitudes Si m ilar results are believed to flow

.

largely from good act ivities of a more or less voluntary

natur e through clubs athletics fraternities and the like
, , . .

To have value studies here should as far as po ssible difl e r

'

e nt i
a te particular qualities such as respect for law humane , ,

treatment of animals ambition for financial success desire

, ,
176 CI VI C EDUCATION

for lead ership asp irations for right forms of cooperatio n

, ,

and the li ke .

( 1 St udy of the soci al effects on characte r and behavior

.

due to intellectual enlightenment as to political and ot her

social fun ctions attain ed through the study of civics curre nt ,

history and other didact ic means The re still exists much

, .

to social behavior where impelling mot ives are not aroused .

This ent ire su bject needs elucidation One phase of it is .

per haps especially important at present ; namely that .

social ac tion i n terms of the self interest or loc al group -

interest of the individual himself I t is well known that .

dy
st u of h istory is con st antly h eing used as a m eans of

furthering the en ds of those pro m oting nationalistic aspira

tions party solidarity and religious adherence
, , .

activities ? Many of these were mad e functional duri ng the

war and their efl ects upon civic behavior ought to be in
'

pa rt now discernible Similar studies are needed of the .

effects of dramatic ac tivities including festi vals and co m ,

m e m o ratio ns which have been so widely used in recent

,

years Studies here should also be caref t

. d ifiere ntiate d
according to age levels and possibly other base s of analysis .

I To
. what extent have schools been successful in recen t
years in stim ulating the formation of and entering into ,

cooperation with extra school acti vities — ln scoutin g

,
-
,

boys clubs social centers sports vacation activities library

’

, , , ,

re ading special summer reading discr iminati ng use of the

, ,

photo drama and the like ? No one can doubt that these
,

activities make important contributions to moral and civic

education To some exta it their quality and scope can be
.

effected through and by school agencies Bu t the mean s .

and effects of such cooperations sho uld be surveyed and

17 8 CIVIC EDUCATION

avoid giving the appearance of making proselyte s or o f

lean ing to the one rather than the other side in partisan
issues I n the strongest American col eges much progress
.

has recently been made in having studen ts study variou s

aspects of controversial matters With more competen t
.

leadership we shall certa inly be able to follow their exampl e

in secon dary schools
—
.

b The various feeli ng attitud e s

. beliefs faiths senti
, ,

men ts p rejudices admirations aspirations and th e like

, , , ,

are much more largely formed under the influence of domi

nant personalities on the one hand and group opinion o f
,

approved associates on the other than through dire ct in

, ,

struction Among these dominant perso nalities strong an d

.

approved te achers can play a part but ex travagant expect

,
’
s ucica as to teac hers influen ce should not be cherished ,

since there are many factors that lead to intellectual and

moral dominance of the young other than school education ,

and the position and the benevolent intentions of teacher s .

.0 Intellectual analysis of some social pro ble ms seems to

be easily procurable from adolescents provided these prob
,

lems embody those issues of right and wrong that bec ause ,

of their enviro nment or prominent social in stincts make ,

realistic appe al to the sympathies and ima ginations of

you ths of this age In favorable environments problems like
.

these can e asily command sustain ed attention e nergetic ,

analysis and strongly partisa n debate : I s it right or wron g

,

that poor men should be required to pay taxes ; that striking

motormen should stop car service ; that men sho uld be con
scripted as soldiers against their will ; that any one man
should have an income of a year ? These and
hundreds of others like them can be easily introduced into
any area of civic and moral education Whether experience
.

will show that good educational results follow the kinds

of analy sis of behav ior and ethical princ iplea involved is
 MEAN S AN D METHOD S OF CIVIC EDUC ATION 17 9

still an open question Where prepossessio ns have not

.

been strongly formed in th e le arner through consideration

of his personal interests or the interests of his relatives or
other associates the in tellectual approaches to these prob
,

lems as they may be fostered by wise teachers can easil y

, ,

be made to produce abid ing convictions sentiments an d , ,

even ideals which will endure when in later life appeals

to self intere st or to s m all group interests develop On the
-
.

oth e r hand especially under poor teaching partisanship may

, ,

be made more inten se and certain weapons of discussion

,

may be acquired which will render the indiv i dual more ,

rather than less formidable as a defender of wro ng ideals

,

or practices .

d I t is doubtful in the light of experience if stud e nts

.
, ,

in ge neral in adolescent years will fin d effective interest s

, .

in studying the an atomy or structure of governmental

machinery or that of other social mechanisms related to
political or other big group action such as party organ iza ,
»

tion means of propaganda e valuation of policies etc

, , , .

GEN ERA L PRI NCI PL ES O F MET HOD

5 .Gene ral princi ple s of m ethod app licable in other fields
of educa tion may be expected to apply in civic education .

The following are importa n t considerations :

a .With a few exceptions moral an d civic development ,

and training require that we proceed from the concrete

to the abstract from the partic ular to the general from
, ,

the near to the remote from the immediately significant to

,

t he ultima tely significant no less than in other fields of

,

e ducation Exceptio ns are found in certain areas where

.

powerfu l even though diffused instincts may be kindled

, , ,

or even profoundly inflamed by a single act suggestion , , ,

“ ”
or other stimulus ( within areas of such inst inct masses
as t h ose of parental affection fear of social disapproval , ,
180 CIVIC EDUCATION

fear of non visible deit ies sex mode sty defense of kinship
-
, ,

gro up property h o lding racial or unlike group antagonis ms

, , ,

b . That in the fields of moral and civic educatio n the

“ ”
fallacies Of formal discipline are j ust as common and ,

j ust now far more influent ial th an in what we characteriz e ,

“ ”
as intellectual education We still talk of teaching loyalt y
.
,

forget ting that there are many species of loyalty so m e times ,

in deadly Opposition to each other We talk as though .

it were possible by some simple and even single poin ted -

process to te ach such very composite and heterogeneous

“ ” “ ” “
virtue s as honesty regard for public property
, co ,

“ ’ ”
operation serv ice givin g etc
, , .

But we are still not clear as to how far aspirations appre ,

ci at io ns and ideals
, involving large feeling qualities may
not be generalized by a few co ncrete cases even where ,

understandings and habits of action are limi ted Here we .

need more examination of Profe ssor Bagley s contention as ’

“ ”
to the spread of ideals .

I n former times when the principle of moral authority

dominated nearly all forms of moral and civic trainin g ,

comparatively simple methods of educatio nal procedure were

practicable and effective These included : appe als to fear
.

through corporal punishmen t threa t of hell fire an d ostra , ,

ciam ; appeals to faith and beliefs through concrete dogmas , ,

precepts laws divine inj unctions and kingly pronoun ce

, , ,

ments ; o mcers commands ; use of specific disciplines un

.

’
,

questionably submitted to as in armies seminaries courts

, , , ,

shops schools churches families ; and general taboos against

, , ,

inquisitive questioning or beginnings of the scientific atti

tude where issues of importance (or so believed by those
exe rting authority) were in volved .

But only in very limited areas of modern civilized life ,

where persons over 10 or 12 years of age are con cerned ,

182 CI VIC E DUC ATI ON

more than a limited number of ci vic virtues ; or in being

capable of proper development or main tenance otherwise
than un der devoted volun tary unpaid adult leadership
, . .

Subject to these considerations scouting pedagogy has ,

muc h to teach us as to concrete means and methods of

civic education when once we shall have defined a series
,

of specific objectives .

For some p urposes we can also procu re valuable su gges

tions as to means and met hods from : m ilitary educati o n ;
’
summer camps for boys ; young people s chur ch socie ties ;
juvenile co urts and their att endant reform and parole sy s
’ ’
tems ; boys clubs in cities ; boys farm clubs ; self governin g -

schools inc luding self directed sports ; vocatio nal schools etc
,
-
, .

S P ECIF IC OBJ ECTIV ES

6 . Specific obj ectiv e s m ust be defined be fo re we ( win expect
to develop adequate means and methods of realiz ing them .

As heretofore shown the entire field of civic education is still

,

very much underdeveloped as regards specific objectives .

An y analys i s of specific objectives will almost inevitably

be first of all qual i tative
, , that which h as hereto fore been
“ ”
designated as analysis into strands Without quan titative
.

an alysis however added to qualita tive it will be im practica

, , ,

ble to develop satisfactory school programs We must kn ow .

no t only what kind of soc i al virtue we desire to produce

through a specific process but th e extent of it or the degree

of its intensiv eness th at we cons i der desirable an d practicable ,

tak ing account as well of the educability of the indi vidua l

as of the needs of soc i ety .

I t has been shown before that one of the most economical

as well as scientific methods of determini ng what should
be held as the most important specific objectives of civic
education involves ascertaining as accurately as practicable
—
th e probable civic deficiencies at age 25 40 of those who
 ME A N S AND ME THODS OF CIVIC EDUC ATION 183

are now boys an d girls of 14 46 What for example would -

.
, ,

three experts in social scien ce agree on as the probable

—
expected deficiencies at ages 25 40 of the morally best one
fourth of 100 boys and girls 14 16 now in high school as to :
-
,

a Respect for rights of neighbors of equal soc ial level

.

to life ( against murder) ?

b Respect for rights of distant and ( supposedly ) inferior
.

strangers to life ( murder of Mexicans I ndians coal miners , , ,

“ ”
where taking would have to be undisguised bu rglar y ,

steal ing robbery et c

, , .

“
d Same where taking could be disguised as sales of
.
, ,

bad mining stocks fraud etc , , .

3
. Same as (c) where neighbors are weak physicalL v or
otherwise widows orphans men of inferior understanding ?
, ,

f. Re spect for rights of property of despised stranger s ,

’
where predatory arts may be co nceated from one s asso
“ ”
ciates ( the smokeless sin of E A Ross ) ? . ,

g Hundreds of others could be supplied

. .

What m ay b e expe cte d in the ab o v e re spe cts o f th e morally

least good one fourth of the class ? the other fourth s ?
Analysis of the kinds s uggested above will p robably show

from murder of neighbors and many , school others — the

need put forth little effort By education of family com
.
-
,

munity life and church has sufficed But as respects many

, .

take large respo si bility

n .

For example in time of national dan e r we all constitute

,
g
ourselves social agencies toward inspiring and giving focal
“ ”
objectives to large group patriotism but in times of ,

peac e these agencies are q uiescent hence the school should ,

now be most active in creating the aspirations and focusing

184 CIVIC EDUC ATION
the intentio ns and actual or potential mrfor m anc e s th a t
will function as approved patriotism ei th er internal in ,

times of peace or external in time of foreign aggression

, .

CIV I C PRO GN OS I S
7 . C i vic progn osis will eventually constitute a basic
means of determining specific objectives not only for civic
but for other forms of education Without the specific
.

instruction and training we propose to give the childr en ,

of today would develop into men and wom en with fairly

predictable qua lities of civic character due to the operation
,
“ ”
of various social forces Through prognosis of this sort
.

“
it should be practicable to define the most eviden t civic
”
shortages or defects toward the prevention or lessen ing o f
which specific school effort should first of al l be directed .

”
The case group method of approach together with ,

analyt ical inquiries can again be illustrated

,

a . Ca se Group A Boys graduating from America n high

.

schools in urban or suburba n communities posse ss in large

, ,

measure the followin g common characteristics : they are

above the average of the population of th eir own age in
native abilities and in cultural efi ec ts of environment ; th ey
“ ”
are good mixers and are ambitious ; they have a conside r
able number of v ery definite social appreciations ( valua tion s )
and social conventions ( of their set) ; thei r moral behavior
is fairly good an d their expressed moral ideals fairly low ,

as judged by adults of 35 50 ye ars of age ; they have good

-

hea l th ; they work well in pursuit of ends which appeal to

”
them as worth while ; and they have little re spect for
authority on its ow n account .

What will probably be the go od and the bad ci vic qualities

respectively in the total citizenship of the se youths when
they are from 80 to 50 years of age judging from social ,

experien ce as respec ts :
,
186 CIVIC EDUC ATION
but forced then by family circumstances or induc ed by ,

strong des ires for indepen dent income to become wage ,

earners .

0
. Tw o (30 a groups , A and B in schools of a city
.

of m ay be studied through the same approache s :

Group A consists of 1000 boys aged 14 to 15 of go od ,

native abilities prosperous families good home en viron

, ,

ment succe ssful school records Will probably go through

, .

high school then into general or voca tio nal co llege or into
,

“ ”
business .

G roup B co nsists of 1000 boys aged 14 to 15 leaving ,

”
elementa ry school on working papers when attendance
laws permit They have average or low intellectual abilities
.

as shown in school studies M any are retarded Nearly

. .

all will enter juvenile employments without vocational tra in

ing and will advance to adult employment via road of
pick up vocational education
- .

Using your perso nal experience as a basis submit opinion s ,

on the following points as to expected citizenship of above

groups at 80 5 0 :—
( )
a Will Group A or Group B yield the larger numb e r
“ ”
of good citizens in the absolute sense — that is quite ,

without referen ce to respective opportun ities etc ? ,

b
( ) W ill Group A or Group B yield more good citizens
as th e se m ight be judged by respective ab ilities ; opportuni
ties and the lik e ? (The parable of the talents should b e
,

“ ”
applie d Should we expect of each group ci vic frui t
.

acco rd ing to potential powers ? )

( )
c Will Group A or Gr oup B give the grea t er number
of legislators ; labor leaders ; business leaders ; writers and
“ ” “ ”
publicists ; educators ; reformers ; agitators ?
Will Grou p A or Group B give the grea ter number
of convicts ( crimes of violen ce) ; convicts ( defaulters forgers , ,

“ ”
e tc ) ; pro fit ee rs or u nscrupulous monopol ists ; vagrants ;
 kI E AN S AN D METH ODS OF CI VIC EDU C ATION 187

drug addicts and drunkards ; unscrupulous strikers in labor

( )
8 Will Group A or Group B give the greater number
“ ”
of good conform i ng citizens anxious to obey all laws
, ,

unwilling to find fault protest or threaten to revolt ?

, ,

(f) Which group will furnish the greater number of

“
pe rsons who in time of great national danger will say : My
co untry may she be ever right ; but right or wrong my
, ,

cou ntry !
(9 ) Which group wil l be so ten ac ious of the ir conceptions
of right that they will try to block social ac tion to argue
or promote t heir particular ends ?
( )
h Which group will give the greater number who wi ll
have nothin g to lose even if the government fails or the
”
nation is conquered ?
()i Which group will provide more of those who wo uld
rather be different than right
(j ) I n so far as good citizenship is probably due to school
education what will have been th e most important sources in
,

specific studie s and disciplines for the two groups re spectively ? ,

( )
It I n so far as good citizenship is due to reading after
age 20 what will have been the principal sou rces for the
,

two groups respectively ?

,

( I) I n so far as good cit i zenship is due to affiliations

with p urposive social grou ps ( political economic religious
, , ,

cultural ) what w ill have been the principal so urces for the
,

t wo groups ?

ME ANS AN D METHO DS CLA SS I F IE D

1 The m ea ns and m ethods of civic education now em
.

ployed by sch ools ca n profitably be classified into seven

principal divisions :
a D isc i plin e including both the oligarc hic and demo
.
,
188 CIVIC EDU CATION
b History st udies
. .

0
. D idactic civics econo m ics and other social scia ic e s
, , .

«1 Social service projects

. .

8. D ramatic projects .

f
. D evelopme n tal readings .

9 Soc
. ial science prob lem s .

2 Di stinction of alph a an d beta ob j ectives in or within

.
, ,

eac h of these fields i s importan t espec i ally from the stand

point of most effective metho d The chief considerati ons .

to be noted here are :

a M uch of the formal purposive discipline of school
.
,

room school building and sch o ol grou nds may properly

, ,

be regarded as important for projective rather than develop

mental ends I t is part of a system of positive training
.

based upon concretely projected standards .

The self discipline of any school group in spo rts cliques

-
, ,

a nd other naturalistic social manifestations can better be

regarded as developmental Under this head might well be

.

included the more democratic forms of school self gova n - '

ment and other cooperative activities inspired rather than

enforced through school authorities .

School self go vernment in some of its most effective forms

-

can well be included under the head of developmen ta l

projects rather than disciplin e since its educational value ,

comes to surpass in importance its immediate ut ility as a

means of maintainin g order .

b Hi story stu di e s as now ca rried on in o ur schoo ls mani

.

featly con tribute to the ends both of cult ural and of social
education U nfortunately no satisfac tory distinctions in
.

materials or methods have yet been made to correspond to

these diversities of aim .

History studies should also be clearly differentiated into

their projective and developmental phase s if choice of mean s
and methods is to be wo rth while Obviously in any fie ld .
,
190 CI VIC EDUC ATION
and English lan guage has bee n directly away from that
“ ”
method The project method no w favor ed in the lower
.

grades is obviously a very great departure from the didactic

, , .

Al l studies employing di dactic methods are here assumed

to be based upon well defined projective object i ves -
.

d A proj ect is here understood to involve two primary

.

—
q ualities : ( 1) It is a discrete job that is a separate or ,

detached enterprise or undertaking in which the prim ary

purposes in the mind of the learner m ight simply be the
obtaining of desirable experience or the performan ce of
desirable activities ( 2) As a b y product at least if not as
.
-
,

a conscious purpose the teacher h as in mind the co ntrib u

.

tion s to specific ends of education of the experien ce thus

Ordinarily most service projects should be classified as

developmental Many examples of these can be had from
.

scouting school initiated relief work a nd the like Projec

,
-
, .

tive ends to be served are rarely clearly defined They .

contribute to the development o f rich and vital experience

which in some composite way is assumed to be valuable
in adult life but the specific contributions of which ca nnot
,

be defined .

.a Dram atic proj ects E ven more true is this of dramatic

.

projects a large variety of which have in recent years been

,

intro duce d into the earlier grades and some of which may
be well adapted to higher grad es .

I
. D ev e l opm ental r ead i ngs , including stories told by th e

teacher con stitute a category designed to inclu de all reading

,

st imulated primarily for the purpose of gi ving civic ideals ,

appreciations or insights Here belong hero tales b io g ra

, .
,
~

phie s stories of nations graphic readings accounts of other

, , ,

peoples and for older pupi ls descriptions of cooperative

, , ,

enterprise s for rural dwellers of clean cit y movements o f , ,

ca mpa igns to rid to wns of bosses Here also belongs the .

 MEAN S AN D METH OD S OF CIVIC EDUC ATION 19 1

wealth of mod ern fict ion dea ling with recent or co ntemporary
“ ”
battles for good government Obviously all the ob jec
.
,

tivsa here controlling are developmen tal .

wide range of civic problems adapted to the various age

groups Th es e are expected to be based upon enviro nmental
.

experie nce as far as practicable but nevertheless in ma ny

,

case s they will involve problems that will ac tually be e n

countered for practical solution only in the adu lt life of th e
citizen Many of these problems are now no less eco nomic
.

than political in the sense that they rest on economic foun

dations but require political solu tions In selectio n and .

trea tment these problems should be determined by the

considerations that c h arac te rize projective objectives .

SCHOOL DIS CI PLI N E AS A ME ANS O F CI VI C E DUCATI O N

Small group social contacts and activities fill the
waking hours of children in the ir early ye ars For purposes .

of security , nurture re st and consolation any child s life

, ,
’

is centripet al to the household ; but for purpose s of many

kinds of experience adven ture play socia bifity with equals
, , , ,

and education it is largely centrifugal as regards the home .

The home is an intensive agency of socializ ation but its ,

influence weakens as age and mobility m ake possible or

necessary wider ranges of flight for the young Other agen .

cies then impose their respective varieties of social control

” “ "
the neighborhood the stre et or countryside gang the
, ,

police power the church a nd the schoo l :

, ,

Each of these age ncies exerts its own forms of discipline ,

“
all of which are definite ly socializing somet imes on a small
,

” “ ”
group basis ( often antisocial to large group interests ,

be it noted) and some of which contribute qualities of

But because these agencies seldom consciously
addr ess themselves to the task of preparing yout h for ad ult
192 CI VIC EDUCATION
ci
t im sh ip, numberless improvem ents in their prom are

slightly imm ediate ends of control to more remote and m or e

,

specifically civic ones Gang cooperation can unde r som e

.

educative parole and probation ; and even the home ca n

cooperate through various re directions of its controls and
suggestions .

The h ome is practically the sole agency of social education

of normally circumstanced children up to 4 years of ag e .

N early all o f t he ld s
c hi tim e is der its im m e diate
’
spe nt un

con trol I ts direct influence also exte nds

. to s uch extra horne
-

of the appreciations knowledge and habits thus form ed

, ,

are moral rather than civic I mprove ments of home social

.

control are usually to be accomplished thro ugh advances

in the education of pote ntial mothers partly as on e o h ,

ide al) , a nd partly by definite training of the young woman

taking shape un der experimental efforts of many institu

tions ) .

From 4 to 6 the social development of most children not

earlier years except that the matter of adjustments to play

,

gro ups bec omes more complicated and in turn educative

for good or for bad .

in sures social groupings of con siderable size with the at ,

tendant needs of complex disciplinary con trol I t has l o ng .

been a part of the theory of kindergarten education that

a variety of social appre ciations attitudes and even ideals , ,
194 CI VIC EDU CA TION

in sc h oo ls as in o th er social g m ups to b e re gar ed d prim arily

as means to the rea liz ation of the larger ends for which scho ols
e xist The scope and charac ter of these means therefore will
.
, ,

usually be governed by very pragmatic co nsiderations .

The class is the primary social group in lower schools ( or

combina tion of classes occupying a single room) I t is in .

the schoolroom that work must principally be done ; that

harmony must be maintained among individualities howeve r ,

indisposed to confo rm ; and that certain types of coopera t ion

the gre atest heterogeneity Here are co m mo nly found th e

.

most knotty problems of school go vernme nt Here very .

complex interests and attainments must be harmoniz ed i f

work is to proceed and joint living five or six hours per
day be made tolerable In the urban multiple room school
.
-

any given room group is relatively fairly homoge neou s as

-
, ,

regards age attainments and dominant interests

, , .

In mul tiple room schools for younger pupils there often

-

—
exist other sub groupin gs cliques or gangs for special
-

“ ”
( childish ) purposes and the
, school group as a whole .

But needs for controls here are variable since school ,

organization and spi rit are vague and often functionless

“ ”
except in a crisis or when the school community is
brought to consciousness .

I n schools for older pupils the room group may becom e -

less important and influential from the stand po int of grou p

consciousness need of exacting controls and common rules
, , .

D epartmentalizing of work accentuates so m e pr oblems and

“
lessens difficulties with others In large schools cross .

”
cutt in g social gro ups cliq ue interests athletics and the , ,

like are apt to come into prominence .

C onformity is the k eyno te of good school citizenship .

 MEAN S AN D ME TH O D S OF CI VIC EDUCATION 19 5

First and primarily according to oligarchic standards now

usual ly prevailing the approved pupil exhibits various
specific forms of the conformist virtues The nonconform ist
.

virtues have little place A large proportion of these ap

.

proved virtues are concrete an d standardiz ed s ince the areas ,

of action invisible to authorities are few as contrasted w i th

,

the social areas in which the home ch u rch worksho p com

, , ,

munity and state operate The ends to be ac hieved by the

, .

school ( at the time or for the pro ximate future) are so

determinate that clearly defined forms of discipl ine (to
procure needed conformit i es ) are easily practicable .

D iagn osis of the social iz ing values of school discipline

requires further analysis than we yet poem s The difficulties .

of control and social adj ustment arise because : ( 1 ) the

child comes from th e home often highly individualized in
his attitudes ; ( 2) for the first time generally he is required
, ,

to adjust himself to long periods of rout ine employment ,

requirin g silence cramping of body and other restraints

, , ,

for which nature and previous experience have gi ven him

“
little preparation ; an d ( 8) the very conditions of school
” “ ”
government readily give rise to inst inctive gang opposi
t ion to th e oligarchic control of teacher and oth er auth oritie s .

De m ocratization of sch ool governm ent has been an aspira

tion and ideal of al l progressive schools for several decades .

The resulting tendencies in practice are : ( 1) diminished dis

position o n the part of teachers an d other authorities to
secure control by a p peal to fear use of corporal punishment
, ,

arbitrary rules and commands etc ; ( 2) increased disposition

, .

to inform children as to ra tionale of control ; ( 8) greater

reliance upon estab lishm ent of right ideals of confo rmities ,

and occasionally of corrective nonconformities ; an d (4)

, ,

occasional use ( and frequent approval ) of devices whereby

children may participate in some of the controls required
fo r the effective functioning of school soc ial groups .
196 CIVIC EDUC ATION
Le t us assume that owing to effective school administra
,

tion the school social groups in which a given youth has

,

membe rship during the ten years of his life from 6 to 16

are perfectly functioning groups as measured by standards
generally approved during recent years D uring his par .
.

ticipat io n in these groups he has done the required wo rk

ac ceptably and has not been disorderly untruthful o h m
, , ,

nate dishonest rebe llious sulky idle dissolute improvi

, , , , , ,

”
dent envious profane I n do ing school work getting
’

, , .
,

school education he has been a good citizen

, I n what .

ways and to what degrees as a consequence has he pro bably

, ,

been thereby made fit for adult citizenship in other com

munity and state groups ?
These problems are of ut m ost importance to educators .

E ven acceptable analyses of them are not yet availab le .

N early all accessible discussions of them seem to be conf used

by various forms of fallac ious reasoni ng — and especially
that which follows the principle po st hoc ergo propter hoc , .

Civic se lection by schools I t is of course proba ble . , ,

that in so far as there exist relatively strong instin ctive

tendencies to yield to authority to seek approval of superiors ,

rather than equals to be ea sily governed by fear of penalty

, ,

“ ”
to be without small group initiative etc then of cour se , .
, , ,

the possessors of these relatively strong instincts “ill be

“ ”
go od subjects under school controls Similarly in so far .
,

as home controls produce dispositions of conformity to rule

of elders of submission to authority of fear of penalties
, , ,

etc the school merely selects but does not produce social , ,

Obviously it is ecessary to study these problems from

n

the standpo int of various types of social qualities that may

“ ”
be transferred to adult life Here our psychologic al .

difi cultie s are great We may safely assume that some

.

asp irations and ideals established in and for school social

198 CI VIC EDUC A TION
of general habituation ( p roduction of attitudes) and ideals .

I t is very probable that the re spect for women teac h a s

enforced in lower grades carries forward into adult life in
the shape of a series of reactions as specific as the tipp ing
“
of the hat or the polite address of Yes ma am I t is ,
’
.

very probable too that from the constant insistence of

, ,

teachers on approved social behavior insensibly evolve ideals

appropriate for the adult citizen especially in situations
,

involving no acute conflict with his personal intere sts .

The prevalen t dis trust of exce ssively oligarchic school

cont rol may very probably be traced to imperfectly defined
co nvi c tions that the specific forced obedien ce thus made
habitual cannot in the great majority of cases prove of any
functional value in meeting the demands made upon citizen s
in adult life in a democracy l i ke ours .

The history studies that have gradually been incor

p o ra te d into the curricu la of secondary and elementary
sch ools will for the purposes here under consideration be
, ,

grouped under two heads developmental and projecti ve

,

for convenience des ignated here beta and alpha objectives .

Under the beta head are i ncluded the myths stories , ,

biographies n arratives poems novels and picture s that

, , , ,

lie outside of systematically told history U nder the alpha .

head will be included all tho se syst ematic presentation s ,

usually on a chronological basis that ma ke up the h undreds

,

perhaps thousands of textbooks ad apted to Grades 6

to 12 in the public schools .

Hi story materials of the beta type are now widely used

in the lower grades They merge with literature curren t
.
,

even ts music and graphic art To an in creasing exten t

, ,
.

“ "
they are made to appeal to the in terests of learnm .

From the se sources are su pposed to be derived app reciations ,

 ME AN S AND ME TH O D S OF CIVIC EDUC A TION 19 9

ideals and perhaps a small am ount of useful knowledge

, .

In many case s pupils develop permanent interests in reading ,

as results of their school introduction to lives of noteworthy

men storie s of adventure heroic poetry historical novels
, , , ,

and now historical moving pictures In recen t years

, , .

to supplement regular course st udies in Grades 6 to 12

The alpha type s of history are be st defined by reference

to existing textbooks and also by qu estions set by external
examining boards such as the Regents of the State of New
York and the C ollege Entrance Exa m ination Board For .

many years th e American book market has afforded in

large variety three very distinct ive types of history texts :
( )
a very simple books on American history expressly pre
pa red for children below the seventh grad e ; ( b) very com
pact thoug h compendious texts especially desig e d for
, ,

Grades 7 and 8 ; and (c) comprehensive texts in world history ,

ancien t history medieval and modern history En glish and

, ,

American history etc designed especially for high schools

, .
, .

All of th ese possess certa in common characteristics : ( a)

They presen t the subject largely in its chronological order ,

except that often the history of one are a is developed through

a consider able peri o d before the history of a corresponding
period for a di fferent area is taken up ( b) They give space
.

ch iefl y to the even ts that have seemed of most importance

to subsequent generations ( chiefly political events ) and ,

largely without relation to the significance of these events

for contemporary or expected social conditions (0 ) The .

presentation is almost invariably formal and di dac tic truly

a record of even ts as they happened accompanied sometimes
,

by running thread s of generalization and inte rpretatio n ex

pressive of the views of the textbook writer or of the his
to ri
a ns whom he follows .
200 CIVIC EDUCATION
Standardiz ed examin ation qu esti on s also show cer tain
fairly uniform characteristics : ( a) They te st learners pri
marily as to m e m o rizat io n ( b) When the y do req u ire g ener
.

ali o ns or interpretations i
za ti t will be found that the most
,

accepta ble are again the expression of memorize d contents .

( )
0 The questions rarely call for fa cts of re m emb r a n ce or ,

for conclusions based upon rd e ct ion that have po te nt ,

relationship to contemporary or prospective social problems .

History in the lower grades is n ow usually taught by

“
what are here lat er called the meth ods of developmen tal
”
readings . But in upper grades and high schools little
progress has yet been made away from the highly didactic
methods long charac terist ic of the subject except where an ,

uncom monly resourcefu l te acher having available a quan ,

“ ”
tity of library source and other laboratory materials
, , ,

is disposed and able to set students at the work of learn ing

in ways somewhat resembling those employed b y the original
writers of histo ry itself F or the majority of higher grade
.

“ ”
pupils learning h istory means the memorizing of text wal
statement and uncritical acceptance of textual data and
,

The same methods still prevail largely also in the other

social sc ie nw s as is indicated elsewhere All the well known
, .
-

texts in civil government consist chiefly of condensed de

sc ript i
o ns of the struct ures and functions of po litical or
other large social mechanisms supplemented by some formal
,

exhortations to prospective citizens as to the ir obligations

and opportunities through civic participation These di dao .

tic texts in history and other subjects vary consi derably

in the vividness and si mplicity of their topics in the exte nt ,

to which they include or exclude topics relevant to con

temporary civic performance and as respects concrete ,

“ ”
setting and dressing . But even at their be st they are
“ ”
no t and cannot be
, , readable in the sense used when we
,
202 CIVIC EDUCA TION
ci tizen I t may be doubtful whether con ditio ns can be
.

otherwise in view of the pr i nciples which see m to con tro l

,

“
in the or ganization of history as a science .

I s it desirable or practicable to define a serie s of pro

"
je ct iv e objectives for t h e history studies of elementary a nd
”
secondary sch ool ? Projective objectives it will be rem em ,

bered are those involving attainmen ts of forms of knowle dge

,

and powers of execu tion that are expected to rema in tangibly

an d genuinely functional in adult years .

I n most of the recent literature on the teaching of history

it appe ars that these are stated as aspirations rath er than
ac tualities and in philosophical rather than sociological
, ,

terms These hoped for objectives seem to be about eq ually

.
-

divided between the cultu ral and the social as the te rms ,

are use d in this b o o k . But we are giv e n v e ry fe w spe cific

evidences of the contributions of these harder historica l

studi e s to civic app reciation and power — although it is
always implicitly assumed if not sometimes openly asse rted
, ,
“
that citizens can only j udge ( and therefore control) the
fu ture by the past .

R e s ults of Am erican h i story study I t is submitted that

.

critical examination of the res ults of history teaching wo uld

justify these statements :
(1
. American history as studied by the average pup il in
Northern states who does not reach the high school lea ves ,

as residuums of knowledge and appreciation for adult ye a rs

a few definite conceptio ns as to : ( a) historic personage s
C olumbus Washington Le e etc ; ( b) certain critical dates
, , , .

an d eras 1492 1620 the Re voluti n etc ; (c ) social

, ,
o , .

soci al evolution dominance of the E nglish 111 colo nization ,

the west ward movement growth of republican 1nst itutio ns etc

, , .
 MEAN S AND ME TH O D S OF CI VIC EDU C ATION 203

Some of these are important if not indispensable factors

, ,

in cultural education for QOth century Americans ; but the

-

number of such appreciations and units of knowledge needed

“ ”
for ge neral culture ( that is as integrating knowledge or
,

appreciation ) is probably not large and these are certainly,

attained very w asteq y through present methods which

involve memorization of thousands of facts .

b American history study has very slight if any bearing

.
, ,

on the adult civic beha vior of students of average intellectual

abiliti e s and interests I t probably does not affect : political
.

party membership ; prevailing attitudes toward general

problems such as immigration or treatment of the Indians ;
attitudes toward English Mexicans C hinese or C anadians
, , , ,

or corporation production ; or insight into right solutions of

p roblems of protective tariffs governm ent control of general
,

utilities negro suffrage international relations etc When

, , , .

the time comes for the a v erage citizen to act in situations

related to any of the above that is to influen ce others to , ,

vote to approve of policies proposed by others

, he does so
with very slight or negligible reference to what he has
learned from history ( This m ay not always mean that
.

those specialists who influence him po litical leaders ,

editors legislators
, are similarly unaffected by their
school or post school studies of history )
-
.

c
. Am mcan history studi e s for a minority of gifted youth
,

whose school studies in general simply open the doors to

regio ns which they will largely explore by themselves ,

may be introduc tory to important fields of culture and social

appreciation and thus make importa nt indirect contribut i ons
to adult ci vic behavior especially under conditions where
,

In other words when in ad ult life a man of superior

, , ,

intelligence and intellectual enterprise is c onfronted by social

pro blems b e naturally t urns to past experience for guidance .
204 CIVIC EDUCA TION
Pmbobly abmod nm doss ho fi nd that guidm m w hat hc
ha s prw imn ly actually lmm ad q fmerican or othc r k u tory .

But the historic situations of which he has re me m br ance th e ,

methods of locating historic facts and authoritie s with which

he has become acquainted as w ell as his cultural interests in
,

pa rticular fields all unite in giving him confidence t hat he

,

can in some historic situatio n find help toward solving his

pre sent problems History as no w taught seems only occa
. »

sio na lly to train him dire ctly in these powe rs Neithe r doe s .

it give him any reliable criteria as to the servic e historic al

knowledge can o ffer in solving present problems .

d The hist ory studies of the high school make still few er
.

and less important contributions to the total of adult ci vic

behavior than does American history as studied in the a ppa
grades Exceptions to thi s conclusion apply only in the case
.

of that very small number of high school st udents who

even tu ally become publicists or governmental age nts .

6 .Bu t these studies do leave cultural re siduums of

importance notwithstanding the large amount of straw that
,

students are now obliged to winnow for the sake of the wheat .

“
Proj ective ob j ective s What might well be the pro
.

”
jec tiv e or alpha objectives of history st udies ? The follow
in g consider ations are submitted as a basis for discussion :
a . Sali ent history Beginn i ng perhaps in the thir d or
.

fourth grad e and held as a requirement for all up to age

,

14 and thereafter as an elective should be units of salien t

, ,

histo ry spirally pr ogressive from grad e to grade and de

, ,

signed primarily to minister to certain structu ral foun dations

of cultural objectives This sa lien t history sh ould be de
.

signed to insure fairly accurate knowledge of a small numbe r

of dates personages and significant circumstancesconn ect e d
, ,

with momen tous events turnin g points and tenden cies in

, ,

history Such knowledge should gi ve essential intelle c tual

.

frameworks co mpar able to those now sought in the science

206 CIVIC EDU C ATION
local government studie s ; in the ninth grade as political ,

science or ci vil government ; in the tenth as economics ; and

in the eleventh and twelfth as sociology But probably th is .

will not be necessary — it may in fact prove unde sirable

, , .

( I t 13 of course assum ed that other offerings of social prob

, ,
“
lems w ill be mad e m which the historical foun dations will
be u nim portant or inaccessible to ordinary students ) .

When we once detach ourselves from the prepossessions

engendered by too close adherence to academic classifications ,

it becomes obvious that m co nnection with ea ch of such li ve

topics as immigration relief of poverty collec tive bargaining
, , ,

the borrowing of capital the extension of the suffrage and

. ,

scores of oth ers there are some vital problems that may well
,

be studied attentively by eighth gr ad e pupils ( certainly t hey

-

are no more difficult than much of the arith metic we seek

at that time to have mast ered ) ; whilst others ma y well have
to be postponed to later grades in schools or even in college .

Other groups of problems such as government owners h ip

,

of general utilities colonial policies internatio nal relation s

, , ,

negro suffrage tariffs alien ownership of land and the like

, , ,

may not supply any problems suitable for grades be low

the nin th and tenth wherein are now utilize d the highly
complex and abstract problems of algebra a nd plane

Now it is in the study of problems like these that history

can really be bro ught into the genuine service of civic
ed ucation Learners will here be co ncerned ( very much as
.

will be the case in mature life) only with those times hap ,
«

pe nin gs and
,
conditions in histo ry which give him light on

the problems that he then has in hand To the proper sources .

of information they will of course in each case be guided by

, ,

special bibliographies indexes and the teacher

, , and

perhaps by other means yet to be evolved The salient history .

that has thus far been le arned should serve also like the ,
 ME A N S AN D ME THODS OF CIVIC EDUCATION 207

framework of a house the skelet on of the body or the

, ,

essential principle s of science to guide an d organize the

,

As suggested above not all of the social science problems

,
-

to be stu di ed will have important historic aspects which

discovery may yet serve to rescue us from present delusions
as to the large part knowledge of the past should play in
decisions involving o nly the present and fut ure ! But many
of them will We can readily imagine a class in a seven th
.

grade confronted by any vital municipal service problem such

-

as th ose involved in urban transportat i on Such problems

.

would be approached by such questions as these :

(1 Is our city as regards transportation facilities a very

.
, ,

good place to live in ? Is it so for prosperous people ? for

very poor people ? for negroes of refined tastes ? for recen t
i m migrants ?
b I n what ways and to what extent are the tra nsportation
.

faciliti es of our city very good ? fa ir ? poor ? very bad ? More

particularly what about the streets ? street cars ? bridge s ?
,

c
. Are the terminal and harbor fac ilities of our city good
or bad ? Particularize as to passenger fac ilitie s ; export
freight facilities ; import freight facilities .

8 Other pre sent d ay citi e s ( comparative studies )

.
-
.

a What seem to be the trail spo rtatio n problems of

.

Philadelphia New Orle ans London ?

, ,

Now the study of these problems will readily throw the

student back upon many important li ne s of history For .

exam ple
C Our c i ty in former time s
. .

a What were the historic conditions which led to the

.

founding of the city here ?

6 Why are the older streets so narrow ?
.

0
. Was this ever a walled city ? What are some of th e
208 CIVIC EDU CATION

peculiarities of citi es once walled like Lo ndon and N ure m

“ ”
ber g ? Why the term Wall Street in New Yor k ?
d For sake of appreciations ( hardly for pr actical appli
.

cation ) read stories of Babylon Tyre Athc na Ro m e , , ,

Edinburgh .

SO CI AL BCl EN c m BY DID ACTI C PR SE EN TA TI ON

“
As indicated above the words didactic method as used
,

here are intended to designate those methods of instruct ion

”
based upon direct telling or o ther forthright conveyance

in social science subjects designed for lea rners from

-
12 to

t ic me th od . Suc h texts are in th e main de script ive of fac ts

of socia l structures and functions contem pora ry or historical
, .

The se are selected with reference to assumed civic needs

and by current pedagogical standards Supplemental prob .

lems and topics for special study are usually inciden tal and

to co nnect with the social environmental experiences of

learn ers bu t these attempts seem usually to be futile partly
, ,

bec a use of the fact that the text commonly must be writte n
eq ually for East and for West for city and for country for
, ,

pupils of high and for those of low intelligence M ost of

, , .

these books seriously violate accepte d pedagogic principles

as to the induct ive methods of approach and fail to utilise ,

propensities of students toward self activity Ve ry probably -

.

effective pedagogy in ci vic subjects will require that what

are here called didactic methods of civi c edu ca tion shall
be reduced to a min imum and that other methods be e m
ployed as fast as they are developed .

D idactic methods are usually the first to be dev eloped 11)

, ,

any new field of instruction or training The leader specialist .

, ,
210 C I VIC EDUC ATION
de stined to la ve school at not more than 16 years o f ag e ,

m igh t we ll b e re cog ni
ze d a mo n g tho se ab o ve l ears o f ag e .

to be exerted later in democratic citizen ship as co m p re d

a
with their abilities special attention might we ll be given
,

to their ci vic training Very difie rent kinds of education

'

should be given also to that conspicuous minority of super

average abilities who will probably finish high school .

“ ”
As long as we are obliged to depend upon di dactic
met h ods the be st that can be don e is to simplify tea ts
, .

eliminating the relatively less essential Ma ny of the m ost .

popular of texts now used are veritable cyclopedias of ci vic

data and principles which like compendious texts in histo ry
, , ,

would be valuable as books of reference But the aspira t ions .

apparently cherished m some q uarters that any considerable

“ ”
,
l
numbers of pupils will in the first place real y mast er
the se encyclopedic volumes of material or that in the second
,

, ,

plac e any such partial or complete mastery will wor k

,

significant changes in behavior are probably far wide of

PROJ ECT METHODS

I n the organization of th e means of education — the
“
studies lect ures
, tellin gs discussions experiments exer
, , , ,

cises assigned readings m em o riaings reports activities

, , , , ,

problems trials tests examinations etc through which we

, , , , .
,

achieve our desired ends insufficien t attention was formerly

“ ”
given to th e production of effective tea ching units of the
kind that would be especially significant to the learner The
—
.

“ ”
question and answer unit as seen at its be st in the
catechism — was the smallest unit ever devised I t w as in .

part definitely pedagogical and in part definitely logi ca l It .

was eminently suited to an age in which authority was the

source of all knowledge for the learne r and verbal memor i ,
 MEAN S AND ME TH O D S OF CIVIC EDUC ATION 211

za ti
on the chief means of fixing in the minds of each new
generation the clow ns and other authoritative teachings of
the older generation This unit had also the peculiar ad
.

“ ”
Th e l e sson unit has always been in part a pedagogical
unit — that is based upon the powers and weaknesses of
,

learners rather than a logical unit that is based upon ,

the inherent characteristics of subject matter I t has prob -

. .

ably neve been a true pedagogical unit — that is taking ,

account of all the characteristics to be found in the child

as active learner I t might be called a unit based roughly
.

upon the capacity of the learner to sustain attention to ,

endure application or to give working time I t is in other

, .
,

words a convenient task a sort of day s work so far as a

, ,
’
,

pa rticular kin d of activity was concerned I t is often an .

arb i trarily sliced o ff port ion of subject matter and com

- -
,

mo uly represen ts frequen tly no logical division of that

subject matter at al l
-
m e m b ling therefore as a unit a , , ,

stated length of board or cloth or a slice of bread rather

than a tree trunk a garm ent a b iscuit or other more or ganic
, , ,

Th e “to ic ” which in many studies succe eded the lesson

p
as the tea ching unit of chief importance was especially
characterized by its logical relation to some larger unit or
“ ”
whole of subject matter while at the same time it was
-
,

endeavored in it to take account of the possible focusin g

“ ”
of interests and the intellectual spanning powers of you ng
learners In many respects it was therefore an ad vance
.

on units previously developed I t lent itself especially well .

to teach in g in which some reasoning inference and com , ,

parison on th e par t of th e learner w as so ugh t in lieu of

the verbal memorizing which had formerly prevailed .

“
A few years ago educators began usin g the word project
212 CIVIC EDUC A TION
to describe a unit of educative work in whic h the most
prominent feature was some form of positive and co ncrete
'

achievement having v ita l significance to the relativ ely

“ ”
natural learning instincts of young people The baking of .

a loaf of brea d the making of a shirtwaist the raising o f a

, ,

bushel of corn the making of a table the installation of an

, ,

electric bell outfi t

-
all these when undertaken by learne rs
, ,

and when so handled as to res ult in large acquisitions of new

knowledge and other experience products were called ,

projects Projects of this kind might be individual or

.

cooperat i ve They might be executed in an ord inary lesson

.

period or they m ight claim the efforts of the learner for one
,

or more ho urs per day for several weeks .

Proj ects The following were the primary characteristics

.

of projects as thus conceived : ( a) the undertaki ng always

possessed a certain unity ; ( b ) the learner hi mself clearly
conceived and valued the practical ends or outcomes to be
attained ( even though these might be quite different from
the objectives intended and reali sed by teachers ) and it was ,

always expected that the se outc omes were full of interest to

him luring him o n as to definite goals to be won ; (13) the
, ,

standards of achiev ement were clearly objective so much

so that the learner and his fellows could in large part remla
‘
, ,

valuable decisions as to t he wo rth in an ama teur or in a

co m mercial sense of the product ; and (d) the undertaking
was of such a nature that the learner in achieving his desired
,

ends would necessarily have to apply much of his previous

,

knowledge and experience perhaps heretofore not con

sc i ously held as usable in this way art science mathe
—
, ,

m atics special tool skills )

, and probably would have to
acquire also some new knowledges and skills .

As in many other forms of learning the objectives held in,

view by learner and teach er were often unlike What the .

learner imagined as an end the teacher conceived often as a

214 CI VIC EDU C ATION
method of utmost value This is clearly the sit uation in civic
.

education Only a small part of the objectives o f civ ic

.

education can probably be achie ved thro ugh th e pro j ect

, ,

method But as far as it is applicable it is clearly a very

.
,

useful meth od productive of very re alistic experien ces and

,

accompanying appreciations insights ideals and perha ps , , , , ,

habits .

Type s of proj ects In civic education three unli ke types

.

of projects can now be dist inguished : ( a) Social ( or ci vic)

se rvice projects ; ( b) dram a ti
c projects ; and (0) m ay pr ojects .

“ ”
The term serv ice pr oject is here restricted to those
individual or co llective activities which are positively valua ble
to so me social group or member the reof other than the ,
“ ”
doer Projects merely o f conformity or obedience to law
.

should probably be excluded however Among true social , .

service projec ts now more or less familiar to educa tors are

the fo llowing :
a .The pupils of a school undertake improvem ents either
for the obvious benefit of the pupils themselves as W here
a playground is cleared running tracks or playing grounds
,

developed or apparatus mad e ; or else for the school in its

,

co m munity aspects as where the building is painted the ,

grounds fenced or repairs made , .

b A class of pupils or portion thereof undertake consola

—
.

tion or relief work reading to bed bound old people or -

children providing a C hristmas di nner and gifts for a wi dow

,

( or other d e stitute woman ) and children .

“ ”
0
. C lean town enterpri ses of various sorts .

d Gardening fruit canning and dryi ng stock raising etc

.
, , ,

in time of food scarcity .

.s Red Cross pro jects in providing bandages clothing and , ,

the like .

f
. Guiding old people sightseers and the
, like in time s of ,

conventions (Boy Scouts ) .

 MEAN S AND METH ODS OF C IVIC EDU C ATION 215

g . A n umber of pupils undertake to report illegal condi

tio ns fire haz ards exposed food in markets neglected
, , ,

garbage broken railings et c

, , .

Service projects for the areas of experience which th ey

,

affect are educative in ways and to de grees not possible

,

through other means and methods U nfortunately they can . ,

be devised apparently for but few departments of civic

, ,

experience and they are us ually very expensive of time and

,

pro vide in large cities where so large a part of public utilities -

service is necessarily on a paid specialist basis In remote .

rural communities boys of appropriate ages could well be

organized to repair storm washed roads watch for strayed -
,

animals trap vermin cle ar roadsides of weeds be ready to

, , ,

combat fires help distressed families an d aid in providing

, ,

festivals advertising public meet ings promoting regional

, ,

enterprises and the l ike But in cities these functions fall

, .

under p aid service and volun teer labor is commonly more of

,

a hindrance than a help .

Valuabl e projects utilizing civic watchfulness as a

basis have been in a few case s suggested for cities — such
as re porting fire menaces littered lots and uncared for , ,
-

streets In cities especially the worthy citizen as cc

.
,

emplo yer of the numerous paid servants of the municipality ,

sho uld be always vigilan t to see that the prescribed duties

of these are properly discharged I t is not difficult to o r .

ganme boys instructed as to the duties of policemen street

, ,

swe epers, g arb age carri

ers, and th e like so th a t the y will
become keen critics of those fun ctionaries Neither is it .

difficult to train them in watchfulness over th e compliance

of private individuals with ordinances relative to freeing
sidewalks from obstructions keeping exposed foods properly ,

protected freeing sidewalks

, from ice and snow an d the ,
9 16 CIVIC EDUC A TION
”
But such civic activities on the part of juvenile s must

spirit of capt ious criticism are to be avoided I t 18 probably .

a safe rule that th e teacher should always be the intermediary

between the boys and the authorities to wh om first angge s
tion s and finally crit icisms are to be made Superv ision of
, , .

the work of public or private servants is something not to be

‘

lightly undertaken C ertainly it should involve from the

.
,

outset appreciation and ca reful understanding of the positi ve

,

aspects of that work what the workers are doing now ,

perhaps with ill define d tasks poor tools and hamper i ng

-
, ,

conditions .

Service project s are not of course to be reg arded as en ds

, ,

in themselves They are primarily education al means to

.

certa in types of civic appreciatio n un derstanding ideal and , , ,

perhaps occasionally habit ; but the effective use of the se

projects requires not only that their objectives shall be defined
in t h e min ds of teachers with some detail but also that ,

skil lful work sha ll be done in interpreting or translating the

project so as to insure its full functioning .

Dram atic proj ects seem to have a very large field but ,

their permanent educational values except for you ng ch il ,

dr en recent immigran ts and other minds read ily stimulated

, ,

or inspired by symbolic appeal are still questionable The , .

method of the drama or page ant may however have exc e p , ,

~

tio na l values in times of great emot i onal ten sion in the

early stages of war in a great relief mo v ement etc
, , .

Public schools now give many good example s of projects

for earlier grades commemorations historic dram a tiz e ,
»

tions reproduced festivals mock elections naturalization

, , , ,

jury duty small pageants et c

, , .

For upper grades and high schools it seems probable that

the method fails unless planne d and directed by perso ns of
large dramatic powers Perhaps th e method even at best
. , ,
218 CIVIC EDUC A TION

like the se o ugh t to pro ve of very gre a t value in all grades

,

from th e first to the twe lfth as inspectio n or sur vey proje cts .

contro l any work of this charact er than civic objectives I n .

fac t it is of utmost importance that such civic objectiv es as

,

are h eld sh o uld be v ery c learly de fine d and means and

me thods careft adapt ed to their realim tio n ; o th erw me no

permanent interpretations or evaluations follo w .

D EV ELO PM
E N T AL R EA D ING S

”
The term developmental readings will be used h ere to
include : ( a) all general read ing done by learners when
mo tivated by curiosity or ac tive interest in the content itse lf
or in the direct use of the content for discussion or debat e ;
( )
b re a d ing to learners by te achers for the sake of conveying
information or of intere sting them in further rea ding ; and
( )
c informative or inspirational lectures for the same purpose ,

whe re no systematic note taking or subsequent study o f th e

content of the lecture is required .

D ev elopm ental readings are obviously one of the com

, ,

monest metho ds of self e ducation among adults us ua lly

-
,

ranking next in importance to oral intercourse and so far , ,

intercourse in impor tance Such read ing among adult s

.

closely corresponds to the beta types of ac tivities in schoo ls

M
.

o st of it is to satisfy pre se n t interest o r nee d There .

is little consciou s reference to remote goals Not much o f .

such reading is done in a spirit that could be called thoroug h .

We oft en condemn it as supe rficial ; but the supe rfic ial

resultants between available time and needed attainments .

The method is certainly largely justified by the fact that

 MEAN S AN D METHO D S OF CIVIC EDU C ATION 219

periods dev oted to productive work in connection with ,

intellectual recreation personal culture an d self advance

, ,
-

ment in civic insight Witness the large amount of magazine

.
,

“ ”
newspaper and other current literature reading done by
,

To be effective develop m ental readings should have

,

h olding power both in content and in method of presentation .

All writing that has to stand the test of popular approval has
clearly to meet these two conditions The content must be .

ti mely pertinent and sign ificant to the reader according to

, ,

his pow ers apperceptive interests and the ext ernal stimuli
, ,

by which he is affected Methods of presentation rise in the.

,

best products to the levels of fine arts

, the literary arts ,

standards in which as far as juvenile readers are co ncerned

, ,

are yet obscure .

Prescription Nothing is usually ga ined by attempts to

.

prescribe developmental reading for youths As amo ng .

adults each must subject to sugges tion exercise his own

, , ,

powers of choice must respond in his own way to s t imulation

, .

suggestive leads and impo se a general requirement as to

,

disposal of time I n a class or conference group formed to

.

promote developmental re adings probably the most e ffica ,

cions procedure would be to present to the group at the

beginning of a term or preferably quarter a seri e s of topics
, , ,

many more than the available time permits to be taken up ,

includin g where convenient t0 pic s centering i n particular

, ,

books Let the gro up note first its provisional choice of

.
, ,

topics then their order For each topic a varied and ex

, .

tensive list of readings should be available from which ,

members of the class could choose .

Probably the only compulsions desirable for this type of

a. Each student will be requi red to take a minimum

220 CI VIC EDUC ATION
num b er o f b eta un its cac h ye ar in so me fie ld o fi e re d
b y th e
school say 80 out of a total min imum normal req uirem ent
of 72 alpha and beta units for three quarters ( 180 days 8 ,

hours daily a unit bein g 60 school hours )

, .

b The teacher should have the right to exclude from a

.

co nference group any learner who does not conform to

essen tial standards of behavior and cooperative effort in

Topics for reading in civic education should be selected

first because they are of contemporary interest and secon d
because each co ntributes something to the idealisms app re ,

c iatio ns and insights valuable to a citizen

, ( Complete n ess .

can never be attained Hence as in our own daily rea ding .

, ,

some discursiveness must be tolerated and diversity amo ng ,

individuals encouraged ) Among fruitful topics to be con .

si dere d where read ing matter is available for G rades 8 to 1 1

m ight well be man y like the following

Mien nflue nt a l ini busi ness l d ea i i p

h p Th e d sap ea ranc of the
ers
e fr nti
o er

during l t half cen t n y

as i
'
The a nk n g serv ce
b i i
I mm i g atio n ld nd ne w
Mi
r , o a

Po ver ty in Am i a nd ther er c a o ex co and the Uniwd Sta te s

Tb e story of cemen t and co ncre te
The se t tlem ent of pub lic lan d s The story of ste el
Recent h istory of agric ulture Th e story of m ea t pac ki ng
Present da y - co mm erce of th e Un te i d
Sta tes d i i
Tra e un o n sm in Am e rica
The ne groes of Am e rica f
Our orests
Am e rica n wa te r o we r p
City as co un tr
. y ide
s y
T he stor of coa l m in ng i
The automo bile its i
r se a nd

influe nce Sta te universities

N ews papers the ir h isto ry and Story of o il
The De partme nt of Agric ult ure
222 CI VIC EDUCATION

practicability of any easy smoothing over of deep se at ed -

PROB LEM METHODS

Future studies of the psychology of le arn ing will pro bably
establish th e very great importance of the problem method
in several of the subjects taught in the upper grades and high
schools The method has long been employed to a degree in
.

mathematics and physics where how ever its usefulness has

, , ,

been seriously dimin ished through the general use of fictitious

rather than realistic problems Recen t advances in the te a ch
.

ing of th ese subjects center in deed in attempts to substitute

, ,

“ ”
problems from life for the imaginary and often bizarre
problems h eretofore invented for purposes of illustrati o n or

The social science subjects are now as before stated taught

-
, ,

“ ”
in the main by didac tic methods But the actual applica.

tion of social science knowledge m governmental and other

-

“
large group policies by citizens commonly involve s the
’’

“
solution of problem s no less than do pract ical applicatio ns
of mathematics and the natural sciences The pro blem .

method should therefore prove no less superior in civic

,

ed ucation than in the other fields where it is now de v eloping .

“ ”
C urrent enthusiasm for the project m etho d have le d
undiscriminating writers so to distend the meaning of the
“ ”
word project as to include all kinds of realistic problems .

But this misuse of terminology can hardly last The proble m .

me thod is not the project method and each has its dist inctive
,

field Useful distinctions can be observed ev e rywhere in life

. .

Many citizens under take from tim e to ti me what are truly

" —
, ,

“
civic projects from the formation of a new party to
driving out a political bo ss from effecting a reform in voting
,

to the passage of a new statute But many t im es more

.
 MEAN S AND METHODS OF CIVIC EDUCATION 223

numerous are the problems eve ry conscientious voter has

to solve at election and other times in dec iding which of two
or more alternative courses he should take in re gistering his
vote or influencing others .

( ) That every individual beyond the age of infancy pos

a

sesses in fact a rich social experience as a re s ult of environ

mental contacts ; (b) that most of the interpretat ions and eval
nations of these expe riences are no w m ade b y th e in dividual on
th e basis of personal impulse and social imitation ; ( c) that 111
ordinary social life ev en where such interpretations and
,

evaluations tend to become rational they nevertheless long

,

remain heavily biased by dogmas creeds and doctrinaire

, ,

formulae because of partisan suggestions ; and (d) that it is

pret and evaluate such social experience rationally and ,

increasingly m accordance with scientific stand ards .

Problem methods therefore presuppose the organiz ation of

to appreciate the existence of problems followed by the

,

directed analysis of these by means of a series of questions

designed to promote evaluations and also to bring out
provisional interpretations that might seem more or less
co ntrad ictory I t is assumed that with the aid of the teacher
.

progre ss can easily be made toward some correct evaluations

in so far as the state of present knowledge permits the se to be
reached Since in many cases no final and permanently valid
.

of this method of instruction may well i nclude some deliberate

fostering of attitudes of suspended judgment as well as,

convictions on the part of learners that uns uspected causal

facto rs are involved in the problems These may be illustrated
.
224 CIVIC EDUC ATI ON
I c t it b e asmuned th at as m eans we po sse ss for th e use of

the pupil an analysis like that given below ea ch que stion ,

bei ng followed by blank space s in which the learn er w ould

write provisional answers as far as his experience w o uld then
permit These could then be aw em ble d and disea s e d in
.

conference and correct io ns made in so far as con ce rted ,

judgment could then be had Where uncertain elemen ts still

.

remain these could be characterized as unsettled proble ms ,

some of which obviously may have to remain unsett led for

the indiv i dual throughout his lifet ime Let it be assu med .

“
that we are dealing w ith ninth grade pupils in a social -

"
problems course in a typical urban manual working clam -

environment .

A Probl em s m Poverty
.

1 . Each member of the class will draw upon his exper ience
until h e finds a typi
ca l case th a t ca n be c h arac ter z e
i d as a
“
poor fa m ily as to which the following questio ns can be

a In what ways and to what extent does the poverty of

—
.

this family seem to have been due to catastrophe fire ,

death robbery severe illn e ss fraud or war ?

, , , ,

b To what extent and in what ways does the poverty of

.

the family seem to have been due to low earning po wer on

the part of t he man owing to ac cidental causes over whic h
—
,

he has h ad litt le control sickness lack of em ploymen t , .

financial dep ression and the like ?,

c .To what extent does the poverty seem to arise fro m

lack o f earn i
ng po w e r due to th e fac t th a t th e m an is of

inferior natural ability , intelligence or other qualitie s ?

,

(1 To what exte nt does the poverty seem to be due to

.

inferio r earning po w er b e ca usc th e m an ha d no t learne d a

trade or lacks some necessary ad junct to success such as
thrift or ability to m arket his pro duct ?
99 6 CIVIC EDUC ATION

4 . In what ways does seem that the poverty o f Ameri

it o

ca ns ca n b e diminishe d in th e fut ure b y : ( a ) the pro g re ss of

science and invention ; ( b) families of smaller average size ;
(0) improved agriculture ; (4) more and be tter ra ilro ads ;
( )
c mo re savings banks deposits-
; (f) more foreign trade ?
5 .What are some of the effects on conditions of po ver ty
that may be expected to co me from : ( 0 ) incre ased immigra
tion ; ( b) heavier taxation; ( 0 ) destruction of fore sts ; (d) the
crowd i ng of peoples into cities ; ( 8 ) poor go v ernm m t ; (f) war ?
6 What seems to be the relation of poverty to the
.

accum ulation of very large fortunes when such fortunes as , ,

well as a large part of the intere st thereon are kept co n ,

sta nt ly invested rather than spent ?

B Oth er Sources
. of Problem s

Adapted to this same group of learners could readily be

devised problems centering about such topics as these
C olonial government collective or state management of
,

public utilitie s the organization of labor functions of

, ,

representatives in republican government priv ate ownership ,

of property child labor over prod uction cooperation of

, ,
-
,

farmers tre at ment of cr i me taxati o n public ownership of

, , ,

forests territorial supervision of production large fortunes

, , ,

free education rural mail service relief of th e poor and

, , ,

literally hundreds of others .

1 Assume tenth
. seco nd year high school cla ss
-
grad e ,
-
,

electing a co urse in Economic Problems The course would .

be organized about these principles :

0 Economic problem s con stitute a large part of the civic
.

problems of present and future .

b M any economic problems like many problems in

. ,
 MEAN S AND METH OD S OF CIVIC EDUC ATION 227

mathematics and physics are far too difi c ult for the m ental
,

powers and experience of high school students .

0 Some econo m ic problems lik e some problems in

.
,

mathematics and physics are we ll within the mental powers

,

and easily acquired experience of high school pupils even of ,

ninth and tenth grades .

(1 Those pro blems only should be selected for study which

.

are related to and are interpretative of problems about w hich

, ,

serious issues and divisions of opinion now exist or are likely

8 .Where problems now di v ide men of substantially equal

in telligence and social good will into opposed parties the ,

school must caref t refrain from taking sides confining its ,

efforts as far as pract icable without arousing intense an tago

,

niams to setting forth the contentions of both sides

, .

The approach to these problems should be made first by

considering quite apart from learners capacities those
,
’

problems that are now acute Then by processes of elimina

.
,
s

tion find specific problems or phases of problems ad apted

,

to the capacities of learners .

2 The following are some of the t0 pics in economics from

.

which may readily be drawn problems suited to tenth grade s :

Private property Power production F oreign trade
I nsurance C o tipe ratio n Public utilities
Taxat ion F actory system
C redit
War
Com tition
Collect ive co nsum p Mid en
C orporatio ns
M
tion
Wages e unionism try
Re nt Gold V ocational educa
Hand production Tariffs tion
8 When those problems have been selected that are in
.

part at least within the comprehension of the group or level

228 CIVIC EDUC ATION

of le arners under consideration their deba table aspects or

,

i ssues should be brought into relief The more abstract

.

designation of the areas to be considered mig ht well be

reserved for teachers only So un d pedagogy would usually
.

involve : ( a ) bringing to the attention of pupils at the outset

those problems co m ing nearest to their home or community
experience ; ( b) assembly of facts of general knowledge ;
( ) assembly of principles upon which a large proportion of
0

well informed men are substantially agreed ;

-
approach
“
to the critical issues As an example take wages as payment
.

”
for labor .

The teacher is aware that the re are many problems in the

economics of wages as to which there exists no agreement
even among experts These can be raised where necessa ry
.

and their vari ous aspects discussed Abstract pri nciples will
.

be kept in reserv e until needed in co nnection with concrete

issues .

Probl em s of social ju stice which acutely con cern or in

tere st most learners will probably include many like the
“
following ( the phrase Is it ri ght is co nv en im t ly assu med
“ ”
to derive from accepted standards of soc ial justice )
a I s it right that unskilled workers sho uld receive lower
.

wages than skilled workers ?

b Is it right that a woman should take less wages for
.

certain work th an a man wi th a family would require for

the same work ?
.0 Is it right that wage s should be paid not at a fixed rate
,

per day but in proportion to work done ?

,

d I s it right that a man with a large family should rece ive

.

only the same wages as a single man ?

.0 Is it right that brain workers should be paid more tha n
hand workers ?
.
f Is it right that a mini mu m wage should be fixed by law
so that no one wou ld be allowe d to work for less ?
23 0 CIVIC EDUCATION
Government by party
Problems of limit ing private property
The localization of manufact uring industries
Freedom of contract
Governmental supervision of marriage
Social control of domest ic relations

C auses of di vorce
Effect of broken homes on j uvenile delin q uency
Courts of domestic relations
Problems of rim aries
The short ot
Proportional representa tion
Corrupt election practices
The spoils system
Advantages and disadvantages of direct legislation
The use of the reca ll
Freedom of speech and thought
bear arms
negro es
d liberties of employees
of j ury trial
Problem s of prison labor
Prison reform
Methods of taxation
Standards of cit y government
Selection and training of city administrators
C ity planning
Progress of good housin g
I mprovement of water fronts
C ity water supply

Street construction
C ounty unit of administration
Appointment and tenure of judges
Uniform legislation
The amendment of the constitution
Method of national 1 lation
Administ rative centra izatio n in natio nal governmen t
Education and ca re of defectives
Public sanitation
 MEAN S AND METHOD S OF CIVIC EDUCATION 23 1

waste
of li uor trafi c
Problems of chil labor
Women in indust ry
In dustrial accidents
Problems of unemployment
Gover nmen tal regulation of business
Nat i onal a i d i n road co nstruction
Pub lic control of railways
Changin g values of money
Agricultural cred it
I mprovement of river commerce

National aid in dealing w ith agricultural

The Public Weather Bureau Service
Water conservation
Conservation of waterpower
Negotiations of treaties
Promotion in the army
National defense

E Probl em s
. of Spec ific Aim
—
Americans 14 16 years of age are just at the
of conscious citizenship that is of conscious membership
,

in social groups larger than the family and neighborhood .

There are still many civic problems with which they can
have no responsible concern until they are much older ; but
there are ma ny others that they can begin to consider now ,

“
because of the concreten ess of their appreciative e xpe ri
en ce as reached through local social contacts
, .

I s the yo ung citiz en naturally intere sted in ethical ques

tions especially when they touch but do not blend with his
, , ,

own conduct ? For example which of the fo llowing questions

,

“ ”
might w ell serve as key appro ac hes to important ethical
problems for these learners ?
Kinds of problem s Sh ould pupils be asked to consider
. ,

pros and cons of problems like the follow ing in response

,
23 2 CIVIC ED UCATION

to fundamen tal questions ? The approach may be m ade

“ ”
through the gener al formula Is it right that :
,

Men should be hange d for crime s ?

Boys under 16 should be sent to jail for what the law calls
felonies ?
A man should have an income of a million dollars a yea r ?

M
Ma jorities should settle matters and coerce m ino n tie s ?
en should use street s who have not pai d anything
toward making them ?
I ncomes should be taxed ?
B lind people should be compelled to earn their own li vings ?
A man s property should be forcibly taken by a raih o ad
’ '

line he being compensated therefor ?

,

Men without licenses should be prevented from prac ticing

medic ine ?
Sale of li quor should b e prohibited ?
I mm igra t 1o n of Chinese sh ould be prevented ?
Poor people sho uld pay no taxes ?
I nterest should be charged for loans ?
Landlo rds should charge whatever rent they can get ?
Text books should be supplied to pupils free ?
Mails should be censored in war tim e ?
Movies should be censored ?
Small groups of men should own large facto ries or m ines ?
I t sho uld be so d ifficult to amend the C onstitu tion ?
Religious denominations should be allowed to maintain
their own schools ?
Dr unken men should be arrested and put in jail or fined ?
Conscientious objectors should be sent to jail in war t ime ?
A man should be com lled to pay school taxes when he
has no children to uc a te ?
C hildren of poor parents should have to leave school at 14?
People who cannot pay rent should be evicted ?
A man should refuse to belong to any political party if he
desires ?
A m an should elect to change to another party after so me
y ears in the first party ?
A m an should vote against the nominee of his pa rty ?
A man should refuse to be a soldier because he doe s no t
believe in war?
234 CIVIC EDUCATION

F Th e .
“Case Problem ” M eth od
"
The case problem met hod involves bringing to the
attention of pupils one or more social cases or realistic si tua
tions from which naturally grow problems analogous to th ose
found in po litical life These cases may well be hypo thetical
.

but should correspond closely to actual conditions as do ,

”
cases in law schools For example : .

Hypoth etical (or realistic ) Case I n a certain state are about

.

5000 square miles of hilly and mounta inous country which

were once covered with dense forest In e arly days much of .

this land was given as grants by colonial or state governm en ts

to individuals or corporations who began cutting wood and
l umber on it Lumbering proceeded later at a rapid rate
.

until th e old forests had disappeared When such a forest is .

cleared and no fires follow shrubbery springs up and within

,

twenty or more years a new growth of trees can be cut off .

However the present owners of the land plant no trees and

, ,

when they are l umberin g they cannot afio rd ( so they t hink )

to clear up the waste products as they take away the logs ,

in such a way that fires can be prevented For two or three .

years following such fires the ra ins and melting snows sluice
“ ”
much of the soft soil including the rich humus down into
, ,

the streams where it is lost forever This washing away of

, .

the soil fills up some lower river chann els and causes floods ,

b ut the greates t damage is the depletion of the mountain

lands for future generatio ns .

1 Re adings can be s ugg ested showing the history of

. ,

similar situations in China Palestine C alifornia ; of the

, ,

tree plan ting experiences of F rance Germany southern

-
, ,

California ; and as to present governmental polici es in N ew

England the Appalac hians the Western Fore st Re ser ves
, , ,

e tc .

2 Specific problem s in part of apply ing such knowledge as

. ,

the pup ils now possess to the disen tanglement of some of

 MEAN S AND METHOD S OF CIVIC EDUCATI ON 23 5

th e questions involved and in part of working out par

,

tic ular difficulties co uld then be provided

, . For example
a I s it right that the owners of this land should be fre e to
.

do as they will with it ?

b Should the state or nation co mpel them to adopt
.

expensive met hods of lumbering or replanting without giving

compe nsation ?
0 Is the state just ified in buying such land under rights of
.

eminent domain
d Scores of other u se ful questions could be devised
. .

I t should be noted that in the main this is the metho d

now used by conscientious and se lf informin g citi ze ns in
-

arrivin g at final decisions as to so und policies .

 C HA PTE R E LE VEN

C o nasss or ST U DY m a C IVI C E D U CA TI ON
F o n ad ministrative purposes the means and me tho ds
of any systematized form of instruction or training are con
v e ni en tly organize into subjects and course s I n the
d
general field of civ ic as in physical education it is to be
.

, ,

expected that terminology will remain

indeterm i nate for some years owing to unce rtaintie s as to
, ,

valid objectives .

Sub jects I t is of cou rse correct to des ign ate as sub

. , ,

”
jec t,s American history civics an d econom ics , Bu t , .

“ ”
courses in these adapted to particul ar ends of ci vic e du
ca tion and again adapted to the varying maturities abilitie s
, , ,

an d envi ronments of pupils will require care fully de scriptive

,

design atio ns if they are to serve a useful purpose .

”
But the term subject applies very inadequately to
certain other obviously valuable means of ci vic ed ucation .

Scouting civic readings dramatic projects case proble m

, , ,

ec ono m ies and soci al problems wi ll have to be o ffered as

,

“ ”
courses unless some more ac ceptable term can be found .

“ ”
In this chapter the word course will therefore be free ly
used to designate a portion of a subject or a somewhat
systemati zed grouping of activities in a field that is only by
courtesy to be called a subject Many of the courses referred .

to will be of the
“ "
short unit variety — that is they may ,

extend only four six or eight weeks instead of over a half

, , ,

year or year as has often been customary in the past .

I n the light of present experience the following inferences

are submitted as to courses in civic education that might well
be provided in some cases on an experimental basis in
, ,

progressive schools during the next few years These in .

fere nc es are necessarily still tentative They seem to the .

writer the logical outcome of the fi ndings in previous chapte rs

238 CIVIC EDUC ATION

0 . Developmental talks and read ings ranging fro m ia ,

s i rati o na l tales of h e ro e s and sign al events to att ractively

p ,

given talks on law observan ce clean town good c itizenship , , ,

patriotis m and the like

, .

d Community civics through exploratory and in ter

.
,

p re t iv e conta c ts with accessible agenci e s of public or other

general service in t he neighborhood including agencie s of
government ( post office street or highway policing w ater
, , ,

supply fire protection ) and private general utilities ( stores

, ,

street cars lighting newspapers

, , E ven in the lowe r ,

grades much of value ca n be accomplished through pract i

cable sho rt units if methods appropriate to developmen ta l
,

education are adhered to .

c . Salient or framework history For these grades definite .

,

“ "
memo rization of central facts ( wi th appreciations of halo
sit uatio ns ) as to perhaps ten or t wenty salient dates n ames , ,

and events in American history together with a smaller ,

number of those m world history should be the goals of one ,

“ ”
or more sho rt unit courses eac h year requiring perha ps
no t more than ten to twenty hours M ethods of study shou ld .

i nclude the use of very simple chro nological lines charts or , ,

other graphic devices of kinds that need not be greatly

modified throughout grades but which can be indefinite ly ,

ext ended and proliferated .

”
2 For age l ev els 9 to 1 2 , let the
. lo ng school day
be also presu pposed as well as the allocation of about 20 per
,

cen t of time to ci vic education .

simple pageants naturalization patriotic devotion all o f

, , ,

broader m o ps than those sugge sted for earlier grades .

b Service or participation projects may well include he re

.

beginnings of purposive school government for short perio ds ,

clo sing exercises of cooperative nature group organizat io n ,

“
of games and possibly under some circ umstances
, , clea n ,
 COU RS ES OF STUDY FOR CIVIC EDUCATION 23 9

town projects s imple relief projects for poor at holiday

,

t ime Red C ross participations and others

, , .

a . Exploratory projects visits to local concrete agencies of

,

governmen t (fire protection police headquarters street , ,

repair docks street clean ing etc ) and also vi sits to agencies
, , , ,

of large scale production includi ng tran sportation and

-

exchange — factories cold storage plan ts street car trans

,
-
,
-

p o rt a t i
o n shipping ,department store me rchandising
, etc -
, .

(1 Read ings Periodic readings by teachers and of assign

. .

ments by pup i ls about fo im ders signifi cant even ts con

, , ,

friendly evaluation of governme ntal agencies public utilities , ,

and other social mechan isms affect ing the local general

c Social science problems These must await developmen t

.
-
.

of printed matter to guide teachers Sources are to be found .

in problems of trade relief st reet cle aning etc as they may

, , , .
,

be foun d accessible to learners of this age .

f. Salient or framework history key dates events and , ,

a few broad historical findings to be made matters of memori

za t i
on .

SECOND SI X G RA DES
8 The really great opportunities for the development of
.

genuine civic education in American public schools are to be

found between the age levels of 12 and 18 I t is now agreed .

that here departmental or specialized teaching service can

and will be provided where necessary At these levels it is .

increasingly practicable to differentiate pupils into groups ,

where their best educational in terests require it The educa .

t io nal success of scouting and club work are evidences of the

vitality of th e motives that have been appealed to by these
age ncies All boys and girls under 14 are now required to
.

attend school full time in all but a very few bac kward states .

In states represe nting far more th an half the population ,

240 CIVIC EDUCATION

part time attendance is obligato ry to 16 whilst in most

-
,

communities from 80 to 70 per cent of childre n fro m 14 to 16

voluntarily attend school full tim e .

Since we are only in the early stages of the purposive

development of civic education for young people in the first
M
,

p lace fro m 1 2 to l 4 y ears o f ag e and ncxt fro m

, 14 to i ami
beyond it is legitimate in proposing courses that mu st be
, ,

as yet essentially experim en tal in character to assume the ,

availability of optimum condi tions for their first trial fl ights .

For the co urses proposed below therefore we assume the , ,

existen c e in an educationally progressive city of a cen tral

, ,

junior high school in which are found :

a .F ifteen hun dred pupils including all pu pils of seventh
,

and eighth grade rank in the district as well as all pupils ,

over 12 years of age who have not reached se ve nth grade .

b A vice principal or departm en t h a d in charge of all

.
-

kinds and phases of education intended to be primarily civic

in its purposes and outcomes .

.c Teachers reasonably well equ i pped to give instruction

in the various social scien ce subjects ; and the same o r othe rs
-

prepared to direct lead or train i n project and other ac ti vitie s

, ,

expected to function toward civic powers and apprecia tions .

d Needed equipment of library reading materials room s

.
,

for debating facilities for scouting and the like

, , .

a
. A school day of eight hours including no t le ss than t wo
,

“
hours for physical sports and two other hours for develop
”
mental studies or activities of an intellectual or social
nature To this add the availab ility of Saturdays and even
.

holidays from time to time for scouting and for service

. ,

f. School programs sufficiently flexible to permit not only

the differentiation of pupils on basis of intellig ence if desired , ,

b u t also the reco nsolidation of these groups for rea di n gs ,

scouting and project s whe re differences of in telligence m ay

,
242 C IVIC ED UCATION

b The offerings of civic educatio n shall be of several kinds

.
.

each clearly differentiated as to purpose me ans and m ethods , , .

“ ”
and each o rgam aed on some convenient short un it basis

u
p p
r o se s it will b e assum e d th at 60 h o urs w ill b e th e me asure
“ ”
of a short unit co urse ( the equivalent of one hour daily
for sixty school days or twelve weeks which is o ne third of ,

” “ ”
a 180 day school year or one quarter of the four quarter
-

school ye ar which will eventually pre vail) But it must not .

be assumed that a sixty hour co urse will invariably co nsist of

-

s ixty one hour sessions distributed through sixty succe ssive

-

school days A scouting course of sixty hours might consist

.

of fifteen four hour meetings on fifteen designated Satur days

-
.

g rea taflexibilit y of arrangement than framework history

'

and civil government su bjects

- .

c .Offerings for civic education shall be divided into two

categories ( 1) developmental and ( 2) pro jective E ach pupil
, .

m ust during his tw o years take no t less th an th re e sh o rt

courses of each type and he may not take more than six
,

ship is superior —ou

a grading o f exc elle nt super ior , ,

modal inferior bad ; or A ( to include 10 pa cent of all

, ,

pupils under normal conditions) B ( 20 per cent ) C (40 , ,

per cent) D ( 20 per cent ) and E ( 10 per cent )

, , .

( 1 The following shall be the projective offerings

.

( )
l Salient or framework American history A
(elective by all pupils ) ; 80 hours each ye ar .

“
( )
2 Salient Am e rican history B ( an advanced hard
course recommended for pupils of supe rior
abilities who expect to remain several years in
school ) ; 60 hours eighth grade , .

( )
8 Civ il government or formal civics 60 hours , ,
 COURS ES OF STU DY FO R CIVIC EDUC ATION 243

(4) Social problems adapted to seventh grade

,
-

pupils of 1m than average abilities ; 60 hours .

( )
5 Social problems adapted
, to seventh gra d e -

pupils of more than average abilities ; 60 hours .

( )
6 Politico economic
-
problems of contemporary
importa nce but stud ied with conscious reference
to historical origins and parallels 60 hours ,

( recommended for abler pup ls

i m e g
i h th grad e ) .

( )
7 Political or civic problems of contemporary
interest ( recommended for less able pupi ls in
eighth grade) .

3 . The following shall be the developmental offerings

“ ”
( ) Sixty hours of serv ice projects to be varied
1 ,

from year to year and to include when condi

, ,

tions are favorable maintena nce of school self

,

( Q ) Sixty ho urs of scouting .

( 3 ) Sixty hours of developmental readings in fields

of contemporary civic problems .

( ) Sixty hours of developmental read in gs in fields

4
of history related to contemporary civic prob
lems .

(5) Sixty hours of debat in g and civic dramat ization .

( 6) An advanced course in economic read ings open ,

to gifted pupils .

( ) A read ing course in world political history open

7 ,

to pupils of talent .

( )
8 A current ev ents course in poli tics for pupils of
-

less than aver age abilities .

4 The purposes and procedures sugge sted for the above

.

cour ses may for th e presen t suffice to suggest proposals for

“ "
higher grades Problem courses will of course become
.
, ,

more important and more difficult in higher grades Re ading .

”
courses will certain ly become more comprehensive and
244 CIVIC EDUCATION

se rious Project methods may prove less rather than m ore

.
, ,

“ ”
available as the scouting age is past and it is h ard to see
,

much of a future for dramatic projects between the ages of 15

“ ”
and 18. Projective courses in economics civics and even
, ,

sociolo gy are clearly practicable provided they are not over

lo aded with formal and nee dless detail provide d that is

, ,

that in the minds of learners they act ually do funct ion as

“ ”
framework courses .
246 CI VIC EDUCATION

analysis of the popula tion and ac ti vities of a city — all of

which were imprac ticable in the e arly stages of these sciences .

Partition or se gregation of social phenomena is the refore , ,

necessary for research in civic educ ation Two kinds might .

be employed (0 ) Individual cases — a m an a wo man s

—
.
,

child might be studied their ci vic virtue s diagnose d and ,

eva luated and proposed means and methods of correcting

,

defects m pre sent or potentially si milar cases might be de

vised ( b) Since however civic behavior though springing
.
, , ,

from individuals usually operates and becomes signific ant

,

through groups of resembling individuals probably a more ,

profitable approach can be found in the study of the prevail

ing q ualities of fairly homogeneo us case groups .

A ease group is here take n to m ean a gro up , c lass , le v el ,

or other aggregation of indi viduals all of whom possess one

case group st udy any qualities may be

-
age taken — sex , ,

race color vocation wealth intelligence habitat educatio n

, , , , , , ,

religion taste etc For example : Case Group D Skilled

, , . .

mechanics ( male ) earning not less than $ 1500 or more than

82 5 00 annually at 25 —40 years of age of at least one gene ra»
,

tion American ancestry working in the automob ile indu s ,

tries o f Michigan C ase G roup E Negro wo men age 80 50

. .
,
-
,

working at least 200 days per year as field hands in Alabama ,

averaging third grade schooli ng Case Group

-
Men colle ge
—
.
,

graduates 3 5 60 years of age in commercial vocat io ns

, , .

—
Case Group G Boys 1 7 19 years of age left school at 14
. , , ,

average sixth grade schooling em p loyed from 2 to 5 years

-
,

at good wages in juvenile vocations Case Grou p H G irls . .

,

super a verage intelligence ages 12 14 now in seventh school

-
,
-
,

grade ; very good home environ ment ; will probably go

through high school and at least one y ear in college ; about
half will ma rry before 80 rem ainder will seek promoti on ,

in professional or co m mercial work .

 P ROB LEMS OF RESEAR CH 247

making allowance for some variants how will Groups D and

,

in econom ical and effici e nt expenditure of public funds by

tio nism poli tical party ac t ivity ?

W ha t w ill b e th e pre va iling rtue s of c onfo rm i
vi ty of

tion recall of ofi cials town planning the Le ague of Nations

, , , ,

the prom otion of better public schools ? By what standards

” “
citizens ? b a d citiz ens U nder different educational con

be expected to diffe r from the presen t civic qualities of

C ase G roup H ?
Are the m em b ers of Case G ro q no w citi
ze ns? When

civic vices ? Into what sub groups co uld they probably be

-

divided on the basis of civic behavio r ?

Sh arp distinctions must here be made betw een the needs

Ce rtainly this will be the situation in schools of highly

schools in m edium -
sized or small cities , an d sometim es in

Nevertheless it is doubtful if any better met hod can be

,

foun d to ca rry us beyond pre sent dedactive a priori proce ,

248 CIVIC EDUCATION

dures in framing courses in ci vic education or toward ,

scientific determination of objectives No one can prove .

that present prac tices based chiefly upon history studies

and didactic c ivics are effective as sources of civic ide als or
insights except for a small minority of the mo re imaginative
,

students .

, g
agriculture brid e building etc are first exe cute d on a
-
, .

laboratory scale and free from the complicating conditions

of co m mercial app lication un til details are sd tled ; then
,

commercial applications can profitably be studied by me an s

specialized for that purpose The tea chm who asks at the .
'

“ ”
outset But how could I use that in my school ? is like the
,

“
impatient child uprooting the see d at the end of a week to
”
see if it is growing .

N EEDS OF CIVI C E D U C A TI ON

What are contemporary needs of civic education ? Socio

logical research is readily practicable here even for teachers ,

an d others who can give only moderate ti me to it provide d ,

standards are not too exacting and students are willin g to

“ ”
accept common sense formulations of social values .

Examples :
( )
0 The war gave concrete t ests of v ario us fun ctions o f
national patriotism for young men voluntary enlist ment ; ,

for mothers willingness to let their sons serve ; for busin ess
,

leaders dollar a day service ; for unionized laborers willin g

,
- -
,

ness to forgo strikes ; for recen t immigrants unalloyed ,

devotion to land of adoption et c , .

What harmful defects of the patriotism which should in ,

war time normally be expected of the group class or level , ,

—
, ,

were prevailingly shown by : illiterate men 40 60 Kentucky

—
, ,

Polish coal miners 20 30 Penn sy lvania ; wi ves of own ing

, ,
25 0 CIVIC EDUCATION

if it is to b c scie nti
fic . W ha t the do is e asy ge ne raliz e rs

to pass judgme nts upon unspecified or unb mmde d groups

“ ” “
Ame ricans are dollar chasers High school pu pils ha ve
.
-

” “ ” “
no respect for law Negroes are lawless
. The Irish .

” “
Americans were not patriotic in the late war We are not .

”
a united people Such are the currency of superficial
.

think ers and proponents of special aspirations .

N eeds W h a t are som e of th e needs for m ore o r b e tt er

.

forms of civic education which can properly be me t by the

sch o ols ? Civic education is obviously largely a matter of
, ,

extra school agencies

-
home political partie s labor unions
, , ,

high collegiate
, can do better than other age ncies such

Here also many problems of re search ca n be propose d .

( )
a What are defects of civic ideals now characteristic of
Rocky Mountain farmers against which the best schools now
know how to fore arm the rising generation ? Sa me for
prosperous busin ess men graduates of high schools ? Same
,

for women school teachers ?

“ ”
( )
b Wherein does the good citizen ship of adult J ewish
—
immigrants now aged 30 60 who entered the country under
,

12 years of ag e fall short because of incomplete or di storted

,

kno wledge of American hist ory ? or of the correlation of

American history with that of their parent land ? F rom this
”
deduce : conclusions as to kinds of special history study
desirable for children of specific classes of immigrants .

The foregoing inquiries apply to what mig ht be called the

“ ”
historic civic virtues those that contri b uted to the good
citizenship of 17 76 18 12 186 1 as well as that of today But
, . , .

“ "
inqu iries should also be made as to the ne w virtue s
“ ”
required by our altered large group social conditio ns It .

is commo nplace that our m un ic i pal o rgani z ations our in ter ,

 PROB LEM S OF R ESE AR C H 25 1

national co nnections our internal economic interdependence

, ,

and many other of our public or quasi public relationships -

have become increasingly complex in geometrical ratio since ,

1 870 Pre su mably these impose new strains on citizenship

.

and new deman ds on civic education .

But here we are in terribly complex fields of sociological

investigation in which the busy te ach er is about as helpless
as he would be in Amazonian wilds We may here have to .

wait on the political scientist .

EX TRA SCHOOL CIVI C ED U CA TION

-

Another profitable field for civ ic education research that -

ought to prove congenial to many teachers is the appraisal

of var ious forms of extra school education All about us no w
~
.

“
are good citize ns from 80 to 70 years of age in the makin g ,

of whom schools played a part small or large and the home , , ,

street ch urch shop press and the political party the other
, , , ,

parts The settlers of the ltfi ssissippi V alley from 1800 to

.

’
1860 averaging a total of less than 250 days schooling were
, , ,
“ ”
judged by their fruits prevailingly good citizens with
, ,

exceptions What were sources of their various civic virtues ?

.

Our young men now in business have been educated partly

by the press of the last ten years as well as by their vocational ,

su periOrs With what results ?

.

“
Here again the case group method of attack the will to ,

analyze concrete qualities and the resolution to avoid vague

,

an d mystical generalizations will carry an investigation

far.

Similar studies are needed of certain indirect contributions

from school life The discipline of the school next to that of
. ,

“ ”
the home is the most persistent small group control to
,

which growing youth is now subject The school has some of .

the characteristics of the state of wh ich it is a factor School, .

co ntrol nearly always looks to th e future and rests heavily ,

252 CIVIC EDUCATION

on law justice and ratio nal un d

, , ing of social pr inc iples

School discipline may be considered as of several de p ees .

or even forms as re spects autocracy rationa lity self

, , ,

det ermination democrac y etc C an analysis of adult case

, , .

life with h afi tuatio ns insights ide als est ablished in school

, ,

life controls ?
I t is freq uently asserted that close connectio ns exist
between adult civic virtues and th e virtues promo ted throu gh
the voluntary cooperations and competitions of sports ,

games inter school athletics etc Enthusiasms here usually

,
-
, .

clai m too much Was Wate rloo won on the field of E to n or

.

did Eton attract those who must win at Waterloo ?

W h at rtues o f adult c iti
vi ze ns are in a measure trac ea b le
to fraternities ? D o these self acti ve social grou ps sele ct the
-

most socialized ? D o they socialize the highly indi vidualistic ?

What kinds of citizenship in later ad ult life would their
mem bers represent if fraternity experie n ce had been den ied ?
Am erican his tory M ore difficult is rese arch to disc over
.

the actu al contributions to civic efficiency of American

history as it has been taught The proponen ts of this subje ct
.

as a means of ci vic education ( its contributions to general

culture belong in a different category) have not yet de fined
con cret e objectives again st which accomplishmen ts could be
tested or have the y ? Some enthus iastic teachers mani
featly use the subject ( departing widely from the guidance
of texts which most teac hers must follow) as a means of
kindl ing pa triot ic ide als C ase group studie s of adults m ight
.
-

give results here Perhaps civic appreciations and insights

.

of ot her kin ds come fro m such study but the en tire

situat ion i s vague as yet .

“
What of the lite rary materials ofte n correlated with
histo ry historical novels patriotic poems biographie s
, ,
25 4 CIVIC ED UCATION

courses Rec en t pe dago gical adv ance s o ugh t to m a ke the

.

method m ore pro ductive especially when it is based on

,

previous analysis of case group requ irements C onstr uct ive

-
.

studie s here should demand : ( a ) very ca reful defin itio ns ,

including delimitations of expected aims and of scope of

subject matter ; ( b) specific ad aptations to proposed case
-

groups ; and (c) invention of as many devices as practicable .

T h e following departments of study or school activity now

provide large possibilities for such m q uiries :
( )
a American history ret ain ing chronological
, orda
'
,

encyclopedic content and didactic pre sen tation Propo sed

, .

rew ritings m ight be planned so as to confine emphas is e xcept ,

for sk eleton outline to subjects probably vital to the civic

,

behavior fifteen ye ars hence of m en and wo me n citizens 80

, , ,

an inco m e und er $2000 th e fo rm to b e adapte d to sev e nt h

and eighth grade pupils of a v erage intelligence taught by ,

teachers re sponsible for all subjects except manual train ing

and household arts .

( )
b Social ( or civic ) service projec ts typified b y clean ,

town cam migns h elp o f sic k coopm atio n in polic in g gr ad

, ,
'
,

ing of school groun ds tree planting and others wh ere ,

valuable service to ne 1gh b o rh ood results ( 1) Not many .

valuable projects have yet been discovered ( 2) Tea chers .

have little information as to their difi c ult y adaptations to ,

grades t im c required and ul timate con tribut ions to civic

, ,

teacher could now assemble a helpful little book in this area .

( )
8 Neither is adequate informat ion accessible as to adap
tatio n s of the se p rojects to girls or to boys to citie s or to ,

village s to prosperous or to poor environments

,
.

and pageants Ma ny of these are now available for all grade s

.
,

b ut their actual contributions respectively to civic insight ,

 PROBLE MS OF R ES EARCH 25 5

appreciation and ideals are uncertain Obviously the moving

, .

picture has great possib ilities here I t seems now to be .

believed that dramatic pro jects are valuable for learners far

recent immigrants poor whites

, negroes products of
, ,

poor environments Are they valu able for superior high

.

school or colle ge students ?

“
d
( ) O bservation and R e port projects including school ,

conducted visits of inspection to place s of governmental

service product ive plants hosp itals etc are now used but
, , , . , ,

their actual or probable funct io nings are poorly analyzed as

yet Neither has systematic examination been made of be st
.

( )
a School discipline with self
, govern ment as a-
su b
species has obviously been regarded chiefly as a me ans of
,

tion in the school subjects . B ut it is patently a possible

the conformist virtues of small group life for correction ,

of gang or other small group vices ? Social psychology would

”
School self government in any one of its forms may be
-

a poor or expensive means of maintaining working order

but may it not be a very effective and economical means of
ci v ic education ? Partly on basis of service projects and ,
“ ”
partly on basis of dramatic projects ? If on project basis
should it not always be for dfi n ite terms — one mo nth
— —
,

three months o r for specific areas of action volunteer

activiti es clean and orderly building lunchroom control etc ?
, , , .

(1) Cooperative and competitive sports usually have their

controlling ends in satisfaction of play instincts Ca n b y .

pro ducts important for civic ends be dev eloped ? Will such
procedure dd eat more importa nt ends of physical develop
me nt ?
26 6 CIVIC EDUCATION

(9) D idactic civics or civil government studies are ne w

general and the market suppli es a wealth of co m pe ti ng texts
, .

“ ”
Are follo w up studies of results now practicable ? Is it a
-

good guess that these studies make little abiding im pression

on learners of sub average abilities and le ave valuable
-
,

results only with the stro ngly imaginative and a m bitio us ?

Suggestive stu dies of adult groups sho uld h ere be prac ti
cable ; also of students two or four years afte r taking c ourses ,

to discover ideals or insights closely related to civic behavior .

C ivic texts vary gre atly They seldom .

tiv es however
, Sometimes they claim
.

“ ” “ ” “ ”
problems topics even projects
, , Are th ese claims .

fulfilled in prac tice ? Teachers with clearly d efined and

documented hypotheses as to th e desirable and practicable
objectives of civic education could evalu ate th ese texts
comparatively in terms of objectives held by the teac her .

Such studies would be val uable only in proportion to the

soundness of the investigator s theories of educational
’

objectives obviously , .

h
( ) The questio ns of (9 ) also apply to didactic econ o mic s .

sociology and social science as j unior or senior high school

, ,
-

subjects These subjects as usually taug ht seem of doubtful

.
, ,

validity in civic education except again for a rare type ,

of student Obviously as in ci vics the possible con te nt of

.
, ,

knowledge for these co urses is endlessly rich Is pove rty of .

resulting intere st due chiefly to faulty ad aptatio n of materials

and languages of presentation to powers of learners? or to
“
poor methods of tea ching especially as implied in didac tic
,

”
method ? or to poorly equipped te ac hers ? May it not be
that th e e ntire met hod b asis is a wro ng o ne for this ty pe of
subject matter or for proposed objectives ?
-

()i What of th e possibil ities of expanded and oo nsist m t ly

“ ”
followed problems method co urm for Grad es 7 to 12
in this type of educational field that is where sy ste m ath ed ,
258 CIVI C EDUC ATION

reading do ne since leaving school as a consequence , of the

reading habits and powers assured by the school
M
.

eans and meth ods . Anot he r no less prom isin g fie ld of

of possible adaptations of the means and m e tho ds sugge sted

above ( or others) to carefully diagnosed case groups of
learners I t is not of course certain that we ca n al ways
.
, ,

isolate for purposes of administering curricula school groups

—
,

as clearly defined as our case grou ps and possi bly we

should not des ire to do so if we could for soci al reasons ,

that need not be discussed here Nevertheless su ch specific .

,

studie s are now absolutely essential to bring us to close

grips with concre t e problems of educational values Is there .

any other way open ?

The following are illust ra tions of this method of inquiry
( )
a A ce rta i
n larg e urban j unio r h i
g h sc h o o l ol OO u
p pils

in seventh and eighth grades contains one hundred boys

entering seventh grad es (pupils Case G roup MB ) to whom ’

the following description and prognosis apply with su bstantial

( )
1 They are the sons of moderately skilled art isan

regular who have meager savings do not own their resi

, ,

work in large factories Mothers do not work for wages

. .

Parents repre se nt an average of only about sixth grade -

education They are ambitious for the education of their

.

children but willing to help o nly the brightest through hig h

,

school The fathers belong to unions are freq uently o n

.
,

“ ”
strike and have only passing interests in ordinary politics
— some of them being indeed pretty cynical as to exi sting
,

, ,

government Parents are law abiding some good ch m e h

.
-
,

members .

( )
2 T hese hundred boys repr e sent pupils t e sting at m
 PROBLEM S OF RE SE AR C H 259

than ave rage intelligen ce for their ages 1 2 to 15 Their , .

homes are small and dingy and sanitary conditions ,

smoke cleanliness flies dra ina ge

, , of their part of city poor
,
.

Parks are inadequate the streets bein g chief playgrounds

, .

These boys have all passed sixth grade but be ing of su b , ,

a v erage in telligence often of migratory familie s and hav ing

, ,

thus far been schooled in crowded classe s taught by half

competent teac hers they have l ost interest in school Th us
, .

far they have had little direct civic education Their schoo l .

tiv als, and have a fair app reciation of the salient facts and
personages of American histo ry They are not vicious though .
,

easily st imulated to rowdyism They are healthy in a crude .

way and strongly disposed to rough physical sports for which

,

their e nvironment gives scant opportun ity They are anxious .

to go to work — animated in part perhaps by the craving

of their bodies for physical activ i ty in part by the desire to ,

do manly things but chiefly to ea rn the money for which

,

they experience strong needs They expect to enter juvenile

—
.

voca tions after 14 when compulsory school atten dance

—
,

ends and have only faintest conceptions of possibilities

or desirability of training for vocations .

( )
8 Pr o gnosis The bo ys
. here considered will leave school
at l 4 o r 16 y ears o f age and will go to n o h ig h sch oo l o r
vocational school F rom ten to twenty years later they will
.

almost certainly be wage earners in the semi skilled fac tory -

pursuits or in the skilled trades From age 24 on they will .

have families and will experience a hard struggle to support

these Their civic outlook on life unless the schools can
—
.
,

modify it will be like that of their fathers

, l arge ly in
differe nt but at times furiously inclined to believe that law
,

and government favor other than wage takers in the processes -

of production As a rule the magnitude and co mplexity of

.

political conditions will baffle their attem pts to be individ u

260 CIVIC EDUCATION

ally of sign ificance 1n political action hence th ey will vote

as partisan supporters or opponents of men and measure s
having sources far from th e ir ow n ranks But due to environ .
,

m en t and home training they will not inclin e to lawlessness

, .

( )
4 Assumption s .These boys leaving, school at 1 4 to 16 ,

will have finished the eighth grade I n seven th and eighth .

grades are departmental teachers in charge of all ph ases of

direct civic education for which 20 per cent of school time
,

( seven hours daily for 180 d ays per y e ar to co v er school and

home wo rk ) is available ( This 20 per cent includes all
.

history but excludes school government an d physical sports )

, .

Flexibility of curriculum permits ext ensive ad apt atio ns of

courses ( 80 to 860 hours in length ) to particula r groups .

Students are given choice of several civic su bjects b u t all are ,

required to devote to this general department 20 per cent of

their school time .

Having in view these conditions prepare a series of co urses

,

specifically adapted to the needs and possibili ties of these

learners drawing on any and all kinds of civic subjects
, .

D escribe the specific aims extent conten t method and

, , , ,

necessary administrative conditions of eac h course in detail .

Suggest possible experimen tal stu dies to procure light on

un sett led questions .

6
( ) I n be s t modern high schools considerable election
of subjects is permitted In such sch ools will be fou nd in
.

e ach en tering class a substantial number of gi rls to whom the

following descriptions and prognoses apply with fair accurac y

( C ase Gro u p P N ) : ( )
1 These girls are all above the average
of girls of their age in intelligen ce many being very bright .

They come from well kept prosperous homes where sum p

-

tuary standards are high and tend to be extravagant .

( )
Q They have done well in ele m enta ry schools b u t the ir ,

presen t civic outlook is almost wholly that of their homes and

class en vironment lit tle affected by church school or
, , ,
Q BQ CIVIC EDUCATION

mentally ; will pro b ably go half or all way thro ugh high
sch o o l at m uc h sac ri
fi ce to pa rents; may b e gin e a rn i
ng i
n

manual laborin g class

-
work, but at 30 50 may be expecte d -

to be leaders in industry or politics ,

( )
5 Boys and girls now in h igh school in prosperous su b urb .

Of good ability but low civic in tere sts Are as muc h ia

, .

“ ”
te rest ed in gambling an d beating , the prohi b ition law as ,

in dances and athletics Have little interest in studies b ut

.
,

“
keen ly afraid of not passing Will inhe rit money from
.

recen tly grown rich parents but family traditions of civic

,

morality are low .

( ) Other case groups can re adily be defined by experi

6

R E L AT ED PR OB L EMS
Other problems of re search of a more general and intric ate
nature are beginn ing to appear For example : .

( )
0 U nder what circum stances of age econom ic or ,

rac ial condition intelligen ce social habitat etc

, , are social , .

groups likely to be i nfluenced in the ir civic ideals aspira tions , ,

an d insight by particular adaptations of th e fine arts of

aesthetic or emotio nal appeal music painting drama , , ,

fiction the photodrama etc ? I t is unquestionably true tha t

, , .

the fine arts have played an important part in social control

in former times I t is possible that because of the increasingly
.

rationalistic spirit of our times such met hods of appe al are no

longer efficacious But conclusions drawn without close study
—
.

of the e fl ects of particular arts

'

o r phases of each
— ou

particular ages social conditions etc are obviously with o ut

, , .
,

validity .

b
( ) What are the powers of social comprehension proba b ly
capable of being developed in men and women of only
av e age or sub average intelligence that is specific pow e rs
- -
,

of so comprehending the involved economic political and ,

 PROB LEMS OF RESEARC H 263

other social problems of society which wi ll enable eac h

,

in dividually to reach conclusions sufficiently valid to guide

the civic action necessary to insure at least th e moderate

Two opposed theories may be considered ( a) Every .

person is capable of being educated to such a degree of com

prehension at le ast of essential principles that in a dem
, oc , ,

racy he can be trusted to make his own decisions and to

,

act on them b
( ) A large proportion of the civic problems of
.

today are no more comprehensi ble by persons of average

intelligence than are problems of medicin e bridge building ,
-
,

naval strategy or corporation finance Hence for the safety

, .

of democracy the average citizen must be taught above all

else as respects the se problems to do wh at he does in
, ,

medicine wisely select an expert and then implicitly

follo w his directions .

M uch preliminary light on this problem can be had even

‘

no w by studying the inter connections of particular civic

-

problems — tarifl reserve banks court of internation al

, ,

relations silver legal tender fo rw d incorporation of trade

, ,

unions pasturage in forest reserves public control of rail

—
, ,

roads with the intelligence equipment of stated case

groups — college men in business ; women
aged 20 80 ; skilled miners aged 40 60 ; clubwomen etc
-
,
-
, .
 Fa n snom or T EA CH ING So c na Scm a ca s .

Ta nnn is e v ery reaso n to expe ct th a t we sh all so o n b uild

up a b ody o f spe ci al sc i
al so c i e nce te ac he rs i
-
n a nd for onr

secondary schools U nlike contemporary te ache rs o f history

.

some of whose work they may indeed have to take over

th ese al sc i
so c i e nce teac h ers m be expect ed to b e come
a
y
-

increasingly conscious of the civic objectives of the ir work

—
.

Society o r at least those members in it whose opin ions

finally determine these matters will increasingly judge the

results of the work of these teachers not in terms of so much ,

knowledge acquire d or examinations passed but ra ther by ,

the civic character and achievem e nts of the men and w omen
whom the ir pupils become .

I t is already evident that these socia ls cience teache rs in ,

will be constan tly skirting the fringes if not ac tually invad ing ,

the twilight zones of disputed issues They will co nsta ntb

, .

be tempted to challenge or to upho ld cre eds and opinions

held by sects partie s an d propagandists If they are
, , .

allowed no freedom whatever to enter into areas of dis

agreement their han ds as teachers will be tied But if they .

are given complete liberty to follow the dictates of their own

judgments and especially feelings they can easily become
, ,

disrupti ve agencies of a disastrous kind By what prin ciple s .

should societ y be guided 1n controlling them and by what ,

princip les should those of t h m teachers be guided who most

fully cherish genuine libe rty that is the liberties of others ,

no less than of themselves ?

PR O B LEMS O F FR EED OM IN T EA CH I NG T H E SOCIAL SCI EN CES

The issues upon which m en of the Occi den tal nations no w

divide are chiefly social Our ance stors fought long

. an d

264
266 CI VIC EDUCATION

they stro ngly believed to be the true and the righ t Some .

college teachers of the na tural sciences have du ring the last ,

century chosen to break upo n the rocks of opposit ion

. ,

rather than yield what they believed to be their ac ade mic

rights to teach geology or biology as they inte rpre t ed these

often been viewed with sus picion But more fresh in our .

minds are the difficulties of college teachers of the social

sciences As said before the most divisive issu es of the
.
,

presen t are found here Busin ess men have not h esit ated
.

to charge that many of our college professors of economics

“
are or were until recently blank socialists The leade rs of the
, , .

manual workers on the other hand affect to believ e that most

, ,

“ ”
of these men are paid to teac h as th e interests think b est
But much of this history seems inconclusive for the m atte rs

sci ence s still find it no less so I t seems probable that some

.

recent apparent invasions of freedom of teaching have been

dire cted rather at extreme tact lessn ess of manner or ho peless
misin terpretations of social values I t is probable that some
.

to avoid tro uble . But it is no l e ss probable that many ha ve

sleeves not because of fear bu t because o f unw illingnw

, ,

heavily to capitalize what must in the very nature of the

case have been interpretations and opinions of only par
tia lly assured validity They have suspended indiv idin l
.

private judgments somew hat at least out of respect to the

science s arise large b over interpretations of social value s or

'

worths . Only seldom are que stions of fact as the term is ,

properly used in the natural sci ence s in hi story and in le gal

, ,
 F REEDOM OF TEAC HIN G SOC IAL SCIENCE S 267

cases involved One faction holds that it is better ( or

, .

more demo cratic ; more just ; more in accordance with nature .

with div ine law or with the spirit of liberty ) for the closed
,

shop to prevail for railroads to be publicly managed for

, ,

cities to have home rule for immigration to be free for the , ,

burdens of public education to be widely d iffused for the ,

J apan ese to be restrain ed from holding real estate for ,

colla teral in heritances to be taxed 100 per cen t for operatives ,

to share in the management of plants for observance of the ,

Sa bbath to be enforced by law and the like The opposed ,

'

faction holds that society will suffer rather th an benefi t

from such procedure .

Probably no one can now or perhaps ever prove con , ,

clusiv e ly that in the long run the abolition of slavery or the ,

liquor traffic or of monopolistic trade combinations has been

,
“ ”
a good thing for socie y ; or that freely permitted v n 1
t
section private property in land manhood suffrage immi
, , ,

g ra t i
o n of non English spea king aliens or business censorship
- -
,

of mov ing pictures gives a net balance of good to the world .

Religious divisions have of course likewise always hinged on

questions of relative worth which might never be determined
with scientific finalit y Battles are waged between faiths
.
,

and victory goes to the strongest often without finally ,

settling questions of ultimate worth But the in stincts and .

deep rooted habits of men are enmeshed with these faiths ;

-

and the strongly emotional qualities of the soul — loves

—
.

hates jea lo usies pugnac ities hopes fears longings

, , , are , ,

easily enlisted in support or opposition The progres s of the .

years the oncoming of ne w generations the competition of

, .

social values the cross fertilizations of idea s and beliefs all

,
-
,

g iv e rise to n ew co nce ptio ns of social w orths and debase the old .

Th e d
old or e r c h ange th yie lding plac e
. to ne w .
And Go d fulfills ltlimse lf in ma n wa s y y ,

d
Lest o ne goo custom sh oul corrupt th e wo rl d d .
268 CIVIC ED UCATION

We all hope that the light of scien ce will sim pldy m m y of

'

these problems and perhaps lift them above the smoke of

emba ttled passio ns and vested in terests But we must re .

member that we h a v e n o final criteria as ye t o f so c ial v ahres

the things that make societ y or mankind or me n or even , , ,

life most worth while ; hence we have as yet no scie n tific

,

standards whereon to build the ultim ate in terpre ta tio n s of

social science For all prac tical purposes of course we
.
, ,

Americans are sufficiently convinced that poly gamy con ,

t utio nal monarchy

st i sta te suppo rted
, church anc estor ,

worship impriso nment of debtors state supervisio n of

, ,

private schools primogeniture segrega tion of vice cen sorship

, , ,
“ ”
of plays and early toil of children are bad things On
, .

“ ”
the more generally accepted of these faith v alues the co urse
of the social scien ce teac her is clear
-
.

W HA T IS MEA N T BY m ourns

The social science teac her cannot avoid responsibilit y for

-

“
the teaching of social values including those charac t erised
”

by such words as right and wrong just and unjust ho norable , ,

and dishonorable mo ral and imm oral patriotic humane

, , , .

tolerant hone st C hristian temperate reverent an d the like

, , , , , .

“ ”
But what exactly do we mean by the word tea ch in
, ,

this connection ? Surely something very difi erent fro m what

“
we mean when we say to teach handwriting geography , .

Latin algebra or a trade The schools are often ur ge d to

, , .

“ ” “ "
teach ch ildren to be honest to be patriotic to hate war, , ,

“ ”
to have right ideals How are these things to be done ?
.

Only partly by teac hing cold fac ts and only slightly perhaps ,

”
by strictly training processes Obviously the teache r must .

“
seek to effect feeling attitudes He must communicate by .

various devices his own admirations dislikes warm fait hs , , .

“
i ngrained mo ral principles Sucw ssful teaching of so c ial
.

values necessarily m eans that the teacher sh all be an adv o

27 0 C I VIC EDUCATION

hates vast social cleavage s and bitter wars have been some
, ,

of the fruits but not necessarily all The positi ve side of the
, .

ledger if competently studied might show steady advances

, ,

toward truth cooperation fre edom progress life more

, , , ,

abundant .

“
To teach various social values means inevitably to
”
advocate th em to seek to shape apprec iations ideals
, , ,

sentiments attitudes of learners toward them The te acher

, .

whose panoply of these values is well secured will n e cessafi ly

be an ad vocate a propagandist a person believed by the
, ,
“ "
supporting part of his public to be of sound principles .

H e can and will preserve the judicial attitude up to the point

where his supporters begin to question his sin cerity his ,

e arnestn e ss ( in making converts that is ) his devotion to the , ,

public good .

R EA LI STI C CA SES
The very principle of freedom of teaching is itself one of
the contemporary issues about which men tend to divide
with much passion I ts discussion in the abstrac t may not
.

occasion much divisive feeling ; but numberle ss concrete cases

show how readily enthusiastic proponents and resentful
opponen ts may be summoned forth Some of these case s m ay .

be used as inductive approaches to the formulation of certain

proposed working principles .

Gi v en a social science teach er in a public high school

- — a

well e duca ted m an or woman of unexceptionable p rivate

-

“ ”
character whose personal influence with stude nts is very
strong His pupils are prone to feel that whatever h e stands
.

”
for is right .

Ca se I This teacher in the course of his work exhibits

.

himself as an en thusiastic believer in and su ppor te r of the

doctrines and institu tions noted below A min ority of the .

citizens in the community including some of the parents ,

 FREEDOM OF TEAC H IN G SOCIAL SCIENCE S 27 1

of the pupils are convinced he is wro ng but the large ma

, ,

jo rity is clearly with him Where v er occa

. sion arises in his
classes or wh ere he can create an occasion he stands st rongly
, ,

( )
a The M onroe D octrine in spite of the
, d ssent
i of cer t ain
South Am ericans in his neighborhood .

b
( ) Legal pro h ibition of polygamy in spite o f the
, strong
sentiment of certa in M ohammedans in the locality .

( ) Appointment ( rather than election ) and life ten ure of

0

Supreme Court j ust ices in spite of the quiet but bitter

,

opposit ion of a local radical party .

d
( ) Private ownership and direction of railways in spite ,

of a gron minority sen timen t for public ownership .

( )
e Capital punishment where now legalized in spite of a ,

strong attitude of protest from some very good Christians .

(f) C omplete non participation

-
of the state in Church
support in spite of strong feeling in favor of such policy of
,

some E nglish im migrants .

(9 ) Military prepare dness in spite of the emphatic pro

,

tests of a minority that such preparedn ess simply invites

”
what they regard as the wickedness of war .

Case 11 This social scienc e teacher finds hi mself with

.
-

small minorities on certain issu e s that he regards as vital .

( )
a He has come to believe that vivisection is wrong
morally and unproductive of scientific good
, .

b
( ) H e feels keenly that it is not right for the U nited States
to exclude Orientals from fre e immigration .

( ) H e has come reluctantly to believe that general

0

suffrage is an unmitigated evil ; he strongly behaves that it

should at least be re stricted to persons educated at the mini
mum to the extent of the ordinary eighth school grade .

( d) He is firmly of the op i nion that the good of society

requires the enforced humane segregation ( in effect imprison
27 2 CIVIC ED UCATION

ment but without sugge stion of punishment ) of all adults

,

“ ”
of only m oron intelligence though the majo rity of his
,

pa trons regard h is proposals with horror .

( )
3 He has become co nvinced that the American po licies
which provoked supported and dictated final conditio ns of
, ,

peace in the Mex ican War and which resulted m the acquisi
,

tion of the Southwest were indefensibly selfish pre datory

M
, , ,

a nd unjust o st of hi
s local patro ns h o ld oppomt e v i
'

. ews .

Ca se m Re garding a num b er o f issues of c on tem porary

.

politics and social economy he finds himself in party groups

that either are now moderate m ajorities or hope to be in

(
a ) H e [8 strongly 1n favor of such legislative e na c t m a its

as will exclude mild alc oholic beverages fro m the operation

of the constituti o nal amendment des igned to prohibit
manufacture and trade in intoxicating b e v a ages '
.

b
( ) He is very much opposed to our entering any Le ag e e of
Nations that will obligate us to share in the use of force in
settling international relationships abroad .

( ) He is arden tly in favor of strict national ce nsor ship

0

of mov ing pictures .

He desires that representation of the Southe rn states

in C ongress be reduced to the actua l prop ortions stipulated
by th e Const itution .

( 3 ) He wants heavy import duties le v ied as prot e c tion to

all American in dustries whilst admitting that higher prices
,

to consumers must result .

The teacher here under consideration has classe s in

social scien ce problems in seven th and ninth grade s ; in
community civics in the eighth ; in economics in the tenth ; in
“
sociology 1n the eleventh ; and 111 American history ( ta ught
”
primarily from the standpoint of making civic leaders ) hi
the twelfth His en thusiasm for study of current issue s has
.

infected his pupils Th ey eagerly brin g into the are na of

.
274 CIVIC EDUCATION

of ease .

b
( ) W illful teach ers of social science b e long at th e other

extreme These tend to v alue the ir o wn opinions ab ove

.

th ose of any or all of th e ir fe llo w s Th ey are po me sse d of

, , .

stro ng impulses and often of strong sympathie s fe r the

,

we ak or o p pressed and for minor ity causes They tend .

instincti v ely to favor the underdog somet imes perha ps less ,

out of sympathy for the underdog than from envy jealousy , .

or perhaps inna te hostility to the po wer and su ccess dis

“ ”
p lay ed by uppe rdo gs .

Willful teac hers being naturally partisans and of strong

,

impulses easily promote the antagonism of maj ority or

,

conservative groups and of course above all of those indi , ,

vi duals or groups having vested interests in a stable social

order Zealots an d fanatics readily spring from the cla ss of
.

th ese w illful o nes as also at tim es a Socrate s L uther

, , ,

Savonarola or Garrison Often they are too sinc e re or ia

, .

capable of deception to become genuine de magog ues for ,

whom they are sometimes mistaken They believe in revolt .

,

perhaps so m etixh es as an end rather than a means They are .

disposed freely to questi on the honesty and good intentions

of those opposed to them They are stiff necked and lo ath to
.
-

“ "
make the compromises essential to democratic fairness .

“ n e ”
e e
( )
c Ba la c d t ac h r s Between these two e xtr
.e rh ea
“
is the type here denominated balanced Balanc ed teac hers .

have their own strong opinions but they also have meat ,

respect for the Opinions of others They dislike to teach .

or act on impul se but neither will they subject th e m selvu

,

easily to the Opinions or wills of others As teach ers they .

feel a heavy responsibility in dissentin g from the established

verdicts of h istory or the con clusions of grou ps of substa n tial
thinkers m any field Never t heless they will m these m at»
.
,

ters be finally guided by the evidence rather than by partisan

,
 FR EEDOM OF TE AC H IN G SOCIA L SCIENCE S 27 5

contentions or their own prepossessions They know that .

majorities are sometimes wrong but never so wrong as some

,

minoritie s They know that tradition 18 sometimes wrong

. .

but never so wrong as some innovations They know that .

prosperous men are sometim es dishonest but never so dis ,

honest as some of the unprosperous They know that the .

sitic, but never so predatory or parasitic as some of the

nfl ue nti
u nintelligen t and uni al .

G UI D I NG PR INCIP LES
C o rfi ro nted by the conditions of modern social science -

’
te aching in secondary schools what will be society s problems
,

in co nnection with the two extreme type s re spectively ? ,

“
1 Teachers of the servile type will of course
. play safe , ,
.

They will where prac ticable dodge controverted issues

, ,

altoge ther They will dwell heavily on matters that have

.

long lain outside the borderlands of the contentious They .

will spea k learnedly in truisms being especially fond of ,

general and abstract phrasings .

Servile teac hers in the social sciences will do lit tle im m e di

ate harm They will also do little permanen t good except
.
,

in so far as the opinions and powers to which they are su bject

prove to be socially sound and righ t S ince the citizenship .

of th e fut ure must increasingly be dynam ic rather than static

‘

in its attitudes and understandin gs teachers of this type ,

will prove of diminishing usefulness School systems which .

have heret ofore cherished th em may find it necessary to

resort to drastic means to force them out ; though most
co mmon ly they will be allowed peacefu lly to grow old and
to retire on pensions .

The willful type on the other hand will be impatient of

, ,

the established order and wi ll prefer to dwell upon debatable

m atters They will find it dimc ult if not impossible to keep
.
, ,
27 6 CIVIC EDUCATION

out of their teaching the spirit of propaganda . Their reform

ing sea l usually gro w s b y w ha t it feeds on , unle ss ch e ck e d by
vio lence Teachers of the willful type in th e social science
.
-

subjects of secondary school grade will frequently be regarded

as dangerous because of the immaturity and im pressionable
character of their pup ils In tim es of exce ssi ve social inata
.
o

b ility they may do serious harm Their presence imposes .

serious burdens an d embarrassm ents on democratic school

administration because all attempts to rem ove or even to curb
th em arouse violent outcries and resist ance on the part of
partisan radical groups permitted in democr acies to be always
vociferous and threatening Their tenure of posts of public .

responsibility will seldom be secure Many of them will .

finally give themselves to the service of part isan groups

where they may render themselves very useful to socie ty as
social ferments critics or discoverers
, , .

2 .
“ ”
Guidi ng principle s for social science teach e rs will -
,

perh aps be of little use for the two extreme types discussed
,

above Hence these principles will be considered from the

.

“ ”
standpoint of the balanced or intermediate type I t is .

submitted that havin g regard to the needs possibili ties

, . .

and conditions of social science teac hing in public seconda ry

-

volved these will as experience ripens and the best will

, ,

of society defines itself through public opinion find them ,

( )
a T he social science teacher in
-
his capacity as public

servant has no rights of teach ing that which seems good or

true to him quite irrespective of the collective op inions or
,

valuations of the society or largely controlling majority ,

there of which he serves He has here heavy obliga tio ns as

, .

agen t or employee of the public either to meet it s deman ds or

to withdraw from its service If his conscience and j udgment .

co n vince him that he is right then his correct course is to ,

27 8 CIVIC E DUCATION

sho uld ha v e liberty to do all things except to destroy liberty

” “
( usua lly that of his fellows ) and that the liberty of any
"
m an ends where the equal liberty of his neighbor begins .

I t is clear of course to every student of social sc i ence that

, ,

a de mocratic social order is impossible if ind iv idu als and

parties are not willing constantly to practice compr om ise .

Minority groups must incessantly yield to the will of the

majority submit to the laws ta ke defeat gracefully abide
, , ,

by the decision of the umpire But in a stable social order .

majorities must also constantly practice toler ation and other

kinds of compromise Herein one may well claim have lain
.
, ,

the special glories anciently of Roman and in m en t cent e ries

,
-
,

of Anglo Saxon government of selves and ot hers

-
, .

But there are limits to the compromises called for by

dem ocracy at its best Comprom i ses as respects behavior
.
.

but not ideals or co nvictions are chiefly deman ded In , .

modern political and other soci al groups while con fo rmity in ,

overt act is constantly required the more democratic leaders ,

tend to approve and prize in their opponents te nacity of

con vict ion or moral principle Only among badly socialized .

peoples are minorities persecute d for their beliefs F ully .

socialized gro ups tolerate to the utmost di fferences of opinion ,

whilst sternly suppressing those differences in beha vior that

would produce the kinds of social discord coming un der the
“ ” “ ” “ ” “ "
words immorality disorder , lawlessnes s an archy , , ,

“ ” “ ”
treason or sacrilege
, .

The social science teacher may often be of minority

-

groups I n these co nnections he is entitled to hold such

.

opinions as he sees fit But teac hing is his field of social

.

behavior Here in his public capacity he must co nform to

.
, ,

the will of the majority an d so far as overt act or influe nce ,

is concerned uphold the social order under such dem o cr atic

,

auspices as now represent the democratically expressed will

of the majority .
 C HAPT E R FOU R TEEN

M
S A P LE S r U m ns

Tm :
following studies were made by students in a Prac
—
ticum (E d 49 1 2) in Teachers C ollege C olumbia U nivers ity
. , ,

during the colle ge year 19 19 20 They are reproduced here -

.
,

partly because they are very suggestive for any persons who
may be seeking to construct courses but also because they ,
“ ”
illustrate very vi v idly the value of the case group method
of approach to the study of various practical problems of
civic ed ucation .

The class referred to contained th e fo llowing members not ,

all of whom however contributed to the studies below :

, ,

Rose A C arrigan Chai Hsuan Chuang Maude E D rake

.
, , .
,

A N F rench Florence K Griswold R oy W Hatch Grace D

M
.
. .
, .
, . ,

H icks Ann ie L c Cary M arcus L M ohler C lyde B M oore

, .
, .
, . ,

J V L Morris J F Page C harle s C Peters Abby Roys

. . .
, . .
, .
, ,

C harles R Small Mordecai Soltes Paul F Voelker

.
, , . .

I ( C B M ) Pao rosa n C o n asa s I N CIVIC E nc c x rio n

. . . .
' '

ro a C a s s G ao nr
“
m xc FARME RS ”

I e.
p or clasa S o ns ( 1 2 1 4 y ears o f ag e ) of
. farmers own i ng
-

a nd o perat i ng thei r o w n farms i n th e N o rth Central state s ( Co n .

ditio ns l isted below are base d o n o bse rvat io n census and ed uca ti on , ,

reports ) .

2 Dia gnon s Thw e bo ys co m e fro m the su bsta ntial type o f

. .

fa m ilies that make up the back bon e of rural life Extrem es e i ther in .

wealth o r in condi ti ons approach i ng pove rty practically neve r exist .

Th ese boys are above ave rage in native quali ties phys ical ,

in tellectual and moral They are we ll nourished sh are in ho m e

, .
,

and farm tasks and are tra ined to give attention to th e W ork of th e
,

farm Scho olin g is no t rated as bei ng o f very high im portance and

.

soc ial exper ien ces are largely restricte d to the imm ediate neig hbor
hood The ir sc hool teach ers are poorly tra in ed and th e schools are
.

la rgel y the o ne room type poorly eq uipped poorl y organiz ed a nd

-
, , ,

inad eq uatel y supervise d Means of conta ct with o utside wo rl d are .

27 9
280 CIVIC EDUCATION
v ery me ager ne wspa pc s and magazine S b e ing limit e d la rge ly to
,

local v illage pa per and farm jo um als Fe w b ooks are in th e ho me, .

and library facil ities are prac tic all y nil Amuseme nts and m tion .

are limite d to occasio nal ne ighborhood dances parties and church , ,

soc i als Littl e attention is pa id to dress in sh ort th e traditio nal

.
,
“ ”
rural atti tude toward the ci ty dude may red uc e th e sense of
nea tness and c lea nliness to a lo w degree . Re ligious interest s are
“
sim ple ch urc h serv ices info rmal Few o pportuni tie s for same
a nd .

age gro upi ngs outs ide th e schoo l whole fa m ilies Jo in ing in varions
’’
,

kin ds of social intercourse .

Domina nt charm isms Phys icall y he althy inte rested 1n farm

-
. ,

develo pm ent expect to becom e farm ers ; l i ttle interest in scho ol ; do

,

no t plan to take high school or college course ; ret ir ing and bashful

when associating wi th girls of o wn ag e ; in te rested in pol iti a ha ving

direct voca tio nal re latio ns ; appreciatio ns of dress c are of body , ,

an d ma nners lo w , .

8 Prognosis gene ral The se bo ys w i ll pro bably fo llo w farm ing

.
, .

as the ir v ocation inh eri t ing land or recei ving fam ily assistanc e in
,

Thm re mah nn g msta tie taking a ske ptica l atti

w fll te nd to m m a
tude toward any ne w theori es relating to farming B y th irty fiv e . -

they will have married and set tled down to farm routine follo wing ,

th e tradi tio ns of th e nei ghborho od exe rc is ing thrift and working ,

hard They will give li ttle time to pol i tics and their m ajor in terw ts
.

will be grou ped about their voca tional l ife .

4 Progno sis cimc G i ven no ed ucation greatly diffe ring from

.
, .

“
that now customary mo st o f th ese b oys will b e com e good confo rm
,
” “ ”
ing ci tiz ens The y will ho l d respecta bili ty almost as a rel ig i ous
.

“
virtue and will exhibi t a conform ity to acce pted rural sta ndards ”

that is very pers istent .

In the kin ds of civic abil i ties tha t have to do wi th th e economic

aspe c ts o f rural life a fe w of th ese m en w ill e v e rath e r su peri
ac hi or

abil i ty They w ill assume leadersh ip and in a few instances will

.

compete suc cessfull y wi th poli t ical leaders from other call i ngs A .

few will serve i n sta te legislatures or co un ty boards or i n c ount y ,

will be too meage r for ac hie ving unusual tasks A very high per cent .

will have vague feelings o f pol i tical and soci al needs and will b e
incl ined to follow those farm ers w h o possess th e ini tiativ e and
lea d ersh ip to atte m pt reform The y will be slow to assert them sel ves
. ,
98 8 CI VIC EDUCATI ON

pla nned ; gro unds and b il dings

ill ke pt ; eq uipm ent
out- u

mea ga ; su pply of b oo ks a pparatus , and m aterials for instrue

,

tio n very l im ited Li ttle or no opportun i ty for exchange or

.

“
pooling of materi als between the schools as in to wns or
”

cit ies Appro pri ations inadequate : taxes to th e le ga l lim it

.

m uc h rarc r in co untry than m town or ci ty ; ma n y atr ns

“ “ " p o
look upon book learning and school ing as o f m i nor im
”

portance :attitude prevails This sch ool was good enough for
,

me i t is good enough for m y chi ld ren Teac hers and sc hool

”
.
,

p o lic i
e s so c h a ng i
n g th a t sch oo ls are w e a k as c o mm unity
ce nters Lib ran es and m useum s to o dista nt to use Textbooks
. .

to use o f cit y sc ho o ls ra th e r than country : are too

ada pt
“ e" d
thin presuppos ing m uc h su pple men ta ry mater ia l which
,
“ ”
rural teache r is inco m petent to o bta i n ; th ick i nforma tio nal
texts adapted to rural l ife are m uch need ed .

8 .

It is assum ed th at approxim ate l y 10 per cent of the scho ol time

“
fo r two years will be g iven over to ci v ic ed ucation a nd that it
”

w ill have to do with bo th socia l and political rela tio nsh ips of associate
g ro up s an d larg el y politica l relati on sh ips of fed erate grou ps .

a Problem : Shall we assum e that a core of subject ma tte r

.

hav ing a cont inui ty and uni ty may be so reinforced wi th

concrete exam ples and mater ials as to give i t a psych ological
approach ?
“
I) Pro bl e m : Are boys of this age susc eptible to didact ic
"
.

m eans of prese ntatio n of mater ials if the y are conven ie n tly

arra nged and attract ive ly put i n text ?
c Pro blem C a n projects of pa rtic ipation and dramatiza
. .

t io n grow o ut o f such a course possess ing unity and direction ?

d Problem : Can boys o f th is age b e tra i ned throug h e xer

.

c ise s direc ted by th e schoo l which will g i ve a group of h abits

which will funct ion in th e exercise of good ci tize nship ?

a Pro ble m : W ill a series of com pact ep itomes descriptio ns

. , ,

or statem ents of im portant ci vi c to pics stimu late furthe r

study and thought which may eventu all y find express ion i n
pro jec ts and investigatio ns ?

a . Th e organiza ti o n of mate rials in a text su flic ie ntly

"
th ick to perm it of much co ncrete typical ma tter The text
, .
 SAM PLE ST UD I ES 28 3

wo uld co nsist o f three pa rts : ( 1) materia ls o rganized a nd

arranged as a course o f instruc tio n ; ( 2) a se ri es o f epito m es
of im po rtant citizenship to pic s no t arran ged in any seq ue n c e ,

b ut c alc ulated to su ppl e m ent a nd e nric h mate rial in ( 1) a nd , ,

to suggest pro blem s o n pro j ec ts beyo nd the text : ( 8) a seri es

o f to pi cs suggesting training fo r the establi shm en t of c erta in
“
habits and skills c losely rel a ted to c ivic educa ti o n .

b This first sec tio n ( 1) wo ul d define explain and ill ustrate

.
, .

th e purposes fun ct io ns a nd fo rms o f go ve rnm e nt as sho wn

, ,

in the co mm unit y county sta te and natio nal and internatio nal
. , ,

rela tio nships I t wo ul d incl ude such to pi cs as: m a intenan ce

.

o f a com m un ity ; sti m ul a tio n o f co operatio n ; su rv e y o f o ppo r

tu nit ies for cooperatio n ; respo nsibilities o f the in di v idual in

maintain in g th e best possible he alth bei ng voc atio nally co m ,

petent securi ng be st po ssibl e educatio n m a intaining high

, .

plane of m oral o r re l igio us life and accepting respo nsibility o f ,

co ntributing o n e s best in l abo r a nd wea lth fo r so ciety s welfare ;

’ ’

critical st udy o f needs o f co m m unity and state ; o bservatio n

of c usto ms laws and re gul atio ns ; pro per attituda to ward
,

fell o w ci tizens ; suppo rt of desirable co mm unity o rganizatio ns

a nd share i n co mm unity ac tivities ; o rgani zatio ns o r institu
ti o ns afi ec t ing c ivic welfare such as the fam ily th e sc hoo l , , .

the churc h th e press and the political party ; m e ans o f co m

, ,

“
m u nica tio n ; c oord inatin g facts a nd fac to rs suc h as every
in divi dual a soc i us co un try l ife and c ity life co m plem en
,
”

tary co nse rva tio n go ve rnm e ntal c o ntro l i m m igratio n eq ual

. , . ,

suf frage a nd A m e ricanizati o n

, .

c
. T h e series o f e pito m es ( 9) wo ul d g ive sho rt authenti c ac
co u n ts i n sim pl e l an guag e o f su c h to pics as : soc iali sm ; fre e

trade ; th e Mo nroe Doc trin e ; go ver nm e nt o wnership of rail

roads; the budget syste m ; de part m ent o f agriculture ; fran
ch ise ; c hild labo r ; a narchy ; c ivil se rv i ce ; spo ils syste m
Bo lshev ism ; expl o itati o n ; go ve rnm e nt bo nds ; Federal Reserv e
banks ; co lo nial pom essio ns e tc The m ere reading of the se , .

would giv e info rmatio n b ut the ir pri mary pu rpose w o uld be

,

to acqua int the pupil suffi c iently with a to pi c to stim ulate him
to f urther thinking o r study .

4 Th e third se ri es ( 8) w o u l d g iv e a bri e f desc riptio n o f the

.

habit or skill to be attai ned with its purpose i m po rtance and , , ,

val ue cl early defined These paragraphs wo uld be co uc hed in

.

si m pl e straightf o rward E ngli sh at the bo ys l e v e l m uc h as

’

, ,
384
‘
CI VI C ED UCATION
the info rmation is giv en The info rma tio n wo nld he
sco uti
ng .

i kl im hi i ld b
'

q u c y grasp e d ao th at W a g i
n t s se c t o n w o u e

b e t ypical: rising at the aing ing of th e na tion al an the m ;

saluti ng th e flag ; cleanli nm in using pu hlic ute nsils and
e nces ; ca mfi il ha ndli
co nv e n i ng o f boo ks schoo l fur ni ture and ,

p u b li
c p ro pert y ; use of co ur te o u s to ne of v oic e ; sk ill in sim ple

e . Th e seri
es ( c)
for de b a t ea and
sho uld furnish stim uli
repor ts which in turn wo ul d furnish o pportu nities fo r train ng i
in habits and skills as listed m while the exercises gro wing
o ut o f bo th ( 0 ) and (11) wo ul d run c o nc o m itantly with ( b) ,

supplem enting , enri ching mo tivating and making pro vision

, ,

fo r ind i v idual difi ere nces a nd varying pro po rtio ns o f tim e and
changi ng perso nn el .

II (A L
. . . MC ) Pc . ao eo snn Co nasss ro e Gra m

1 Care gro up G irls in G rades 7 and e r of the 8 — ith —

8 4 or
— —
. . e

th e G S S system
-
ia public sch oo ls of av erage Am eric an cities oi the
No rth Atlantic states These girls are 1 2 14 years of age and will
—
-

—
.

leave schoo l at the end of G rade 8 (o r 9 under th e 6 8 8 plan ) .

2 Diagnosis Th ese girls are fro m rath e r poor home a Their

. . .

parents are witho ut m o re than an elem entary schoo lin g and so me

even ha ve had no m o re than a fifth grade educa tio n Their ho m e s -
.

are no t well supplied with boo ks or m agazines Am usem w t for .

thos e chil dren has been co nfined al m o st excl usively to m o v ing

picture sho ws Practically all of th e m go to Sunday scho ol ei ther
. ,

Pro testant o r Catho lic .

The interest curve in school is declining Ado weene e is dev elo p

- .

ing I n terests of ch ildh ood are b e ing east into th e discard They
. .

“ ”
are beco m ing interested in bo ys m any o f the m hav ing fiello w s , .

Ther e 1s a greate r play o f in di v id uality and a tendency away fro m

i mpli c it o bedience and fro m rules arbitrarily im posed The world .

ol adults is b eco m ing interest ing to th em . Th e y tical

are v ery c ri

b e ant
and o s rv .

The sc hoo ls are usu ally well or ganized The . su perv isio n is fair .
286 C I VI C EDUCA TION

pathics .

II To furnish e le mentary kno wledge of the fo rms functions

.
, ,

an d purposes of governm e n t to d in esta b lish ing c orre ct

ai
i dea ls o f the relatio nship whi c h th e c ity st ate nation , , .

and c itizen sustain to o ne ano the r .

“ ”
III To stam p in the habit of reading the o pinio ns of
.

experts o n t al
vi issues and to sta m p in th e h ab it of

attending public lectures whe re those to pics will be

IV . To h w the val ue o f co mm unity cooperatio n

s o .

Time li mita tio ns : o ne lesso n a w ee k varying in len gth from

40 to 60 min .

I . Fo rm in w hich to pre sent m a te ria l to girls w ho prob ably

do not ca re m uch ab out rcading ? W ill th e use d su pple »
m en tary and reference m ate rials sim ply inte nsify the
“ "
dislike fo r readin g and lea v e a bad taste , o r will it
carry o ver into life afte r the school perio d ?
II . Which is the bette r fo rm for the clasa oo m tex tbook '

III C an participatio n projects be

. su ccessfully ed ?
us

for bo th grades Part I fo r G rade 7 a nd Part II for G rade 8 .

b Presentatio n of to pics by teacher in pro bl em fo rm

.

dem anding investigatio n by pupils .

0 U se of th e so cialized recitatio n Three and fo ur m inut e

. .
-

speech es o n v ario us to pics by m e m bers of the c lass .

“ ”
d Use o f ill ustrative activities to stam p in facts le arned
.

by class and ho m e assignm ents .

e . Co rrelatio n with o ther bje cts as far as practicable

su .

f De v el
. o pm e nt of m any to pi cs with th e a id o f rd ere nc e
boo ks pam phle ts , .

Propoacd f com m f Gradc I

'
9 . acopc o or .

In this grade where c ivics , the first ti m e made a separateis fo r

and dist inct st udy there will be pro blem s o f the local co mm unity
, .
 SA MP LE S TUD IE S 287

e .g. , way in which the city is go verned its peo ple the benefits
the , ,

which its citizens receiv e at its han ds the d uty o f the citizens to
,

the city The last nam ed to pic the duty o f the citiz ens to the
.
-
,

co m m unity is probably the m ost im po rtant o ne as under it will be

, ,

gro uped : respo nsibili ties of th e indiv id uals in co nserving their

health and safeguarding the health of the co mm unity ; the d uty of
se c uri goo d an e uca tio n as possib le b oth in the sc h oo ls and
ng as
thro ugh
d
o utside agencies ; the respo nsibilit y fo r m aintainin g a high

m o ral standard ; pro per attitude to ward co nstituted autho rity ;

Activities A l ist of to pi cs fo r sho rt reports in co nnectio n with

.

th e c lassroo m wo rk is su pplem ented by a li st of acti v ities fo r the

entire g rou p The follo wing list is typica l :
.

Write and ill ustrate a bo o klet Laws E very C h ild Sho uld Kno w
, .

Organize the c lass into the vari o us boards of the city and dram a
tiz e their fu nctio ns : bo ard o f health str ee b c lea ni
ng departm ent
, ,

po lice and fire departm ents etc , .

Form a cla ss o rganiz atio n to h e lp in the upk ee p of th e sc h oo l,

fo llo wing the plan o f th e city s go vernment ’

.

Co nstruc t a bu lletin board of C ru zm ssm r half fo r clippings

o ne

fro m the loca l newspapers ill ustrating goo d citizenship the o ther ,

half ill ustrating poo r c itize nship .

C hart with labels and pic tures sho wing Food Law Re gulatio ns .

G rade 8 co ntin ues the duties o f the c itizen in wi der range to ,

the state and n a tio n This involves elem e ntary kno wledge of th e
.

fo rm s a nd functio ns of sta te laws and reg ula tio ns as well as so m e o f

the federal func tio ns with which these c hildren m ust be fam iliar .

T he to pics for this sectio n o f the grad e are such as : rel atio nship of
the c ity to the sta te ; relative im po rtan ce to the natio n ; respo nsibil ity
o f the indi v id uals fo r m aintaining t h e c ity and sta te s sta ndi ng ; ’

th e part wh ich th e citize ns o f th e c ity pla y in fo rm ulat ing the

po licies of the state a nd natio n .

I n th is grade is to b e be g un th e de finite a ttem pt to w ide n social

apprec iatio ns and sym pathies Co nseq ue ntly th e c ity s po pulati o n
.
,
'

is analyzed to determ ine the fo reign elem e nts therein Th is leads to .

a stu dy of the imm igrant proble m a nd allied q uesti o ns aspiratio ns ,

o f imm igrant gro ups their co ntrib utio ns to Am erica fo rm atio n

, ,

of sym pathetic attit ud e to ward them ; also labo r pro blem s as these
288 CIVIC E DU C A TION

I n o rde r to ge t ac ross th c a b o v e pr gram t ill b e ne c m ary to

o
use many o u tside reference s maga zines pe rio dic als, elem entary
, ,

bo o ks o n so c ial pro ble ms A large b iblio graph y for b o th teac hm

.

and pupils will be appended to each gro up .

Activities To pi cs for sho rt individ ual in v estigatio n s debates and

.
, ,

disc ussio ns supplem e nted by activities fo r the gro up :

Sho w by posters th e occupatio nal o penings for bo ys and girls

In so me o f th e cla ss o rgan i
za tions dev o te so me tim e to th e de finite
t dy o f parliame ntary law
s u , co m m itte e c hairm anship co mm ittee
.

m e m bership .

e v elo p s M elting Pot page ant in whic h the c hildr en fro m the
D ‘
vario us rac ial g ro ups m a y take part dressed in their native ‘ '
,

cost um e and with so me ac tivity show ing their co n tributio n to

A merica .

Make an Am e ri canization chart sho win g what Am eric a o ffers the

i mm igrant and what the im m igrant offers Am eri ca .

Chart sho wing industrial gro ups in the cit y .

C hart sho wing liv ing quarters for racial gro ups .

Pictures sh o wing good wo rking co nditio ns in facto ries .

III (A . . B ) Pao eo snn C o uass IN C rrrzm rsm e

.

ro n A N nrrn G am a

Casc group Bo ys 14 o r 15 y ears o f age of rath er superio r me nta l

.

ability living in W este rn to wns of po pulation fro m 8,000 t0 20,000 .

Diagnosis Pupils in th e majorit y of cases are from Am erican

.

ho m es vary ing w idely in financial and so cial sta nding and in home
,

m en ts ario us so rts and increased associatio n wi th those oi

of v

o pposite se x They show keen interest in the world o f ad ults and

.

find satisfactio n 1n sharing som e of its activities Mental abilities .

v ary fro m that bare ly able to do hi g h sc hoo l w o rk to that which 1s

decidedly abo v e the average Som e attend schoo l o nly because.

of so cial custo m a nd no t beca use of interest or abil ity In religio us .

matta s they reflec t h o m e infl uenc e and co m m u nity ten dencies

'
.

Th e la tte r v ary fro m a gencral in terest througho u t the to wn to a

dec ided lac k of it .

They are all lim ited in o utloo k upon life partic ularly if the ,

c o mm un i
ty is iso late d I f care has b ee n g iv en to th is phase o f tra in
.

ing in th e earlier grades c on siderable mo dificatio n will be fo und

, .
290 CIVIC EDU CA TION

standing o f efl cc tiv e m eans of co llecti v e actio n in

Specifi j
c ob ec tives ( a ) To sho w the social
.

m ent and the plac e of t he in div idua l in it .

sym pathy with o ther peo ples and e lm

the form and func tio ns o f civic agenc ie s .

ofte n desire to lim it ci v ic instruct io n to

ment and deny th e civi c value o f rec ent
do no t u nderstan d the im portance o f
The results fro m this co ndi tio n will
un der the o ld regime or fail ure and disgust

minority are already interested and wish to

( b) Materials Many sm all
. places are
library faciliti es and have v ery
tio ns.

Problem: of method ( o ) I s it .

topics whic h it is necessary to

this if it is possible ?
( b ) Will a dramatizatio n of a civi c fun c tio n give
und e rsta ndin g o f it ?

( )
c Of h o w m u c h val u e is o bservati o n o f ci v i c activiti es to pu pils

o f thi s age ?

( )
d When c i v ic acti viti es are partic ipate d m by the p u pils
, what
m eans of reco gnitio n o f results m ay be used without incurring
b ad effects ?
Proposed methods (a) The state m ent o f l esso n them es as prob
.

le ms to b e solve d rath er than in o utline form .

6
( ) Ad o pt ion of the m eth o d pro posed m ( U S Bu rea u of
. E d uca
.
~

tio n ) Bulletin N o 28 , 19 15 eac h to pic consisting of three d iv isio ns:

. ,

th e approach , in v estigatio n o f agenci es, and co nsid eratio n of

perso nal m po nsih ility The first will be dev el o ped fro m the expe
.

rie nce o f the class and will devel o p a realizatio n of the im po rtance
”
o f the to pic and a right so c ial attitude to ward it The in v estigation
.

o f agenci es will be acco m plished by the co m bined efl or ts o f the class

directed to pa so nal investigatio n and o bserv atio n and the c on

 M
S A PLE STUD IE S 29 1

su ltatio n reference boo ks and magazines The last part m ust be

of .

dev elo ped by m eans suited to the to pic in vo lving in m any cases ,

actio n of so m e so rt .

Library facilities for this particular wo rk m ust be dev elo ped in

bo th the school and the publ ic libraries .

( 0) Many ac tivities will be carried o n in depende ntly of the info r

ma tio nal work T he pro ble m is to o rganize and mo ti vate a wide ly
.

v aried pro ma m o f participatio n in th e real w o rk o f th e sc h oo l

-
.

IV .
( M S ) Pao ro ssn PROGRA M
. . or E o ncan o n ro a s as sa rp

m a C a n v ass or Russ nm s - rs n IMM I GRA NT S ( S P EC I ALLY

E
A c ne 12 14)
-

I
Care group C hildren (3 808
. .
—
12 14) of RussianJ ew ish imm i
grants ; fo und m ain ly m larg e c iti es in upper c lasses of elem entary ,

as well as in the j unio r hi gh sc hoo l s ( All gro ups represe n ted fro m
—
.
,

th e po int o f v ie vv of eeonom w sta tus poo r m iddle class profes

—
. ,

sio ual we althy labo rers pe ddl e rs sto re keepers m an ufacturers

, , , , ,

etc ) ( Diagnosis of eq uipm en t co nditio ns e tc based to so m e exte nt

. , , .
,

o n re ad in g repo rts etc b ut ma in ly o n direct persona l o bserv atio n

, , ,

and first hand exper ience )

M
- .

II Diagnosis of characte r ic: a nd equipment ( ad ults incl uded)

.
-
.

I dealistic ; thirst for kno wledge ed uca tio n ; respect fo r learnin g ; kee n
,

sense o f so c ial j ustice ; the fam ily as an instit utio n ha s a stro ng ho ld ;

paren tal respo nsibility highly develo ped ; goo d standard o f li v ing
caref ul e co no mic utilizatio n ; permanen t se ttlers; pro gressiv e ,

independen t attitude i n po lit ic s ; lo yal ty to peo ple and faith ; m ake

adeq uate pro visio n fo r poo r an d unfo rt unates o f the ir race ; per
sev era nt tho u gh the y ad a pt th e m se lve s eas i ly and re adily to new
—
,

c o nditions an d circum stances le arn l ang uage acq u ire custo ms ,

rapidly ; sen d c hil dren to publi c ra the r than paro c hial sc h oo ls ;

En glish language used in se rm o ns at synagog ues and at H ebrew
scho o ls; while anxio us to harm o nize o ld m o de o f l ife with Am erican

co nditio n s y et they do no t pe rm it these to encro ach o n th e essential

,

c haracte r o f their reli g io us trad itio ns ; so ber ; superio r m e ntal vi go r ;

passion ate lo ve for liberty ; possess ancient culture and h e ritage .

Other ch aracte ristics Oc c asio na l o ver de v e lo pm ent o f m in d at

.
-

e xpense of bod y ; keen in tell e c t ualism o fte n l eads a n e l e m e nt within

them to ward i m patience at slo w pro gress ; extre m ely radical ; m any
years o f iso latio n a nd segre gatio n g iv e rise to irritability and
su persensitivit y ; little inte rest in physi c al spo rts ( l ook ed u po n as
-

a
p g a n in o lden ti m es) ; frank and o pen m ind ed appr o ac h in intel -
292 CIVIC EDU C ATIO N

l ect ual matters espe ciall y debatable questio ns in fact too

, .

and outspo ken accord ing to present standards;

m ulated v al uable experienc e em o tio nal to uch and po in ts of v iew
—
.
,

C hildren above av erage intellectually attain high re cords and

distinc tio n in wo rk at scho o ls ge nuine inte re st b ut are ave mge
,

o r b elo w , ph ysically ; tho se of poore r class are fre quen tly under
no urished ; wo rk their way through scho ol suppor ting themselves ,

and so m eti m es e v en co ntribu ting to ward the su ppo rt of the family

— espe c ially where the la tte r is large b y se lling ne w spapers or
run i ng e rrands afte r sc ho o l h o u rs and w o rking duri ng va c at i
n , ons;
anxio us fo r high educ atio nal o pportunities; conditio ns at ho me
—
ve ry u nfav orable for purpose of study li v e m few ov ercro wded ,

room s in ten em e nts; m ake frequent use o f library ; secon d generation

affected m e ntally mo rally , and ph ysically b y Am erican env ironm e nt
, .

with task oi earni

ng a liv ing as a re sult of w hic b little time and
,

attentio n are give n to the training of the ch ildren ; paren tal control
and o v ersight w e ak, b eca use o f co nfli ct eco no m ic strife , a nd chaos
,

in so c ial life , resulting fro m the transitio n fm m the o ld to the ne w

enviro nm ent, fro m th e o ld to the new mode of life .

III Prognosis, ge ne ral N ormally th e ch ildre n will fa ll into at

. .

least three mam gm ups ac cord mg to ec o no m1c con ditions at b om e

.

a nd the se nn y b e furth e r subdi vide d in acco rdance wi th th e state of

Jewish culture at ho m e .

Group A Th ose w h ose fatb e rs are poor flab orers pusb w t

. ,

and w h o find i t difi c ult to ea rn a livelih o o d and to

li ve up to Jewish custo ms ceremo nies and traditio ns m the new
, ,

needs of fam il ies Paren tal

. co ntr ol and ov ersight weak in the case
,

d the ch i
ldre n o f fro m h om e s of lo w 1 e w ish
th is gro up, co m ing
cultural state ; children gro w to loo k do wn with m y u p on

th ings Jew ish , th e custo m s and b eli r pare nts i

e fs of th e i nc lude d due ,

mainly to lack of o ppor tunity to fa m iliarize themselves pro perly

with the histo ry and trad itio ns of their peo ple ; they wo rship
“
baseball averages and all fo rms o f physical spo rts as en ds in
'’

“ "
themsel ves With som e exceptio ns they wil l as a rule pic k up
. , ,

any con venien t jo bs; unsteady ; co m parative lack o f am bitio n ; a

few will beco me apprentices to pl um bers e lectricians e tc and , , . ,

learn trades ; m any will ac cept ro utine w o rk and enter lo wer types
o f c iv il serv ice etc, .
294 CI VIC E DUCA TION

serv ativ e m things Je wwh

i — co nserv e h w mh va lue s but
anx o us to

insist o n Am e ricanizing form and spirit of Je wish c ustc ms and

cerem o ni es G irls becom e steno gin phe rs saleswo me n , for ewo men;
. .

atte nd hi g h sc h ooh trai ng sc hoo l for teach ers or co lle ge

ni .

IV Prognosis, cm c Group A Kee nly aware of e cono m ic strile

o '

. . .

a nd strain o f m em bers o f gro up , are politi m lly pw gre ssiv e , anxioiis

for refo rm , for ch ange , freq ue ntly taking the initiativ e a nd oc cupying
le adership in refo rm m ov em ents ; v a y demo cratic and ide alistic .

Group B Are conc erne d in po h tic s mainly fro m th e poin t of view

.

of class interest , superio r co nf o rming citiz en s, as a rule ; co n servative

—
po litically will a id in go od go v ernm en t, sh un radicalism , etc .

“ ”
Patro nizing attitude in Americanizatio n and o t he r wo rk with
less fo rtunate econo m ic and social classes .

Group C Are independent and prog ra siv e in poli tics tolerant

— —
.

do no t v o te as a class in te rested in furtha ing cause ot good

fro m ho m es of a ric h Jewish cul tural sta te are frequently W m

to liberal progressive m o v em ents te nding to ward the allev iatio n of

,
-

suffering fro m po v erty and o ther unfav o rable co nditio ns

—
.

All gro ups take part in all po litical partia do no t vo te with

any si ngle party as a gro up Those of G ro up A how ev e r have
.
, ,

stro ng leaning t o ward refo rm parties exc ept those low cul turally , .

w ho perm it th e m se lvo
s to b e misle d b y de m agoguu and ye llow
jo urnals G ro up B naturally lean to ward the conservative ; G ro up C
.

toward particular indi v i duals w ho sat isfy them as dm ra ble omen

ho lders w h o have the publi c interest at hea rt re gardlw of the party
—
,
“
with whic h they m a y be afi liate d vo te fo r the m an .

I t sho uld be em pha sized that con trary to po pular belief there
, ,

are with few individual exceptio ns no radicals amo ng the second

, ,

generatio n The radi cal type is re cruited mainly from the yatung
.

Russian intellectuals w h o are co m pelled to go to w o rk in sw eat

,

h ops in o rde r to earn a liv e lih ood and in w hose heart th ere na tural y
s ,

develo ps a hatred to ward that o rder o f things ( as they pu t it ) 111

l
whi ch a few have too m uch and m any to o little The Ame rican-b om .

do no t tend to b e radical Th e y w ill b e fo und in large nu m bers in

.
-

the ranks o f the l ib eral pro gressiv es and co nservatives

- .

V Civic deficie nc ies ( generally true m ore o r less of practically all

.

these groups and classes i n A m erica n life ) ( 1) I nsufi c ie nt interest

—
.

in the welfare of o ther gro ups m ere co l d distant sym pathy , .

 SA MPLE STUD IES 295

espe cially for less fo rtunate econom ic so cial and racial gro ups , , .

( 2) N arro w pr ovincial attit ude in m atters o f public co ncern

,

unre adiness to su pplem ent sm aller gro up interest to we lfare o f

larger all em bracing gro up ( 8) Tendency to accept uncha llenged
,
- .
,

and to base j udgm en t and thinking o n biased o pinio ns o f c erta in ,

in divid uals (especially de mago gues w ho present one sided view o f -

the case ) Disincl inatio n to form ulate j udgm ent on b asis of clear
.
,

scientifi c kn o w l edge espec iall y when that po ints to a result dia

,

m etrically o pposed to the po pular o ne which the indi v id ual ho lds

at that tim e and at whi ch he will arrive o nly afte r co nsi derable
,

re ading study and tho ught (4) I nadeq uate kno wledge and train
, , .

ing in the use o f the ballo t to th e e nd that ho nest lo yal ofi eials ,

be se le cte d and pro per leg islatio n be enacted .

Civic defic iencies S pecifi ca ll y referable to im m igrant grou ps in

.

ge ne ral and to th e R ussian J ewish gro ups in particular ( 1) E rrons

-
.

picking up on th e s treet —t e ndency to im itate the ou ter ,

r
pa ents and their —
childr n latte e r de spise what is holy to their

und erstanding o f A m erican life on the part o f th e parents and a ,

“
d isrespectful I kno w it al l a tti tude o n the part o f th e children
”

resulting in the disru ptio n of and trag edies in fam ily life as well ,

I believ e that the public schoo l the enviro nm ent and o ther forces , ,

are already affecting the second generatio n to such a great extent

that special training in c itizenship beyo nd that given all bo ys and
girls o f their age see ms unnecessary I wo ul d recomm en d therefo re .
, ,

that th e specific o bjectives in the ed ucatio n for c itizenship of Bus

sian Jew ish chil dren
- ages 12 14 be those give n bel o w which are
,
-
,

applic able to all gro ups whatsoever and where ver they may be , ,

with specia l allo wance fo r th e training set aside fo r the particul ar

ec o nom ic o r so cial gro up within which the y happen to fall and with
em phasis i n the case of all c hildren o f imm igrants nati ve as well ,

as fo reig n bo rn parti cularly the R ussian Jewish o n th e specifi c

-
,
-
,

o bj e ctives whic h are listed bel o w under V I B , .

A Ge nerally applica ble to m

. ay all gr oups ( 1) To devel o p .

pro per sym pathe tic attitud e to ward and c omm unity of under ,

standing between the gro ups i n o ur dem ocrac y to m ake the contact
, ,
296 CIV IC E DUC ATION

b e tween the m a so urce of streng th and blessing iriste ad o f c ontent ion

and sc orn .
( )
2 T o ac qua i
n t th e m w ith t h e v alue of c it i
z e nsh ip
th e c iv ic re spo nsib i
lities and o b ligatio ns as w ell as pr iv ile ge u to
instn ic t the m in th e cssentials o f de mocratic living and to de velop
lo yalty to ward the ideals o f o ur dem o cracy ; to acq uaint them with
the underlying principles, nature and fo rm of o ur go vernm ent
, ,

th e ev ils of b ossism co rruptio n the use of the b allo t , etc ( 8) To

, , .

train th e m to sub o rdina te th e sm alle r grou p in te rests a nd lo yalties

to tho se o f th e large r gro up ; to ge t th e m to th ink in te rm s of the
com m un i ty to co nsider m a tte rs ma inly fro m th e po i
. n t of v i e w of

B Spcci
fi y
c all to immigrant groups in gene ral and the
a ppl cable
i
“ ”
Russia n-J ewish in particula r ( I ) To aid in bridging the gap
.

between imm i grant pare nts and their children who ha v e be en born
in the United S tates or b ro ught up in this env iro nm ent and thereby ,

help in bringing abo ut better m utual understanding and stro nger

parenta l influence and co ntrol which is to act as a stea dying iorce
.

This m ight be acco m plished by :

( a ) Co rrecting superficial no tio ns of Am ericaa which have
taken roo t and reinforcing kno wledge of Am erican ideals (b)
, .

Widening chil dren s ho rizo n and enlarging their group co nscio usness,
’

giv ing it new interpreta tio ns etc (c) Develo ping rev erence respect
, .
, ,

a nd lo yalty to traditio ns o f anc esto rs .

( )
2 T o f urnish the m with th e kn o wle d ge o f the co nt rib u tio ns

whic h their gro up has m ad e or is making toward the m aterial and

spiritual devel o pm e n t o f Am a i c an l ife particularly to ward Am eri
'
~
,

ca n c ulture a nd ideals ( )
.8 T o a ssist a n d to po in t o ut t h e n ee d for

their making their co ntrib utio n as a gro up to ward the de v e lo mrent

of American c ultu re by capita lizing and taking advantage of the
,

treasures o f racial inh e ritance and culture brou ght to o ur sho res
in abu ndance by their parents and o ther m em bers of their gro up :
,

to develo p respec t for le arning and anc i e nt c ultures .

We are lim ited in this wo rk by th e fo llo wing fac to rs no n e of which ,

in m y estim atio n is in any w ay insurmo un ta ble if we b ut decide ,

e arn estly to take im m ed iate ste ps to ward its elim inatio n ( 1) .

Teach ers: (a ) ill prepared fo r this new task ; no t im bue d at the

—
present tim e wi th the righ t attitude prej udiced and unsym pathetic
tow ard imm igrant gro ups etc m isled j ust as the rest of us have
, . ,

been in o ur th inking ; ( b) lack of teache r s manual and supple

,
’

m entary ma te rial to guide a nd ass ist the teacher in her work .

9 98 CI VIC EDUCA TION

in that way distra c te d from the cond itio ns whic h pre v a fl and which

o us no tions regarding R ian J ewish im m ig a are the m olt

uss -

“ ”
of the wo rk of dem ago gue s pro fessio nal pa trio ts and anti
, ,

Semites w ho play on th e lo w prej udices of the ignorant a nd who ,

gi v e wide public ity to the delinquen t acts o f im m igrants or their

—
am o ng Russia n J ews in very small mino rity l ess than 1 % f
o

co unts prac tic ally all Russ ian Je wish im m igrants are im m ediately
-

“ “
Socialists
” ”
acc used as a nd labeled Bo lsheviki o r whatever , ,

unpopu lar na m e happe ns to be in vo gue at the time ) M inim ize

fa vo rable co mm ents .

As far as th e chil dren of R ussian J ewish imm igrants are con c e rned -
,

the supple m e nta ry co urse in c itizenship whic h they re ce ive would

fall into tw o parts:
A

ad ir i
.

B Results
.

tic s
Th at given as f he
p rt o
a t
acco m pl ished indirec tly thro ugh w tra currwular
Unda A ( regular scho o l wo rk) I wo uld include the
.
'
rsgular rohool work .

—
fo ll o wing ( 1) Differen t types of su pplem en tary co urses in history
.

a nd c iv i
cs d in ele m e nta ry as we ll as in jun io r high
to b e o fi ere

schoo l s adapted to the needs of particular gro ups (j ust a s special

,

co urses in E nglish planned to m eet th e specifi c needs o f pa rticular

stude n ts [e n unc i o m pro n un c iatio n

at i acce nt, etc ] ought to be ,

arranged afte r the gro up or class as a w ho le h ave o b ta ined a funda

m ental kno wledge of the essential elem e nts o f the language ) ( )
2 .

Pro v isio n to be m ade in the histo ry and ci vic s courses fo r o ppor

tunities to learn of the c ontribu tio ns to Am erican life m ade by
imm igrants a nd Am erican citizens of R ussian- Je wish an c estry in
th e past as well as co ntem po rary histo ry o f contrib u tio ns of old
,

a nd rec ent i m
m
igrant g ro ups ( a) In general in each sc h oo l part
.

of the perio ds in hi sto ry and c ivics w o ul d be d e vo ted to tell i ng in

,

sto ry fo rm o f the oo n trib u tio ns of th e ancesto rs of th e predo m i na ting

el e m en t o f the po pulatio n in the n e ighbo rhoo d to ward Am erican
life ( 6) Mere didactic pre senta tio ns will no t pro ve efi ec tive We
. .

m ust try to tap v ital m o ti v es o therwise it will no t get beneath the

,

skin There fo re the use o f carefully prepared supplem entary

.
,

re ference m aterial and boo ks beau tifully ill ustrated , is desirable

, .

( )
c I w o uld u rge the preparati o n of spec ial su pplem en ta ry re ading
“
book s in A m erican histo ry dealing with Jewish H ero es in A m erican
”
H isto ry etc appropria te for children of differen t age s and grades
, .
 S AMP LE ST UD IES 29 9

N a turally the lang uage in which the bo o ks o f the lo we r grad es are

,

writte n sho uld be sim ple style co nv ersatio nal a vo id ing lo ng

—
,

paragraphs a nd pro f usely ill ustrate d ( 8) In additi o n the

.

fo ll o wing m e ans o ught to be utilize d : ( 0 ) v isits to m o del institutio ns

su ppo rte d by im m igrant gro ups o we rva ti o n reports ( H e brew

Imm ig rant Aid Soc ie ty Mo unt S inai H ospital United H ebrew

, ,

Charities etc ) ; sho w ac hiev em en ts of Jews in the field of philan

,

th ro py to ward the care o f the sic k and poo r o f their gro up in

, ,

which they are wo rthy of em ulatio n ( 6) S tudy d iscussio n a nd.

, ,

debates in the case o f c hildre n i n the upper elem en tary and j unio r
high scho o l classes of specific g ro ups the ir achiev e ments and ,

possibilitie s no t exc l uding the ir lim itatio ns ( The o rdinary re ading

, .

m atter and dram atic participatio n are no t applicable o f co urse to , ,

the chil dren between the ages o f 15 and 18 With the m debate ex .
, ,

m ust be lize d,
ut i taking care no t to do a ny mo ralising , b u t to carry
the discussio n on a third party basis ) -
. Raise debatable issues, as
“
Sho uld imm igratio n be restricted regulate d o r adm itte d freely as
, ,
” “
w as the case befo re the war ? What are the advantage s and
" “
disadvantages of each plan ? What are the goo d a nd bad effec ts
” “
of im m igratio n ? ( All had c itizenship due to lack o f suspended
”
judgm ent h un ger fo r finalit y do gm atism m ay ha ve to leave
,

so m e q uestions unanswered suspen ded j udgm ent ) ( c) Co m .

o ther deno m inatio ns in E ngland and o ther co untries to seek ref uge
in Am erica religio us persecu tio n and into lerance etc — and , .

the m ain reaso ns which a ttract the Russian Je ws to Am erica ( reli

gio us freedo m eq uality of o ppo rtu nity etc )
, , .

( The Am ericanizatio n of th e newly arrived children between th e

ages of 6 and 10 is easily ac com plishe d at schoo l S pecial classes .

sho uld be pro vided for th ose w h o arrive be tween the age s of 10

and 14 to affor d them an o ppo rtu nity to ac qu ire the language m o re

—
qu ickly with the least possible lo ss o f tim e )
, .

Ed m cw fi cular activities ( 1) Dramatic parti c ipatio n will pro ve

.

successf ul with the yo un ge r c hildre n especially i f o rgani sed as

,

extra curricular activity aro und the sto ries of the heroes e tc (0 )
-
. .

Have plays prepared o n the basis o f the sto ries of achieve me nts
in the past of m em bers o f group — cl ustering roun d ho liday cele
br atio n Exam ple : Utilize Washington s Birthday fo r bringing o ut
.
’

concrete exam ples of Jews in Re v o l utio nary W ar ( Solo mo n Co l .

, .

Isaac Franks ( 1759 1822) Aide de Cam p to Geo rge Washingto n

- -
,
300 CI VIC EDU C A TION

( b) Dram atiz atio n , afte r reading and

discussion w rite outline of sce nes ca ll for v o lim tee rs to take

pa rts ind i
c a te d let th —
e m go th m ugh the pa n to m i
m e z make

( )
2 Inter racial pageants tablea ux i ants U tiliz e these to
—
- v v .
,

be tte r ad vantage at ho liday and schoo l celebratio ns the 12 14

, ,

year d ds partic ipa ting

—
.

J ewish igin of the ho

or liday F e as t of th e Harvest . Taberuncles )
-
.

( )
3 C urrent e vents . A rrange for se ries of charts or bulletins ,

amo ng w hic h m ay b e one for eve nts w hic h co nc er n th e school

district or ne i
g h b o rho o d , on e for the city and sta te , o ne fo r the
country , and o ne or tw o for t ide countries
ou s .
( 0 ) Hav e each

of im porta nt ev ents ( c) C all upo n the pupils to furnish mat er ial

. .

(fl T he te ac her sho uld exhibit a perso nal interest in this matter

herself (a) 0 nc e a we ek th e teac he r sh o uld nse a fe w m innte s in
.

h wing and explaining the pict ures and in reading acco unts which
s o

are to b e poste d ( fl H ave se a b ks cont i

n in g li in
pp g t lling
p
—
. r oo a c s e

of valiant deeds of m em bers of the gro up hero wo rshi p Very .

effe ctive with children .

( )
4 The w o rk o f the teacher T he t e acher s ho
. u ld take advan tag e

of every o ppo rtunity to bring o ut that Am erica we lco mes every

spiritual infl uence every cultural urge and ancient experience that
, ,

Ame rim is made ri

c h er and
more fruitful b y the gifts and ser v iw s
of many natio nalities , sh e shou ld help the childre n to learn how

muc h eac h race has bro ught fro m its past in o ther lands, and how
much eac h has co ntr ibuted and can co ntribu te here ; she should
awaken a ce rta in am ount of pride and am bitio n in the childre n to
live up to the traditio ns and ho pes o f th e ir ance sto rs and should
endea vo r to pro mo te sy m pathy and understanding between difl ere nt
gro ups in the Am erican comm unity We m ight have so me school .

am m b li es orga nised ro und th i

s idea , each group o r c lass in the
s
sch ool co ntribu ting its share to ward the pro gram , in which the
o utsta nding virtues of each gro u p w o uld be em ph m i ze d .

I X As far as the q uestio n o f th e applicatio n of the ab o v e means

.

and methods to difie re nt age lev els is co ncerne d , so me supplem en

tary pm gram b ased o n th e regularly presa ib ed histo ry and civics
-

co urses in each class migh t b e worke d o ut ; for example :

l
( ) F o r G rades 4a to 6b we m ight add sev eral lesso ns in story

form telling o f the manner in whic h Je ws aided Co lu m bus in dis

co ve ry of America, or o f the J ew s w ho parti c ipate d in the American
302 CIVIC E DUC ATI ON

‘ ‘
selfish alk v ag uc ly ab o u t so c i
al and the i i
’
w ork
for m m
t ‘
wo m en their civic idcals are h alf parl o r-so cialistic, half m etion
ne w pro s o

,
’
M
ary stro ngly fem i
, nist and anti do m estic ; they have gi v en m uc h tim e
,
o

to m usic , b ut with no deep intere st ; are inve terate readers o f t

‘
fictio n ; ideals o f E nglish speech are low and of m anne rs up-to -date , .
’

S ixty per c ent will m arry 25 80 ; remai nder will rem ain c elibate
-
,
”
with m oderate inherited incom e .

cm f this gro up are the fo llo wing

o

1. To g iv e th ese girls mo re o f th e hard att i

tude to w ard life
than the m That is me
the ir e n v iro n m ent is able to pro duc e in .
.

wo rk spirit .

2 To devel o p sym pathy with and an unde rstanding of c ertain

.
, ,

so cial c lasses fro m which the co nditio ns of their bringing up have

e xcl ud ed them .

8 To put them in to uch with the activitie s and instit utio ns

.

abo ut them ( inc l uding the po litical ) so that they may think talk , , .

a nd act intelligently in reference to them and may u nderstand ,

o th ers w h e n th e y talk ;
lso as a b ac k gro und fo r th e fut nre
a so

systematic stu dy o f eco no mics and so ciolo gy This is necessary .

because these girls hav e been shielded at ho me fro m m uch direct

co ntact with these m atters except as they hav e picked up a little
,

in a scatte red way fro m m od ern no vels .

4 To g ive them at the gateway of their entrance into a new

.
,

re alm o f st udies a broad surv ey of a considerable por tio n of the

,

specialised studies beyo nd and partly as their o nly to uch wit h

,

c ertain fiel ds whic h they ca nno t study fu rther b ut whi c h they

sho uld no t entirely m i ss (T his latte r is c ultural )

. .

5 To im pro v e their o ral and written expressio n

. .

6 To supply a basis for sel f guidanc e in c ertain critical phases

.
-

o f perso nal co nd uct particularly th ose having to do with se x and

,

urtsh i
p .

7 . foster su ch no rmal d e velo pm e nt (of tastes of physiq ue of

To , ,

rec reatio nal abilities) thro ugh spo ntaneo us activities as naturally
go with life at thi s stage ( Beta acti v ities ). .

G ENERA L ST AT EM ENT ON M EAN S OF RE ALI ZI N G S O ME

OF TH E ABOV E OBJ ECT I V E
lThe work spirit
. . Perhaps the m ost difficult end the school can
undertake to re a li
se wit h this type gro up is that o f inculcat ing in
 SA MPLE S TUD IE S 3 03

its m em bers the hard , o r w o rk spirit The who l e atm o sphe re o f

, .

their ho me and of their o ut d -schoo l en v iro nm ent, is against it

, e .

The parents may e v en go so far as actively to o ppose it They will .

adm it the desirability o f the spirit of wo rk fo r peo ple in gen eral b ut ,

will sm ile at am bitio ns o n the part of their o w n daughters to wo rk ,

o r ev en aggr essi ve ly de ny h e r o ppo rtu niti e s to do so But perhaps .

the schoo l can acco m plish so me thing to ward re a l iz ing th e a im o f a

( )
a I t seems likely that th e wi ll need to be gin o n th e si de
ofl o rt
'

of actio n rather than ins truc tio n Apart fro m practice theo ry wi l l
.

becom e m ere sentim entalism The girls ma y be e nc ourage d to

.

undertake stren uo us physi cal exertio n pro jec ts partic ularly gro u p ,

hiku These sho ul d be lo ng and tryi ng a nd al l co m plaining sho uld

.
,

be taboo Th e te ac her sho uld he rself lead in the m S i m ilarly

. .

basketball or g ymnasi um pro jec ts co ul d be e m plo ye d b ut always ,

“ ”
in the hard spirit So too go od use co ul d pro bably be made o f
.
, ,

ho m e pro jects as making up the beds fo r a ce rtain peri od washing

, ,

the dishes sweeping the floo rs sew ing fo r c harity e tc These shou ld
, , , .

be supe rv ised in schoo l sho uld be co m petitive and sho uld be

, ,

sus tain ed by pressure fro m the c lass u nd e r the inspiratio n and

guidance of the teach er If it wo uld he l p any schoo l credit sho uld

.
,

( b) Alo ng with this prac ti ce in ha rd ac ti vities sh o uld go a

“
persistent efi ort to deve l o p hard ide als All o f th e teachers ”
.

sho uld be o n the l oo ko ut fo r any natu ral o ppo rt u nitie s to m ake such
“ ”
thrusts as will ad d odium to th e so ft attitude o r a ttrac ti v eness
“
to the hard o ne This in c idental teach in g sho uld pro bably be
”
.

su ppl e m e nted by syste m a ti c instruct i o n in t he so c ial scie n c e cl asses -

.

H ere a natural o ppo rt u nity ca n readily be fo un d fo r sho wing th e

place of the attit ude that ev ery o ne sho ul d produce a t least as m uch
as he co nsu m es Also a n o ppo rtu nity ca n easily be created in
.
,

co n nectio n with the st udy o f what m akes l ife m ost w o rth while

( perhaps as part o f a soc ial sc ience co urse ) fo r sho wing the val ue
-
,

of wo rk in o rga nizing perso nality an d as a factor in happiness A .

study of the Infl uenc e o f Wo m e n in Mo de rn L ife ( part of So cial

Science) based o n re ad in g and disc ussio n o f the l ives o f wo men

,
“ ”
hero es a nd o f m agaz ine sto ries o f wo m en w ho insisted upon
m aking their o w n way in spite o f the we al th o f their pare nts sho ul d ,
“ ”
add to the hard spirit .

2 Acquaiiita ncs with working cla sses and the w orking w o rld Of
. .

co urse this canno t be largely achiev ed in the little tim e that ca n

804 CIVIC E DU CA TION

be giv en to it in the sch o ol b e tw e e n th e age s oi l 4 and l 6 Yet s .

start ca n h e made tha t sho uld serv e as a b asi s of fut ure re adi ng

and stud y ( parti cularly co lle g e ec ono mi cs and soc i o lo gy ) and as ,

th e inc e pti on o f a hah i t o f th inking o f classe s oumide of one s o wn

’
.

To th e ab o v e e nd th e re m ay b e co nd uc te d a st udy of v ocatiom
( no t undertaken fo r th e purpose o f v o catio nal guid ance b ut rather
for tlia t of a pprec iatio n ) I t sho uld include a co nside ra tio n o f the
.

i m po rtanc e of the voc atio ns st udi e d in mode rn so ciety , certain

ge neral eco no m ic feature s abo ut the vocat io n and its wo rkers.
visi ts to establish men ts where the v ocatio n is being plied , and
”
p u bli she d co nf essio ns o f m e n e n g g
a e d in it the la st g
, i
v ing itl

b rig h t as w e ll as its dark side I n addit io n to the v isits to the

.

fac tories a nd o ther w ork ing plac es m ore pro lo ng e d v isits m ig h t be

,

made to th e manual- train ing sch ools w he re th e girls c o uld get

,

ac q ua i nte d with th e te c h nic al nam es o f th e to o ls and prow sses used .

Eac h girl sh mdd b e re quiie d to w rite up an acco unt of h e r field

s tudy usi ng in it th e pro per te c h ni c al na m es o f tools and proc esses
—
.
,

8 Study of the comm u n ity

. its ac tivities its institu tio ns its
, ,

serve as a basis fo r intelligently reading newspapers liste ning to ,

talks , or participating in conversatio ns o n co mm unity ma t ters It .

also aflo rds a ne c essary b asis for th e unde rstauding o f so c io lo gy and

'

ec o no m i
cs ta k e n up la ter i n th e sch ool care er Fo r the sake of .

o rientatio n in future st udy o f the co mm unity it m ight include .

besides the practice and content discussio n a disc ussio n of such ,

“ ” “
q uestio ns as Why peo ple should study their com m unity How ,
” “
to go abo ut st ud ying a co mm unity , The courte sies due in such
st ud ies ( This wo ul d need to lie in co ld sto rage for so m e ten
.

years b ut m ight do go o d in pro m pting later co m m unit y study )

, .

4 Orie ntatio n
. Th m e g irls will b e re q uired later to talne spe
.

that many , if no t m o st , perso ns go thro ugh co m pulsory m ath e

“
ma t ics and sc ienc e witho ut getting any real sense of the ext erior
relati o nships
”
o f these subjec ts They get no gen uine apmecia tion
.
'

o f the plac e o f ma the matic s i n li fe or eve n of the subject imelf

, .

The y o nly m aster , with such tho ro ughn ess as they m ust, its te chnical
details And th e sam e th ing is true of sc ie nce I am co nv inc ed
. .

that the best way to give perspective to the details i n which the
u
p p ils w i
ll la te r h e i
mm ersed is to m e c e de th e specialiae d co urses by
a ge ne ral o rie nti ng co urse In the ca se o f m a the m at i
. e s such a co m se

wo uld undertake to sho w by illustratio ns what is the spirit oi

fort iniate c lan es . Yet th e a l e le m e n t
aoc i th at in the
'

s po asfl ile

to o , as th e sc h ool nnde rtab es to h a large po rtio n of the

con tm l suc

d h B
’

g irl s tim e a s it n o w o ea t e e t
,a a c tiv it i
e s th a t
p a ao n nw da sh o idd b e i
n d udd w flh m th a t fi m e no t m w ded
o utai de ol it b y a full day of Alpha ac tiv ities b ut th m m no o b jec ,

tion to allo wing th eae ac tiv it ies to go osi in th e hom e e g v o m l . .

,

Oun m s or Connsa or Sr snr

M e m os

Mm . ch t pem ned pl rtles, e tc .

I Orn om z

d ar ho urs

S y ear ho urs
Art appre ciation m usic . a ppre c i
a tio n . prac t ical arts , etc .

Free play ch aperoned parties etc

, , .

C riticism of theater plays current e ven ts

-
, . e tc .

Social science is to incl ude a surv ey o f v ocatio ns and labo r co n

ditio ns and pro ble ms ; study o f the ac t iv ities and institu tio ns of the
 S AMP LE ST UD IE S 3 07

co mm un ity ; wo m en in mo dern life ( based largely o n wo man he ro

“ ”
sto ri e s and em phas iz i ng hard e le m e n ts ) ; wh at the sta te do es fo r
us and what we o w e i n t urn to th e state ; what o ur co untry stand s
“ ”
for ; the main ele m e nts in the pro gra m o f present da y rad ical -

po litical refo rmers; th e a ttitude o ne shoul d take to ward fo rward

m o vem en ts ; re l atio ns o f citiz ens to la w e nfo rce m e nt ; c urso ry dis
e nsaio u o f what we can do to pre vent o ur go v ernm ent fro m being
co rr upted ; o u r part in co nserving and in c reas ing the soc ial wealth

( as k ee ping do wn fires avo iding waste in foo d a nd c lo thing d is

, ,

pe using as largely as possible with th e perso nal se rvi ces of o thers ;

every m an a wo rker ; l uxury ) ; perso nal and com m unity health
explanatio n o f so m e of o ur present day so c ial and political insti
—
-

t u tio ns and custo m s in term s o f h o w they cam e abo ut as m any

of th e last as t i m e will perm it (This is th e o nly histo ry wo rk call ed

.

fo r here Bio g raphic al histo ry has preceded and the system ati c
.

stu dy o f histo ry ma y co m e later I n con nectio n with this last .

gro up o f to pics pro ble ms of perso na l cond uct can be bro ught in ,

centering abo ut the institutio ns and custo ms to which they relate ) .

Literat ure Reading of m ag azine sto ries in c lass with c riticism

.

o f th e m : also a few n o vels S tart with pre sent tastes and try to
.

l ead up grad ually to ward bet ter But do no t fo rc e de ve lo pm e nt . .

There is plenty o f sc hoo l tim e ahead Too m uch fo rcing will alienate .

th e g irls fio m th e kind of readi

ng in to w hich w e w ish to initiate
them inste ad
, o f a ttrac ting them to it ; besid es , o ur su bject wil l
c ease to b e a Be ta
if w e force it o ne .

A pplied biology The laws o f heredity studied first in plant and

.

ani m al applica tio ns then transfe rred to m an ; transm issible physica l

,

a nd m enta l defec t s; applicatio n o f this to av o iding c erta in types o f

m ates ; th e co ntro l of l o v e ; be havio r i n re latio n to the o pposite se x

sex hy g i e n e If lo ng o n tim e he re and sho rt in Social Sc ie nce the
. ,

e ntire discussio n o f th e co nserv atio n o f perso nal a nd co mm unity

health co ul d b e put he re (Applied bio lo gy is sc arcely an appro

.

pri a te nam e fo r suc h co urse b ut o ne dare no t at this ti m e nam e

, , ,
“ ”
it what it is, and Applied Bio lo gy se e ms to be a go od ca mo uflage
fo r it ) .

VI ( R A C ) A PLAN non C o w m c u nvo r im SPI R IT o r

. . . .

AM E RIC A r o r a n FOR EI G N BORN Po r n ( Aons 12 14) -

.
-

I Group conditions Bo ys aged twel ve to fo urteen bo rn in

. . ,

so u thern I taly no w li v ing in c ro wded fo reign q uarter o f a larg e

,

e astern Am erican city Ha v ing had a ye ar s instruc ti o n here in a

’
.
 3 08 CIVIC E DUC ATION

pu blic h oo l the y are ab le to speak th e E nglish lang uage well

sc ,

e no ugh to m ake k now n th e i r m ta and to undfl sta nd simple

E nglish when it is spo ken to them .

I L Diagnoru -
Th ese b o ys b e lo ng to poo r fam ilie s, th e large
.

majo rity of which have co m e fro m th e c ountry distric ts of southern

I taly no t fro m the slums of the cities Their parents for the most
, .

pa rt have been small farm ers o r hired labo rers w ho wo rked upon
.

the so il though b eca use of lo ng distances fro m centers, they have

, ,

be en acc ustom e d th m ugh necessity to perform m a ny odd jo h s m ch

“
as b uilding a ato ne wall, shoe ing a ho rse , m ending a plow cob bling ,

a shoe m ki ng a passable b roo m o ut of a ha ndful of h ush ea mm ,

’

”
ming a ha ystac k in an artistic manner etc Ab out on e fa mily in , .

ev e ry hiindie d h as co me from an l tali an c ity ; th el e th e male

pa r en h h a ve b een for t h e m ost pu t skifle d u th a m sto ne cn tt m .

sculpto rs barbers o r waiters The farm ers hav e nev er had as

, , .

hig hly ind ustrio us and thrifty They have co m e

, .

to im pro v e their ec o no m ic co nd itio ns be ca use to ,

“
ha s m eant The Land o f Opport unity as it has to
"
,

nest o f us .

physical! )
hea lthy inte nsely interested in increasing their powe r to use the
,

E ng lish language usually wi th a v i e w to m aking as soo n as possible

, ,

sm all earnings o utside o f schoo l ho urs and of leav ing sch o ol as ,

soo n as the law will al lo w They heartily dislike

. in school
afte r sc ho o l ho urs as th at interferes with wo rk
, o f them

by their parents w h o up to this perio d incline to stric t a xiom

, , ,

o f o bed i en ce the father be i

, ng abso l ute head of the house ho ld They .

stand alo of fro m m e m bers o f the sch oo l w h o kno w e ither less or

than th ey do th em se lv es and are disincline d to
g i
r ls o f th e i
r o w n age w h o are no t re la t i
v es as sucli
—
,

asso ciatio n is no t all o wed by their paren ts b ut are greatly

infl uenced by wo m en teachers whom they like The y sho w the .

inn a te po liteness w h ic h springs fro m kindness o f he art ; e vince

stro n g lo ves and hates that last ; have affec tio na te ways o f sho wing

appreciatio n of kindnesses tro in o th ers m re m uch give n to att ending

be nefits in the form of presents , so m e ti m es go ing to t w o or th ree

3 10 CI VIC E DUC A TION

no t so frug al as tlie ir pare n ts the y w ill o n the w ho le b e sim ple in

, , ,

their living except on days of grea t feasts and o n occasio ns of

,

fam ily re jo icing when they will expend large sum s on food and
,

flo ral deco ratio ns These peo ple will all belo ng to lab o r unions or
.

o th e r fraternities N o t m o re than the usual pro po rtio n o f a con! »

.

m unity where e arn ings a re sma ll will beco me la wbre akers and
find their w ay to j a il .

IV Prognosis ew is
. .Th e c i v i cs o f th e traditi o nal kind taught
.

in o ur sc hools will afl ec t the se pupils no t a t all On re ac h ing adult .

age th e y w i ll b e ea sily led b y a b o ss o f th e Am e ric a n typc or wmse ,

still
, by o ne o f the ir o w n n um ber w h o possesses the q uality of
leadership b u t no ade q ua te kno wledge The y will inte rpre t America .

in te rms o f their o w n pe rso nal experien ces with in divid uals with
who m the y happe n to co m e in direc t contact with individuals who ,

steal fro m them m ete o u t i nj ustic es to the m keep their wage as

M
, ,

low as possib l e ridic ul e th e m and treat the m ( ” e ta ptuo usly

,

these are th e po l ice man w h o ta kes ban anas fro m th eir father s
’

pushcart and do es no t pay fo r the m th e tactless so cial visito r who ,

see m s to the m to e nte r their h o m es thro ugh curio sity an d to inter»

fere in the ir fa mily affairs j udg es a nd j urym en who prac tic e upon
,

the m inj ustices a nd e xto rtio ns, native Am erica ns w ho think them
selves too go o d to asso ciate in friend l y relation ship wit h them .

The ir interpre ta tio n o f Am erica will be a guess fro m these co ncre te

e xperience s ; a nd th e ir resulting attit ude will be o ne o f suspic io n

to ward Am erica a nd antago nism to her institutio ns Pro bably .

abo ut 15 per cent will beco m e vo ters m ost of these will giv e their
vo te m e re ly beca use so m e o ne asks the m for it They will le arn .

suffi c i e ntly to se nse what they the m se lves hav e mi ssd in edu ca tion
to m a ke a n e ffo rt to giv e to the ir c hildre n a b e tte r e duca tio n than
they had Pro bably 90 pe r cent will m arry within the ir o w n gro up
.

and thro ugh m usi c a nd sto ry telling will pe rpe t uate thei
-
r ow n

ho pe s aspiratio ns and attitu des Only a ne g ligible n um ber will

, , .

l eave the United S tates per mane ntly They will no t read with .

eno ugh ease to enj o y reading therefo re wil l not im pro v e their
,

educatio n o r increase their kn o wle dge or make mo re reliable

, ,

the ir j udg me nts to any exten t thro ugh a habit o f rea d ing the daily
ne ws or current m agaz ines The y will tend th erd ore to perpetuate
.

their pre j udices in their c hildre n .

i f thi s gro up a t ages

c es o
—
80 60 will be : ( 0 ) Failure to realiz e that
Am eri ca is fo r their chil dren as fo r ot her c hildren o f this land a nd
 S A M PLE ST UD IE S 3 11

that the y m ust put all they have into effo rts fo r the welfare o f th e
c o untry and the welfare of their children w h o are to be o f th e

co untry and benefit fro m it ( )

b F ail u re to co m prehen
. d the val u e

nature (c) Fail ure to un derstand the perso nal returns that accrue
.

fro m hygieni c liv ing (d) Fail ure to rec o gnize the extent of perso nal
.

responsibility in the use of th e bal lo t and the choice of a leade r

,
.

( )
8 L ack o f standard s by whi c h t o j u d ge g o o d leader s (f ) F ai.l u re

to un derstand tha t A m eri ca n institu tio ns and Am e rican laws exist

so lely for th e goo d o f the Am erican peo ple .

VI Proposed specific obj ectives (a ) To de velo p an apprecia tio n

. .

of th e perso nal eq uati o ns in Am erican instit utio ns laws custo m s , , ,

“
aspiratio ns ideals , Ho w does this bri ng goo d to m e and to m y
”
c hildren ?

( )
6 T o d e vel o p th e will th e nece
, ss a ry Im a m a nd t h e ,r eq u i site

p o w e r to serv e t h e c o mm u nity in which th e y liv e a nd to , c o op e rate

with ze al in a gro up ca use ev e n whe n it is o pposed to a purel y per
so nal inte rest .

(c ) To pro duc e habi ts o f hygieni c living .

( )
d T o sti m u late the will a n d j u d g m e nt in ch o o s ing l e ad e r s

possessin g qualities o f fitness fo r their wo rk .

(3 ) To aro use a sense o f respo nsibility of the in divid ual as a

m e m ber o f the gro up .

VII Proble ms of method (a ) Reading is as ye t ac co m plished

. .

with labo r ; is it like ly that textboo k mate rial will secure any
functio ning resul ts ? (b) S ince the y are still strangers in the ne igh
b o rhoo d is it like l y that d irect appea ls to altru istic ten dencies will
,

co unt ? (0 ) Will the traditio nal m o rni ng talk accom plish anything ?

In the absence of A m erican experiences of a no rm al type is ,

no t the first need that of perso nal conta ct with im pellin g fo rm s ?

(6 ) What shall be the character o f these e xpe riences? (f ) In what

type o f sc hoo l will appro priate experiences be m ost read ily given and

VIII Proposed md kods (a) 0 n the b asis of th e b e lie f th a t goo d

. .

citiz enship is a ph ase o f liv ing com m o n to g irls and b o ys as we ll as

to ad ults that habits and aptitudes o f good civic li v ing gro w with
,

appro priate experienc es within sm all groups and that they begin to ,

gro w just as soo n as th e indiv idual b e gins to fee l him se lf a m ponsible

m em ber o f a so cial gro up , whatev e r his age, it is pro posed to ae com
plish gro u p situatio ns for these bo ys in wh ich they will w or k to ward
the ci v i c o bjectives pro posed under VI The ti m e all o wance wil l
.
3 12 CI VIC E D U C ATION

b e o ne ho ur each day I t is fe lt tha t this is no t exc essiv e sinc e thc

. .

sc ho ol s gie a tcst respo nsi

'
b ility to th ese b o ys lies in its ob liga tion to
integrate the m into Am e rica n life as o nly in th e suc cess oi this ,

proce se ca n Am e rica pro fit b y th e ir prese nc e h ere a nd can they

here enjo y their birthright of the pursu it of happine ss .

( 5) Proposed program in civics .

A . J unio r C ivi c League (o r so m e o the r ti tle c h o sa i by the

gested bel o w
An Ad v iaory Co uncil a G ood Cit i
. Mh d et o and lead to
ma tter sh ould

senship Co mm i tte e, Board at kno wledge oi rela te d go vernmenh l

Heal th Public W orks Departmen t
. , a ge nc ies, to names of presen 06 t
m y Departm e nL Entertainment cials and m e ho ds of se lec ti
. t
ng and

financ ing also ways th e indiv idnal

,

8 J unio r Aids (o r so m e o ther title chosen by the bo ys)

—
. .

“
A slogan of so me kind W e live in the scho o lroo m
five ho urs a day ; why not
m ak e it a p leasant place in
”
which to sta y ?
Co mm it tew self a ppo inted - Suggest ed possib ilitim
Decoration c —l
a more or le ss permanent h r t r:
c a ac e

S ubdivisions: sh elf plant loam , pict ure

, , .

. ll
Special Holiday Suzi Ha o we en, Armistice Day Tha nh giw
’
.

ing, Christm as Easter Season Va en ine s Day W ashingt on s

. . l t '

,
’

B irthday . Arb o r Day , etc . ( Additio ns and o m i

s aio ns am ording
i terest and loca li ty )
to n .

Auxiliary Co mmittees Th rift or waste exhibi t bulle tin board

. , ,

a nd fili ng corre spo ndence

, bureau of informatio n ( this in
.

conne c t io n wi th trave li ng or l o all y establ ish ed art or oth er

c

ha ve ma terial or information useful

s in c ivic
nne ctions: co

th is a t ivi ty may we ll b e xt ended int

c e o c om mun i ty se rvice to

th e foreign fam il i n w ly arriv d )

es e e .
o wn gro up They take an acti ve part in public
.
q nw tio ns, elections .

e tc .

8 Progm is general Th e se h o ys w ill b eco m e pro fe ssio nal men

. , .

( so me w ill b e tea c h e rs d iie to th e i

n flu e n ce of th e
, no rma l sc h ool) .

co mm e r cial o r b usi ness m e n Fe w of the m will e ngage in farming

—
.

o r the trades They will re prw en t the average we ll»to do citizen

. .

So me o f the m w ill b e lea de rs in the ir ch ose n pro fessio n They will .

be me m b ers o f th e lead ing clubs and w ill take part in the ac tiv ities ,

of the c ity There will be cooperatio n and lo yalty within their own
.

g ro w
4 Progno sis
. civic They will beco m e law abiding co nforming
. .
-
,

c itizen s with a te nd enc y to igno re any g ro up o f a different political

,

o r so cial fa ith M any o f the m will b e l ead e rs o f the rec o gnized order
. ,

so c ially a nd po litica lly Others will be abso rbed in self pro m o tion
.
-
.

5C ivic dqflc ie ncics I a c k o l understa nd ing o f a nd sympathy

. .

with the ao-calle d inferio r gro ups ; lack of adequate so ciological

bac kgro und ; lack o f ability to coope ra te with all c lasses ; lack ol
ability to m eet exigen c ies such as strikes e tc , , .

as a s pecific study in th e 8th grad e ( 0 ) To lay a fo undatio n for .

l ater c i v i c st udy ( 6) To a id th e gro up to m eet present ci v ic situa

.

tio ns wo rkin g kn o wledge o f data (c) To create a mo tive for

, .

participatio n in co mm unity life To deve lo p a degree oi co oper»

.

“
tio n initiative and respo nsibility (c) To develo p so cial tho ught
, , . .

fe eling and actio n , .

7 Proposed me thods ( 0 ) Use the pro bl e m pro je ct m etho d (6) -

—
. . .

F irst han d inv estigatio n ( c) S upple mentatio n boo ks m agazines

- .
, .

e tc . Participati o n i n sc hoo l and in co mm unit y when feasib le .

"
( )
8 Dra m atizatio n ( f) S o cia l ized . pro ce d u re .

8 ( a ) H ealth perso nal a nd public

—
.

( )
a l W o rk o f the h o m e sch o o l
co m m unity
—
.

( )
o f
! P u re fo o d s water m ilk etc , , .

Ho w o b ta ined distrib ut io n legis» , ,

latio n .

( )
0 3 D is po sal o f waste .

( )
b So cial agenci e s law s , .

(c) C i v i c beauty laws , .

(4)
( )
e S urvey o f th e co m m u nities i nd ustries
 3 15

Debates spe e c hes pagea n ts d ram as (o riginal )

, , , , sc o r e cards ,

charts maps partic ipatio n

, , .

V III ( R W . . . H ) Pno eo sa n
. P ROG RA M FO R Snnnc rno G RO U P

o —
B y 16 18 year
s age in high sc hools o f c ities o f
s of to
in N o rth Atlant ic states .

Case group These bo ys are a sifted gro up able to stay in school

. ,

co m ing fro m well to d o b u t no t we althy ho m es fo r the most part

- -

do no t expect to go to co llege Many racial sto c ks are repre sented . .

They have littl e enth usiasm fo r schoo l wo rk are infec ted with the ,
”
g t by
e attitude and give littl e tho ught as to the ir fu tu re life
,

w o rk On th e who le a cle an a nd who leso m e type since m ost o f

.
,

th e undesira bles have been sifted o ut ; gre atly intereste d in athletic s

like to jo in fra ternities a nd c l ubs ; prefer m e n teachers ; dislike
“
preachm e nts and so ft penalti es The y e njo y o pen disc ussio n
”
, .
,

pa rticul arly o f a po liti cal natu re and will re aso n m o re cle arly and ,

to the po int than girls in th ese matters .

Will bec o me fo r th e great part go od co nfo rm ing c itizens ; will

j o in a po litica l party and re m ain regular ; wi ll be skillful ly man ipu
la ted by party bosse s ; are sec tio nal i n the ir po litic al views ; will ho ld
mino r o ffi ces in the ir ho m e city ; b uild up a sm all b usiness of their
o wn or beco m e managers o r salesm en fo r l arge b usiness firm s In .

general a so lid upper grade m iddle class

M
-
, .

a in obj ecti ves Training that will pro duce : ( l ) a healthful

.

“ ”
citize n ( 2) a voca tio nal c itizen ( 8) an ed uca ted c itizen (4) a
, , ,

partic ipating c itiz e n (N os 1 and 2 al tho ugh highly im portant in

. .
,

any well ro un ded sc hem e for c i t ize nship tra inin g are no t un der
-
,

discussio n in this paper ) .

S peci
fic j ci the ed
vic ob ectives
u ca ted c itizen sh o ld
fo r
u in c l ude
( )
1 A bo dy of g e neral info rm ati o n : kn o wl e dg e o f ( )
a h i
s o wn

coun try and its instit utio ns ( 6) o the r co untri es and the ir ,

( )
2 An interest in and co m pre hensi ve un derstandi ng of th e so cial

( 8) An o pen m inded a ttit ud e to ward co ntro v ers ial subjects

- .

( )
4 A pro per ev al u ati o n of hi
s o w n resp o nsibilities fo r h i
s gro u p
relatio nships : ( a) ho m e ( b) asso ciate ( c) federate , , .

( 5) A reco gnition o f th e val ue of h is civic inherita nce .

3 16 CI VIC ED U CA TIO N

The partic ipa ting citizen h l d have training which will gi ve

s ou

( 1) The incenti ve gi v e tim e and tho ught and if need be

to , ,

pa rtic ipatio n in publi c affa irs .

( 2) An understa nding of the way to go ab o ut it to o b ta in authentic

inform atio n o n public q uestio ns .

(3 ) The ability to eval ua te co rrectly q ualities o f le adership in

publ ic servants
M
.

ethodology To ward m aking the educated c itmen are recon»

.
“ ”

mended co urses in ( 1 ) Mo dern H isto ry ; ( 2) A me riea n History and

G o v ern m e nt ; ( 8) Pro blem s in Am erican De mo cracy .

( 1) Mo de rn H isto ry : Intro d uc to ry state me n t As a teacher of .

histo ry fo r m any years I have co m e to feel with incre asing fo rce

that histo ry is no t do ing fo r o ur pupils what the Co m m ittee of
Seven said histo ry sho ul d do For instance in that report 6 899 ) . ,
“
und e r th e capti o n o f Training for C itizenship we note the follow
”

“
ing as o bject ives of histo ry : H isto ry cu ltivates the j udgm ent by
”
lead ing th e pu pil to see the re latio n between cause and efi ect z
“ ” “
th e po w e r to gather info rm atio n and to use it ; training in the
" “ ” “
h andling of boo ks; histo rical m indedness; dev elo pin g the
sc i e n tific habit o f tho ught ; e tc I t is m y co ntentio n tha t these .

o bjec tiv es splen did in the m se l v es in training citize ns

, are no t ,

realized fro m the st udy of histo ry as generally taught in o ur high

“
sc hoo ls to day Dr Tue l l in Study of N atio ns writes: H isto ry in
. .

the schoo ls has recently been pu t o n the defensive challen ged as a ,

fa il ure in its c i v ic fim ct io ns I ts established theo ry crum ble s for

.

lac k of definite soc ial purpose .

Proble m Let us se t as o ur o bjecti ves th e citize nship co nco mitants

.

se t for th b y th e C o mm i tt e e o f Se ven as list ed a b ove and ta lre our ,

“
method fro m Dewey : Th e true starting po int of bu to ry is always
’

"
so m e present day situati o n -
If this ge neral m etho d is follo wed
. .

t he l
c a ss wi
ll no t have th e custo ma ry c h art and g uide i
n the form of

a chro no lo gically arranged text Th e special metho d em plo yed is .

‘“
the pro blem pro ject with its essential fo ur steps purposing plan
-
, ,

ning e xecuti o n judg m en t

, The field to be co vered is fro m 1660
, .

to the present The class is dem ocratic ally orga n ized with c hairm an
.
,

secretary a nd activities co mm itte es a l arge chro nol o gical chart i

’

,
s ,

d rawn up refe rence shelves reserved in the school library o ne of

, ,

the C urrent E ven t Publicatio ns fo r each mem ber at the class and ,

M
a ci v ic no te bo o k kept .

Type of eals l
( ) The I nd us trial
. Re v o l uti o n and ho w it
3 18 CI VIC EDUCA TION

of fin ding th e ca m of w ha t is and the ca ses o f tha e causesj s

u n u
ver y m uch superio r to the spurious reaso ning whic h co mes from
"
expla i ning a re c ord alre ady kno w n W o rk th ia th e ory o u t in some
.

vital presen t -day situatio n e g the E ighte enth Am endm ent What
. . . .

are th e co nsti t u tio nal rig h ts cla im e d to b e i n v aded ? Le t th ese be

listed for purpose s of class disc ussio n and study .

( )
1 T h e r ig h t o f a sta te t o de t erm ine this iss u e fo r i tself ( )
2 T h e .

right o f the go vern m ent to take o ve r and destro y private pro perty

witho ut co m pensatio n (8) Th e right of a general state re ferendum

.

to o verrule legislative actio n ( 4) The cl aim that it was no t legally

.

ado pted : (a) due to the abse nce o f ma ny o verseas vo te rs ; ( 6) due to a

general willingness to sacrifice o ne s rights tem po rarily during war
’

tim e : (0) due to a tec h nical illegality in the wo rding of the amend
men t e tc Take these up for d isc ussio n separate ly con sult author
. .
,

ities pub lim tio na and ha v e eac h one defend his position A formal
, .

de b ate mig t c lose the ge ne ral disc ussion This is typical of the
“ h ”
Pro ble ms in Dem o cracy for the senio r year Th is course should
.

make use o f all tha t has gon e b e fore Go v e m me n h lik e h ist ory will
. ,

b e called in o nly when needed fo r purposes of pro blem so lution .

Our h igh sch ools can no lo ng e r pla y th e ostric h polic y on the co ntro
v ersi a l q uestio ns which will be m e t with this Twailfth y ear All f
.

teac h ers a nd pupils sh o uld b e see kers after truth , wor king in the
spirit of Franklin s plea for harm o ny at the Co nstit u tio nal Con
’

“
v e ntion: I t is light no t h eat gentlem en that the country dem ands
, , ,
”
of m ‘

These Pro blems ca n b e arrange d and presen te d by the teache r

aw o rd i ng to th e cha rac te r o f the clasa th e amo un t of av ai lab le
mate ria l and th e i m m e d iate interest o f the to pic S uggestio ns:
, .

Political problem ( 1) Types o f c ity go v e rnm ent ( 2) The Leag ue

. .

“
o f N a tio ns ( 3 ) The grandfa ther clauses ( 4) Co m pulso ry m i l i
”
. .

tary training ( 5) The D and R ec o no m ic pro blems : ( 0 ) Co n

. . .

serv atio n o f nat ural reso urces ; G o vernm e nt paper m o ney ; (0)
Ca pita l vs labo r ; (d) Th e tariff; ( a) G o vernm ent o wnershi p
. .

S oc ia l problm u ( 1) Imm igra tio n ( 2) The negro q uestio n : (3 )

. ,

Marriage and di vo rce (4) Soc ialism ; (5) Wo m en in ind ustry W en

, .
.

nigh indispensable adj unc ts to this co urse are : ( a) a debating soc iety
o r co ngress : ( b) a current e ve nts c l ub ; ( c) a clipping boo k or filing

ca binet : cooperatio n with th e l o cal librarian ; ( a) th e so cialized

rec itatio n ; (f ) a teache r trained to handl e th e project m etho d Ac .

co rdi ng to Parker it will take fo ur years in servic e adeq uate ly to

 SA MP LE ST UD IES 3 19

train a te ac he r to handle this metho d At th e c lose o f a d iscussio n

.

of any o ne of th ese pro ble ms it w o ul d be w e ll to ha ve a fo rm a l

debate T hereby those particularl y in tere ste d c a n go farther afiel d

. ,

co nsult m any a utho rities prepare a brief a nd lea rn to think and

, ,

talk to the po int .

He re is th e place fo r the thin textboo k One small boo k co ul d .

co n ta in the basic m aterial fo r o ne o f th ese m a in pro blems o r a

re lated g ro up of pro bl e ms This material sho uld present bo th sides

.

o f the q uesti o n a nd q uo te e xte nsiv e ly fro m a uth o riti

, es So m e of .

the fundam en tal princ iples o f econ o m ic theo ry sho uld be set fo rth :
e g
. . th e laws go verning supply a nd de m a nd ; th e theo ry of Mal th us ;
,
“ "
G resham s Law At the close o f this thin text debatable m aln
’
.
,

tio ns bearing o n the pro ble m co ul d b e prese n ted a nd possibly the ,

m a in heads o f a brief with a few goo d refe renc es o n bo th si des of

,

the q uestio n .

D u ring this as well as th e prev io us year the c lass sho ul d ha ve train

ing in e val ua ting th e ne ws distinguishing be tw ee n fact and o pinio n
, ,

and c o m pa ring and balancin g autho rities They sh o uld learn h o w to .

handle the De we y deci m al system a nd th e Readers Gu i de I t wo uld ’

.

b e greatly to their advanta ge to kn o w a little psycho l o gy eno ugh ,

a t le ast to sho w them h o w habits are fo rm ed with definite a ppli ca

. ,

tio n in their i ndivi dual cases in learning ho w to study o r h o w to

, ,

break a bad habit and fo rm a good o ne .

“
The partic ipating citizen : The c itizenship m uscles of th e future
”
Am eric an man and e ve n mo re wo man m ust be e xerc ised Th e
, , .

best ho pe we ha ve o f the kind of citizens th m bo ys are go ing to b e

co m e is th e kind o f c itiz e ns they pro v e the mse l ves to h e in their daily
c on tac ts a t sc ho o l and in th e co mm unity To b e sure th e pulls . ,

and strains o f later ye ars ma y o verco m e al l previo us training T wo .

things we can do : First subjec t th e bo ys to as m any of these v ita l

,

situa tio ns in sc ho o l as w e ca n de vise Th e schoo l sho ul d o rganize

.

in as demo cratic m a nne r as possible o n the basis o f m ee ting its o w n

ne eds and no t o n an y artific ial basis Pu pils sho uld part ic ipate in
. .

the o rganizatio n and directio n o f sc hoo l ac tivities b o th athle tic ,

and so cial Elec tio n o f officers for these positio ns sho ul d be co n

.

d ucted in a d ign ifie d a nd pa rliam entary m anne r Th e re are m any .

ways o f ge tting this type o f partic ipatio n within th e sc hoo l b ut ,

mo re im portant and far m o re diffi c ult is the second ; nam el y pa rtic i ,

patio u that ta kes th e bo y o ut into th e co mm unity do ing tho se wo rth ,

whil e things whi ch the c ity recogn ises as being distinc tly val uable .

Du ring the war there were many sple ndid ill ustratio ns of this : e g .
3 20 CI VIC ED U CATION
Bo ys Working Reserv e This
the finest type of cit izenship
’
. w as
training as their ci v ic idea ls ev entuated into wo rth while activity
,
- .

“
Actio n 18 the o nly fo undatio n of virtue says Aristo tle W e nee d ,
”
.

se w ays and mea ns of ge t ti

to de v i ng h o ys of th i
s age g ro u p in te reste d

and engaged in such c om m unity activities Tw o helpfu l pu blica .

Th e J unio r C itizen pu blish ed by the C ham ber of Co m

tions : ( 1 ) ,

m erc e Linco ln N ebraska is an ac c ount of th e ac tiv itie s and

, , ,

co mm unity pro jects o f th e J unior C ivic and Ind ustria l Le ag ue The .

signific ant fact i s that the C ham ber of Co m m erc e o f L inco ln i s

w orking w ith th e sc h ool lea gues a v e ry h o pe ful sign ( )

2 A C u s
—
, o r e .

o f Stu dy in C i v ics stressing particularly participati o n issued by ,

founder is wo rth a thousand f rmers ( Horace Mann )

re o
”
.

IX ( J V L M ) Pno rosnn Paoc am C m c E nuom os m

M
. . . . or
Ar ra m xc n Serm o ns m r a n am s c rna m o C a m s m
'

n:
Ra n so m S no re
I Co nsid e ratio ns u po n w h i ch reco m m e ndatio ns
. are base d
l Typs of student
. .

Bo ys age g ro up 16 to 18 or first two years of a pprentice

, ,

ship ; high percen tage o f n a tiv e parentage ; a bo v e the average

sc h o o ling ( usuall y 8 th grade o r better ) ; a gro u p se lec ted by

the m anagem e nt o f the e m plo ying industry fo r a pparently

su perio r in dust ri al in te llig e nce a nd physiq ue an d by reject»

ing undesirabl es after a probatio nary pe rio d o f se veral

m o nths ; applicants willing to fo rgo th e so m ewhat better
finan c i al re turns o f o rd inary ca sua l ado lesce nt e m plo yment
to stic k to o ne em pl o ye r fo r a pe rio d o f three to five years .

a nd to utilize part of their o w n free tim e in st udy or supple

m e ntary night— sc hoo l instruct io n a nd w ho pre fe r m anual

,

e m pl o ym e n t to se de n tary cl e rical positio ns .

2 . Adult gro up aged 25 to 60 who m the y ma y be exp ected to

repl ace : ind ustrial fo re m e n a nd superintendents and the
un io nized c raftsm e n ; a co nsiderabl e percentag e appre n tice
tra ined ; fre quentl y relatives o f th e bo ys ; sho w a tende ncy to
m ig rate in em plo ym e nt d urin g a period after c o m pleting
a pprenti c eship ; a ppare ntly pre fe r stabl e em plo ym ent in

m a ture yea rs ; unde r fa v o rab l e co nditio ns ho m e o wn e rs and

fam ily m e n ; patrio tic a nd until rec ently co nse rv ative in
the ir po liti ca l o pinio ns ; at presen t apparently sh o w a ten
d e ney m o re rad ical as e vi de nced by suc h m o vem ents as
.
322 CIVIC EDUC A TION

Co n aan B
6 . Hea lth .

a . Tem peranc e . a thle tic club s

7 .

a . I n vestigation of sum mary o f ac c i

den ts in th e plant with die
,

e nsa ou of i means of pre ve n tion . W or km en s com pensation law

'
.

b . Firs t t
a d rea me n
- i t t .

Em ploye es coopera tive en terpri

’
8 . ses .

a . Dismission of any such in operation e itha in pla nt conc erned or

wha e kno wn '
to boys So urces of savi ng in distrib utio n cost
. .

9 .

a . The plant s ta ble of organizatio n

'

b . Persona li ty of offic ia ls an d dut ies . .

c . Team wo rk and c om pany loyalty .

a . The industrial vo l utio n re .

b . Ca uses for presen t l im i ted scope of apprenticeship .

c. C ita tion of atte m pts at comm unistic e nte rpr ise .

d . Discussi on of sta te soc ial ism syndicalism and ind ustrial . ,

11 . Pro blem s of soc ial betterme nt .

b . Educa t io n .

X (C H
. . . C) . Pno s u m s o r Pno o as u or Se aman C ivrc E m rios
eo n A C HI N ES E G no m
1 . Group . Bo ys
in j unio r and senio r classes o f a spec ial high
scho o l in C hina whic h prepares them to co m e o v er to the U n it ed
,

States fo r higher educatio n I t is locat ed in th e o utskirts of Pek ing .

( abo ut fo ur m iles fro m the c ity ) .

 SA MPLE STUD IES 823

2 . Dia gnosis These bo ys co me fro m prospero us fam ili es which ,

usu all y are no t in Peking The y are ad m itte d to the sc ho o l by com

.

p e t it iv e exa m inati o ns h eld in d iffe rent par ts o f th e co un try an d s o ,

they are a highly selec ted gro up The y are bo ys wi th a m bitio n and .

visio n and ha ve had substantial preparatio n e ither in th e m iddl e

, ,

sc hoo l o f th e sam e in s titution or in so m e o the r goo d instit utio n , .

The y ha ve bee n g uarde d by co nsidera ble pare ntal o versight and

g iven spec ial a ttenti o n by te ach e rs D urin g their sc ho o lin g th e y .

are living in do r m itor i es sel do m go ho m e except in th e sum m e r

,

vac atio ns a nd ha ve little c hance to associ ate with the o pposite se x

,
.
.

The y are well no urished by th e co ntro lle d d iet o f th e schoo l The ir .

teach e rs are well tra ined a nd w e ll paid Th e faciliti es a nd eq ui p .

m en t in th e sc hoo l are the best in th e co untry Th e scho o l .

also h as a l arge libra ry and g ym nasi um un de r th e superv isio n of ,

experts .

Do m inant c haracteristic s : physica lly hea lthy interested in spo rts ,

a nd g am es ; eag e r to le ar n fail u re o f sc ho o l w o rk o r poo r g ra e

regarded as a sham e kee n c o m pe titio n in class wo rk as well as in

,
d
,

e xt ra cu rri c ula r ac tiviti es ;

-
th e re are no fraternities b ut m any ,

c l ubs a nd o rg ani za tio ns fo r intellect ual purposes o r o therwise ,

un der th e su pe rvisio n of special co m m ittee s of the faculty ; poem s

high m o ral e bein g stro ngl y co nfo rm ist ; re ligio us instruc tio n o nl y
,

thro ug h private Bible classes and info rmal ; so cially they hav e ,

parti es o ften am o ng the mse lves and with teachers; sc h oo l atmo s

p h e re , highly so lidifi ed .

3 Prognosis general E xcept a fe w in the lo wer q uartile all wil l

.
, .
,

co m e to the United Sta tes for highe r ed ucatio n a ided by go ver nm ent ,

sc ho la rships a nd co nseq ue n tl y they are destined to beco m e leaders

, ,

in d ifferent pro fessio ns Owing to the ir spec ial abilities and training
.
,

they usually e nter the j unio r cl asses in sm all co lleges first and when ,

they finish undergradua te wo rk they go to large institutio ns fo r ,

postgraduate wo rk Usuall y they stay in thi s co untry for five years

. , ,

a nd carry with them Ph D M A o r an e n g in ee rin g degree when

. . , . .
,

they go bac k They wil l do pio neer wo rk in m odernizi ng C hina and

.
,

they will be co nfro nted with m any diffi cult situati o ns Th eir re spo n .

si b ility 18 g reat b ut the ir re m unerati o n is o ften po o r

, .

4 Prognosi
. s speci al
, Besides c ivic educatio n like that gi v en
.

to pupils in o the r instit utio ns the y n ee d a spec ial c i v ic e d ucatio n , ,

which giv es the m special inte llige nc e to unde rsta n d the U nite d
State s and to re present C hina a nd to beco m e leaders in differe nt ,

pro fessio ns in China They have had us ua l ly six o r se ven years of

.
3 24 C I VIC EDU CA TI O N

E nglish , and are ta ugh t ofte n by A meric an te achers and -

use English

Witho ut special ci v ic educatio n they will be su perio r citizens , .

They have ofte n he ard of certa in Am erican ideals and ma nne ra and
“
are inspired by the m They are especially intereste d in damoc
.

”
racy and read with m uch interest bio graphies of Am erica n heroes
, ,

lo yal to the repub l ic and kno w their responsfliility

, , b ut are ebe llious
r

against certa in co n ve ntio n s and superstitio ns

M
.

ost of th e m will b e co me good write rs a nd speake rs Th e y are .

eag er to learn to cooperate, interested in po lit ics and natio nal

on i
ti n Am e ri deals
ca n i a nd ideas, so th at th e y will ha v e a clear

u nder t ding and ym patheti c appreciatio n

s an s ; o f them ( )
b i
n str uc~

tio n in internatio nal re latio nship between the Unit ed S tates and
C hina for th e same purpose as ab ov e ; ( c ) training in Am e rica n c us
to ms and m a nne rs so that th e y ma y kno w h o w to co ndu ct them
,

se lves in Am erican so ciet y ; (d) training in spe cial virtue s suc h as ,

cooperatio n initiative, etc , so that they will becom e go o d leaders:

, .

( )
as instru cti o n in kn o wl e dge o f soc ial eco n o m i c a nd po litic al,afl airs . .

so that they will beco m e inte lligent leaders ; ( f ) training a nd i nstruo

tio n in effective me thods fo r ac hieving desired politic al a nd so cial
c hanges o r refo rms in their co untry .

6 Special i ic sducalion yivcn no w : ( a) a course in Ame rican

cv
.

histo ry and ci v ics ( b) occasio nal lectures o n Am erican ide als and
,

c usto m s ; ( c) enco uragem ent to pa rt cipate in d iffere nt ac tivities b y

the faculty ; (d) a co urse in ec o nom ics

i .

7 Spec ial civic cducation to bc addcd N ec essary instruc tio n and

. .

training to supple men t fi, in orde r to fulfill s .

8 Problems of md h od ( 0 ) Shall we gi ve special civ ic ed ucation

. .

in Alpha o r Beta type o f st udy , o r bo th ? ( b) If it is Alpha ho w shall ,

the m ater ial be o rganized ? by didactic presentatio ns? by pro je cts ?

by read ings and repo rts? etc (c) If it is Beta ho w sho uld it be do ne ?
. ,

by organizing cl ubs? by ill ustrating talks? by mo ck plays ? etc .

9 Proposed methods (n) A fo rm al co urse in internatio nal rela

. .

o nshi s between the Unite d S tata

ti and C hina sho u ld be gi v en
p ,

with read ings and re po rts by the studen ts ( b) A fo rmal cou rse .

co nsi
sti
ng o f le ct ures on Ame rican idea ls and id a nne rs and
326 CIVIC E DU CA TION

his infim nce will no t exte nd b eyo nd his autho rity I t is im poss iblc .

for an o utside r to brea k the w ill o f a ga ng H is efi o rts are lik ely to

.

ha ve the o pposite efi ec t Any indiv id ual me m b m of th e gro up who

'
'
.

“ ”
in a mo m e nt o f weakne ss is induc e d to tell ta lw o n th e ot hers .

no t o nly lo se s caste w i th the organiza ti o m b ut thm ug h hi s very

tre a so n stre ng the ns the o the r me m b ers in the ir de te rmin ation to

adhere to the accepted standards .

8 . Th e third princ iple is tha t eoery wwdificatioa the sta ndardr of

the woup aad m moml m diw tm nt in the m inda of th c indiriduala
comm i ng the gro up m bert be brought abmd by me a m q m ppliao
with oital issua Th ese issue s m ust b e re la ted to thc personal
.

expe ri e nces or a t least to th e i nte rw tm g v ica ri

o m e xpe ri e nc es of the

in di vid ual m e m bers Th e mo st vital issues are those whic h tend

MM
.

to gro w o u t o f the ir im m ed iate g rou p life Dr Frank c urry

. .

8ay8 th a t a seri es of iss ues w hi c h are v ital to the stude n t co nstitutes

“
a curric ul um . Dr Dew e y says that ideas m ust be acq uire d in a
.

vital way in order to beco me mo v ing ideas m o tiv e fo rc es in the .

”
guidanc e of co nd uct The v italizing el e m ent is e m o tio nal It is
. .

related to the nee ds o r interests of the indi v idual in re latio n to

his gro up life When a situatio n presents itself which demands a
.

respo nse o n the part of all the ind ivid ual me m bers of the gro up .

it beco mes a vita l issue There will be interplay of m inds Facts

. .

will be bro ught o ut and info rmatio n so ught in th e adj ustment of

the issue I t is e vide nt that under these c ircumsta nces th e informa~
.

tio n o r kno wledge that is acq uired will find its pro per place ; nam ely .

in the service of purpose .

.4 Th e fo urth pr incipl e is that th e positive soci a l virtues ca n beat

be d m gthm od by mc am of acta al participatio n Th e ac tiv ities of .

the group m ust be co operative The bo ys m ust play to gethe r and

.

wo rk to gethe r ; they m ust parti c ipate no t o nly in the ac ti v ities of

the small gro up in which they ho ld their im m ediate m em bership ,

b ut also in many o f the ac ti v ities of th e larger c om m unity o f which

they are a part During the war o ur wisest teachers u tilised their
.

g o l de n o ppo rt unity to te ach c itizen sh ip by m ean s o f such participa

tion pro jects as v isiting th e sic k ; w ar garde n ing ; selling Liberty

Bo nds ; inves ting in Sav in gs Sta m p ; a nd wo rking fo r the Re d Cross .

Suc h partic ipatio n is usef ul no t o nly because it tends to fix certain

habi ts of participatio n b ut also be ca use it te nds to establish cer ta in
,

ideals and a ttit udes The develo pm ent o f a so cial co nscie n c e of a

. ,

co m m unity of interest th e bringing to hear of so cial pressures will

. .

req uire a te chnique wh i c h is diffi c ult to create unl ess there is so cial
 SAMP LE ST UD IE S 3 27

participatio n . By he lping to ma ke f th e gam a th e

th e m les o

indiv idua l w ill learn fro m eXpe rie nce ho w agreem e nts are re ac h ed
by c om pro m we and thus co m e to rea lise the ad van tages of coopera
,

tive ac tivity By being sub je cte d to social pressure he learns to

.

respond to i t By ta king pa rt in th e pro je cts of th e gro up h e will

.

leam tha t he is expec te d to do is sh a re o f th e wo rk By exe rcising

h
his co nscience o n live mo ral issues he b e co m es sensitive to th e
.

principles invo lved .

5 Th e fifth pr inc iple i

. s t h e pri nc ipls of group moti m tion Tho m .

“
dike says Mo tivatio n m ust be stro ng en o ugh so that the indi v id ual
,
”
will act and ac t ag ain and b e dissa tisfie d b y oth e r types o f act io n .

In a gro up of Bo y Scouts the leader co nstantly aims at so c ial

m o tivatio n This is do n e by praising the grou p as a whole rather
.

than any indi v id ual m em ber o f it by setting up gro up o bjectives

,

to be ac com plished ra ther than indi v id ual o bjec ti v es .

6 T h e sixth principle is tha t th c sm ll gm up virtw s should bs

.

strength ensd m d m ad as a baair for thc strm gthm ing qf ths virtm

tha t wfll bc w sftd in th o la rge r pm up E ac h indiv i d ual m ust learn to

.

adj ust him self to g ro u p life The first adj ustm ents that he learns
.

to ma ke are nat urally tho se inth e fam ily c irc le and in th e im m e di a te

neighbo rhood Th e late r and perhaps m o re im perso nal adj ustm ents
.

to the larger co mm unity are inte rpreted in th e lig ht of h is earlier

and mo re perso nal adj ustm e nt s In the fa m ily and neighbo rhood
.

gro u p he m ust learn no t to be q uarrelso me h e m ust no t tell lies h e , ,

m ust no t co mm it inj ury against any m em ber o f the gro up he m ust ,

no t be unj ust h e m ust no t ste al he m ust no t be untru thfu l

, , .

7 The se ven th princ iple i

. s th at the limits and ths conflid s bd w n
the rm a and ths largs m p rew mwkips niud be ob m ly dsfim d
a nd si tuatiom m ust be providad for solving problm u in wkich suc h
co n fl id s occ w S m a ll gro.u p lo ya ltie s are a m e na c e to soc i
e ty a t
large unless upo n these lo yalties there are grafted mo tives for th e
,

we lfare o f th e larger gro up .

8 Th e e igh th prin ciple i

. s th a t ths parsom wy of the tsacher or

leader is a funda nwntal fad or m the a tablish m nt of swndards and

“ ”
traditions . As is th e te acher, so is th e schoo l The co nc rete .

reality of living perso nality in dail y conta ct with th e child is perhaps

th e m ost e fie ctive so urc e of his i dea ls Th ere is no thing m ore con
.

ta gi o us th a n perso nal exa mple The v irtues and th e v ic es ot th e

.

leadm te nd to be im itate d hy the m em bers of the gm up The

~
.

a tti tudes tastes pre judic e s, and i

, , deals of th e le ader te nd to b e
unco nscio usly abso rbed The sum to ta l o f the leader s attitudes
.
’
.
 UC AT I U

of those w ho are b e ing le d .

the m h ample s oi suc h

”
mo ttoes state d in th e
” “
ne ga tive are
” ”
Do n t be a qu itte r ; Do n t be yello w ; Do n t be a m ucker
’ ’ ’
a ,

sq uu le r
” ”
a pussy-foo ter ;
,
”
Do n t be a cad Other examda
’
.

”
stated poiti v ely are :
s Be sq uare ; Be ho nest ; The fair play
‘ ’

” ”
boy ; The sq uare dealm .

10 .The te n th princ iple is thc law of d ect The b est w ay to b uild .

an inhibitive habit in any indi v id ual against an antiso cial practice

is to assoc ia te the prac tice with dissatisfac tio n or anno yanc e One .

such anno yance may be en o ugh to fo rm a perm anent inhibition .

Th e b urnt c hild dreads th e fire The b urning was an anno yance . .

The b o y w ho is ca ug h t in th e ac t of ch ea ting o r stealing and who

finds so cial pressure and disappro val against such prac tice , may be
p e rm an e n tly cu re d the m o me n t h e fee ls th e sen se o f sh am e I n s .

form er gene ratio n the c lergy m an tried to aro use h is hearers to a

“
co nsc io usness o f sin This is good educatio nal psycholo gy A
. .

stro ng feel ing o f dissatisfactio n will se t up inh ibitiv e tendencies

that will stand i n the way o f a reac tio n whe n the next tem ptation
co m s e .

s thc law d saticfad iou Da vey

’

The c o un te rpa rt of th is princ iple i .

”
says that inhibitio n I S no t sufi cien t ; instinc ts and im pulses m ust
”
be co ncentrated upo n posi tiv e ends When a . b o y ha s do ne a good
deed w h e n he has re ndere d a so c ial se rv ic e
, , w he n he h as sh own
hi mself trust wo rthy in word and act , h is right actio n sho uld be
ac co m panied by satisfact io n This satisfactio n may be the m ull .

“ ”
of an inner sq uaring o f his acti o n with h is accepted stand ards .

Or it may be the result of the appro val of h is superi o rs and of his

eq uals o f h is right actio n .

1 1 The eleventh pr inciple 18 that ide als and attitudes are pm

.

“
izations qf spsci fi c h a b i
t s B u ild fro m.specific habits by the ind uc
“
ti ve m etho d says Snedden ’
Prej udices and attitudes m ay grow
.

“
o ut o f specific hab i ts says Bagley as when the habits of Su nday
”
, ,

o bservance established in early chil dhood beco me mo re or less

, ,

x
e p l icitly fo rm u lat e d a s ideal s and grad ually co me to exp ress
 BI BLI OG RA PH I C AL N OTE
1 . For stude nts w bo ca re to pursue so c olo g e al s
i i mdies basic to
ci vic ed ucatio n al uable bibl io graphical lists of
, v boo ks and articles
ng : w
n th e fo llo w i
ca n b e fo und i F R Princ ipla d w ucatiom l
, . . ,

Socioloyy; Ssm u W R Aa 1ntmdud io to Ed ucatioaal Soeiology;

n
'
.
, . ,

H arv ard University Guide to Readings in Social Ethics and Allied

,

Subj ects; Da w n? AN D To r rs Ethics; Su san M E

-

M
, , . .

oral I nstruction and Tra inin g in Schools .

2 Under date of 1020 the ( United States) Burea u o f Education

.

“
published as Library Le aflet N o 10 a List o f Re ferences on
, .
,

”
Ed ucation for C itizenship co nta ining o ver 200 titles o f c urrent

8 .Use ful articles will freq uently be fo und in files o f the se peri
o di can J ournal of Sociology; Educational Admin i
ca ls : Ame ri stration
 I N DE X

Adult ca se gro ups, 33 ; c ivic prac t ices , Co mm unity leadersh ip 52 , .

177 . Co m petition for ascendency , 28 .

Aim s of educat io n 11 , . Cotiperation, 2; ana yze d, 7 9 l .

Am erican h istory 60; in , c ivic educa Co urses of ins ruc io n 17 2 t t , .

t io n , 252 . Crim ina i y 88 lt , .

Art age nci

es in c ivic educa ti o n, 220 lt t
C u ural educa io n, 9 1 .

Average t e ach e rs, 49 . C ultural g oups r , 96 .

B ibl iograph ical 330 no e ,t . De batable issues in c ivic e duca tion ,

Boy Scout M o ve m e n , 18 1 t .

Dem ocracy , educa ion for 146 ; e v o t ,

Carrigan Rose A , .
, recomm endations lutio n of 159 ; soc io ogica condi
, l l
tions of 147 ; wh a is i ? 151
, t t .

Case gro up ,
s 33 ; ill ustrated , 41, 109 , t
De m ocra ic education 164 , .

13 1, 258 . t t
De m ocra iza io n of sc hoo go vern l
Case group m e h od, exp a ined, 245 t l m en t , 195 .

l t t
il us ra ed, 7 8, 185 ; uses of, 128 . Departm e ntal organizatio n 45 , .

l
Case prob em m e h od, 234 t . De ve lopm e ntal objec tives 144 ,

Ch uang Ch ai H . recomm e nda ions

, . t Deve lopm e ntal rea dings, 218 .

of. 322 . Didactic m e th od 189 201 , , .

t
C i ize nship, indirec factors in, 30 t . Drake Maude E recomm e ndatio ns
, .
,

C ivic e duca ion, b y e nvironm e nt t , of 3 13

, .

174 ; co urses of s udy in, 236 ; t Dram at ic projec ts 216 254 , , .

de m ands for, 7 ; de ve opm e n a , l tl

122; in firs six grades, tin Econom ic prob e m s, 226 l .

second si x grades, 239 ; i ndi rect 8 ; t

Educa ion, aim s of. 5 ; broad y l
in seco ndary sc hoo s, 17 ; m eam ng l de fined 85 ; differe n ia ion of 6 ;
, t t ,

o f, 29 ; m ea ns and m e h ods c assi t l for dem ocracy 160 ; for u iiza io n , tl t ,

fie d, 187 m e ans and m e h ods of t , 133 ; m eaning of 83 ; ob ect ives of , j ,

t
258 ; m e h ods of 169 ; nee ds of, , lk
1 ; princ ipa inds of, 12; qua i a lt
j t
248 ; ob ec ives of, 3 2; oppo r uni t t t t
ive dis inc ions in, 88 .

t ie s for 65 ; ou side of sch oo , 251 ;

, t l t l
Educa io na l o o gy , m ea ni ng o f
°

l
soc i a ne e d for, 35, 121 ; spec i fic t
74 ; m e h in, 7 7 ; research in, 7 5 .

j t
ob ec i ves in, 182; sugges ions for, t t
Educa ive processes 86 , .

t
55 ; we igh ing of, 117 . l
Efi ciency , persona , 20 .

t t lt
C ivic po en ia i ies, variabii y of 34 lt , . l t t
E ec ive s udies in high sch ools, 69 .

l
C ivic prob ems, 61 . l t t
Eva ua io n, sc ien ific 114 ; soc ia , l ,

C ivic progno sis 184 , . 1 12 .

l t
C ivic se ec ion by sch oo s, 196 l .

t
C ivic sh or ages, 37 135 de erm ined , t l
Fa irchid, Mi o n, th e Perfect H u lt
j
b y ury , 136 m an Be ing, 101
”
. .

ll t
Co ec ive socia efi c iency , 153 l . l
Fam iy groups, 94 .

t
Co m m uni y c ivics, 238 . t
Federa e soc ia groups 18, 15 l , .

33 1
 t
G if e d e achers 48 t . . of, 144; me th o ds finding 135 of , .

G rade d sch ools 58 . . Objw fivu d generd e dna fion fi ;

G rade teach e rs in urban sc oo s.h l 57 .

G rade s, upper 57 . . Oligarchy. 150 .

188
te »R0 y W t
i
Ha recomm enda 1o ns d
3 11
Pm ", Ch m C W W W
t
Here di y and e nviro nm e n 83 t , .
o n301 °

High schoo s, sma , 54 l ll .

Histm ic schoo sub ec s 50 l j t “

Princ iple s in "
.
,

c ivics , 1 41 .

History t i
s ud es, 198 ; in vi
ci c e duca

ti o n, 67 , 188 ; c o nte n t at. 200

results of. 202 .

Home the in c ivic e ducat io n 192

, , . .

1nd1mtrial dem o cracy 157

Project m ethods 210
, .

, .

Pro j ects 212; illustra te d 214; in

Junior high sc o o h l . 66 ; c ivic e duca
c
,

ivic educat ion 190

,

ti on in 241 , .
, .

Jury t
de erm ina tio n of c ivic short Racig l wane s, 149
'

age s. 136 .
Re adings 1n c ivics 58 . .

Re la tive values m e duc atio n 124 . .

Le ade rsh ip 132 , .

Lim it at io ns in h um a n po wers 148 , .

Ross, E A quo e d. 163 t

MC
. .
.
,

c a ry , An nie L . , re co m m endatio ns m Abby , W W W bl “

Mia n Sum 53 . .
Ru ral sch oo l teache rs . 46 .

Me tho d ge neral princ i ples of 179

. . .

M ode rn the ories of educa tio n 47 . .

M oore Clyde B rec omm enda tio ns

.

b y 279 . .

l
Mora discip i ne 102 l . .

Morris J V L recommendations
. . .
m 68 .

hy 320 School e v alua ti of. in

. .

j
sub e cta on

Needs for educa tion 126 . . Secondary education , reorganization

Neighborho od groups 95 , . of. 17 .
L o yal C it iz e n sh ip
By T no ma s H a au so n Rssn
Pr gfem r f
c Gov er n ed ,
f
Univer sity gf Cali or nia

H I S textb ook tiz e nsh ip and

on ci its prob l em s
for th e jun i o r h igh sc h oo l acquai nts th e young
stude n t w i th th e fun dam e ntal princ i pl es o f g ov
e rnm e nt e c on o m i
, c s an d soc i
, o l ogy unde rl y ing all
c om m un i ty l ife I t teac h e s h im th at sound gov
.

e rnm e n t rest s upo n th e i n du st ry a n d h i gh c h arac

t er o f its c itiz e n ry I t giv e s h im a practical con
.

c epti o n o f th e sc 0 pe o f h is futu re duti es It .

u
p p r o se s t o m ak e h im a l o ya l pat rio t w ith o ut
e nc o u rag i ng h i m to b e priggish in h is e nth usiasm
fo r h is c ountry .

T h e m otiv e o f th e b ook is th e train ing o f students

fo r c iti z e n sh ip . T o th is e n d it e m ph asiz e s th e
p r inc ip l e s u n de rl y in g g o v e rn m e nt a n d so c ie t y .

I t im pre sses o n th e stude nt at e v e ry ste p h is

e th ic al an d c i vic re spo nsi b il it ie s m re l ation to h is
ri gh ts an d priv ilege s .

Loyal Citis e nsh ip w ill dev elop an intelligent att i

tude to w ards t h e prog re ss o f po l itic al and so c ial
in st itut ion s an d w ill g iv e th e young stude nt goo d
re aso n s fo r h i s fai th and pride in th e ide al s o f
A m erica .

Cloth 333 pages I llus trated

‘

. x .

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BO O KS O N G O V E RN ME N T

M
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M
Ga sm a n n o
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By G

( 30 v Po u n c e a r r nz G ram
n o Ea rn s
By Fritz Konrad Kruger
-

Ew -
an n o n o r m Do l unc a o r Cam s

C a ve m -
a n r a so Po rm cs o r Fu s es

men t at th e Mill er and Ca b ine t .

DEMOC RACY AND W ORLD RELATION S

C ITIZEN SHI P : As l m Sneum Br ains

M
ao o nc rto u ro
°
.

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FORM AN D FU N CTIONS OF A MERI CAN GOVERNMENT

By Thomas Harrison Reed

W O R L D BOO K CO
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2126 Pu rina Am os. Cm cm o