Antennas Terman McGraw Hill Engineering 1953

.
...
"- .
.
9 ,1
McGRA W
- HILL
ELECTRICAL A ND
EL ECTR O NIC
EN GI NEERI N G
1
SERIES
1
ANTENNAS
B
y
J
OHN D
. KRAUS
, P
H.D
.
• PR
OFESSOR O
F EL
ECTR
ICAL EN
GINEER
ING
TH
E OH
IO ST
ATE UN
IVERS
ITY
NE W YOR K TORO NTO LO NDO N
McGRA W
-HILL BOOK COMPANY
, I
NC.
1
950
McG
raw
-Hi
ll E
lec
trica
l a
nd E
lec
tron
ic E
nginee
ring S
er
ies
FR
EDER
ICK EMMONS TE
RMAN
, C
onsu
lting Ed
itor
W .W .HA
RMAN a
nd J
. G
. TR
UXAL
A
ssoc
iate C
onsu
lting Ed
itors
B AILEY AND GAtair •Alternating-current M achinery
B ERA NE K • A coustics
Bi
tin
sIs AND SAU NDERS •A na
lysis of Feedback Control Syste ms
CAGE •Theory and A pplicat

ion of Industrial Electronics
C uccin • H ar monics
, Sidebands
, and Trans
ients on Co m munication
E ng
ineering
E AST MA N •F unda mentals of V acuu m T ubes
E VA NS • Control-syste m D yna mics
FITZGERALD AND HIGGI NBOT HA M •B asic Electr

ical E ng
ineering
FITZGERALD AND KI NGSLEY • Electric M achinery
G EPPERT • Basic Electron T ubes
G LASFORD •F unda mentals o

f Televis
ion E ng
ineering •
H APPELL AND H ESSELBERT H • E ng

ineer
ing Electronics
H AR MA N •F unda menta
ls of Electronic M otion
H ESSLER AND CAREY •F unda mentals of Electrical E ng

ineering
HILL • Electronics i
n E ngineering
JO H NSO N • Trans mission Lines and Net works
K RA US • A ntennas
K RA US • Electro magnetics
LE PAGE •A nalysis of Alternating

-current Circuits
LE PAGE AND SEELY •General Net work A nalysis
MILL MA N AND SEELY • Electronics
MILL MA N AND TA UB •P ulse and Digital Circuits
R OGERS •Introduction t
o Electric Fields
Rf
iDENBERG •Trans
ient Perfor mance of Electr
ic Po wer Syste ms
SEELY • Electronic E ngineering
SEELY • Electron-tube Circuits
SEELY •R adio Electron

ics
SISKI ND • Direct-current M achinery
SK
ILLI NG • Electric Trans mission Lines
S KILL
I NG • Trans
ient Electr
ic C urrents
SPA NGENBERG • F unda mentals of Electron D evices
SPA NGE NBERG • V acuu m T ubes
STEVENSO N • Ele ments of Po wer Syste m A nalysis
STORER • Pass
ive Net work S
ynthes
is
TER MA N • Electronic and Radio E ng
ineering
TER MA N AND PETTIT • Electronic M easure ments
T HALER • Ele ments of Servo mechanis m Theory
T HALER AND B RO W N • Servo mechanis m A na

lysis
T HO MPSO N • Alternat
ing
-current and Trans
ien
t C
ircu
it Ana
lys
is
TRUXAL • Au
toma
tic F
eedback C
ontro
l S ys
tem S
ynthes
is
ANTENNAS
Copyr
ight, 1
950
, b y t
he McGraw-Hi
ll B
ook Company
, Inc
. P r
inted inthe
Uni
ted Sta
tesof America
. All r
i
ghtsre
served
. T h
isbook, o
rpart
st hereo
f,
may not be r
eproduced i
n a
ny fo
rm without p
erm
iss
ion of t
he pub
lisher
s.
V
I
PREFACE
I
ti sthe p urpo se o ft hisb ook top re sentt he b a s
ic t heo ry o fa nt ennas w ith
empha sis o n t he ir e ngine e r
ing a pplica t
ion s. A n e fort h as b een made t o
g
ive au nif
ied t reatmen to fa ntenna sf rom t he e lec tromagne tic t heo ry p oin t
o
fv iew w hile k eep ing i nm ind t he a spe ct s o fe ng inee ring i mpo rtance .
The p rinc iple s g iven a re b a
sic a nd a r e a pplied t o a ntenna s f o r all f re-
q
uenc ies. T he f i
rst f our c hap te rs d ea l w ith t he f undamen ta l t heo ry o f
p
oin t s our ces a nd o ft he a n tenna a s a n a per tu re. T he se a re f o
llowed b y
t
hree c hap t ers o n l i
nea r, l oop, a nd h e
lica l a ntennas i n t hat o rde r. T he
t
heo rie s oft he b icon ica l a ntenna a nd o ft he c ylind rica l a ntenna a re t hen
d
iscus sed . T he s elfa nd mu tual i mpedance o fa nt enna s and t he t heo ry o f
a
rray s ofl i
nea ra ntenna sa r e taken u p int he n ex t c hap ters, a nd t hese a re
f
o
llowed b yc hap te r
so nr efl
ec tor-type a ntenna s,s lo t
,h o rn,c omp lemen ta ry,
l
ens,l ong w irea ntenna s,a nd many o the rt ype s
. T he f i
na lc hap te rd e s
cr ibe s
method sa nd t e chn ique so fa ntenna m easur emen tsa nd i nclude s ad iscus sion
o
f w ave p ola riza tion . T he A ppend ix h as a n umber o f u s
e fu l t ables f or
r
eference .
Ant ennas f orm t he d om inan t theme o ft he b ook , a nd o the rs ub jec ts a re
p
laced i n as ubo rdina te p osition. F o re xamp le, t ransm ission l i
ne s a re n ot
c
on s
ide red p ers eb uta red iscussed i nc onnec tion w ith i mpedance m easur e-
ment s a nd ma t ch ing a rrangemen ts f or a ntenna s.
The b ook i sa n o utg row th o flecture sg i ven i nr e cent y ear sb yt he a utho r
i
n ac ourse o n a ntenna s a t T he O hio S ta te U niv e rsity. T he ma terial i s
s
uitab le f oru se a ta bou ts enio rorf i
r st-yea rg radua tel evela nd i smo ret han
s
uf i
c ien t i n amoun t f or ao ne-seme ste r c our se, a l
low ing c onside rab le l ati-
t
ude a st ot he s ubjec tst reated . P rob lem s e tsa reg iven a tt he e nd o fe ach
c
hap t er. A s p repa ra tion f or the c ou rse o n a ntenna s
, i ti sd e sirab le t ha t
t
hes tuden th ave ak now ledge o felemen ta ry e lec tromagne t
ic t heo ry,t ran s-
m
is s
ion l inesa nd w ave g u
ide s
, and v ec tora naly sis.
"Antenna s" h asb een w ritten t os erve n oto nly a s at extbook b uta l
so ,i t
i
sh oped ,a s ar efe rence b ook f ort he p rac t
ic ing e ng inee ra nd scien tis t
. A sa n
a
id t o thos e s eek ing a dditiona l i n
fo rma tion o n ap articu lar s ub jec t, t he
b
ook i sw e
lld o cumen ted w i
th f ootno te r efe rence s
. S ome o ft he ma teriali n
t
he b ook i sp ub lished h ere f or the f i
rst t ime . T his r efers p ar ti cu larly t o
p
or t
ions o ft he t reatmen tso n po
in t s ources a nd o n h elical a n tenna s
.
V
y
i PREFACE
A
n a im t hroughou t t he book h as b een t oa pproa ch an ew subjec t grad -
u
ally. F ore xamp le, w hereve rp ossible, simp le special cases are c onsidered
f
i
rst, and t hen w ith the se a
sb ackground t he genera l case isdeve loped.
T
he r a
tiona lized mk ss ys
tem o fu nit s i
se mployed . T his system , w hich
i
srapidly c om ing into almo stu n
iver salu se,h as many p racticala dvan tage s.
Av ery c omp lete table o fu n
i ts inthiss ystem i sin cluded i nthe A ppend ix.
A
lthough g reatc are h a
sb een exer c
i sed
, s ome e rro r
si nt he te
x to rf i
gure s
w
ill inevitably o ccur. A nyone f i
nd ing t hem w ould d o m e agr eat s e
rvice
t
o call them t o my a ttention s o tha t they c an b e c o
rre c
ted ins ubsequent
p
rinting s
.
Iw
ish t oe xp re
s s my a ppre c
iation t o many o f my a ssociatesa nd s t
uden ts
f
o
r h elpful s uggestion s
. I n p ar
ticula r Ig reat
ly a ppreciate the c omments
a
nd c r
iticism so fP rofes sorJ ohn N . C oope r, ofthe D epar tmento fP hy s
ics ,
a
nd o fP ro fessors Victo r H. R um sey a nd S idney B ertram , ofthe D epa rt-
ment ofE lectrical E ngineering, at T he O hio State U niversity
.
J
oaN D.KR
AUS
CO
LUMBUS, OH
IO
Augu
st, 1
950
CONTENTS
PR
EFACE V
CH
APTER 1-INTRODUCTION 1
1
-1
. D ef
ini
tions 1
1
-2
. The A ntenna a
s aTerminated Transm
iss
ion L
ine I
1
-3
. Shape-impedance C
onsidera
tions s
'
CH
APTER 2-PO INT SO URCES 1
1
2
-1. Introduc tion 1
2
-2. Powe r Patterns 1
3
2
-3. AP owe r Theo rem a nd I t
s A pplica
tion t o a
n I sot
rop ic Source 1
4
2
-4. Rad iation Inten s
i ty 1
5
2
-5. Source w ith Hem ispher e Powe r Pattern 1
6
2
-6. Sour ce with Un idirectional Co s
ine P ower Pa t
te rn 1
7
2
-7. Source w ith Bidirec t
iona l Cosine P ower Pattern 1
8
2
-8. Source w ith Sine ( Doughnut ) P owe r Patte
rn 1
8
2
-9. Source w ith Sine S qua red (Doughnut ) Power P attern 1
9
2
-10. S
our ce with Un idirectional Co s
ine S quared P ower P att
ern 2
0
2
-11. S
ource w ith Un idirectional Co s
ine" P ower Pattern 2
1
2
-12
. S
ource with Un
idirect
iona
l Power P
attern T
hat I
s Not S
ymme
trica
l 2
2
2
-13
. G
eneral C a
se o
fS ource w
ith P
ower Pa
t te
rn o
f Any S
hape 2
2
2
-
14. D
irect
ivity 2
3
2
-
15. Ga
in 2
6
2
-16
. F
ield Patterns 2
7
2
-17
. Phas
e P at
te rns 3
2
2
-18
. Genera
l Equa t
ion f
o
r t
he F
ie
ld o
f aP
oint S
ource 3
7
CH
APTER 3-TH E AN TENNA A S AN APERTURE 4
1
3
-1. Int roduc tion 4
1
3
-2. Efec tive Ape rture 4
2
3
-3. Sca ttering Aper ture 4
5
3
-4. Lo ss Aper ture 4
8
3
-5. C o
llec ting Ape rture 4
8
3
-6. P hysica l A perture 4
8
3
-7. Max imum Efec tive Aperture of aShort Dipole 4
9
3
-8. Max imum Efect ive Aperture of aLinear i- Wavelength Antenna 5
1
3
-9. R elation o fA perture to D
irec t
ivity a
nd G ain 5
2
3
-10. Max imum Efec t
ive Aperture ofa n I
sotrop
ic S ource 5
3
3
-11. Max imum Efec tive Ape rture a nd Directivi
ty o f Iso
tropic, Sho
rt
Dipo le, and i - Wavelength A ntennas 5
4
3-
12. Fri
is T ransm ission Formu la U
v
i
i
v
iii CO N TE N TS
CH
APTER 4-AR RAYS O F PO INT SO URCES 5
7
4
-1. Int roduc t
ion 5
7
4
-2. Ar ray s o f Two I so t
rop ic Point S ources 5
7
4
-3. Non iso t ropic b ut S imilar P oint S ources a nd the P rinciple o f Pattern
Mu ltipl ica t
ion 6
6
4
-4. E xamp le o fP atte rn S ynthesis b y Pattern Mu lt
ip l
ication 6
9
4
-5. Non iso t ropic a nd D issimilar P oint Source s 7
4
4
-6a. L
inea r A rrays o f nI sotropic P o
int S ource s of Equa l Amp litude a nd
Spa cing 7
6
4
-6b. Null D irect ions f or A r
ray s of nI sotropic P oint S ources of Equa l Am -
p
litude a nd S pacing 8
3
4
-6c. S
ome R ema rks o n V o
lume A rray s 8
9
4
-6d. Direc tions o f Max ima f o
r Ar rays of nI sotropic P oint S ourcesofE qual
Amp litude a nd S pac ing 9
0
4
-7. Linea r B road side A rrays with Nonun iform Amp litude D istr
ibutions 9
3
G
ene ral c onside rations
4
-8. Linear A rrays w ith Nonun iform Amp litude D istributions 9
7
The Do lph -Tchebyschef o ptimum d istr
ibut ion
4
-9. E xamp le o f Do lph -Tcheby schef D istribution f or a n A rray of E ight
S
ource s 1
06
4
-10. Compa rison o f Amp litude D i s
tributions f o
r E igh t
-sou rce A r
rays. 1
09
4
-11. Cont inuous A rrays 10
4
-12. Huygens ' Princ iple 15
4
-13. Rectangu lar-a rea B road s
ide A r
rays 18
CH
APTER 5-TH E EL ECTRIC DI POLE A ND TH IN LI NEAR AN TENNAS 1
27
5
-1
. The S ho rt E
lectric Dipole 1
27
5
-2
. The F ields o
f aS hort D
ipole 1
27
5
-3
. Rad iation Resistance ofS hort Electric Dipole 1
36
5
-4
. The F ields o
f aS hort D
ipole b y the He rtz Vector Me thod 1
37
5
-5
. The Th in L
inea r A n
tenna 1
39
5
-6
. R adia
tion Re sistance of i
- Waveleng th A ntenna 1
43
5
-7
. Rad ia
t ion Resistance at aP oint Wh ich I s Not aC urrent Maximum 1
47
5
-8
. Fields of aTh in Linear An tenna w i
th a U n
iform T raveling Wave 1
48
CH
APTER 6-T i zLO OP AN TENNA 1
55
6
-1
. The Sma ll Loop 1
55
6
-2. The Sho rt Magne t
ic D ipo le. Equ iva
lence t
o aLoop 1
57
6
-3. The Sho rt Magne t
ic D ipo le. F ar F
ie
lds 1
58
6
-4. Compa r
ison ofF ar Field s of Small L
oop and S
hort D
ipole 1
60
6
-5. The L oop A ntenna . G ene ral Case 1
61
6
-6. Far-f
ie
ld P atterns o fC ircu lar Loop Ant
ennas w
ith Uni
form Current 1
63
6
-7. The Sma ll Loop a s aS pecial Case 1
65
6
-8. Radiation R esis
tance o fL oops 1
66
6
-9. Direct
ivity o fCircu lar L oop A ntennas w
ith Un
iform Current . . . 1
69
6
-10. T
able of Loop F ormu las 1
70
6
-11. S
quare L oops 1
70
CH
APTER 7-THE HE L
ICAL ANTENNA 1
73
7
-1
. Int
roduction 1
73
7
-2
. Helix D
imensions 1
74
CO N TE N TS i
x
7
-3
. Rad iation a nd T ransm iss
ion Mode s of Helices 1
75
7
-4
. The Norma l Rad iation Mode 1
79
7
-5
. Arrangement s f or Produc ing t he A xial Mode o f Rad iat
ion 1
82
7
-6
. Cur rent Di stribut ion o n He lice s 1
83
7
-7
. Term ina l I mpedance o f He lice s 1
86
7
-8
. Axial Mode P atterns a nd t he P hase V e
loc ity of Wave P ropagation on
Helice s 1
87
7
-9. Table o fR ela tive P hase V eloc ities 1
94
7
-10. Axial Mode A rray F actor P atterns a nd E ffect of Number o f Turns 1
94
7
-11. Axial Mode S ing le
-turn P att erns 1
97
7
-12. Comp lete A xial Mode P atte rn 2
01
7
-13. Axial Ra t
io a nd C ond it
ions f or C ircular P o
larizat
ion f r
om He l
ices
Rad iating i nt he A xia l Mode 2
03
7
-
14. Wide -band C ha racteristics o f He lical A ntennas Rad iating inthe A x
ial
Mode 2
10
7
-15
. Table o f Pa ttern , Beam W id th, D irectivity, Term inal Res
istance, and
Axial-ratio F ormu las 2
14
7
-16
. Tapered a nd O ther F orms o fA xial Mode He lical Antennas 2
14
CH
APTER 8-TH E BICONICAL AN TENNA A ND IT
S IM PEDANCE 2
17
8
-1
. Introduction 2
17
8
-2
. The C haracteris
tic Impedance o fthe Infini
te B icon
ica
l A
ntenna . . 2
17
8
-3
. Input I mpedance of the Inf
inite B
iconica l Antenna 2
22
8
-4
. Input I mpedance of the Finite B
icon
ica l A ntenna 2
23
8
-5
. P a
ttern ofB iconica
l A ntenna 2
28
8
-6
. Input I mpedance ofA ntennas o
f Arbitrary S hape 2
28
CH
APTER 9-TH E CY L
INDR ICAL AN TENNA : I TS CU RRENT DI STR
IBUTION A
ND
IMPEDANCE 2
30
9
-1. Int roduct ion 2
30
9
-2. O utline o ft he I nteg ral
-equa tion Me thod 2
31
9
-3. T he Wave Equa tion int he V ector Potent
ial A 2
32
9
-4. Ha llen 's Integra l Equa t
ion 2
33
9
-5. Firs t-orde r So
lut ion o f Hallen's Equa t
ion 2
35
9
-6. L eng th -thickne ss P arame te r 0 2
37
9
-7. Equ iva lent R ad iu s ofA ntennas w ith Noncircular C
ross S
ect
ion 2
38
9
-8. C urrent D istr
ibut ions 2
39
9
-9. Input I mpedance 2
41
9
-10. Patt erns o fC ylindr ical A ntennas 2
47
9
-11. The Th in Cylindr ical A ntenna 2
47
9
-12. Cylind rical An tenna s with C onical I
nput S ec
tions 2
49
9
-13. Antennas o fO the r S hapes: The S pheroidal Antenna 2
49
CH
APTER I
0 -SE LF- AND M UTUAL IMPEDANCES 2
51
1
0-1
. Introduc t
ion 2
51
1
0-2
. R eciproc
ity Theorem for Antennas 2
52
1
0-3
. S e
lf-impedance of aThin Linear Antenna 2
54
1
0-4
. Mutua l Impedance of Two Para
llel L
inear A ntennas 2
62
1
0-5
. Mutua l Impedance ofP a
ral
lel Antennas S
ide b y Side 2
65
1
0-6
ral
lel Col
linear Antennas 2
69
1
0-7
ral
lel Antennas i
nE chelon 2
69
X CO N TE N TS
1
0-8
. Mutual Impedance o fO the r C onfigurations 2
70
Para
llel antennas ofu nequa l h e
igh t -V o r s
kew antennas
1
0-9. C omparison ofS elf
-impedance F ormu la s 2
71
1
0-10. ADiscussion ofthe Me thodsU sed forC alculat
ing Antenna Impedances 2
72
The b ounda ry-value p roblem a pp roach -The transmiss
ion-
line
method -The P oynting v ecto r me thod
1
0-11. S
imple Emp irical Me thod 2
76
CH
APTER 1 -AR RAYS OF LI NEAR AN TENNAS 2
79
1-1
. Introduc tion 2
79
1-2
. A r
ray o f Two Dr iven 4 -waveleng th Element s
. B roads
ide C ase . . 2 79
Fie
ld p atterns -Dr iving p oint impedance -Ga in in fi
e
ld i ntensity
1-3
. A r
ray o f Two D riven 4 -waveleng th Element s
. E nd-f
ire Ca se . . . .2 88
Fie
ld p atterns -Dr iving-po int impedance -Ga in in fi
e
ld i ntensity
1-4
. A r
ray o f Two D riven 4 -wave length E lements. G eneral C ase w ith
Equa l C urrents ofA ny Phase R e
lat
ion 2
92
1-5
. Clo sely S paced E lement s and Rad iating Eff
ic
iency 2
95
1-6
. A r
ray o f n Driven E lement s 3
00
1-7
. Hor izonta l A ntenna s Above aP lane Ground 3
03
Horizonta l 4 -waveleng th a ntenna a bove ground -F lat-top b eam
antenna a bove g round -S tacked h or
izontal 4
-waveleng th a ntenna s
above g round
1-8
. V ertical A ntennas Above aP lane G round 3
14
1-9
. A rray s with P arasitic Elemen ts 3
18
CH
AFFER 12 -RE FLECTOR -TYPE AN TENNAS 3
24
1
2-1. Introduc t
ion 3
24
1
2-2. Plane S heet R ef
lecto r 3
25
1
2-3. C o
rne r
-reflector A ntenna 3
28
1
2-4. The P arabola. G ene ral Propert
ie s 3
36
1
2-5. AC ompa r
ison B etwe en the P a
rabo l
ic and Corner R
efle
ctor 3
38
1
2-6. The P araboloida l R eflector 3
39
1
2-7. Patterns o fL arge C ircu la
r Ape rtures w
ith Uniform I
lum inat
ion 3
43
1
2-8. The C ylindrical Pa rabo lic Ref
lector 3
46
1
2-9. Ape r
ture D istributions 3
47
1
2-10. F
ourierT ransform Me thod 3
48
CH
APTER 1
3
--SL OT, HORN, A ND CO MPLEMENTARY AN TENNAS 3
53
1
3-1
. Slo t A ntennas 3
53
1
3-2
. P att erns ofSlot Antennas inF la
t Sheets 3
56
1
3-3
. B ab inet's Pr
inciple and C omplementary A n
tennas 3
61
1
3-4
. The I mpedance ofC omplementa ry S
creens 3
64
1
3-5
. The I mpedance ofS lot Antennas 3
67
1
3-6
. Ho rn A ntennas 3
71
1
3-7
. T he R ectangular Ho rn Antenna 3
75
1
3-8
. B eam -width C omparison 3
80
1
3-9
. C ircu lar Horn Antennas 3
81
CH
APTER 1
4 -LENS
, LO NG W I
RE
, A
ND OT
HER TY
PES O
F AN
TENNAS 3
82
1
4-1
. L en
s Antennas 3
82
CO N TE N TS X
i
1
4-2. Nonmeta llic D ielectric Lens A ntennas 3
83
1
4-3. Artificial D ie lectric L ens Antenna s 3
90
1
4-4. E-plane Meta l-plate L ens Antennas 3
94
1
4-5. Tolerance s o n L ens A ntennas 4
00
1
4-6. H-p lane Me ta l-plate L ens Antenna s 4
03
1
4-7. Polyrod A ntennas 4
04
1
4-8. Long W ire A ntennas 4
07
1
4-9. VA ntenna s 4
07
1
4-10. Rhomb ic A ntennas 4
08
1
4-11. Beve rage o r Wave A ntenna 4
12
1
4-12. Cur tain A rray s 4
13
1
4-13. Loca tion a nd Me thod o fF eeding Antennas 4
14
1
4-14. Folded D ipo le A ntenna 4
15
1
4-15. Mod if
ica tions o fF olded D ipoles 4
18
1
4-16. Ground -plane A ntennas 4
20
1
4-17. S
le eve A ntennas 4
22
1
4-18. S
lo tted C ylinde r A ntenna s 4
23
1
4-19. Turns t
ile A ntennas 4
24
1
4-20. Othe r Omn id irectiona l Antenna s 4
28
1
4-21. C
i rcu larly P olarized A ntennas 4
29
1
4-22. Rece iving v s. T ransm itt
ing C onsidera
tions 4
32
1
4-23. Band -width C onsidera t
ions 4
33
1
4-24. Ma tch ing A r rangement s 4
34
CH
APTER 15 -AN TENNA M E ASUREMENTS 4
44
1
5-1. Int roduc tion 4
44
1
5-2. P atterns 4
44
1
5-3. P attern Measurement A r
rangement s 4
47
Distance r equirement -Requ irement o fu niform f i
e
ld
1
5-4. P ha se Mea surement s 4
52
1
5-5. Dire ctivity 4
53
1
5-6. Ga in 4
53
Gain b y c ompar ison -Ab so
lute g a
in ofi dentical antenna s
1
5-7. T erm inal I mpedance Mea surement s 4
57
1
5-8. Rad ia t
ion R esis tance b y R ef
lect
ion Me thod 4
59
1
5-9. C urrent -distribut ion Mea surement s 4
61
1
5-10. Wave P olariza tion 4
64
1
5-11. E
llip tical P olariza tion a s P roduced b y Two L inea r
ly P olarized Waves 4
65
1
5-12. C
lockw ise a nd C ount erclockw ise Circular P o
la r
ization 4
70
1
5-13. C
lockw ise a nd C ounte rclockw ise Ell
ip t
ical P o
larization 4
71
1
5-14. P
olar iza tion a s aF unction o f E2/E1 and 8 4
73
1
5-15. O
rienta t
ion o fP o
lariza t
ion E l
lipse with Re spect to C oordina tes .. 4
75
1
5-16. E
llip ticalP o
lar iza t
ion a sP roduced b y Two C ircular
ly P o
lar ized Wave
s 4
77
1
5-17. P
olar iza tion Measuremen ts 4
79
Polarization -pa ttern me thod -L inear-component me thod -
Circular-component me thod
1
5-18. Antenna R otation E xpe r
iment s 4
84
1
5-19. Mode l Measurement s 4
85
BO
OKS F
OR RE
FERENCE 4
89
x
i
i CO N TE N TS
AP
PEND
IX
1
. Table o f Un its 4
93
2
. Tab les of Maxwe ll's E quations 5
03
3
. Formu las for I nput I mpedance o fT erm inated T ransm is
sion Line 5
06
4
. Reflection a nd T ransm iss
ion C oeff
i c
ient s and SWR 5
06
5
. Formu las for t he C ha racter
istic I mpedance o fTransm ission L
ines 5
07
6
. Trigonome tr ic R elations 5
07
7
. Hype rbol
ic R ela t
ions 5
08
8
. Loga rithmic R e
la tions 5
09
9
. App rox ima tion F ormu las for Sma ll Quant it
ie s 5
09
1
0
. S
erie s 5
09
1
. So
lut ion of Quadra t
ic Equa t
ion 5
09
1
2
. Pasca l
's Triang le 5
09
1
3
. Vecto r Ident ities 5
10
1
4
. Grad ient, D ive rgence , Cu rl, and L aplacian i n Rectangu la
r, Cyl
indr
ica
l,
a
nd S pherica l C oo rdinates 5
10
1
5
. Rad ians, D eg ree s
, a nd Turns 5
11
1
6
. Table o fT rigonome tric F unctions fo r Decima l Fractions of aTurn 5
15
1
7
. Unive rsal P a t
te rn Char ts 5
19
1
8
. S
ine , C os
ine , a nd E xponent ial Integ ral R e
lations 5
35
1
9
. Table s ofS ine a nd C osine Integrals 5
36
2
0
. Gene ral P oynt ing V ector and D irectivity F ormulas 5
40
IN
DEX 5
45
CHAPTER 1
I
NTRODUCT
ION
1-1. D efinitions . A r adio a ntenna ' may b e d efined a s t he s tructure

a
ssocia ted w ith t he r egion o ft rans it
ion b etween ag uided w ave a nd af ree-
s
pace w ave, o rv ice v e rsa.
I
n c onne ct
ion w ith t h
i s d ef
in i t
ion i ti sa lso u sefu l t o c on s
ide r w hat is
mean t b y t ran sm ission l i
ne a nd b y r esona tor. At r
an sm ission l in
e i sa
d
evice f or t r
an sm itting o r g u
id ing r adio -frequency e nergy f rom o ne p o
in t
t
oa no the r. U sua lly i tisd esirab le t ot ran sm itt he e ne rgy w ith am inimum
o
fa ttenua tion , h ea t a nd r adia tion l o
s ses b eing a s s mall a s p o
s sible. T his
mean s t hat w hile t he e nergy i sb e
ing c onveyed f r
om o ne p oin t t o a nothe r
i
ti sc onf ined w ithin t he t ran sm is s
ion l i
ne o r t o t he v icinity o f t he line.
Thus, t he w ave t ransm itted a long t he l i
ne i so ne -dimen s
iona l i n t hat it
d
oes n o t spr ead o ut i nto s pace b u t f ol
low s a l ong t he l ine. F rom t his
g
ene ral p oin t o fv i
ew t he t erm t r
an sm i ssion l ine i nclude s n ot o nly c oaxial
a
nd t wo -wire t r an smis s
ion l ines b uta lso h o
llow p ipe s, orw a veg uid es
.
Ag ene rato r c onne c ted t oa n i nf
inite, l o
ssle s
s t ran sm iss
ion l ine p roduce s
aun iform t r
ave l
ing w ave a long t he l ine. I ft he l ine i ss ho rt-cir cuited, a
s
tand ing w ave a ppea r s b ecau se o f int erference b etween t he i nciden t a nd
r
ef
lec ted w ave s. As t and ing w ave h as a ssoc iated w ith i tl ocal c oncen tra-
t
i
ons o fe nergy . I ft he r ef
lec ted w ave i se qual t o t he i nc
iden t w ave , w e
h
ave a p ur e s tand ing w ave. T he e ne rgy c oncen t rations i n s uch a w ave
o
sci
lla te f rom e n t
irely e l
ec tric t o e ntirely magne tic e nergy a nd b ack t w
ice
p
er c ycle . S uch e ne rgy b ehav io r isc ha ra cte ri
s t
ic o f ar esonan t c i
r cuit, or
r
e
sona tor. A l though t he t erm r e
sona to r, i n its mo st g ene ral s en se, may
b
ea pplied t oa ny d ev ice w ith s tand ing w ave s, t he t erm i su sua l
ly r eserved
f
or d ev ices w ith s tored e ne rgy c oncen tration s t ha t a re l arge c ompa red
w
ith t he i nf
low o r o utflow o f e nergy .' When t he re a r
e n o i nterna l con -
1In i t
s zoo
logical s
ense, an a ntenna i st he fee
ler, o
r o
rgan of t
ouch
, of an i
ns
ec t
.
A
ccord ing to u
sage int he United S tates the plural o
f "
ins
ect a
ntenna" is"an
tennae,"
b
utt he pluralof"radio antenna" i s" antenna s
." However ,the u
sage i
nE ng
land makes
n
o d istinct
ion, the plural o f b oth " insect a ntenna" and "rad
io antenna" being
"
antennae ."
'T he ratio of t
he energy stored t o that lost per c
yc
le isp
roport
ional t
o the Q
, or
s
harpne ss of r
esonance ofthe resona tor.
1
2 ANTE N N AS [
Cm.P
. 1
d
uctors, as i
n as ho
rt-
circu
ited s
ect
ion o
fw ave g
u
ide, t
he d
evice i
sca
lled
acavi
ty resonator
.
As ilu
strations o
f the
se def
in
itions
, c
ons
ider F
ig. 1
-
1. Ag ene
rato
r or
G
R.F
enerator
A
T
ransmission li
ne
T
rave
ling wave T
ransit
ion
It
r
egion or
a
ntenna
R
esonato
r
F
ree-space
S
tand
ing wove
wove
Fm. 1
-
1. The a
ntenna is ar
eg
ion o
f t
r
ans
ition b
etw
een a w
ave g
uided b
y at
rans
-
m
iss
ion l
i
ne a
nd af
ree
-space w
ave.
t
ransm it ter isc onne cted t o at wo-w ire tran smission line AB . A ssum ing
t
ha t the l ine isp rope rly ma tched , i tca rr
ies as ingle o utwa rd -trave l
ing
wave a nd b ehave s as ap ure t ransm iss
ion l i
ne. A t A t here i s as hort
-
c
i
r cuited s ection o f line conne cted i n parallel
. T his line h as as tanding
wave a nd a ctsa s ar e
sona to ro rr esonant l ine. B eyond B t he transm iss
ion
l
i
ne s pread so ut g
radua l
ly u ntilt he s eparation b etween c onduc torsi s many
waveleng ths. I n this r eg
ion t he w ave g uided b y the t ransm is s
ion l i
ne is
r
adiated i n
to af ree-spa ce w ave. T h
i sr e
gion o ft he li
ne actsa sa na ntenna.
L
et t he t ransm i
ssion l ine n ow b e c onnec ted t o ad ipole a n tenna a s i
n
F
ig. 1-2. T he d
ipole a c
t sasa na nt enna
b
ecau se itl aunche s af ree-spa ce w ave
.
G
enerator laD
n
t
ipeo
n
ln
ea Howeve r
, it may a l
so b e regarded a sa
0 s
ection o
ft e
rmina ted t
ransmis
sion l
ine
T
r
an,
ss,
on h
r
e (
see Sec
. 1 -2
). I n addit
ion, i
texh
ibits
many oft he characte
rist
ics o
f areso-
n
a tor
, since energy ref
lected f
rom the
Fm
. 1
-
2. D
ipo
le a
ntenna
, e
ndso fthe d
ipole givesr i
se to as tand-
i
ng w ave on the a ntenna . T hus , a
s
i
ngle dev ice, in this c a
se the dipole
, exhibits s
imultaneou sly p rope rt
ies
c
haracte
ri stic o
fa n a ntenna, atransmiss
ion l i
ne
, and ar e
sona tor
.
The ene rgy radiated b y antenna s o
sc
il
la tes a
t radio f r
equenc ies
. T he
a
ssoc
iated f r
ee-
spa ce w aves r
ange i nwavelength fr
om t hou sandso fm eters
a
t the l
o ng -wave e xtreme to fract
ions of ac ent
ime ter at the s hort-wave
e
xtreme. T he re
la t
ion o fradio w aves t
o lengths ingene ral isi lu
stra ted
b
y t he leng th chart o f Fig
. 1-3. S hort radio wave s and l ong i n
f rared
waves overlap i n
to a t w
il
ight zone that may b e r
egarded a s belonging t o
b
oth.
LENGTH C
HART
0
191
4:* m
a
cro
sco
ptc A
il
oce m
le
s
FE*. roma R
evo
n
E
l.t
romorebc 4000 00 MOM
50.1 7 t
1
,o i , to ,
tkod. w
orn.
,
UM,
01/4
0,
II
1
1IN
= .4
1
Rok
,
c
o
.
-.
C
O11
14 .6
/041
11
D
.4,0 CO
v
s. t
o ILl
ot
ot Dr erwsle O
bia
rse
(
A
to m
L
. M,.r.
o.
a
.t
.o
.stc.s
l
e
.t
. , i
„ C
O
,
_
_om
.o
.t
.r
_,1
:
0 t
o
), i
n
t
ro- f
t
s
tl L
t
aht a
im
,Df1 a 01
"
."
.
." I T."." I7 1
/1
1.0
-410
101 i
.
Mo
e
o
nd S
oadoo
f
5I L
...
I
, Ma
ths
D1
4-.
owe
tran B
oh
r IT
o
botou
lot
to t
ott
tl.
s
ow i
ndl
enur
n I
0
111
111.01.•
I
MII y
o
k
e
(M
IK_
N•
-
10 -
9 -
6 -
7 - -
6
5 .4 1t ilot -
I 0 1 2 3 • 5 1• -
5 -
4 -
3 -
2 -
I 0 1 2 3 • 5 6 7 9 1
0 I 1
2 1
3 1
4
I
if
MO L
kr 1
0" lars
L_ 1 _1 _
1_ 1 _ •
N
.- -19 -• -
17 -
1
6 -
15 -14 4 3 42 4
1 -
10 -
9 -8 -
7 -
6 -
5 -
4 -
3 4 4 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1
0 1 1
2 1
3 1
4 1
5 1
6 1
7 0 1
9 2
1 2
2 2
3 2
4 2
5 2
6 2
7 2
5 2
9 3
0
L h •K
engt Y
' W on
Fm. 1
-
3. L ength chart
. T he ma
in sca
le give
s l e
ngths i
n mete
rs, the leng
th b e
ing e
xpres
sed by the e
xponent N whe
re the
l
eng
th i
n me
te r
s equals 10N . T
hus
, N = l o
g10 (
leng
th). For e
xamp le
, 1l i
ght-
second = 3 X 108 me
ters s
o that f
o
r t
his l
eng
th,
N l
og1
0 3+ 8 = 8 .
48. Two a ux
il
iary s
ca
les g
ive le
ngths a
l
so i
na ngstrom un
its a
nd i
nli
ght-yea
rs.
C
iS
4 ANTEN N AS [
CHAP
. 1
1-2
. T he A ntenna a s aT erminated T ransm iss
ion L ine
.' A ccording t
o
t
hi
s a nalogy t he space a round a n antenna may b e separa t
ed i n
to two
r
eg
ions : one next to the antenna known a s t
he " antenna r eg
ion" a nd o
ne
o
utside k nown a s the " outer r
egion." T he b ounda ry b etween t he two
r
eg
ion si s asphere who se cent
eri satthe m iddle oft he antenna a nd w ho
se
s
urface p ass
e s across the e nds of the a ntenna. T he r e
lation o f th
is
"
bounda ry s phere" to as ymme tr
ical, bicon
ica l i-waveleng th a ntenna is
s
hown i nF ig
. 1 -
4.
Polar ax
is
o
r
a
xis of c
ones
\ Outer
\ r
egion
Antenna \
r
egion \
g
u t o
rjg
jj _ - - —I— ---
p
lane \
T
erm
ina
ls
l
i
nes
B
oundary
s
phere
B
icon
icol
a
ntenna
Fm
. 1
-
4. S
che
lkunof
's b
i
con
ica
l a
ntenna w
ith b
ounda
ry s
phe
re.
The w ave c au
sed b y av ery b rief v o
ltage p ulse a ppl
ied t ot he te
rm inals
t
ravels o utwa rd with t he e lectric f ie
ld, o r E l i
ne s
, f orming c oncentric
c
i
rcle s as s hown in Fig. 1 -
4. T he magne tic f i
e
ld, o r H l i
nes
, are norma l
t
ot he E l inesa nd are concen t
ric w ith t he a x
is o ft he cone s
. T he fi
e
ld h as
n
o r adial c omponen t. I t iss tr
ic tly t ransve rse ( TEM )! I t issa
id t hat
t
hese fie
lds b elong tot he princ ipa l
, o rz ero-orde r, mode .
After at ime t= L /c,w he re L e qualst he l e
ng th o fo ne cone and cequa ls
t
he v e
lo c
ity o fl i
ght, the pul se f i
eld r e
ache s the b ounda ry sphere
. A t the
e
nd o f the c one s t
he re isa n a brup t d iscontinu ity, w h
ile a t t
he equa tor
t
here i sn one. H ence, there i s al arge r e
flection a t the e nd oft he cone s
,
a
nd l i
ttle e nergy isradiated i nt his d i
rec t
ion . O n t he o ther hand, at the
S.A.S che
lkunof, "E
lectromagne
tic Wave
s," D
. V
an N
ost
rand C
ompany
, I
nc
.,
N
ew York
, 1943, C
hap. 1
.
TE M T
ransver
se E
lect
ro Magnetic
.
SE
C
. I-
2
) INT R O D UCTI O N 5
e
quator t
he e
nergy cont
inue
s into t
he outer r
eg
ion w
ithout re
flec
tion, and
r
ad
ia t
ion i
s amaximum i nth
is di
rection
.
The e
nergy fl
ow around a I-wavelength c
yl
indr
ica
l dipole antenna is
s
imi
lar. Thisisind
icated b
y the ar
row s inF
ig
. 1-
5a. Mo st ofthe ene
rgy
, Ha
lf-wove c
yl
indr
ical
, ',
/
r d
ipo
le antenna
,-1 1
/ ,
,
, l it
1 . ,
E
quato
ria
l
,
.
,
i
_, „ . .14. _ ..
p
lane
I
‘
, gi
Ao
n
nte n
r n IIP
N
Bo
und o
ry t
s
phere
ransparent
/
\
\ /
O
uter
r
egion ‘ .
1 /
1--
-- /
•
---
-Boundary sphe
re
o
paque
(
a
)
(
6
)
Fm
. 1
-
5. E
nergy f
l
ow n
ear ad
ipo
le a
ntenna (
a
) a
nd r
ad
iat
ion f
i
e
ld p
attern (
b
).
g
uided f r
om t he terminal s close to the a nt enna i sre f
lected at t he ends as
t
hough t he b ounda ry sphe re w ere o paque . E nergy t raveling o ut in the
e
qua tor
ial p lane, h oweve r
, c on t
inue s on i nto the o uter re g
ion a s though
t
he b ounda ry s phere w ere t ranspa rent. T h
is e xplana tion a ccoun ts in a
q
ualitative w ay f or t
he f i
eld p attern oft he I -wave leng th d ipole shown i n
F
ig. 1-5b.
The E l i
neso fp r
incipal-mode f i
elds mu ste nd o n conduc torsa nd, hence,
c
anno t exis
t i nf ree space. T he w aves w hich c an e xist a nd propaga te in
f
ree space are h igher mode f orm s inw hich t he E l ines form c l o
sed loops.
The p r
incipal-mode w ave i sc a
lled a z ero -order w ave, a nd h igher order
wave s a
re of o rder 1a nd g r
ea ter. T he c onfigura tion o f the E l i
nes ofa
f
i
rst-orderw ave int he outerr e g
ion i silust rated i nF ig. 1-6. T his wave has
b
een r adiated f rom a s hort d ipole a ntenna . T he w ave s tarted o n the
a
ntenna a s ap rincipal-mode w ave, h as p assed t hrough t he b ounda ry
s
phe re
, a nd h as b een t ransfo rmed. ' T he f i
eld h as ar adial c omponen t
'
Some fi
r
st-order mode i
salso present i
n
side t
he antenna b
oundary s
phere a
s ar e
-
f
l
ected w
ave. Th is a
nd hi
gher order modes may ex
ist both i
ns
ide and o
uts
ide of t
he
b
oundary s
phere insuch a w
ay tha t the
re i
scont
inuity of t
he fi
e
lds a
t t
he boundary
s
phere
.
6 ANTE N N AS [CH
AP. 1
wh
ich i slargest nea r the p o
la r axi
s. A t the equa torial p
lane t he r adial
c
omponen tiszero,a nd the E l i
nesa tt h
isp lane t
ravelt hrough the b ounda ry
s
phe re withou tchange . S ince t he radialcomponen t soft he f
i
eld at tenua te
more r apidly than t he t ransve rse componen t
s, t he r ad
ial fi
eld b ecome s
n
egligible inc ompar ison w ith the t r
an sverse f
i
eld a t al a
rge distance f rom
t
he a ntenna. A lthough t he fi
eld at al a
rge distance f rom the a ntenna i s
o
f ah i gher order t ype, the m easurable c omponen ts ar e on
ly oft he t rans-
v
erse t ype. T os ugge stt he fact thatt he radia
l fi
eld componen tsa r e weak
a
nd b ecome n egl
ig ible a t large d i
stance s
, the E l ines in t
he p olar r e
gion
i
nF ig. 1 -
6a red ashed .
P
olar
o
r
a
ntenna
a
xis
%
)
D
ipo
le
E
quato
ria
l
1̀ p
lane
\N
.
, O
ut
r
egion
A
ntenna
r
eg
i
on
)
F
ro. 1
-
6. F
ie
ld c
onf
igura
tion n
eard
ipo
le a
ntenna
.
The dist
inc t
ion b etween t he fi
e
ld s at al a
rge dis
tance a nd those nearer
t
o the antenna may b e empha s
ized b y s ubdividing the o uter r
egion into
t
wo r eg
ions, the o ne nea
r t he antenna c alled the "nea r fi
eld
," or Fresnel
r
eg
ion , and the one at alarge di
stance c a
lled t he "f
arf i
eld," orFraunho fer
r
eg
ion. T he bounda ry be tween the t wo may b e arb
itra r
ily t
aken t o be
a
t ar ad
iu sR=2 L 2/X a
ss hown i nF ig
. 1- 7
. I nthe Fraunho ferr e
gion the
me
asu rable fie
ld c omponen t
s are t ransve rse
, a nd the s hape of the fi
eld
p
attern i sindep endent of t he rad
iu s at w h
ich i ti staken, w h
ile in the
F
resnelr eg
ion t he rad
ialfield may b ea ppreciable and the shape ofthe fi
eld
p
attern is
,i ng eneral, afunction oft he radiu s
.
Returning n ow t o afurther considerat
ion o fthe biconical an
tenna , th
is
SE
C
. 1
-
2] IN T R O D UCTI O N 7
t
ype i
spart
icular
ly c onvenient i
n t
he tr
ansmiss
ion
-line a
nalogy b
ecause
i
thas ac
onstant cha
ra cte
rist
ic i
mpedance Z
, gi
ven by
Z
. = 1
20 I
nco
tIl
i
2
w
here 0 = o
ne-ha
lf o
fthe c
one a
ngle (
s
ee F
ig
. 1
-
4)
T
o
i
n
finity
B
oundary s
phere
o
f an
tenna r
egion
F
ar f
i
eld
or
.2
0 F
raunhofer
A r
egion
N
ear f
i
eld
or
F
resn
el r
eg
ion
A
ntenna
r
eg
ion
F
resnel-Fraunhofer
boundary s
phere
F
la. 1
-7
. A
ntenna r
eg
ion
, F
resne
l r
eg
ion
, a
nd F
raunho
fer r
eg
ion
.
.
- ' —-
.
/ \
/ \
/ 4 \
/ \ 1
4 -- L- -
1
0-
1
i 1, I
i I 2
, Z. ZL
I I L: I
•
—v—
\ /
\ /
\
\ .
. B
oundary (
C)
,
.
.
...
. - s
phere
(
a) (
b
)
F
lo. 1
-8
. B iconica
l antenna w
ith b
ounda
ry s
phere (
a
) a
nd a
s at
e
rmina
ted t
r
ans
-
m
iss
ion l
ine (
b) and (
c
).
A
ccord
ing to Sche
lkunof's t
heo
ry the boundary sphere (
Fig
. 1-8a) may
b
e r
eplaced by an e
quiva
lent l
oad impedance ZL conne
cted be
tween the
e
nds o
f the c
ones by z
ero i
mpedance le
ads as s
uggested i
nthe schemat
ic
•T
his r
e
lat
ion i
sder
ived i
nChap
. 8
.
8 ANTEN N AS [
CHAP
. I
a
t ( b
). T he e fe ct o f t he e nd c aps i sh ere n egle cted . T he e qu ivalen t
t
ran sm i ss
ion -l
ine c ircu i
t i ss hown i nF ig . 1 -8c. I f ZL c an b e d ete rm ined ,
t
he i npu t i mpedance Z1 may b e o bta ined b y o rd ina ry tran sm is sion-line
r
ela t
ion sf or al i
ne o fc ha ra cter is tic i mpedance Zo a nd l ength L t erm ina ted
i
na ni mpedance ZL. T hus , t he a n tenna h asb een r epla ced bya ne qu ivalen t
t
ran sm i ss
ion l ine , t he a ntenna a ct
ing a s a ma tch ing s ection , o r t r ans-
f
orme r, b etween t he t erm ina ls a nd s pa ce. B ased o n th
i s a nalogy , t he
g
ene ra l d efinition o f a n a ntenna i n S ec. 1 -1 may b e s pecial ized t o t he
f
ol
low ing : A n a n tenna i s at ran s forme r ( or ma tch ing s ect
ion ) b etween a
two-te rm ina l i nput a nd s pace o r, i n t he r ece iving c as e, is at ran sforme r
b
e tween s pace a nd t he t erm ina l s.
The r e f
lect ed w ave i n t he a nt enna r egion g ives r i
se t o stand ing w ave s
a
nd e ne rgy s to rage i n this r egion . I t i sa s t hough t he b ounda ry s phe re
f
orm s as phe rica l s hell r esona to r t ha t r e f
lect s e ffe ctive ly i n p ola r z one s
b
u t n ot a t a ll i n t he e qua to rial z one . I n aI -wave leng th d ipo le a ntenna
t
he e ne rgy i ss to red a to ne i nstan t o ft ime i nt he e lec tric fi
eld ma in ly n ear
t
he e nd s o f the a ntenna , w hile c
ycle l ate r t he e ne rgy i ss t ored i n t he
magne tic f i
eld ma in ly n ea rt he c en tero ft he a nt enna , o r max imum c urren t
r
egion . I ft he b icon ica l a n tenna i s made v ery t hin , t he re f
lec tion a t t he
e
nd s i si ncreas ed a nd t he s tored e nergy i nt he a ntenna r e
gion i sr elative ly
l
arge. Howeve r, t he r ef
le ction a tt he e nd s of ab icon ical a ntenna o fw ide
c
one a ngle i sl e
s ss o t hat t he s tored e ne rgy i ss malle r. T hus, t h
i s a ntenna
i
sl essf r
equency -s en sit
ive ' t han t he t hin o ne a nd i sb e tters uited f orw ide -
b
and a pp l
ica t
ion s. I t also f ollow s t ha t at hick c ylind r
ical d ipo le i sl e
ss
f
requency -sen sitive t han at h
in d ipole .
1
-3. S hape -impedance C ons idera tions? I ti sp ossib le in many c asest o
d
educe t he q ualita tive i mpedance b ehav io r o fa n a ntenna f rom i t
s s hape .
This may b e i lu s trat ed w i th t he a id o fF ig. 1 -9. A t ( a
) ac oax ia l tran s-
m
is sion l i
ne i sf l
a red o ut w i th t he r atio o f t he c onduc tor d iame te rs D id
main tained c ons tan t
. T hus , t he c ha ra cte r
is tic i mpedance o f t he l i
ne i s
c
on stan t
. I ft he t ape r isg radua l a nd D i sl arge w he re the l ine e nd s
, t h
is
d
ev ice r adiate sw ith l i
t t
le o rn or ef
le ction o nt he l i
ne o ve r afrequency r ange
e
xtend ing f rom s ome l owe r o r c utof f requency t o a n in defin itely h i gh
f
requency . T hi s i st he u ltima te i n b and w id th. B y b end ing t he o u ter
c
onduc tori nto ag round p lane a sa t (b) w ith t he i n ne rc onduc to rf ormed a s
s
hown ,t he b and w id th i sn ea rly a sw ide a sf ort he t ype a t(a). 3 Mod i
fy ing
1Qi
ss mal
ler.
C
hap
2 . 1b yA ndrew Al
ford, "Very H
igh F requency Te
chniques," byR adio R
esea
rch
L
aboratory S taf, McGraw -Hil Book Company , Inc
., New Y ork
, 1947.
3T
he w ide-band character
ist
ics ofan antenna ofthe genera
l appearance o
f (6
) have
b
een discussed b y N. E
. Lindenblad, Antennas and Transmiss
ion Lines at t
he Empire
S
tate T e
levis
ion S tat
ion, Commun ica
tions, 21
, 10-14, 2
4-26, Apr
il, 1
94 1
.
S
ze
.. 1
-
3] IN T R O D U CTI O N 9
t
his a
ntenna t o the conical type a t (e
) or cy
lindrical t ype at (d
) f urther
r
educes t
he b and w id th. T he b and w idth iss t
i
ll n arrowe r for the thin
s
tub a
ntenna a t (e
) w hich represents ane xtreme tow hich the mod if
ication
may b
e carried. I ft he type at (a
) i sregarded ast he b as
ic form, the thin
t
ype a
t (e
) i sthe mo st degenerate form.
As we depart mo re f rom the b asic type, t
he d iscontinuity in the l i
ne
b
ecomes mo re abrup t at w hat e ventually become s t he junction o f the
g
round plane a nd tran smis
sion l i
ne. T h
i s d
is
con tinuity i scaused b y the
c
hange in the rat
io D id and r e
sults in some e ne
rgy b eing ref
lected b ack
(
a
) (
b
)
(
j
) -
- N
(
k
) (
1
)
-
---
- N ,'
,
0 A
(
0 A(
m
) (
n
) — I(
o
)
F
ia. 1
-
9. De
riva
tion o
f t
h
in w
ire a
ntenn a
s f
r
om b
as
ic b
road
-band t
ype
s.
i
nto the l i
ne. T he discon t
inu i
ty a nd r ef
lection at the end o ft he a ntenna
a
lso i
n c
rea se fort h
inne ra ntennas. A t some f requency t he two r efl
ec tions
may c ompen sa
te, b ut t he b and w idth o f c omp ensation isn arrow. A n-
t
ennas w ith l a
rge a nd a brup t dis
con tinu i
ties h ave l a
rge r ef
lec t
ion s a nd
a
ct as re f
lect
ionless t ransfo rmers or ma tching-sections o n
ly o ver n arrow
f
requency b ands w he re the r ef
lections c ance l
. A ntennas w i th di scon-
t
inui
ties t hat ar e s mall a nd gradua l h ave s mal
l r ef
lect
ion s a nd a re, in
g
eneral, r e
latively re f
lectionless transforme rs o ver wide frequency b and s
.
The a ntenna t ypes a t (f), (g
), and ( h
), inF ig. 1-9 are similar to t hose
s
hown a bove them e x cep t that the ground p l
ane i s modif
ied i nto as leeve.
1
0 ANTE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
I
n asimi
lar way to that d
i
s cu
ssed for t h
e coaxia
l types
, the th
in wire
Vantenna a
t (1
) and th
e thin di
pole at (o
) m ay be der
ived by succe
ssive
s
t
eps from a ba
lanced t wo
-wire transmission li
ne with a con
stan t c
har-
a
cte
ris
tic i
mpedance tha
t isgradual
ly f l
ared out a
ss ugges
ted at (i
). T he
t
ypestend t
obe ofprogress
ively narrowerb and width asw e p
roceed fr
om
l
e
ftt ori
ght i
nthef i
gure
.
CHAPTER 2
P
OINT S
OURCES
2
-1. Introduc tion
. L et u s c onsider an an tenna c ontained w ith in a
v
olume o f radiu s ba s i
n Fig. 2 -
1a. C onf
in
ing o ur at
ten t
ion o n
ly t o the
f
a
r f i
e
ld oft he antenna, w e may make o bse
rva tions oft he fi
eld
s a long a n
o
bservation c irc
le o f la
rge r adius R . A t th
i s d i
stance t he m easu rable
f
i
e
ld s are entirely transverse, and t he power flow, or Poyn ting vecto r
, is
e
nti
rely r adial
. I t isconven ient i n many a nalyses to assume t hat t he
f
i
e
ld so fthe a ntenna aree verywhe re ofthistype. I nfact
,w e may a ssume ,
b
y e xt
rapo lating i nward a long t he radi
i of t he cir
cle, tha t the w aves
O
bservat
ion
c
irc
le
(
6
)
F
ro. 2
-
1. A
ntenna a
nd o
bse
rva
tion c
i
rcle
.
o
r
igina te a
t af i
ctitiou s volumeless e m
itter
, o r point s our
c e
, at the c enter
0oft he observation c irc
le. T he a
ctual fi
eld v ar
ia t
ion n ear t
he a ntenna ,
o
r "nea r f
i
eld
," i si gnored, a nd we descr
ibe t he sour ce oft he w aves o nly
i
n term s o
f the "f ar fi
eld" i tproduces. P rov ided t ha t our observa tions
a
re made a t as u ff
ic
ien t d i
stance, any antenna , r e
ga rdless of it
s s ize or
c
omp lexity
, can be re presented inthis way by as ingle p o
in tsource.
I
nstead of making f ie
ld m easuremen tsaround t he o bserva t
ion cir
cle w ith
t
he a n
tenna f i
xed, the e quivalent ef
fect may b e obta ined b y mak ing t he
measuremen t
s a t af ixed p o
in t Qon t he ci
rcle a nd r otating the a ntenna
1
1
2 ANTEN N AS [CH
AP. 2
a
round t he c
enter 0 . T h
is isusually the mo re conven
ien t procedure i
f
t
he antenna issma l
l.
I
n Fig. 2-
la the c enter 0o f the antenna coincides w
i th the center o
f
t
he o b
servat
ion c irc
le. I f the center of the antenna i sdisplaced fr
om
0
, even to t
he exten t that 0li
e s outs
ide th
e a ntenna as inF ig
. 2-1b, t
he
d
is
tance d b etween t he t wo cente
r s has an egl
igible efec
t o n the f
i
eld
p
attern at t
he o bservation ci
rcle provided R > > d,R> > b,a nd R > > X
.
Z
P
olar
O
X'S
z
P
olar
aXI
S
rs
i
n Odi
e,
r
a0
E
lemen
t o f
a
rea ds
(
b
)
P
ro. 2
-2
. S
pher
ica
l c
oord
ina
tes f
o
r ap
oint s
ource o
frad
iat
ion i
nfr
ee s
pace
.
However
, t he p hase patterns' will g
enerally d i
ffer depend ing on d . If
d= 0,the p hases h
iftaround t he obse
rva t
ion c i
rcle isusually am inimum .
As disi
ncrea sed
, the observed p hase s
hi
ft b ecome s l
arger.
Acomp le
te d escr
iption oft he far f
i
eld of as ource requires aknow ledge
o
f the e
lectric fi
eld as af unct
ion o f both s pace and t ime. F or many
pu
rposes
, howeve r
, such a c omplete knowledge i sn o
t n ecessary
. I t may
1P
has
e v
ar
iat
ion a
round t
he o
bserva
tion c
i
rcle
.
SE
C
. 2
-
21 POI NT SO U RCES 1
3
b
e s uf ic
ien t t o s pec ify m erely t he v a r
ia t
ion w ith a ngle o f t he p owe r
d
en sity' from t he a nt enna . I n t h
is c ase t he v e c
to r n ature o ft he fi
eld i s
d
isrega rded, a nd t he r adia t
ion i st reated a s as cala r q uan ti ty. T his i s
d
one i nS ec
. 2 -2. T he v e cto r n a tu re oft he f ie
ld i sr e
cogn ized i nt he d i s
-
c
ussion o n t he magn itude o f t he f i
eld c omponent s i n S ec. 2 -16 . Ac om -
p
lete d escrip t
ion o f a n e liptica lly p o
la rized f ie
ld, f o
r e xamp le, r equire s
t
ha tt he varia tion o ft he f i
e
ld c omponen ts b ek nown a s af unc tion o ft ime .
This may b e c onven ien tly a ccomp lished b y s pe c
ify ing o ne o r t wo p ha se
a
ngle s
. A lthough t he c a ses c on side red a s e xamp le s in t his c hapt e
r a re
h
ypo the t
ical, t hey c ou ld b ea pp rox imat ed b y ac tuala ntenna s
.
2-2. P owe rP at
terns . L et at ran sm itting a ntenna i nf ree s pa ce b erep re-
s
ented b y ap oin t-sour ce r adia to r l ocated a t the o rigin o ft he c oo rd
ina tes
i
nF ig. 2 -2
. T he r adia ted e ne rgy s tream s f rom t he s ource i nr adial line s
.
The t ime rate o fe ne rgy f l
ow p e ru nit ar ea i st he P oynting v ector, o rp owe r
d
ensity. T he P oyn ting v ecto r o f ap oin t s ou rce h as o n
ly a r adial c om -
p
onent P . w ith n o c omponen ts i ne ither t he 0o r t he 95d ire ction s ( P. =
P* = 0 ). T hus , the magn itude o ft he P oyn ting v ecto r
, o rp owe rd en s
i ty,
i
se qua l t
ot he r adial c omponen t ( IP I= P r).
As ource t ha t rad ia tes e ne rgy u niform ly i na ll dire ct
ion s i sa n i s
otrop ic
s
our c
e. F ors uch as our ce t he r ad ial c omponent P ,
. o fthe P oyn ting v ecto r
i
si ndependen t o f 0a nd 4 )
. Ag raph o fP . a t ac on stant r adius a s af unc -
t
ion o f ei
the r 0o r 4 )i saP oyn ting -vec tor, o r p owe r-den sity, p atte rn
b
u t isu sually c al
led a p ow er p attern . R efe r
ring t o Fig. 2 - 2a, c onside r P .
P
r
r
(
b
)
F
la. 2
-3
. ( a) Rectangu
lar p
owe
r p
attern o
f i
s
otrop
ic s
ource
. (
b
) P
ola
rpower p
attern
o
fiso
tropic s
ource
.
a
s afunction o f 0i nthe y
-z plane ( 6 = ±
9 90°)
. T he power p atte
rn for
t
he is
otropic source is as
traigh
t l i
ne o n ar ec
tangula r g
raph a s shown in
F
ig. 2
-3a or ac ir
cle on apolar graph a sshown i nF ig
. 2-36
. I n the po
lar
g
raph the magn itude of t
he P oynting v ector P . isproportional to the
l
ength oft he rad
ius vecto
r. T he t hree-d
imen s
ional powe r p
a t
tern f o
r an
i
sot
ropic s
our ce is as
phere o
fw hich the ci
rcle ofFig. 2-
36 is acros
ss ect
ion.
1P
owe
r p
er u
nit a
rea
.
1
4 ANTE N N AS [CH
AP. 2
A
lthough the is
otropic source i
sconven ient i
ntheory, i
ti sn ot aphys
i-
c
a
lly real
izab
le type. E ven the s
imp lest an
tennas have di
re c
tional p
rop-
e
r
ties
, that i
s
,t hey radiate mo reenergy i nsome d
i
rections than inother
s.
I
ncontra s
ttot he i
sotrop
ic source,they m ightbeca
lled ani
sotropicsource
s.
A
sa ne xample, t
he powerp at
t e
rn ofs uch asour
ce i
ss hown inF ig
. 2-
4a.
0
=0 0
=0
(
a
) (
b)
8
=0
(
c) (
d)
FI
G. 2
-4. P ower p at
tern (a)
, re
lative power pa
t tern (
b
), r
adiat
ion-in
tensity pat
tern ( c
),
a
nd re
lative radiation-in
tensity pa
ttern (d
)f o
rt he same d
i
rectiona
lo ranisotrop
ic source.
A
ll pa
tterns h ave the same shape. The relat
ive p ower a
nd radia
tion-
inten s
ity pa
tt erns
(
ba nd d
) also h ave the same magn itude and
, hence, a
re i
dentica
l.
I
fP . ise xpre ssed in w a
tts p er square m eter, the graph i sa n absolut
e
p
ow erp a
ttern. O n the o
therh and, ifP. ise xpressed int erms o fits va
lue
i
n some r eference d irect
ion, t he graph i s ar e
lativ
e p ower pattern. I t is
c
ustoma ry t o take t he r
eference d i
rect
ion a s that in w hich P. i s a maxi
-
mum . T hus, t he radius vec tor for ar e
la t
ive p owe r p a
ttern i sP ,/P,„
,
where P,„
, i st he max imum v a
lue o f Pr
. T he max imum v alue o f t
he
r
e
lative p owe r p at
tern isu nity as shown i n F
ig. 2-4h. Ap attern w i
th a
maximum o fu nity i sal
so called anorma l
ized p a
ttern.
2
-3. AP ower T heorem' a nd its Appl
ication toa n Is
otropic S ource. I f
t
he P oynting v ector isk nown a t al
l points on as phere o fradius rf rom a
1This t
heorem i
s aspecia
l c
ase o
f amo
re g
enera
l r
e
lat
ion f
o
rthe c
omp
lex p
owe
rfl
ow
t
hrough any cl
osed s
urface a
s g
iven b
y
W
' iff(
E X H 5)•d
s (
2
-1)
w
here W
'ist
he t
ota
lcomp
lex p
owe
rfl
ow a
nd E a
nd H* a
re c
omp
lex v
ector
srepres
ent
ing
S
ec. 2
-
5
p
o
in t s
ource i
n alos
sles
s med
ium, t
he t
o
tal p
owe
r radia
ted b
y t
he s
our
ce i
s
t
h
e int
egral o
ver t
h
e surf
ace o
fth
e s
pher
e ofth
e rad
ial c
omponen
t P. o
fthe
a
ve
rageP oynt
ing v
ec
tor. Thus
,
W =f
f P •d
s = P
,ds (
2
-3)
w
here W = powe rradia
ted, wa
tts
P
. =r adial componen t of average Poynting vec
tor
, w a
tts pe
r
s
qua re meter
d
s =i nf
inites
ima le l
ement o
fa r
ea ofsphere (s
ee F
ig
. 2
-2h
)
=r 2si
n 0d O(1
45
F
oranis
otropic source P.isi
ndependentof 0and 0
. T hus(
2-3
) become
s
W =P
, if d
8 (
2
-4)
T
he i
n
teg
ral i
sequa
l t
othe a
rea o
fthe s
phe
re s
otha
t
W = PAr
r2 (
2
-5)
o
r
D T
— (
2
-6)
4
rri
Equat
ion ( 2
-6) sta
tes t hat t he magni tude of the P oynt
ing vector v a
ries
i
nver
sely asthe square o ft he d
istance f r
om ap o
int-source r
adiator. T his
i
s astat
emen t o f t
he w ell-known i nve r
se-square law for t
he v ar
iation of
p
owe r p
er u n
it area a s af unct
ion o f the distance from a p o
int source.
P
. isinw atts pe
rs quare m eterifW i sinw atts and rinm eters
.
2
-4. R adiat
ion I ntens i
ty . Mu ltiplying t he powe r den
sity P. b y the
s
quare o
ft he rad
ius ra tw hich i
tism ea sured, weo btain t
he powerp eru n
it
s
o
lid ang
leo rradiati
on i ntensity U. T hus,
r2P
, = U =r
ad
iat
ion i
n
tens
ity (
2
-7)
Whereas t
he p
owerd ens
ity P. ise
xpres
sed inw at
ts p
er squa
re meter
, t
he
r
ad
iation in
ten
sity U isexpre
ssed i
nw att
s pe
r unit s
o
lid ang
le (wat
ts p
er
s
quare r
adian o
rste
radian).2 The r
ad
iation i
nten
sity i
sin
dependent oft
he
r
adius
.
t
he e
lect
ric and magne
tic f
i
e
lds
, H
* b
e
ing t
he c
omp
lex c
on
juga
te o
f H
. T
he a
verage
Poynt
ing vec
tor is
P= He (E XIP
) (
2
-2)
Now t
he power flow inthe f
ar f
ie
ld ise
ntire
ly r
eal
; hence
, tak
ing t
he r
ea
l p
arto
f (
2-1)
a
nd s
ubstituting (2
-2)
, we obta
in the s
pecia
l c
ase of (
2
-3)
.
ID
im ensional
ly, Ui ssimply power si
nce r
adians a
re dimens
ion
les
s. Numer
ica
lly,
Uisequal toP , a
tu nit r
ad
ius.
1
6 AN T E N N AS [CH
AP. 2
S
ubs
titu
ting (
2
-7) i
n
to (
2
-3)
, t
he p
owe
r t
heo
rem a
s
sume
s t
he f
o
rm
W = f
f Us
i
n 0d
edc
b = i
f Ud (
2
-8)
wheredi/ =s in 0c 0 d =e
l l
emen t ofs o
lid a ngle
Thus
, t he powe r theorem may b e r e
sta ted a s fo
llow s
. T he total p
ow er
r
adiated is g
iven by the i ntegral of the r adiation intensi
ty U o v
e r asolid
a
ngle of4 7
. Ap a
ttern o f Ua s af unction o fa ngle is aradiation-intens
ity
p
attern as shown b y Fig
. 2 -4c. T he max imum r adiation inten s
i ty U,
, is
i
n the direct
ion 0 = 0 . A r e
lat
ive r ad
ia tion-intensi
ty p a
t tern isg i
ven
b
y U /U., and h as a max imum v alue o f u nity as shown b y F ig
. 2-4d.
Re
lative p owe r and r adiation -
inten s
ity p atterns ar e identical. H ence
f
orb rev
ity b o
th w i
ll o
ften b e refe
rred t oa s p ower patterns.
Applying (2-8) t
oa n i so
trop ic source g ives
W =4
TU. (
2
-9a
)
w
here Uo = p
owe
rpersqua
re r
ad
ian
E
quation (
2
-9a
) may a
l
so b
eexpr
essed a
si
W =4
1
,253 U
: (
2
-9b
)
where U : =p owe rp ers quare d egree

Equations (2-9a) a nd (2-9h) also a pply f or an onisot ropic source p rovided
t
hat U . ist he average powe r p e
r s qua re radian a nd U : the average p owe r
p
ers qua re degree.
2
-5. S ource w i
th H em isphere P ower P at
tern. A sf urtherilus trationso f
t
he powe rt heorem s,letu sa pp
ly ( 2-8 ) to an umbe ro fs ourceswith d iffe
rent
t
ype s o
fa ssumed p owe r patterns. C onsider, fore xamp le, asou rce w i
th a
p
owe r or radiation -
intensity p attern w hich is ah em i sphere
. T hat i s
, the
p
owe r p er u n
it s o
lid angle, or r adia tion i n
ten s
ity, U e quals ac onstan t
U. int he uppe r hem i
sphe re (0 < 0< 7 /2 a nd 0 < < 27) a nd isz ero
i
n the lowe r hem isphere. T h
i s isi lu strated b y the t hree-dimen s
iona l or
s
pace p owerp at
te rn ofFig. 2-5a and t he two-dimen siona lpowe rp attern of
F
ig. 2-5h. T hen t he to
ta l powe r r adiated i sthe r adia t
ion inten sity inte-
g
rated o ver ah em isphere, or
=f
V/2
f f 4 s
i
n d
Bd4
) = 2
4
rU„
, (
2
-10
)
0 0
As
suming that t
he to
tal power W radiated b
y the hemispher
ic sour
ce is
t
he same a
s t he t
ota
l p owe
r radia
ted b y an is
otropic s
ource taken as a
r
ef
erence
, (
2-10 ) a
nd (2
-9a) can b
ee quated, y
i
elding,
2
TU„
, =4
1W, (
2
-11
)
14
7 s
qua
re r
adians (
s
terad
ians
) 4
7 X5
7.3 2s
quare d
egree
s 4
1,253 s
quare d
egrees
.
S
ic. 2
-
6] POI NT SO U RCES 1
7
or
U
" = 2= d
i
rec
tiv
ity (
2
-12
)
Uo
The ratio ofU .

,t o U0 i n( 2
-12 ) isca
lled the di
rectiv
ity o ft he hem i spheric
s
our ce
. T he directiv
ity o f as ource ise qua
l to the r a
tio o fi t
s max imum
r
adia t
ion i ntensity to i ts average r ad
ia t
ion intensity. O r t he dir ectiv
ity
o
f as our ce may b e s
tated a s t he ra
tio ofi t
s maximum r adia tion i ntens
ity
t
o t he radia t
ion i n
tensi ty of a n iso
tropic source radiating t he same t otal
p
owe r
.' B y (2
-12), the d irectivity oft he hemisphe ric sou rce is2 . T ha t
i
st o say, t he powe r pe r unit s o
lid angle U., in one hem isphe re fr om t he
h
em isphe ric sou r
ce i st w
ice t he p ower p er uni
t s ol
id a ngle Uo f rom a n
i
s
o tropic s ource radiating t he s ame t o
tal p ower
. T hi
s w e w ou
ld e xpect,
s
ince a p owe r W r ad
ia ted u niformly o ver one hem isphe re w ill g
i ve t w
ice
t
he p owe r per u nit solid a ngle a s w hen radiated u nifo rm ly o ve r both
8
.0 8
=o
H
emisphe
ric
I
sot
rop
ic
(
a) (
b
) (
c)
F
lo. 2-
5. H em
ispher
ic p
ower p
att
ern
s, (
a
) a
nd (
6
), a
nd c
ompa
rison w
ith i
s
otrop
ic
p
attern (
c
).
h
emi sphere
s. T he powerpattern
so f ahemispher
ic s
ource a
nd aniso
tropic
s
ource are compared inFig
. 2-5c fo
r the s
ame power r
adiated by b
oth
.
2
-6. Source W ith Unid
irect
ional Cosine Power Pat
tern. L et u
s con-
s
ide
rn ex
t as our
ce with acos
ine radia
tion-
intens
ity p
attern
, tha
ti s
,
U = U
,
. c
os 0 (
2
-13
)
where U
,,
. =m aximum radia
tion in
tens
ity
The radiat
ion inten
sity U h as a va
lue on
ly in the uppe
r hem isphe
re
(
0 <6 1< 212 and 0 < i
b< 2 r) a
nd isz
ero i
nthe l
owerhemisphe
re. T he
r
adiat
ion i n
ten
sity is a max
imum a t 0= 0. T he pat
tern isshown i n
'One can a
lso c
ompare the power W ' radia
ted by t
he s
ource to t
he p
owe r W" that
mu
st be radia
ted by an i
sotrop
ic s ource to g
ive t
he same rad
iation i
nt
ensity. T hen
Uo = U,o,a
nd the d
ir
ect
ivity isgiven b y D = W"/ W'
. F or in
stanceinthe above c
ase
(
Sec
.2 -
5), W" = 4vU oa
nd W ' =2 1
rUa or Uo = U
r. F .„t he d
i
rectiv
ity D = W"/ W ' =2.
1
8 ANTEN N AS [
CHAP
. 2
F
ig
. 2-6
. T he s
pace pat
tern is af
i
gure ofrevolut
ion ofthi
s ci
rcle a
round
t
he po
laraxis
.
T
o find t
he t
ota
l powe r r
adia
ted by the c
osine sour
ce, we a
pply (2
-8)
a
nd in
tegra
te on
ly ove
rt he upperhemisphere
. T hu
s
W=j
. 0
2
r j
.r12
0
U. c
o
s 0s
i
n 0d
0ci
d
) = TU
„, (
2
-14
)
I
fthe p
ower rad
iated by t
he u
nid
ire
ctional c
os
ine s
our
ce isthe s
ame as
f
o
r an i
s
otrop
ic source
, t
hen (
2
-14) a
nd (2-9a
) may b
e set e
qual
, y
ie
lding
TU. = 4
7W.
Or
U.
D
ire
ctiv
ity = — = 4 (
2
-15
)
Uo
T
hus
, the max
imum r ad
iat
ion i
n
tens
ity U. o
fthe u
nid
ire
ctiona
l co
sine
s
our
ce (i
n the d
irec
tion 0 = 0
) i
sfou
r time
s t
he r
adiat
ion in
tens
ity Uo
8=
0
8=0 P
o
lar
Po
lar a
x
is
a
xis
1
C
os
ine
H
alf
-power
po
ints
I
sotrop
ic
F
la. 2-6. Un
idirect
iona
l c
o
sine p
owe
r F
lu. 2-
7. P ower pa
ttern
s o f un
idirec
-
p
attern
. t
i
onal cos
ine s
ource c
ompa r
ed with iso
-
t
rop
ic s
ource f
or s
ame p
owe r r
ad
iated by
b
oth.
f
rom a n i sot ropic sou rce radiating t he s ame t otal power
. T he p ower
p
atterns f o
r t he two s ources are c ompa red in F ig
. 2 -7 f
or the s
ame t o
tal
p
owe rr adiated b y each.
2
-7. S ou r
ce w ith Bid irect
ional C osine P owe r P at
tern. L et u
s as
sume
t
hat the sou rce h as ac o
sine patte rn as i nt he preced ing e
xamp le b
ut that
t
he radiation i n
tensity h as av a
lue i nb oth h em i
sphe r e
s, i
ns
tead ofonly in
t
he uppe r o ne. T he p attern ist hen a s i nd
ica ted b y Fig
. 2-8. Itfollows
t
hat W i st wice its value for the u nidirec t
ional c osine power pat
tern
, a nd
h
ence t he dire ct
ivity i s 2ins
tead o f4.
2
-8. S ou r
ce w i
th S ine ( Doughnu t
) P ower P a
ttern. C on s
ider next a
s
ource h aving ar adiation -
intensity p at t
e rn given b y
SE
C
. 2
.
9
U = U
. s
i
n 0 (
2
-16
)
T
he pa
ttern i
sshown inFig
. 2-
9. T he spa
ce pat
tern i
s af
i
gure o
frevolu
-
t
i
on o
ft h
is p
atte
rn around t
he po
lara x
isa nd h
as t
he f
o
rm of adoughnut
.
A
pply
ing (2
-8)
, the t
ota
l powe
r radia
ted is
r r
W = U
. f2 f 8i n 2 0c
1
0ch
k = T2U
. (
2
-17
)
0 0
I
fthe p
ower rad
iated b
y t
h
is s
our
ce i
sth
e s
ame a
sfo
r a
n i
s
otrop
ic s
our
ce
t
aken a
s r
e
ference, w
e h
ave
72U
. =4
rU,
a
nd
U
. 4
D
ire
ctiv
ity = —
, = -= 1
.
27
(
Jo 7
8
=o
Mo. 2
-8
. B
id
ire
ctiona
l c
o
sine p
owe
rpa
t- Pm
. 2
-
9. S
ine p
owe
rpa
tte
rn.
t
ern
.
2
-9
. Sou rce with S
ine
-squared (Doughnut
) P ower P
attern
. N ex
t con
-
s
i
der as ource with a s
ine s
quared rad
iat
ion-in
tensi
ty or powe
r patter
n
.
T
he rad
ia t
ion-intens
ity pa
tte
rn isgiven b
y
U = U
. s
i
n2 0 (
2-20
)
The power pattern i

sshown i
nF ig. 2
-10. This type o
fp a
ttern isofcon-
s
iderable i
n
te rest b
ecause i
tist he pat
tern produced by as hort d
ipole
c
oincidentwith the p
olarax
is i
nFig. 2
-10. Applying (
2-8
),t he t
ota
lpowe r
r
adiated i
s
8
W = U
,
,
, f s
i
n' 0d
0cl
q
5 =-
31-U. (
2
-21)
0 0
2
0 ANTE N N AS (CH
AP. 2
I
fW i
sthe s
ame a
sfo
r t
he i
s
otrop
ic s
our
ce,
f
rU„
, =4
7U0
a
nd
D
ire
ctiv
ity =
- ?— 1
=- .) (
2
-22
)
U0 2— `
=0
0
-0
F
l
o.2
-10
. S
ine s
qua
red p
ower p
attern
. F
lu. 2
-
11. Un id
ire
ctiona
l c
os
ine s
qua
red
p
ower pa
tte
rn.
2
-10. Source wi
th Un
idirect
ional C
osine S
quared Power Pa
tte
rn. L e
t
u
s cons
ider next t
he c
ase of asour
ce wi
th aunid
irec
tiona
l co
sine s
qua
red
r
ad
ia t
ion-
intensi
ty pa
ttern asgiven b
y
U = U
r
n c
os
' 0 (
2
-23
)
w
ith t
he rad
iation intens
ity having av alue only i
nthe upper h
em isphere.
T
he patte
rn isshown i nFig
. 2
- 11. T he three
-dimens
ionalo rspace patt
ern
i
s af
igure o
frevolution ofthi
s p atte
rn a round the p
olar a
xis a
nd h as the
f
o
rm o f apro
la te s
phe ro
id (f
oo tba
ll shape). T he t
otal p
owe r rad
iated is
/
2 2
W = U
„
,
r
n! 0 !0 c
o
s2 0s
i
n 0d
Odc
t
. =- (
2
-24
)
I
fW i
sthe s
ame a
srad
iated b
y a
n i
s
otrop
ic s
ource
,
I
TUr
n =4
1410
a
nd
U.
D
irec
tiv
ity = = 6 (
2
-25
)
0
T
hus, t
he maximum p
owerperu n
it so
lid a
ngle (
at 0= 0)fr
om the s
ource
w
ith t
he cos
ine s
qua
red power pat
tern issix times t
he p
ower p
er u n
it
s
o
lid a
ngle f
rom a
n i
so
trop
ic s
ource r
adiat
ing the same p
owe
r.
S
ec
. 2
41] POI N T SO U RCES 2
1
2
-11. S
ource w
ith Un
idirect
iona
l C os
ine" P
ower Pa
ttern
. A more g
en-
e
ra
l c a
se f
or aunid
irect
ional rad
iation-
inten
sity p
atte
rn wh
ich iss
ym -
m
etrica
l a
round t
he po
lara x
is isg
iven b y
U= U
, c
os
" 0 (
2
-26
)
w
here n i
sany r
ea
l n
umbe
r. I
n F
ig
. 2
-
12, r
e
lat
ive r
ad
iat
ion
-in
ten
sity o
r
9
-0
o
os 4
c
os 30
c
o
s20
c
o
s0
(
c
i
rcle
)
n=0
(
h
emi
sph
ere
)
Fm
. 2
-12
. Un
idirect
iona
l c
os
" 0p
owe
r p
attern
s f
o
r v
arious v
alue
s o
fn.
p
ower p a
tterns pl
ott
ed to the same m aximum v alue are s
hown for t
he
c
ase
s w here n = 0,I,1,2,3 ,and 4. T he case f
or n = 0isthe s
ame as
t
he sou
rce with t
he hemi
spheric power pa
tt e
rn di
scussed i
nSec. 2
-5
. T he
c
ase
sf or n = 1and n = 2we
re treated i
nS ecs
. 2
-6a nd 2
-10
. When n =
1
4
P
o
lar
i
2 a
x
is
2
-
'
10
f
7
'8
! 6
5 4
2
X
Fm. 2
-13. D i
rectiv
ity v
s
. nfor u
nidirec
- F
lo. 2
-14. Unidirectiona
l source r
adia
t-
t
i
onal source
s w i
th cos
" 0powe
r patterns
. i
ng max
imum p ower i nthe d
irect
ion 0 n
•
9
0°
, ep-•90
°, o
r ya xis.
3
,and 4
,the d
irect
ivi
ty is3,8,and 10
, r
e spec
tive
ly.
' T hese ca
lcu
lat
ions
a
re l
e
ft t
o t
he re
ader as a
n exe
rcise
. Ag raph ofthe dire
c t
ivity o
f aun
i-
d
i
rect
iona
lsour
ce as afunc
tion of nisp
resented i
nF ig
. 2-13.
I
t may b
es hown tha
tt he d
irect
ivity o
fs ourcesw
ith power p
atterns o
fthe t
ype g
iven
b
y (
2-26) c
an be r
educed tot he simple e
xpression
, d
irect
ivi
ty 2
(n + 1)
. The proofis
l
e
ft t
o the r
eader a
s an exerc
ise.
9
9 AN TE N N AS [CH
AP. 2
2-12. S ource w ith U nidirec t

iona l P ower P attern T hat Is N o
t S ym -
metrical
. A ll t he p a t
te rns c onside red t hu s far h ave b een symme tr
ica l
a
round t he p o
la ra xis
. T ha t is
,t he s pace p atte rn cou
ld b e c
onstructed a s
afigure of revo lution a bou t the p olar a x
is. L et us now c ons
ider a mo re
g
ene ral case in w hich t he p atte rn i su n
idi rectiona l but isunsymme trical
a
round i t
s ma jo r a xis
. I n d iscu s
sing t his t ype o fp a
t t
ern itw i
ll be c on-
v
enien t to shift t he d i
re ct
ion o f the ma jo r a x
is o r di
rection of maximum
r
adia t
ion f r
om t he p olara xis ( 0=0 )t o ad i
rection i nthe equator
ial pl ane
a
s shown i nF ig. 2 -14 ( 0 = 9 0°, 4,= 9 0°). T he 0 = 9 0° pl
ane coincide s
w
ith t he x -
y p lane a nd t he 4 )= 9 0° p l
ane w ith t he y-
z plane. Ar a
the r
g
ene rale xpression f o
rt he r adiation i n
t ensity w ith its maximum a t 0= 9 0°
and (1)= 9 0° ist hen g iven b y
U = U
„
, s
i
n" 0s
i
n" 4
, (
2
-27
)
w
here n = a ny rea
l numbe r
m =a ny rea
l numbe r
a
nd the r
adiat
ion in
tensity U has ava
lue o n
ly inthe ri
ght-hand hemisphere
(
Fig
. 2-14
) ( 0 < 0< 7 1 0 < 4)< 7). Wh en m = n , (2
-27) become s t
he
e
quation for asymme t
rical power patt
e rn o
ft he same form as con
sidered
i
nS e
c. 1. When m a nd n a re n
ot t
he s ame (2
-27 ) r
epresents t
he gene
ral
c
ase inwhich the p
attern hasdiferents hapesint he 0 = 9 0
°a nd 4
)= 9 0°
p
lanes. T he t
otal p
owe rr ad
iated inthis g
eneral case i
s
W = U
. f0 0 s
i
n 1
'
.'
"' 0s
i
n' 4
)d0d
4
. (
2
-28
)
2-1
3. GeneralC ase o
fS ource w
ith P owerP at
tern ofA ny Shape. I nt he
p
reced
ing sections t
he rad
iation-
int ens
ity o r p
ower pattern
s a r
e a l
l repre-
s
ented bysine orcosine f
unct
ionso fa ngle
. S ome actual antenna p at
te rns
c
an be so r
ep re
sented. F or e
xamp le, the power p
attern of as hort dipole
h
as as i
ne s
qua red power pat
tern asd iscussed i
nSec. 2-9
. I n genera
l t he
r
adiat
ion in
t ensi
ty may bea ny function of 0and 4
,asg iven by
U= U
,
,f(
0,4
) (
2
-29
)
w
here U„ = ac
onstant
T
ofind t
he t
o
tal power r
ad
iated
, Ui
ssub
sti
tuted i
n
to (
2
-8)
, t
hati
s
,
W = i
f U
„ f
(
0, (
A
)si
n 0d
edA
t
• (
2
-30
)
I
fthi
se xpres
sion cannotbeintegra
ted analyt
ica
lly
, W may b e o
btained by
agraphica
l i nt
egrat
ion (s
ee P rob
. 2 -
5), or approximate
ly by sele
cting
nand m in(2-28) t
ogive as
ine
-function powerpat
t ern w
hich a
pproxima t
es
t
he actua
l pattern
.
SE
C
. 2
44] POI N T SO U R C ES 2
3
The ma thema t
ical e xp ress
ion f o
r t he powe r p attern may b e unknown ,
but t he p atte rn may b e mea su rable. I n m ea suring p atterns w hich h ave a
max imum i nt he yd i
re ction, iti sc ustoma ry t o take t wo p attern s
, o ne a s
afunc tion o f4 )i nt he 0 = 9 0° plane a nd t he o the r as af unc t
ion o f 0i n
t
he 0 = 9 0
° p lane. F rom t hese p atterns t he s pa ce pattern may b e e s
ti-
mated a nd W c a
lcu lated b y graph ical in
teg ration , or value s o f na nd m
i
n ( 2-28 ) may b e s e
lected t o gi ve integrable s ine f unct
ion s w h
ich a pp roxi-
mat et he m easured p attern s
. B yassum ing t ha tt he same p owe ri srad iated
b
y a n i s
otrop ic s our ce
,t he direc t
ivity may b eo btained a si nt he preced ing
s
ect
ion s. A no the rv ery s imple b uta pproxima te m ethod f o
r o b taining t he
d
irec tiv i
ty i sd i
s cussed o n page 2 5
.
2-14 . D irec tivity. T he c oncep t o f di
rec tivity , treated a bove i n s ome
s
pecia l c ases, may b e e xtended t o severa
l mo re gene ral exp ressions w hich
w
ill n ow b e d eveloped .
I
n S e c
. 2 -5 d irectivi ty w as d ef
ined a s the r at
io o f U „
, to U . w he re U „
,
i
st he max imum r adia t
ion i nten s
ity o r wa tts p er s quare r adian f rom t he
s
our ce u nde r c on side rat
ion a nd U . i s the r adiation i nten s
ity f rom a n
i
s
o trop ic s our ce r adiating t he s ame p ower ( or U0 i sthe a verag e radia tion
i
nten sity f rom t he sou rce u nde rc onsideration ). T hus,
U"
' max
imum r adiat
ion i
n
tens
ity
D— — (
2
-31
)
U0 a
verage r
adiat
ion i
n
tens
ity
whe
re D = d
irec
tivity
Mult
iply
ing n
ume ra
torand d
enom
ina
toro
f(2
-31
) b
y4rg
ive
s
4
r U' 4rU
„, 4
r(max
imum rad
iat
ion in
ten
sity
)
D — (
2
-32
)
4
r U0 — W — t
ota
lpowerradia
ted
L
et u
s now d
evelop a mo
re gene
ral e
xpr
ess
ion f
o
r t
he d
i
rec
tiv
ity
. L
et
t
he r
ad
iat
ion-
intens
ity p
attern b
ee xp
res
sed a
sin(2
-29
) b
y
U = U
.f(
0, 0
) (
2
-33
)
a
nd i
t
s max
imum v
alue b
y
U
„
, — U„f
(
0, c
p
)
„,
.x (
2
-34
)
w
here U
. = acon s
tant
F
orthe s
pec
ial c
ase w
here
f
(0,0
).. = 1 (
2
,35
)
t
hen U
.
. = U
. a
nd (
2
-33
) c
an b
ewr
itten
U= U
.f(
0,4
) (
2
-36
)
2
4 AN T E N N AS [CH
AP. 2
T
he a
verage r
ad
iat
ion i
n
ten
sity i
s
I
V f
f U
„ f
(0
,
U0 = T
i; = (
2
-37
)
4
i
r
w
here W = t o
tal p
ower r
ad
ia ted
c
/
S2 =sin 0d0 d =e lement o
fso
lid a
ngle
T
he d
irect
ivi
ty D isthen g
iven by
U U f
(0 4
1
- f
(0
,
(
2
-38
)
U0 I
f U
. AO
, i
l
) ff
(
o
,ck
)dI
z
4
ir
E
qua
tion (
2
-38
) c
an b
e r
e
expr
essed a
s
4
7
r
D = (
2
-39
)
f
(0
, (
1
)df
t B
f
(
0
,
w
here B i
sdef
ined a
sthe b
eam a
rea
. I
tisg
iven b
yl
B _ f
f f
(0
, c
6
)c/
S
2
(
2
-40
)
f
( 0,
F
rom (
2
-31
) a
nd (
2
-39
)
D = U,
, 4
w
a
nd
4
7U, = (
.
1
„
,B (
2
-42
)
S
ince U0 = W/4T
,
W = U
„
,B (
2
-43
)
where W = tota
l powe
r radiated
There
fore
, th
e be
am area B isthe s
o
lid a
ngle t
h
rough w
hich a
l
l t
he p
owe
r
r
adiat
ed would s
t
ream i
ft h
e power p
er un
it s
o
lid a
ngl
e e
qual
ed t
he m
aximum
v
alue U„
, ov
erthe b
eam a
rea.
IN
o t
et ha
tf (0
,0 )4(0, c
b
).. i
, sther e
lat
ive (no
rmaliz
ed) to
ta
lp owerpat
tern
. T hus,
(
2
-40
) m ay al
so bew r
itten
I
f
(
0
,0 )
B = s
in oc1
0
f
(0,0)...
T
he in
tegrat
ion m ay bed one ana
lyti
cally orgraph
ical
ly, oritm ay b
edone appro
xi-
m
ate
ly b y (
2-
44). G raphica
l int
egrat
ion procedure
s fo
r aspec
ial ca
sear
ed i
scuss
ed in
P
rob
.2 -5
. I fthetota
lf a
r-f
ie
ld patte
rn isgi
ven itsh
ould beno
ted tha
tthere
lat
ivet o
tal
p
ower pat
tern in( 2
-40) isequal tothe squ
are ofthe re
la
tive t
otal f
i
e
ld pat
tern [s
ee
E
q. (
2-58c
)]
.
SE
C
. 2
-
14] POI N T SO U RCES 2
5
F
rom (
2
-42
)
4
T o U
B= s
qua
re r
ad
ian
s =4
1
,253 °- s
qua
re d
egree
s (
2
-43a
)
U. U.
- - -
Conside r the u n
id irectional p ower p attern s hown i n F ig. 2-
15. The
p
a ttern i s afigure o fr evolu t
ion a round t he ya x
is. T he i ncluded ang
le 0'
o
ft he c orrespond ing b eam a r
ea i sal
so s hown . I ft he p owe rp eru n
it s
olid
a
ngle o ver the b eam a rea w ere e qual to t he max imum v alue U. of the
d
irectiona l sou rce, t he p owe r t hrough t he b eam a r
ea w ould equal that
r
adia ted b y the sou rce.
F
rom t his iti so nly a s tep t o av e
ry s imp le z
a
pp roxima te m ethod o f calculating the d i
rec - P
olar
0%15
t
ivi
ty f or as ingle l obed p attern, based o n a n
e
s
t ima te o fthe b eam a rea f rom t he ha
l f
-pow er
b
eam w idths o ft he p att erns i n two planes a t
r
i
gh ta ngles
. T hus ,s uppos et hat0 ,isthe beam
w
id th b etwe en h alf-powe r p o
int s in one plane
a
nd 4 )
, i sthe w idth i n ap lane a t ri
ght a ngles.
Then, a pprox ima tely
FI
G 2
-15. Unidirect
iona
l
B'
-
' O
o
kl (
2
-44
) p
ower p
attern i
n cross s
ec
-
S
ubs
titu
ting (
2
-44
) i
n(2
-41
) g
ive
s t
ion with i
nc
luded angle e
rof
t
he b eam area. T he space
4
7 p
a t
terns a
re f
igure
so frevo
lu-
D = (
2
-45
) t
ion a
round the ya x
is.
O
i
cki
w
her
e 01 a
nd 0
, a
re t
he h
alf
-power b
eam w
idth
s e
xpr
essed i
n r
ad
ian
s.
E
quat
ion (
2
-45
) may a
l
so b
ee xp
ress
ed a
s
D _ 4
1
,253
(
2
-46
)
KO
°
w
here 0
?and c
e
,ar
e t
he h
a
lf-powe
r b
eam w
idth
s i
ndeg
ree
s.1
'
Fort he s pecial c ase of ad oughnut -type p a ttern (a s i
nS ecs. 2-8 and 2-9) E q
. ( 2-45)
r
educes to D = .4/r/2 7
r0 1 2/01,or D . - 14 .6/01° . As omewha tb e
ttera pproxima tion
f
ordoughnu tp a
tte rns isgi ven b yD — 1 /[sin ( 01/2)]
. When 01i ss mal
lt he two approx i
-
mat
ions a re e quiva lent.
F
ort he s pecial c ase of ab idirect
ional patte rn w ith t wo i
dentical lobes, asinF ig. 2 -8
,
i
tistob en oted t ha t the directivity ishalft hato btained o n the basis of asi
ngle lobe .
I
f (
2-45 ) o r (2-46 ) isa pp
lied t o au nid
i rectiona l b eam t ype o f pattern with m ino r
l
obes
, thes e lo bes a re neglected a nd the calculat ed d irect
ivity i susually too high. To
i
mprove t he a ccuracy , (2-46) may b e mu ltiplied b y ac orrection f actor
. The v a
lue
o
fthis factor ( u
sua lly between 0 .6 and 1.0
) d epends i ne ach c a
se o n the characteristics
o
fthe pat tern b u
t may b er e
latively constant f or p a
tte rns o
f ac ertain clas
so fa ntenna s
.
2
6 ANTEN N AS [
CHAP
. 2
As a
n ilustra
tion le
t us fi
nd t
he di
rectivi
ty o f t
he sour
ce of Sec
. 2-6
b
y thi
s m ethod. T h
is source h
as au n
idirectional co
sine powe
r p a
tte
rn
g
iven by U -= U„
, co
s 0a nd an e
xac
t value ofd i
rect
ivity o
f4 . The ha
lf-
p
owe rbeam widths a
re 120°
. T hus
4
1 253 4
1 2
53
D— ' — , — 2
.
87
0
?
4,
? 1
2° 2
T
his approx
imate va
lue isabout 35 perc enti
ne r
ror
.
As ano
ther i
lus
tration
, consider as ource w
ith a un
idi
rectiona
l power
p
attern g
iven b
y U= U „
, cos
' 0w hich ha sanexactdi
rect
ivity of8. The
h
al
f-powe r b
eam w
idth sare 7
5.2°, and
D— 4
1 '2
53 — 73
7
5
.22 '
wh
ich isabou t 10 p
ercent i
nerror.
2
-15
. G ain. T he d
ef
init
ion of directivi
ty i n t
he preced
ing s e
ction i
s
b
ased ent
irely o n t
he s
hape of the radiated p owe
r pattern
. T he power
i
nput and a n
tenna e f
ic
iency are not i nvolved. A q uant
ity cal
led gain
w
i
ll now b e int
roduced which does involve t he a
ntenna e f
ic
iency. T he
g
a
in' Go fa n antenna i
sdef
ined as
max
imum r adiat
ion i
ntens
ity
G= (
2
-4'0
max
imum r ad
iation in
ten
sity fr
om a
r
e
ference a
ntenna with s
ame power i
npu
t
Any t
ype ofa ntenna may be taken a
s t he reference. O f
ten the re
ference
i
s ali
near 1-waveleng
th a n
tenna. G ain i n
clude s t he efect o
fl o
sses both
i
nthe antenna underc on
sidera
tion (subject a ntenna ) and inthe re
ference
a
ntenna.
I
twill beconvenient i
ns ome ofthe fol
low ing d iscus
sion toa s
sume t hat
t
he re
ference antenna isa n is
otrop
ic s ource o f 1 00 per cent eff
ic
iency.
The g
ain so def
ined f
or the s
ubject a
n tenna i sc a
lled the gain wi
th respe
ct
t
oa niso
tropicsourceand isdes
ignated Go. T hus,
G max
imum r ad
ia t
ion in
tens
ity f
r
om sub
jectantenna 2
-48
)
(
o— rad
iat
ion inten
sity f
r
om (l
oss
les
s) i
so
trop
ic
s
ource wi
th same p
owerinput
L
et the max
imum r ad
iat
ion i
ntens
ity f
rom t
he s
ubject a
ntenna be U
:
„.
L
et th
is be re
lated t
o t
he va
lue of t
he max
imum radia
tion in
ten
sity U„
,
1T
he ga
in G ashere d ef
ined issome t
imes c al
led power g
ain
. T his q
uant
ity isequal
t
ot he s
quare o
fthe gain infie
ld in
tensity G f. Thus
, if Eti
sthe maximum el
ectr
ic fi
e
ld
i
n
ten s
ity f
rom the antenna at al arge di
stance R and Eo isthe maximum el
ectr
ic fi
e
ld
i
ntens
ity f
rom the r
e
f erence antenna with the same powerinputatthe s
amed i
stance R,
t
hen the p
owerg a
in G i sgiven by G. ( E
,/E ,)
' .•G f
2.
S
e
c. 16
] POINT S
OURCES 2
7
f
o
r a100 p
erc
ente
fi
cien
tsub
jec
tan
tenna b
y ar
ad
iat
ion e
f
ici
ency f
ac
tork
.
T
hus
,
U = kU
„, (
2
,49
)
w
her
e 0< k< 1
T
her
efo
re, (
2
-48
) may b
ewr
itt
en
U . kU
„,
(
2
-50
)
= = Uo
where Uo i
sthe r
adiat
ion in
tens
ity from a l
o
ssles
s i s
otropic s
ource w
ith
t
he same power i
nput
. I fW i sthe powe
r i
nput, U0 = W/47 . B ut t
he
r
atio U
,./U
o isby (2
-31) t
he d
ire
ctivi
ty D sot
ha t (
2-50) becomes
Go = k
D (
2
-51
)
thus
, t he g ain o
f an a ntenna ove r al o
ssles
s isotrop
ic source e quals the
d
ire
ctiv i
ty i fthe an
tenna i s100 pe rc en
t e f
ic
ien t (k = 1)b ut i
sl es
s t han
t
he directivi
ty i fa
ny l o
sses ar
e pre sent inthe antenna (k < 1).
The directivi
ty D a nd ga
in Goi mp ly t
he maximum v aluesf o
ra na ntenna.
The directiv
i ty o
r gain in adirection for which the rad
iation intensity U
i
sn ot a max imum may b e de
signa ted by speci
fying the angle a t w hich
i
tism easured or, i
ng eneral
, by the symbo l D(0,4) or G0(0
,y 6
)
. T ha t is
,
D
(0, c
k
) = D (
2
-52a
)
a
nd
G
o(0
, (
I
) = (
2
-52b
)
w
here U = rad
iat
ion i
n
tensity int
he d
ire
ction (0
,lb
)
U
„, = maximum rad
iation i
n
tens
ity
B
oth d
ire
ctiv
ity a
nd g
ain may be e
xpre
ssed as ad
ecibe
l r
a
tio b
y t
ak
ing
1
0times t
he lo
gar
ithm t
ot he ba
se 1
0. That is
,
Db d
i
rec
tiv
ity =
- 1
0lo
g10 D (
2
-53a
)
Db g
a
in = 1
0lo
g. G (
2
-53b
)
S
ince t
he p
owerg
a
in G i
sequa
l t
othe s
qua
re o
ft in i
he g
a nfi
e
ld i
n
tens
ity
Cf,we a
lso h
ave
Db g
a
in = 2
0lo
g10 Gf (
2
-53
c)
Thus, db g
ain i
sthe same
, w he
ther based o
n power gin o
a r ga
in infie
ld
i
ntensi
ty.
2-16
. Fie
ld Pat
terns. T he d
iscus
sion inthe p
reced
ing s
ec
tions of t
h
is
c
hap te
r has b
een based o
n cons
iderat
ion s o
f p
ower
. T h
is h
as afo
rded a
2
8 ANTEN N AS (CH
AP. 2
s
implici
ty o fa naly sis, si
nce the powe r fl
ow f rom ap oin ts ource h as only a
r
adial componen t w hich c an be c onsidered a s as c a
lar q uanti ty. T o
d
escribe t he f
ie
ld o f ap oint source mo re comp letely, l et us con sider t he
e
le
c t
ric f i
e
ld i nten si
ty ,' or Ev ec
to r of the f i
e
ld , w hich i susually c a
lled
s
imply t he el
ec
tr i
cf i
eld, orE .
S
ince t he Poyn ting v ector around a p o
int s our ce i se verywhe re r adial,
i
tf o
llows t ha
t t he e lectr
ic f i
e
ld ise nt
irely tran sve rse, h aving o ly E
n t
,a nd
E
,c omponen ts. T he r e
lation oft he r
adial componen tP . ofthe P oynting
v
ector and t he e lectr
ic fi
eld c ompo -
ZPolar n
ents i si lustra ted b y the s pherical
a
x
is c
oordinate d iagram o f F ig. 2 -16.
The c ond itions c haracterizing t he
f
arf i
e
ld a r
e t hen :
1
.Poynting vecto
r r ad
ial (1
2 ;
c
omponent on
ly)
2
. E
lec
tric fi
e
ld t r
ansve
rse (
E,
nd E
a ,components o
nly)
The Poynting vectora nd the e

lec-
‘\9
2, t
r
ic fi
eld a
t ap o
int ofthe f a
rf i
e
ld are
E
qua l
X r
e
lated int he same manne r as t
h ey
F
lo. 2
-16. R elation o
fthe P
oynting vec- a
re in ap lane w ave, since, if ris
t
orand the e
l
ec tr
ic f
i
eld c
omponentsoft he s
ufic
ien t
ly large
, as mal
l s ec
tion of
f
a
r fi
eld
. t
he spher
icalw ave front may b ec
on -
s
ide
red a s aplane.
The r e
lat
ion b etween t
he a verage Poynting vectora nd the electr
ic f
i
eld
a
t ap oint oft he farf i
e
ld is
1
E'
Pr=.
5-
z-
0 (
2
-
54)
w
here Zo = i
n
trin
sic i
mpedance o
ffr
ee s
pace* a
nd
E= VE
: E
: (
2
-
55)
w
here E=t otale l
ect
ric f
i
e
ld in
tensi
ty
E
, = amplitude o
f 0component
E
. = amplitude o
f c omponent
T
he f
i
e
ld may b
eel
ipt
ica
lly
, l
i
nea
rly
, o
rci
rcu
lar
ly p
o
laized •
r
We c ould e
qual
ly w e
ll use the magne t
ic fi
eld i
ntensity
, or Hv ector. H oweve
r, i
n
t
he far fi
eld the magnitude of t
he magne t
ic fi
eld i
ar e
lated to the e
lectr
ic fi
e
ld by t
he
i
ntr
insic i mpedance Z ofthe medium ( H E
/Z). T he t wo fi
e
ldsate ach po
int a
re i
n
t
ime p hase and i
ns pace q
uad ra
ture. S ince the magnet
ic f i
e
ld can b
eo b
tained f
rom t
he
e
lec
tric, w e s
hal
l, f
or simpli
city
, consider o n
ly the e
lectr
i c fi
e
ld pat
te rns
.
•Zo is apure r
es
istance 377 o
hms ).
S
ec
. 2
-
9
A p attern s howing t he v ar
ia t
ion o f the e lectr
ic f ie
ld i ntens
ity a t a
c
onstan t r ad
iu s ras af unction o fa ngle (0
,0 ) i scalled af ie
ld p a
tte
rn. I n
p
resen t
ing i n
forma tion c once rning t he far fi
eld o f an a ntenna, i tisc u
s-
t
oma ry t o give the f i
e
ld p a
t tern s f
or the t wo c omponen ts, E, and E ,
„ of
t
he electric fie
ld since t he tota l el
ectric fi
e
ld E c an b e o b
tained f r
om t he
c
omponen ts b y (2
-55 )
, b ut t he componen ts c anno t b e obtained from a
k
now ledge o fo nly E.
When t he fi
eld intensity i se xpres
sed i nvolts p erm eter
, iti san abso
lute
f
i
eld p a
ttern .
' O n t he o ther h and, ift h
e f i
eld i ntensity i sexpressed in
u
nits relative t o i
ts value i ns ome reference d i
rec t
ion, i ti s are
lati
vef i
eld
p
atte
rn . T he r e
ference d i
re ction i s usual
ly t aken i n the d i
rect
ion o f
maximum f ie
ld i n
ten s
ity. T he r e
lative p a
t t
e rn o f the E , componen t i s
t
hen g iven b y
E
,
(
2
-56
)
a
nd t
he r
e
lat
ive p
att
ern o
fthe E0 c
omponen
t i
sgi
ven b
y
(
2
-57
)
E
,.
where = max i mum va f E

lue o ,
= max i mu m v
alue o
fE ,
T
he magn itudes ofb oth t
he e
lec
tric f
i
e
ld components, E
, and E,
, ofthe
f
ar f
i
eld vary inversely as t
he d
istance f
rom t
he source
. Howeve r
, they
may be di
ffe
r ent funct
ions, F
, and F,
, ofthe a
ngular coo
rdinat
es, 0a nd
0
. T hus
, ing enera
l,
1
Eo = —F
1(0
, 4
) (
2
-58a
)
E
. = 7
7
-
1 . F2( 0 ,(h
) (
2
-58 b
)
S
ince P
,. = 4/2Z , where E
„.isthe maximum v
alue o
fE, i
tfol
low
s on
d
iv
iding t
hisi
nto (2
-54
) thatthe r
e
lat
ive tota
lpowerpatte
rn i
sequalt
othe
s
quare o
fthe r
ela
tive t
otal f
i
eld p
att
ern. T hus
,
P, _ U _
(
2-5
8c
)
Pr„
,— U
. \
E„
,I
E
xample 1
. C ons
ider fi
rs
t the ca
se o
fan a
ntenna w
hose f
ar f
i
eld h
as oly a
n n
E
, c
omponent i
nthe equa
torial p
lane he E
, t , c
omponent b
eing z
ero i
nthis p
lane
.
1T
he m
agn
itud
edepend
sont
her
ad
ius
, v
ary
ing i
nve
rse
ly a
sth
edi
stance
, (
E a1
/
r).
3
0 ANTENNAS (
CAA"
. 2
S
uppo
sethatthe r
e
lative e
quato
ria
l-plane p
att
ern o
fthe E
,componen
t (
t
hati
s
,E,
,
a
s af
unc
tion o
f4.fo
r 8= 9 0°
) isgiv
en by
E
-t - c
- os4
) (
2
-59a
)
E
..
Th
is pat
tern isilustra
ted by F
ig
. 2-17a
.1 The l
e
ngth o
fthe r
adiu
s vec
tor inthe
d
iagram isproport
ional toE. Ap a
ttern o
fth
isf
orm c
ould b
eproduced by as
hort
d
ipole c
o
incident with the ya
x
is.
H
alf-power
po
ints
x x
(
a) (
b
)
F
la
. 2
-
17. R
ela
tiv
e4 p
at
tern o
fExamp
le 1a
t(a
) w
ith r
e
lat
ivep
owe
rpa
tte
rn a
t(b
)
.
T
he r
e
lative p
ower p
att
ern i
nthe e
qua
tor
ial p
l
ane i
sequa
l t
othe s
qua
re o
fthe
r
e
lat
ive f
i
e
ld patt
ern
. T hus
P
, = U . my (
2
-59 b
)
P
,,
,
. U„
, \
E,
,„
,1
a
nd s
ubs
titu
ting (
2
-59a
) i
n
to (
2
-59b
) w
e h
ave
—P, = c08 2 4
.
P,.
T
his p
att
ern isi
lus
trated i
nF ig
. 2
-17b
.
Example 2
. Considernextthe c
aseofa
na nt
enna with af
arf
i
eld t
hathasonly
a
n Etcomponenti
nt he e
quato
ria
lplane,t
he E
.c omponentbe
ing z
e
ro i
nthi
sp l
ane.
1Anothe
rm ethod ofpres
en t
ing th
ev ar
iation o
ff i
e
ld wi
th re
spectto if
,a
nd 0isbycon
-
t
ou
rs o f c
ons
tan t a
bsolute or re
lat
ive fi
eld in
tensi
ty o n aspher
ical sur
face
, or th
e
c
ontours may b
em app ed on afl
atp ro
ject
ion ofthes ph
erica
l su
rfac
e.
Ag r
aph showing cont
ours ofconstant fi
e
ld in
tens
ity iscommonly used toshow th
e
c
overageofbroadca
sting st
ationsin ahor
izonta
lp lane
. H erethecontoursarefunc
tion
s
o
fone angle4,and o
fd is
tanc er.
S
ec
. 2
461 POINT SOU RCES 3
1
A
ssume t
hat t
he r
e
lative e
qua
tor
ial
-plane p
atte
rn o
fthe4 c t (
omponen t
hati
s
, E,
a
s af
unc
t f4
ion o )for 0= 90°
) f
or th
is a
ntenna i
sgi
ven b
y
= s
in40 (
2
-60
)
T
his pa
tte
rn i
sil
ust
rated b
y Fig
. 2-
18a and c
ould be p
roduced b
y as
mal
l l
o
op
a
ntenna
, t
he a
x
isofthe l
o
op c
oinc
ident w
ith t
he xax
is.
0
.0
(
a)
FI
G
. 2
-
18. R
ela
tiv
e E
, p
at
tern o
fExamp
le 2a
t(a
) w
i
th r
e
lat
ivep
owe
rpa
tte
rn a
t(b
)
.
T
he r
e
lat
ive p
owe
r p
atte
rn i
nth
e e
qua
tor
ial p
l
ane i
s
P,
—
D = s
in2 (
/
)
=
Thi
sp a
tte rn i
sshown b y F ig
. 2-18b
.
Examp le 3. L e
t u s con s
ider fi
nally an antenna w hose far fi
eld ha
s b oth Et
nd E
a .c omponen tsi nthe equa tor
ialp lane (
0= 9 0°). Suppo s
et ha tth
isa ntenna is
acompo si
te oft he t
wo ant enna s we have j
ust cons
idered inE xamp les 1and 2a nd
t
hat equal pow e
r isradiated b y each a n
tenna. I tt h
en fo
llow s that a
t ar adius r
f
rom thec ompo s
ite an
tenna , 4„, =E ... T he ind
ividual pa
tternsf orthe4 a nd E.
c
omponen tsasgiven by (2-60) and (2-59a) may then beshown t ot hesame scale b
y
o
ne diagram asi nFig. 2
-19a . T he re
lative pa
ttern ofthet o
talfie
ld E is
— ' 4
E . = Vs i
n )± c
o
s2 = 1
which is ac
ir
cle a sind
icated by the d
ashed li
ne i
nF ig. 2-19a.
F
ort h
isantenna , wem ay speak o
ftwo typesofp owe rpa t
terns
. O ne typeshow s
t
he p owervar
ia tion f
orone componen toft h
ee l
ect
ric fi
eld
. T hus, the powerint he
E,c omponento ft he f
i
eld i
sa sshown byFig. 2
-18ba nd thep ow e
ri nt heE .compo -
n
en t by F
ig. 2-17b. T he s
econd type o
fp ower pat
te rn show s t
he v a
riat
ion oft he
t
otal power
. T his i
spropor t
ional t
othe square o
ft he to
tal el
ectric fi
e
ld inten
sity.
According
ly, the re
lat
ive total p
owerpatternf o
rthe c ompo s
ite antenna is
T
he r
ela
tive p
atter
ninth
ee qua
tor
ial p
lane f
o
rth
eto
talp
owe
ris
,the
refo
re, ac
i
rcle
o
frad
ius un
ity asi
lus
trated b
y F
ig. 2
-
19b.
3
2 ANTENNAS I
C
.Ha
P. 2
We n
oteinF ig.2-
19at h
atat(
/
'=4 5
°t hemagnitudesofthet
wo fi
e
ld c
omp onen
ts,
Etand E4„a
ree qual
. D epend
ing ont hetime p
ha s
eb e
tween Etand E0 t
hefi
eld i
n
t
h
isd i
rec
tion c o
uld bepl
ane,elipti
cally o
rci
rcularly p
o
lari
zed
. T odeterm
in ethe
t
ype o
fp o
larization r
equ
ires t
hat the pha
se angle b
etween Et a
nd E, b
ek nown.
T
hisisdiscu
ss ed inth
en extse
ction.
x x
(
a
) 0
=0 (
b
) 0
=0
n
o.2-
19
. (a
) Re
lat
ivepa
tte
rnsof E1 a
nd E4 c
ompon
entso
fthee
l
ect
ricfi
e
ld a
nd t
h
e
t
o
talf
i
e
ld E f
o
ran
tenna o
fExamp
le3 . (b
)R e
lativ
et o
ta
lpow
erpa
tte
rn.
2
-17
. P hase Pat
terns
. A ssuming that the f
ie
ld v a
rie
s harmonica
lly
w
ith t
ime a nd t
hat t
he fr
equency i
sk nown
, the f
ar fi
e
ld inal
l d
irect
ions
f
rom asource may becomple
tely s
pec
if
ied by aknowledge o
fthe f
o
llowing
f
ourquantit
ies
:I
1
. Amplitude o
fthe polarcomponent Et o
fthe e
l
ect
ric f
i
eld as afunc
tion
o
fr,0 ,and 0
2
. Ampli
tude of the azimutha
l component .E
, o
f the e
lec
tric fi
eld a
s a
f
unct
ion o fr
,0,a nd 0
3
. Pha
se lag 5of E• beh
ind Et a
s afunct
ion o
f 0and 0
4
. Pha
se lag vof afi
eld componen
tb ehind i
t
sv a
lue at ar
eference po
int
a
s afunction o
fr,0 ,and ib
S
ince we r
egard the f
i
eld o
f apoin
t sour
ce a
s afa
rfie
ld e
verywher
e, t
he
a
bove four q
uan t
ities c
an b
e cons
idered a
s t
hose r
equ
ired f
o
r ac omple
te
k
nowledge ofthe fi
eld o
f apo
intsource.
1I
ngen
era
l, f
orthen earorfa
rf i
e
ld
,s i
xq uant
itie
sa r
erequir
ed. Thesea r
e Eo,4,
,a
3 nd ne
ach a
s afu
nction o
fr,8,0andinaddit
ion theamp
litudeofth
er a
dia
lcompo-
n
en
to fth
ee l
ec
tri
c fi
eld E, a
nd it
sphas
e la
g behind E• b
o
th as afun
ction ofr,8
,0.
S
i
nceE, = 0inthefa
rf i
e
ld,on
ly f
ourquan
tit
iesa r
en e
eded tode
scr
ibec ompl
ete
ly t
he
f
i
e
ld inth
eFraunhof
err e
g
ion.
SE
C
. 2
47] POINT SOURCES 3
3
I
f t he a mpl
itude s o f t he f i
eld c omponen ts a re k nown a t ap ar t
icular
r
adius, f r
om a p o
in t s ource i nf r
ee spa ce
, t heir amp litude at al
l distances
i
sk nown f rom t he i nve rse-distance l aw. T hus, iti su sual
ly s uf
icient to
s
pecify Et a nd E, a s af unction o nly o f 9a nd 4 1as
, f or example, by as e
t
o
ff i
e
ld p atterns
.
As s hown i n t he p reced ing s ections, t he a mplitude s of the fi
e
ld c om -
p
onen tsg ive usd irectly o rindire ct
ly ak now ledge o ft he peak and efective
v
alues o f t he total f ie
ld a nd P oyn t
ing v e ctor. Howeve r
, i fboth f i
eld
c
omponen ts have a v alue, t he p o
la r
ization i sinde term inate without a
k
now ledge o fthe p ha se a ngle 5b etwe en t he f ie
ld c omponen ts
. F ocus
ing
o
ur a ttention o n one f i
eld c omponen t
, t he p hase a ngle n with re
spe ct to
t
he p hase ats ome r efe rence p ointi s afunc tion o ft he radiusa nd may a lso
b
e af unction o f Ba nd 4 )
. Ak now ledge o f t ia
s af unction of 0a nd i
s
e
s
sen tial w hen the f i
e
lds o ft wo or mo re p oin t source s are to b
e added.
We n ow p roceed t o ad iscus s
ion o f the p has e angles, 5a nd n, a nd of
p
hase p attern sfors how ing t hei rv ar
iation. L etu sc on s
idert hree e
xamp le s
.
Example 1. Con
sider fi
r
st apoint s
our
ce tha
t radiate
s un
iformly i
nthe e
qua-
t
o
ria
lp l
ane and h
asonly a
n c E
,
omponentoft
he el
ectric f
i
e
ld. T hen a
t ad
is
tancer
f
r
om the sou
rce,t
he in
stantaneous f
i
eld iE
,
nthe equator
ial p
l
ane is
V2
E
,
E
,— s
i
n (
c
o
t — L
i
r
) (
2
-
61
)
w
her
e E
.= rms value o
fO.c
omponen
tofe
l
ect
ric f
i
e
ld i
n
ten
sity a
tun
itr
ad
iusf
r
om
t
he s
ource
c
o = 2 T/
/
3 = 2 TA
T
he r e
lation gi
ven b y (2
-61) i
st he equat
ion fo
r the f
i
eld of aspherical wave
t
r
aveling radial
ly ou
twa rd fr
om the sou
r ce
. T he equa
tion g
ives t
he in
stan tan
eous
v
a
lue oft he fi
e
ld as afunc
tion oftime and di
stance
. T he amp
litude o
rp eak va
lue
o
ft he fi
eld i s• / E ,/r
. T he ampli
tude i sindependen t ofspac e angle ( 0 and q !
)
b
ut v ar
ies i nverse
ly with the d
istance r. T he varia t
ion ofthe i n
s tantaneou s f
ie
ld
w
ith distance f o
rt hisexample isil
ustrated b yt he u ppergraph i nFig.2 -20 inw h
ich
t
he a mplitude i staken asu n
ity at adi
s tance r . When r= 0 ,t he v a
ria tion ofthe
i
ns
tan taneou sfi
eld var
iesass inco
t
. I tiso ften conv enientt otake thisv ariation asa
r
ef
er ence fort he phase, d
es
ignating itast he p
ha seo fthe g
enera toro rs ource. T he
f
actt hatt he a mpl
itude at r= 0i sinf
in
i ten eed n o
td etractfrom u sing t he phase at
r= 0a s ar e
ference. T he phaseat adis tance ri st hen re
tarded b ehind t hata tt he
s
ource b yt he angle /3
r
. Ap hase r
e
tardati on orl a
go E
f •w ith respe ctt o ar e
f e
rence
p
ointw il,i ngeneral, bedes
ignated asn . I nt he pre sent c
ase the refe
r ence p o
inti s
t
he source;1h ence
2
1
-r
n= t
3
r = —X r
adians (
2
-62
)
II
fthe p
has
eisre
fer
red t
osome p
o
int a
t ad
is
tanc
e rtf
r
om t
h
e s
our
ce, t
h
en (
2
-61
)
b
e
com sE
e .
, (
V2E./
r)si
n (t — i
c
o d
)
,w h
ere d r— r1
.
3
4 ANTENNAS [
CHAP
. 2
Thus
,t hephase lg ni
a n
crea seslinearly wi
th thedistanc
e rfrom thesou rce. T h
is
i
silus
tra ted by th
e cha r
to fp hasel a
g v s
. di
stance inFig
. 2-20
.
The phase la
g ni nt h
ise xamp le isa ssumed tobei ndependento f4)
. T o d emon-
s
t
rate experimental
ly t ha
t nd ep end so n rbutisindependento f4)
,thea rrang ement
s
hown a tt h
e lower le
ft inF ig
. 2 -
20 c ould be u
sed. T he output
so ft wo p robesor
s
mal
l an tennas ar
e comb ined i n ar e
ceiver. W ith both p
robes atorv ery n earthe
s
ame poin t
, the r
eceiver outpu t isr e
duced t o aminimum b yadjust
ing th el e
ngth
o
fone oft heprobec ables
. T he voltagesf r
om th eprobesatt herec
eivera ret hen i
n
M
ini ma o
r
c
onstant p
hase
c
ontours
O
u
tpu
t
i
n
d
ica
tor
F
ro
. 2-
20. Ilus
trat
ion f
o
r E xamp
le 1
. Phase o
f4 o fp
oin
t s
our
ce r
adia
ting un
i-
f
o
rmly intpp
lane i
s af
unc
tion of rb
ut i
sin
depend
ent o
frp
. P
hase l
a
g 7,in
crea
ses
l
i
nea
rly w
ith d
i
stanc
er.
p
haseo pposit
ion. W ith one p
robe f ixed inposi
tion,t heo theri sthen moved ins uch
away ast om aintain amin imum o utpu t
. T he l
ocuso fp ointsf o
rm inimum o utpu t
c
onst
itut e
s ac on
tou ro fconstantp ha se
. F ort hep oin
ts ource underc on
sideration,
e
ach contouri sacirc
le ofconstan tr adiusw i
th as eparat
ion o f 1w ave
length b
e tw een
c
ontours
. T he r
a d
iuso fth econtour si sthen gi
ven b yr,± t u
l
t,w herer,isther adius
t
ot h
e reference probe, and n isa ny i n
teger
.
E
xamp le 2 . C onside
r n ext t he c ase of ap oint sourc e tha
t h as on
ly a n 4
c
omponen t a nd that radiates n onun iformly in t h
e equa tor
ial or 0p lane
. T he
i
n
stantaneou s va
lue i nthee qua torial plane is
SE
C
. 2
-
17] POINT SOU RCES 3
5
V2
F
E
,, = c
osc
ksi
n (
c
o
t — 1
3
r) (
2
-63
)
w
here Es„
,
.= r
ms v
alue o
f E• c
omponen
tatu
nit r
adius i
nthe d
i
rec
tion o
f max
imum
f
i
e
ld i
ntens
ity
L
et ap
oin
tatun
itrad
ius a
nd i
nthe d
i
rec
tion 4
) = 0b
etaken a
sthe r
e
ference f
o
r
p
hase
. Then a
t t
h
is r
ad
ius
,
E
,, = V iE
,„
, c
os4
)si
nwt (
2
-64
)
S
ett
ing si
nc o
t = 1
,the r
e
lat
ive f
i
e
ld p
atte
rn oft
he E
,component a
s af
unc
tion o
f4)
i
s
, the
refore
,
.
E„ = cs4
o , (
2-65
)
a
s i
lus
trated in F
ig
. 2-21a
. Apatte
rn o
f th
is t
ype c
ould b
e ob
tained b
y ashor
t
d
ipo
le c
oinciden
t with t
he ya
x
is a
tthe o
r
igin. The p
hase l
ag nas af
unc
tion o
f
Ø=
I
80
3
60'
0 (
b)
t2
70'
1
80
'
• 9
0'
0'
0
' 9
0 1
8
0' 2
70' 3
60' 9
0' 1
8
0'
F
la
.2 -2
1. Ilus
trat
ion f
o
rExample 2
. F
ie
ld p
att
ern i
sshown a
t(a
),t
hep
hase p
att
ern
i
nrec
tangu
lar c
oord
ina
tesat (
b
), a
nd i
npo
larcoo
rdina
tes a
t (
c
).
i
s as
tep function as s
hown int he r
ectangular g
raph ofFig. 2
-21b and int he po
lar
g
raph ofFig. 2-2
1c. T he var
iation s
hown i sat acons
tant rad
ius with the phase i
n
t
he d
irec
tion ct
,= 0a s ar
eference. We n o
te that nhasa napparent d
iscont
inu ity o
f
1
80°as4.p ass
e sthrough 90
°a nd 270°since a
tt he
se angle
sc os4)changess i
gn w h
ile
p
ass
ing t hrough z
ero magn
itude
. T he p
hase a
ngle n i
saccord
ing
ly a c
ont
inuous,
l
i
near function o
f rbut a d
i
scont
inuous, s
tep f
unct
ion ofck
. T o d
emonst
rate t
his
v
ar
iation e xpe
rimenta
lly
, t
he two-p
robe ar
rangement de
scribed i
nExample 1may
3
6 ANTEN NAS [
CHA
P. 2
b
eu sed . Inp ractice, at
tenua tors,n otshown, w ou
ld b ed e
sirab le inthe p
robe le
ad s
t
oe qual
ize the p robe output s. R eferr
ing to Fig. 2-
22, ifb o
th f i
xed and movab le
p
robe sar
ei nt he lowerq uad rants (
1a nd 4), asetofc onstanto re qu
iphasecirc
lesi s
o
bta ined with ar ad
ials eparation of 1w ave
length. I fone probe i sfi
xed inquadran t
1w hile t
he upp e
rq uadran t
sa reexplo r
ed with the movable p rob e
, asetofequipha se
c
i
rcle siso b
tained w hi
ch h ave ar ad
ials eparat
ion of 1w aveleng th !-I
i
ta r
ed i
splaced
r
adially fr
om t he seti nt he lower quadrants by iw aveleng th. T hus
, the c
onstan t
p
ha se contoursh ave a na ppa ren
td iscontinui
ty att he ya x
is, ass hown inFig. 2-22.
Q
uad
rant 3 Q
uadran
t 2
Q
uad
ran
t4 Q
uadrant I
O
utput
X i
n
dica
tor
0.0
Fm
.2-
22. C
ons
tan
tpha
se c
ontou
rs f
o
rso
urc
e o
fExamp
le 2
.
The phaseofthe fi
e
ld ofany li
nea
ra ntenna co
incident w
ith the yax
isexh
ib i
tsthis
d
iscontinu
ity atthe yax
is.
'
Example 3. C ons
ider la
stly a p
o
in t source wh
ich radia
tes af i
e
ld with bo
th
Et a
nd E ,componentsinthe equa
tor
ialp l
ane ,the i
ns
tantaneousvaluesbe
ing gi
ven
b
y
Nf
iE e„
,
B
ei = s
i
n c
f
)si
n (
c
o
t — O
r
) (
2
-66
)
r
a
nd
•ViE
,.,
A li c
os4
)si
n (
o
)t — P
r — 1) (
2
-67
)
r 2
Re
ferr
ing t
o Fig. 2
-23
, af i
e
ld oft he form o
ft he Et c
omponen t int he e
quato
ria
l
p
lane c
ould be p
roduced by as ma
ll loop a
tt h
e or
igin o
riented para
llel t
o t
he y-
z
p
lane
. Af i
e
ld ofthe fo
rm o fthe E , c
omponen t i
nthe equator
ial plane c
ould b
e
p
roduced b
y ashortdipole a
tthe origin c
o
incident w
ith the yax
is. L et apo
intat
1I
tistobenoted tha
tt hisp has
ec hangei sa
ctual
ly acharac
teri
stic oft h
em ethod o
f
m
easur
em ent
,sin
c eb y asecond method nop ha
s echangem ay b
eo bserved between t
he
u
pperand l
owerhemisphere s
. I nthesecond method thep
robei smoved f r
om theupper
t
othelowerhemi
sph erealong ac i
rcu
larp ath i
nt h
ex -
zp l
anea t aconstantr a
diusfr
om
t
he s
ourc
e. H owever, fo
r al i
near antenna the s
econd method i str
ivial si
nce i
tis
e
qu
ivalen
t toro
tating the antenna on it
s own ax
is with t
he p
robe at af i
xed pos
it
ion.
SE
C
. 2
-
17] POINT SOU RCES 3
7
u
nitr
ad
iusinthe f
i
rstquad
rantbetaken a
sthe r
e
fer
ence f
o
rpha
se. A
ssum
ing t
hat
l
o
op a
nd d
ipo
le rad
iateequal p
owe
r,
E0„
,= (
2
-68
)
T
hen a
t u
nit rad
ius t
he r
ela
tive pat
- E0
t
e
rnsa
s af
unct
ion of0a
nd ta
regiven b
y Q
uadran
t 3 Q
uadran
t 2
E0 l
ags 9
0° E0l
e
ads 9
0°
Et
i = s
i
n4,s
i
nco
t (
2
-69
)
a
nd
E
., = c
os(
i
)si
n (
c
ot — l
i)
= —c
os<
6co
scu
t (
2
-70
)
T
he r e
lat
ive f i
eld p att
ern s in the
e
quato rial p
lane ar
e shown i nFig. 2-
23. Quadrant 4 Quadrant I
The fi
eld componen tsarei nphaseq uad-
E0l eads 90° E0 lags 90
*
r
ature( a= T/2). Inq uadrant s 1a
nd 3,
E# l
ags E1 by 90°, whi
le inq uadrants 2 x
a
nd 4 , E# le
ads E• b y 90
°. T he phase 0
-0
p
atter ns inthe equator
ial plane for E• Fm . 2- 23
. F ie
ld patte
rn r s
s f
o ource of
a
nd E# a re s
hown i np o
lar form by Fig. Examp l e3 .
2
-24 and inr
ectangularform byFig.2-25a.
S
ince Eo,E#,a nd 6 are k nown, the p
o
la rization elipse
s may be determ ined.
0
=270
°
0•
'
0*
Fm
. 2
-
24. P
has
e l
a
g a
s af
u
nct
ion o
f40f
o
r f
i
e
ld c
omponen
ts o
fso
urc
e o
fExamp
le 3
.
3
8 ANTENNAS [
CHA
P. 2
Thes
e p olarization elip ses (se
e Secs. 15-10 t o 1
5-17) f o
r dif erent dir
ec t
ion s in
t
he equa toria
l p l
ane a re shown inF ig. 2
-256. I ti stob e noted tha t i
nq uad ran
ts
1and 3,w her
e E .lags Et, he E v
t ectorrotate scounterclockwise, w h
ile i
nq uad ran
ts
2and 4,w here E. leads Et,t he r
otation isc l
ockwise
.
Atf o
u ra ngles th
ep o
larization i
sc i
rcu
la , Er
r ota
ting count e
r c
lockw iseat =4 5°
a
nd 225° a nd rotat
ing c l
ockw iseat = 1 35 ° and 3
15 °. The polarization i
slinearat
f
our angles, being horizontally po
larized at0 °a nd 180° and verti
cally polar
i zed a
t
9
0° and 2 70°. A t a
ll other angle
s the polarizat
ion i sel
ip t
ical.
3
60°
P
hase l
ag
E0
2
70°
1
80°
9
0°
4
5° 9
0° I
35° 1
80' 2
25° 27
0° 3
25' 3
60°
9
'
6
(
a)
— CD 0 I 0 (D
-
' — (
.
-D
- 0 I 0 0
0° 23 ° 4
5° 6
1
.5° 9
0
° 1
3
5° 1
5
0° 2
5° 2
1
0° 3
1
5° 3
e
r
(
6
)
F
lo
. 2-25
. P ha
se pa
tterns i
n r
e
ctangu
lar c
oord
inate
s fo
r s
our
ce o
f E
xamp
le 3a
t
(
a
) wi
th pola
rizat
ion e
lips
es f
o
revery 2
.5°in
terva
l of46a
t(b
)
.
2
-18. General Equa
tion f
or t
he Fie
ld of aPoint S
ou r
ce. B o
th compo-
n
ents of t
he fa
r fi
eld of apo
int s
ou r
ce in f
r
ee space vary i
nver
sely w
ith
t
hed i
stance
. T he
refo
re, i
ngenera
l, the t
wo e
le
c t
ric f
i
eld c
omponen t
s may
b
ee xpre
ssed a
s
Et.
Et = i1
(0, 4
) (
2
-71
)
a
nd
E
. = f
2
(0, (
2
-72
)
w
her
e Et. = rms va
lue of c
omponent a
Etu n
i
ft r
ad
ius i
nthe d
i
rec
tion o
f
maximum f i
eld
= rms va
lue of E. component a
tu n
it r
ad
ius i
nthe d
i
rec
tion o
f
maximum f i
eld
f
'and 1
2 are
, ing eneral
, dife
rent f
unct
ions o
f 0a
nd b ut o
f max
i-
mum v alue uni
ty
S
e
c
. 2
-
9
T
he in
stantaneous va
lues o
f the f
ie
ld components va
ry harmonica
lly
w
ith t
ime and are g
iven by (
2-71
) and (
2-72
) mu l
tipl
ied, i
n g
enera
l, by
d
ife
rent f
unctions o
f the t
ime
. T hu
s, f
o
r the instan
taneou
s fi
eld com-
p
onent
s
V2
E8.
— f
i
(
0,9
5
)si
n(c
o
t —7
1
) (
2
-73
)
a
nd
= f
2
( 0,(
I
)si
n (
c
u
t — (
2
-74
)
w
here n = —r
,
) f
,
(0,4
)
a =f 4( 0,(
1)
r=r adius t ofi
e
ld p o
int (r
, 0
,q 5
)
ri = r
adius o fpo
in t t
ow hich phase isre
ferred
ha nd h are, ingenera
l, dif
erentf unct
ions of 0a nd 4
,
T
he in
stantaneou s v
alue of the t
otal el
ectr
ic f i
e
ld at ap oint (
r
, 0
,4)
d
ue to apoin
t s ource i
st he v
ectorsum o fthe ins
tan taneousv a
lue
s oft
he
t
wo components. T hati s
,
(
2
-75
)
w
here a
, =u n
itv ectorin 0d
irect
ion
=un
it vec
to rin4)d
irect
ion
S
ubst
itut
ing (2
-73) and (2
-74
) i n
to (
2-75
) then gi
ves agene
ral equat
ion
f
o
rt he e
l
ect
ric f
ie
ld of apo
int sou
rce a
ta ny p
oin
t (r
, 0
,0) asfo
llows
:
V2
E8.
E
, = a
, r M
O,4
)si
n(c
o
t —7
,
)
a• f
2
(
0,0
)si
n (
c
o
t — — (
2
-76
)
I
nth
ise
quation t
he i
ns
tantaneou
sto
tale
l
ect
ric f
i
e
ld v
ecto
rB. i
s af
unc
tion
o
fbo
th s
pace a
nd time
, t
hus
E
i =f
fr
, 0
,(6
,0 (
2
-77
)
The f
arfi
eld i
se nt
irely s
pec
if
ied by (
2-76
). When f
,a nd fla
recomplicated
e
xpre
s s
ions, i
ti soften c
onvenient t
o de
scr
ibe E
. by m eans o
f g
raph s f
or
t
he four quant
ities Eo,E,,9,and 5,ashas b
een d
is
cu ss
ed. Itisassumed
t
hat the fi
eld var
ie s h
armonical
ly with t
ime and that t
he f
requency is
k
nown .
4
0 ANTENNAS (
CHA
P. 2
PROBLEMS
2
-1
. a
. C
alcu
lat
ethe e
xac
td i
rect
ivi
ty f
o
rth
reeu
nid
ire
ctiona
lsou
rce
shav
ing t
he
f
o
llow
ing p
ower pa
ttern
s:
U= U . s i
n 0s i
n2
U= U ,
, s i
n 0s i
n s(/
'
U= U „
, s i
n' 0s i
n'4 )
Uh as av a
lue o n
ly for 0 < 0< ra nd 0 < 4 ,< 7a nd i szero e l
se-
.
where
.
b
. C a
lculate t he approxima t
e d irectivity f r
om t he product o f the h a
lf-
p
ow er beam w idths fo
re ach o fthe s ources.
c
. T abulate the re
sults fo
r c ompa r
ison .
2-2
. Show t ha t t
he direct
ivity for as ource with au n
id ir
e c
tional p
ow e
r p attern
g
iven by U= co
s" 0c an beexp ressed as D= 2 (n + 1 )
. Uh as av
a lue only for
0< 0< 7 /2 and 0< < 2 ra nd i szero elsewhe re.
2-3
. The e ar
th r ece
ives from the s un 2 .
2 g ram c a
lories/m in/cm2.
a
. Wha t i sthe corre
spond ing P oynting v ector inw at
ts per s
qua re m eter?
b
. Wha t i sthe pow er outpu t oft he s un, assuming t hat itisa n i s
otropic
s
ource?
c
. Wha t i sthe rm s f
i
eld inten s
ity a tt he e a
rth d ue tot he s
un's radiation,
a
ssum ing al
l the sun'se nergy i sat as ingle fr
equency ?
N
ote
: 1watt = 14
.3 gm ca
l/m
in.
D
istance e
arth t
osun = 1
49 X 1
06 k
i
lome
ter
s.
2
-4. P rove t he fo
llow ing t heorem : I fthe m ino r l
o bes of ar adiation p attern re
-
main con stan ta sthe beam w id th oft he ma in lo be app roache sz ero
, t hen the dir
e c
-
t
iv
i ty oft he a ntenna a pp roache s ac on stant value a st he beam w idth o ft he main
l
obe a pproa che s z
ero.
2
-5. a. C alculate b yg raphica li nteg ration the d irec t
ivity of as our ce with au ni
-
direct
ional p owe rp a t
tern g i ven b y U= c os 0. C ompa r
et hisdirect
ivity
va
lue w ith t he exac t value. Uh as av alue o nly for 0 < 0< r /2 and
0< < 2 r a nd isz ero e l
sewhe re.
b
. R epeat fo
r au n
idir ect
iona l p ower pa tt e
rn g iven b y U= c os' 0
.
c
. R epea t fo
r au n
idir ect
iona l p ow er pa tt e
rn g iven b y U= c os' 0
.
Note thatt he d
irec t
iv i
ty i ne ach c ase i sgiven b y D= 2 /(f Us in 0d 0
). T o
e
valua te the i nt
egral graph ically la y o f 0t or/2 ( 0° to9 0°
) a sa bscissa and 0t o 1
a
so rdina teo nrectangu larg raph p ap e r. T he value o ft he integrali st hen the ra
tio
o
ft he area au ndert he c urve U s in 0t othe tota la rea A o ft he rectang le (0tor /2
by 0t o 1), b o
th i nt he same a rbitrary u ni
t s
, mu ltip
lied b y a /2. T hat is
, fc'
,̀
" U
s
in 0d 0 = ( a /A)(7/2) . T he e valua t
ion o f t he a rea a may b e d one b y squa r
e
c
oun ting o rb yd iv
iding t hea rea i n
to v ert
icals tr
ip sa nd taking t he area ofa ny st
rip
a
st h
e produc to fi t
s ba se width a nd a verag e ord inate.
CHAPTER 3
THE ANTENNA A
S AN APERTURE
3
-1. Introduc t
ion. I n th
is chapte ran a n
tenna w i
ll be r
ega
rded a s pos
-
s
ess
ing an a perture or equivalent area over w hich ite x
tra
cts energy fr
om
apass
ing r adio wave.'
The concep t of aperture i s most simply i ntroduced b y c
on s
ide r
ing a
r
ece
iving a ntenna. S uppo se t ha
t t he receiving a ntenna is an e l
ect
ro-
magnet
ic h o
rn i mme rsed i n the fi
eld of ap l ane w ave a
s sugge s
ted in
F
ig. 3-
1. L et the Poyn ting vector, or powe r d ens
ity, ofthe plane wave
D
irect
ion o p
ropagat
ion
•
o p
lane wave
I I
Ma
. 3
-1
. P
lane w
ave i
n
cident o
n e
l
ect
romagne
tic h
orn o
f mouth a
per
ture A
.
b
e Pw at
ts/mete
r2 and the a
rea o
ft he mou
th ofthe h
orn be Am et
ers'
.
I
fthe h
orn w
ere ab
le toext
ractalthe powerfr
om the w
ave ove
r it
senti
re
a
rea A
, t
hen t
he tota
l power W a
bsorbed f
rom the w
ave w
ould be
W = PA w
att
s (
3
-1)
IJ
. C . Slater
, "M icrowave T ran
sm is
sion
," McGraw -Hil B ook Company, I nc
.,
New Yo rk
, 1942, P
. 235.
Chap. 10 b y Kraus
, C lark, Barkofsky
, and Stavis
, "Very High Frequency Tech-
n
iques
," b y R adio R esearch Laboratory st
af, McGraw -Hil
l B ook Company, I nc
.,
New Yo rk
, 1947, pp
. 2 25-228
.
H. T
. F r
iis
, A No te on aS imple Transmis
sion Formula
, Proc
. I.R.E
., 34, 2
54-256,
May, 1946
.
4
1
4
2 ANTE N N AS [
CHAP
. 3
Thus, t he elec tromagne tic h o

rn may b e r egarded a s a n a perture, t he
t
otal p ower i te xt
rac ts f rom a p assing w ave b e
ing p ropo rt
iona l to t he
a
pe rture ora rea o fi t
s mou th
.*
I
tw il be c onven ien t to d i
stingu ish b etween s everal type s of aperture s
,
n
ame ly
, e fective a pertu re, sca t
te ring a perture, l o
ss a perture, col
le ct
ing
a
pe rture
, a nd p hysical a perture. T hese dife rent type s of apertures a re
d
efined a nd dis cussed i nt he fo
llow ing s e
ctions.
I
n the fol
low ing d i
s cus sion int his chapter, i tisassumed , unless othe r
-
w
ise s tated, t hat the a ntenna h as t he same p olar
ization a s the i nc
iden t
wave a nd iso riented f or max imum r esponse.
3
-2. E fective A pertu re. C onside r any t ype o f collector or r ece
iving
a
ntenna w h
ich i ssitua ted i n the f i
e
ld o f ap assing electromagne t
ic w ave
a
ss uggested i nF ig
. 3 -2a. T he an tenna c ol
lec tsp owerf r
om t he w ave a nd
A
ntenna
T
erm
inat
ing
i
mpedance I
nc
iden
t
p
lane w
ove
(
a
)
F
lo. 3
-2
. S chematic d
iag
ram o
fa ntenna t
erminated i
nimpedance Zr w
ith p
lane w
ave
i
nc
ident o
n antenna (
a) a
nd e
quivalent c
i
rcu
it (b
).
d
elivers itt o t he terminat
ing o r l
oad i mpedance Z . connected to its
t
erm inals
. T he P oynt
ing vector,orp owerd ens
ity o
fthe w ave,isP w at
ts/
meter2. R e
ferring t o the equivalent ci
rcuit of F
ig. 3-2h, the antenna
may b e rep
la ced b y a n equivalent or T heven
in genera to
r h av
ing a n
e
qu ivalent voltage V a nd internal o
r equivalent a
ntenna i mpedance 2. 4.
The v ol
tage V i sinduced by the pass
ing w ave and produces ac ur
rent /
t
hrough t he term inat
ing impedance ZT g i
ven b y
V
I= (
3
-2)
Zr ZA
w
here /a
nd V a
rer
ms o
refe
ctive v
alue
s.
•Ac
tua
l e
lec
tromagnet
ic h
orns h
ave efect
ive aper
ture
s w
hich a
re s
mal
ler t
han t
he
p
hys
ica
l a
rea o
f t
he mouth
, b
eing u
sua
lly 0.5 t
o0.
7 ofthisv
alue
.
S
ec
. 3
-
2] THE ANTE N N A AS AN APERT U R E 4
3
I
n g
ene
ral
, t
he a
ntenna a
nd t
e
rmina
ting i
mpedance
s a
re c
omp
lex
, t
hus
Zr = R
r + jX? (
3
-3)
a
nd
ZA = RA + j XA (
3-4)
T
he an
tenna r
e
sis
tance m ay b
e d
iv
ided in
to t
wo p
art
s, ar
ad
iat
ion r
e
sis
t-
a
nce R
, a
nd alo
ss r
es
istance RL,t
hat i
s
,
RA = R, + 1
4 (
3
-5)
L
et t
he powe
r d
e
live
red b
y t
he a
ntenna t
o t
he t
e
rmina
ting i
mpedance
b
e W
. T hen
W = I2RT (
3
-6)
F
rom (
3
-2)
, (
3
-3)
, a
nd (
3
-4) t
he c
urr
ent magn
itude
V
I— (
3
-7)
V(R
, -I
- RL-
I-R) 2 + (
XA± X) 2
S
ubs
titu
ting (
3
-7) i
n
to (
3
-6) g
ive
s
V 2R T 38
W
(
R
, + RL-
I-R )
2+ (
XA-
I-X )
2
T
he ra
tio o
fthe p
owe
r W i
n th
e te
rmina
ting impedance t
oth
e p
owe
r d
ens
ity
o
fth
e inc
iden
tw av
e w
illb
edef
ined a
sthee f
ect
ive ap
ertur
e A,
.
T
hus
,
W
Ef
ect
ive a
per
tur
e =— = A
. (
3
-9)
P
I
fW i sin w a
tts a nd P in watts p
er square mete
r, then A. i
sin square
m
ete rs
. I f P i sin wa t
ts p e
r square w ave
length
, then A. isin square
w
ave lengths
,w h
ich iso
ften ac onven
ientu nitofmeasurementforaper
tu re
s.
Subst
itut
ing ( 3-8) i
nto (3-9
) give
st he efec
tive a
perture i
nte
rm soft he
i
n
ciden t power den s
ity
, t he i
nduced vol
tage, and t
he antenna a
nd termi-
n
ating impedance s, t
hat is
,
V 2Rr
0-10
)
A '— PRR
, -
I
- RL± R0 2 -
I
-(XA -F X0 2]
Unle
ss o
therw
ise s
pec
if
ied, i ti
sassumed that Vi sthe i
nduced vo
ltage
when t
he ant
enna isoriented f
or maximum r e
spons
e and the in
cident
wave h
as t
he s
ame po
larizat
ion a
s the a
ntenna
. A s s
hown by (3
-10)
, the
4
4 ANTE N N AS [CH
AP. 3
e
fec
tive aperture takes into account a n
tenna losse
s, as g
iven by RL,a nd
a
ny misma tch between the a ntenna and its t
erminat
ing impedance.
'
L
etusn ow considerthe s pe
cial ca
se w herethe te
rminating impedance i
s
t
he complex conjugate oft he antenna impedance sot ha
t maximum p ower
i
strans
ferred. I t will a
lso b e assumed t ha
t the antenna lo
sses ar
e zero
(RL = 0a nd therefore RA = R ,)
. T hus,
XT = (
3
-12
)
a
nd
R
r =R
. (
3
-13
)
I
ntroducing the c
ondi
tionsfo
rm ax
imum powert r
ans
ferasgiven b
y (
3-12
)
a
nd (3-13) i
nto (3
-8) r
esu
lts i
nthe l
a
rge
st p
oss
ible p
ower W
' inthe t
e
rm i
-
n
at
ing i mpedance asfolows
:
V2RT V2 V2
= AD 2 AD = —
Ap (
3
-14
)
.
1
.
/LT '
2
1loT 21 r
T
he power W
' isdel
ivered tothe t
erminat
ing impedance u
nder c
ond
ition
s
o
f maximum powertransfe
r and z
ero an
tenna lo
sses
.
The r
at
io o
f th
is power to t
he power den
sity of t
he in
ciden
t wave is
'
I
ti ss
ometime
sc onven
ient t
oexpres
sthe i
nduced v
ol
tage V i
nte
rmso
fthe i
n
cident
f
i
e
ld in
tens
ity E a
nd an ef
ect
ive h
e
igh
t hofthe an
tenna
. T hat i
s
V =h
E
w
here V i
sinvolt
si fhisin meter
sa nd E i
nvolt
sp e
rm et
er (
or hmay b einw avelengths
a
nd E in vo
lts pe
r w ave
length). The efect
ive he
igh t a
nd the efect
ive aperture are
r
e
lated a
s may bes hown inthe f
ol
lowing way
. I n (3
-10) P E'/Z, where Z i
st he i
n-
t
r
ins
ic impedance o
ft he med
ium ( Z = V ol.
). T hus, o
nsolv
ing (3-
10 ) f
or Vw eh ave,
v .
1 A
„[(R
, RL RT
)2 (
XA Xr
) 21E
RTZ
s
o t
hat t
he e
fec
tive h
e
igh
tisg
iven b
y
h = ± EL ± RT)
s+ (X4 + 1) 21
RTZ
Unde
r t
he condit
ions c
ons
idered in t
he next p
aragraphs o
ft he t
ext f
o
r the max
imum
e
fect
ive a
perture t
he e
xpres
sion fo
r the e
f
fective h
eigh
t reduce
s to
h 2 V A„
„R,
o
r — (
3
-11
)
4
R,
A
s an e
xample
, fo
r ath
in l
i
nea
r i
-wavelength antenna A.
,
,
, 0
.
13 squa
re wave
leng
th
a
nd R, =7 3 o
hms. Now Z = 3
77 ohms for f
ree spa
ce, s
o t
hat f
o
r the i
-wave
leng
th
a
ntenna t
he e
fect
ive h
e
igh
t h= 0.
32 w ave
length.
S
e
c. 3
.
] THE ANTENNA A
S AN APERTURE 4
5
t
he m
aximum e
fec
tiv
eap
ertu
re' A
..
,. T
hati
s
,
W'
Max
imum e
fec
tive a
per
ture = — = A
.. (
3
-15
)
P
S
ubst
itut
ing ( 3
-14
) i n (
3-15) yie
lds a n expre
ssion fo
r the max
imum
e
fect
ive ape
rture in t
erms of the in
cident power dens
ity
, the i
nduced
v
ol
tage, a
nd the a
ntenna r
adiat
ion re
sistance
, asfol
lows
:
V2
A.
"' — (
3
-16
)
4
PR,
T
he ra
tio o
f the e
fec
tive ap
erture t
o t
he m
aximum e
fec
tive a
per
ture
i
sca
lled t
he e
fec
tiv
ene
ss ra
tio a
. T ha
tis
,
Ef
ect
ivene
ssr
a
tio = a = A ' (
d
imen
sion
les
s) (
3
-17
)
The e fectivene ssr a

tio may a ssume v a
lue sbe tween z e
ro a nd 1( 0 < a< 1 )
.
Ap erfect
ly ma tched , 1 00 p e
r c ent e f
icient a ntenna h a s an e fec
tivene ss
r
atio o fu nity.
O
rd inarily the t ermina ting i mpedance i sn ot located p hysically a t the
a
ntenna t ermina l s a s sugge sted i n F ig. 3 -
2. R athe r, iti si n ar e
ceive r
which i sc onne c ted t o the a ntenna b y al e ngth of t ransm ission l ine. I n
t
hisc ase Z 7 isthe e quiva len t i mpedance w hich a ppea rsa cross t he an tenna
t
erm ina l
s. I ft he t ransm is sion l i
ne i sl oss
le ss
, the p owe r del
ive red t o the
r
eceive r i sthe s ame a s t ha t delivered t o the e quiva lent t erm inating i m-
p
edance Z 7. I ft he t ransm iss
ion l ine h as attenua tion , the powe r delivered
t
o t he r e
ceive r i sl e
s s than t ha t delive red t o the e quiva lent t ermina t
ing
i
mpedance b yt he amoun t l ost int he l i
ne.
3
-3. S cattering A per tu re. I n the p reced ing s ection w e d iscussed t he
e
fe ctive a rea fr om w hich p owe r isa bsorbed . R efe rr
ing t o F ig. 3-2b, t he
v
oltage i nduced i n the a ntenna p roduce s ac urren t t hrough b oth t he
a
ntenna i mpedance ZA a nd t he term ina l o r load i mpedance Z 7. T he
p
owe r W a b
so rbed b y t he t e
rm ina l i mpedance i s
, a s we h ave s een , t he
s
qua re o f this c ur rent t ime s t he re a
l p a r
t o f the l oad i mpedance . T hu s
,
a
sg i ven in( 3-6), W = 12R ,.
. L etu sn ow i nquire i nto the p owe ra ppea r
ing
i
n t he a ntenna i mpedance ZA. T he r eal p art of t h
is i mpedance RA h as
t
wo p arts
, t he r adia t
ion r e
sistance R.a nd t he loss r es
istance RL ( RA =
H.+ RI) . T he re fore,s ome o ft he powe rw hich i sreceived w il
lb ed i
ssipa ted
a
s h eati nt he a n tenna a sg iven b y
W = /2RL (
3
-18
)
1Th
e " ma
ximum efec
tiveaper
ture
," asher
e d
ef
ined, i
seq
uiva
len
tt oth
e "
ef
ective
a
r
ea" ofa n an
tenna ba
s ed o
n it
s d
ire
ctiv
ity a
sde f
in
ed by th
e In
st
itu
te o
fR adio
E
nginee
rs' (
IRE) S
tandards
.
4
6 ANTE N N AS [
CHAP
. 3
T
he rema
inde
r is"d
iss
ipated" i
nthe r
adia
tion r
es
istance
, i
nothe
r w
ord
s,
i
sre
radia
ted f
rom t
he an
tenna
. T he r
e
radiated p
oweri s
W" = P
R
, (
3
-19
)
Th
i s reradiated o r s
c a
ttered p owe r i
sanalogous to the powe r t
hat is
d
is
sipa ted in ageneratori nordert hatpowerbed el
ivered to alo
ad. Under
c
onditions of maximum p owe rtran s
fer
, a
s much p ower i
sdiss
ipated i
nthe
g
enerato r asisdelivered tothe load.
The reradiated powe r may ber e
lated t
o asca
tte
ring ap
ertur
eo rsca
tter
ing
c
ross section
. T his aperture A. may b e def
ined as the rat
io of t
he re
-
r
adiated p owert ot he powerd ensi
ty ofthe in
cident wave. T hus
A
. =s
ca
tte
ring a
per
tur
e = (
3
-20
)
w
here
V2R
,
= PR
, - (R, R
z IT )
F ,2 (
3
.
'2
1)
(
XA X0 2
I
fthe a
ntenna l
os
s res
istance RL = 0
,and RT = R.a
nd XA = —X T f
o
r
max
imum p owe
r tran
sfer, t
hen
V2
A
. — 4
PR,
(
3
-22
)
o
rthe s
ca
tte
ring a
per
ture e
qua
ls t
he max
imum e
fec
tive a
per
tur
e, t
hat i
s
,
A
. =A
.„
, (
3
-23
)
T
hu s, under cond i
tions fo
r w h
ich max
imum p owe r i
sde
livered to the
t
e
rm ina
l i mpedance, a n equa
l power is r
e
rad
ia ted f
rom the re
ceiving
a
ntenna.
The rat
io o f the scat
ter
ing ape
rtu
re to t
he efect
ive a
perture w
ill be
c
a
lled the sca
tter
ing ratio 0
,that i
s
,
A,
S
cat
ter
ing r
a
tio = =# (
d
imens
ion
les
s) (
3
-24
)
The sca t
tering r at
io may a s
sume v alues b etween z ero a nd inf
inity
(
0 <
For conditions of maximum p owe r t r
ansfer and z ero a ntenna losses
,
t
he scatter
ing r a
tio isun
ity. I fthe t e
rm inal re
sistance i sinc
reased, both
t
he sc
att er
ing aperture a
nd the efective aperture decrease, butt he s
cat
ter-
i
ng aperture d e
creases more r
apidly s o that the scattering rat
io become s
sma
ller
. B y i
ncreas
ing the te
rm inal res
i s
tance, the ratio oft he sc
attered
t
o absorbed p owe r can be made a s s mall as we p l
ease, although b y so
d
oing the absorbed p owe
r isal
so r educed ( s
ee Fig. 3-3
).
SE
C
. 3
-
3] THE ANTE N N A AS AN APE RT U RE 4
7
Ont he otherh and,itmay b etha twes hou ld l

ike to make the reradiation
a
s large a s poss
ible. T h
is migh t be the case, f
or examp le
, ift he antenna
i
sno t c onnected to areceiver but isused a s aso-cal
led p aras
itic antenna
w
ho se f unction ist o r
eradiate the powe r rece
ived f rom a n ea rby tran s-
m
itting a ntenna. T he fi
e
ld r e
radiated by t he paras
itic antenna i n
terfe res
w
ith t he fi
eld from the transmitting antenna so a s t
o produce t he desired
d
i
rec tionalp a
ttern. D epending o nthe phase oft he c
urrenti nthe p a
ra sitic
a
ntenna , i t may act ei
ther as ad irec
to r or as ar ef
lector
. T o make t he
r
e
rad iated p owe r a maximum , the te
rm inal impedance s hould b ezero a nd
4
e
s
.
, f
ir
R•
Aer
•
X
Ac
.A.+A •
A '
0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 I0
R
ela
tive t
e
rmina
l r
es
istance
Pm. 3-
3. V a
riat
ion of e
fect
ive ap
erture A
.
, sca
tter
ing aper
ture A
.
, a
nd co
llecting
a
perture A
, a
s afunc
tion o
fthe r
e
lative t
erm
ina
l re
sis
tance RT/R,o
f as
mal
l a
nt enna.
I
tisassumed tha
t RL XA = XT = 0.
t
he a
ntenna s
hould a
l
so b
e r
esonan
t, tha
t is
, Rr = X T = X A = 0
. We
a
l
so a
ssume R L = 0
. Then f
rom (
3-21
) the r
erad
iated p
oweris
= V
'
(
3
-25
)
R,
a
nd t
he max
imum s
ca
tte
ring a
per
ture b
ecome
s
1
7
2
A
." = (
3
-26
)
PR
,
.
o
r
A
.„
, =4
A.„
, (
3
-27
)
The max
imum cro
sssect
ion ofan a
ntenna as asc
at te
rer o
fenergy isthu
s
f
our t
imes a
s g
reat a
s i
ts max
imum e fec
tive aperture a
s an abso
rber of
e
nergy
.
The r
e
lat
ion b
etween A, a
nd A. as afunct
ion of the r
e
lat
ive termina
l
4
8 ANTE N N AS [CH
AP. 3
r
e
si s
tance RT/R,i sshown i n F
ig. 3
-3. In t h
is g
raph iti sa
ssumed t hat
RL = XA = X r = 0 .
T
he re
radiated orscattered fi
eld o
fana b
so rbing a
ntenna may beconsid-
e
red asinter
fer
ing with the inc
iden tf
ie
ld s
ot hat ashadow isc
astbehind the
a
ntenna a s ilu
strated in F ig
. 3 -
4. T he shadow w il
l not b
e so sharply
d
efined as s
uggested inF ig. 3-4
, but adecrease i
nt he f
i
eld i
ntens
ity ora
p
ar t
ialshadow mus t be present.
A
ntenna
I
n
cident
N
p
lane S
hadow
w
ove > Stattered
)
, / \ /
4
1 w
aves
FI
G
. 3
-4
. S
hadow c
ast b
y ar
e
ceiv
ing a
ntenna
.
3
-4
. Loss A
per
ture. I
f RL i
snotze
ro, s
ome p
owerisd
iss
ipated a
shea
t
i
nthe a
ntenna
. Thi
s may b
ere
lated t
o al
o
ssape
rtur
e AL w
hich i
sgi
ven b
y
/2RL L
AL — —
P PRR, RL RT
)2 (
X A± X T
)2 (3- 2 8)
3-5. C o
llecting A perture.' T hree type s of apertures h ave n ow b een
d
iscus s
ed: e fective, scattering, and l o
ss. T hese three ape rtures ar
e r e
-
l
ated to three w ays inw hich p ower co
llected b y t
he a n
tenna may b e c on
-
v
erted : in
to h eat int he termina l r
esis
tance ( efect
ive a perture); in
to h ea
t
i
n t he antenna ( l
oss aperture)
; o r i
nto rerad
ia ted powe r (scatter
ing a per
-
t
ure) . B y con servation o fenergy the t o
tal powe r co
llected i sthe sum o f
t
hese t hree p owe rs
. T hu s
, a dding these three apertures t ogether yie
lds
wha tw i
ll be called the co
llect
ing a pe
rturea sg iven by
r(R
„ RL R
A
, ± AL± A
, (
3
-29
)
2
1 ` PRR,+ RL RT
)2 ± (
XA± X 7
)2]—
T
he v ar
iation ofA,with R7/R,forthe c
ase o
f AL = 0i
sshown i
nFig. 3-
3.
3
-6. P hysica
lA per
ture
. I tisof
ten c
onvenientt
ospeak o
f af
i
fth type o
f
a
perture cal
led the phys
ica
l aper
ture A,
. T h
is a
per
ture i
s am ea
su re o
f
'Co
llect
ing a per
ture as here d
ef
ined isdiferent from that g
iven i
n "
Very High Fre-
q
uency T echniques," b y Radio Re
search L abora
to ry staf, McGraw-Hi
ll B
ook C om-
p
any, Inc
., New Yo rk
, 1947
, p.227. C o
llect
ing ape rture a
s d
ef
ined i
nthat r
e
fe rence i
s
wha
t w e have here ca
lled t
he maximum e f
fective aperture
.
S
ac. 3
-
7] THE AN TE N N A AS AN APE RT U RE 4
9
t
he p hy s
ical s i
ze o f the a ntenna . T he manne r i n which i ti sd efined i s
e
nti rely arbitra ry. F or examp le, it may b e d ef
ined a s the p hys
ica l c r o
ss
s
ection ( in s qua re m eters o r s quare w aveleng ths) p erpend icula r t o t he
d
ire ction o f propaga tion o f the i nciden t w ave w ith t he a ntenna o rien ted
f
or max imum r e spon se. T h
i s is ap ra ctical d ef
inition int he c ase o f many
a
ntenna s
. F or e xamp le, the p hy s
ical a perture o fa n e
lectromagne tic h orn
i
st he a rea ofi t
s mou th, w hile t he p hy s
ica l aperture o f al i
nea r cylind rical
d
ipo le i sthe c ros s-
sec tional a r
ea o f t he d ipole. Howeve r
, i n the c a
se o f
as hor t stub a ntenna moun ted o n av er y large ground p lane, t he s imp le
d
efin i
tion g i
ven a bove i sof q uest
ionab le s ign
ificance o wing t o t he i m-
p
ortance o ft he c urren tso nt he g round p lane. T hu s
, the p hysicala perture
h
as as imp le
, d efinite m eaning o nly f or some a n tenna s
. O n t he o the r
h
and , the e fective a per ture h as ad efini te
, s imply d efined v a
lue f or a l
l
a
ntennas .
The r at
io o f t he max imum e ffective a perture t o the p hy s
ica l a pertu re
w
ill b e caled t he a bso rption ratio 7, t hat i s
,
A
A
bso
rpt
ion r
a
tio = =7 (
d
imens
ion
les
s) (
3
-30
)
A,
T
he a bsorption r a
tio may a s sume v alue s b etween z ero a nd i nf
inity
(
0 <
3
-7. Max imum E fective A per tu re of aShor tD ipole. I nthis section the
maximum e ffective a perture o f as hor
t dipo le w ith u n
ifo rm c urren t wil
l
b
ec a
lcu lated. L ett he d ipole h ave a
l
ength 1 w hich i s shor t c ompa red
w
ith the w aveleng th ( 1< X ). L eti t
b
e coinciden t with t he ya xis a t t he
o
r
igin a s shown i n Fig. 3 -5
, w ith a
p
lane w ave t r
ave ling i nt he nega tive
xdirection i nciden t o n t he d ipo le. D
irec t
ion S
hort
The w ave isa ssumed t o be l i

nea r
ly o
f' f
lowe y r"' d
ipole
wove
p
olarized w i
th E i nt he y d ire ction .
The currento nt he dipole isa s sumed
c
onstan ta nd i nt he same p ha se o ve r F ra. 3 -5. S hort d
ipole w
ith uniform cur-
i
t
s e nt
ire l e
ng th, a nd t he t erm inat - r ent induced b y i
ncident wave.
i
ng r e
sistance Rr i sa ssumed e qua l
t
o the d ipo
le r ad iation r es
is tance R „. T he a n
tenna l o
ss r e
sistance RL i s
a
ssumed e qual t oz ero.
The max imum e fec t
ive a pe rture o fa n an tenna i sg
iven b y ( 3
-16 ) as
V2
—4
PR, (
3
-31
)
w
here t
he e
fect
ive v
alue o
f t
he i
nduced v
o
ltage V i
she
re g
iven b
y t
he
5
0 ANTEN N AS [
CHAP
. 3
p
roduc
t o
fthe e
fec
tive e
l
ectr
ic f
i
e
ld i
n
tensi
ty a
tthe d
ipo
le a
nd i
t
sle
ngth,
'
t
hat i
s
,
V=E l (
3-32
)
The rad
iat
ion r
e
sis
tance R, o
f asho
rt d
ipo
le o
f l
e
ngth 1w
ith u
ni
form
c
urrent w
il
l b
eshown la
tertob
e g
iven b
y
8
0
7r2/
2
Rr - x2 (
3
-33
)
w
here X = wave
length
T
he powerdensi
ty, orPoynting v
ecto
r, o
fthe i
n
ciden
twave a
tthe d
ipo
le
i
sre
lated t
othe fi
e
ld in
tens
ity by
E
'2
P=T (
3
-34
)
whe
re Z = in
trinsic impedance o
fthe m edium
I
n the p
resen
t c a
se, the m ed
ium isf r
ee s pa
ce s
o tha
t Z = 120x o
hms.
Now sub
sti
tuting (3-32)
, (3
-33), a
nd (3-34) in
to (
3
-31), w
e o
bta
in f
or t
he
max
imum e fect
ive a pe
rture of as
hor
t d ipo
le
1
20
7rE 2/
2X2_ 3
— X2 = 0
.
119 X2 (
3
-35
)
A ' — 3
20r2E2/2 87
Equa tion ( 3-35) i ndicate s t hat t he maximum e fective aperture o f as hort

d
ipole i ss omewha t mo re t han 1 /10 square w aveleng th and i sindependen t
o
f t he l ength o f the d ipole p rovided o n
ly t hat i ti ss ma
ll ( 1< X ). T he
maximum e fe ct
ive a p
e rtu re n eglects t
he efec t ofa ny lo
sses, w hich prob -
a
b ly w ould b e con s
ide rab le f or a n ac
tual s hor t dipole an tenna. I f w e
a
ssume t hat t he t ermina t
ing i mpedance i s ma tched t o the a ntenna i m-
p
edance b ut t hat t he a ntenna h as a l
oss re
sistance e qual t o it
s r adia
tion
r
esistance , t he e fec t
ive a perture f rom (3-10 ) i so ne
-half t he max imum
efective a pe rture o btained i n( 3
-35).
3
-8. Max imum E fective A perture of aLinea r 4- Waveleng th A n
tenna .
As af u r
the r i lustration , t he max imum e fective a perture o f al i
nea r
4
-wave leng th a ntenna w ill b e c alcu
lated. I ti sa ssumed t hat the c ur
ren t
has as inusoida l distr
ibu tion a nd isinp ha
se a long t he ent
ire l e
ng th oft he
antenna . I ti sfu rthera ssumed t hat RL = 0 . R eferr
ing t oF ig. 3-6a, the
curren t Ia ta ny p oint yi st hen
, 2
7
ry
I = 10 c
o
s— (
3
-36
)
X
Aplane w
ave i
nc
ident on t
he a
ntenna i
strave
ling i
nthe n
egat
ive xd
i
rec-
t
i
on. T he wave i
slinear
ly po
larized w
ith E in t
he y di
rect
ion
. T he
1The e
fec
tive h
e
ight ho
fthe s
hor
tdipo
le w
ith u
nifo
rm c
urren
tise
qua
ltoi
t
sle
ngth 1
.
S
e
c. 3
4] THE ANTENNA A
S AN APERTURE 5
1
e
quivalent ci
rcui
t isshown in F
ig. 3
- 6h
. T he antenna ha
s been r
ep
laced
b
y an equivalent o
rT hevenin g
enera
to r
. T he i
nf
ini
tes
ima l v
ol
tage dV o
f
t
hi
s gene ra
to r due t
o the vo
ltage induced by the in
cident wave i
n an
i
nf
ini
te s
imal element o
fl e
ngth dyoft he a
ntenna is
l
ry
dV = E d
y c
o
s —X (
3
-37
)
I
ti sassumed t
hat t
he in
fin
ite
simal i
nduced vo
ltage i
spropor
tional t
o t
he
c
urrent at t
he i
nf
in
ites
ima l e
lemen
t as given by t
he c
urren
t dist
ribu
tion
(
3-36)
.
I
Z
dV
d
l
X (
a
) (
6
) R1
Fm
. 3
-6
. Li
nea
r 4
-wav
eleng
th a
n
tenna i
n f
i
e
ld o
fel
ec
tromag
net
ic w
ave (
a
) a
nd
e
qu
iva
len
tci
r
cui
t (
b
).
T
he t
ota
l induced v
o
ltage V i
sg i
ven by in
teg
rat
ing (
3
-37
) o
ver t
he
l
e
ngth o
fthe a
ntenna
. T h
is may b
e wri
tten a
s
k
/4
V = 2f E c
o
s 2
1 d
y (
3
-38
)
0
P
erfo
rming t
he i
n
teg
rat
ion i
n(3
-38
) w
e h
ave
V= E
—
X (
349
)
7
The va
lue ofthe r
adiat
ion res
istance R,ofthe linear 1-wave
length antenna
w
ill be taken as 73 ohms.' T he te
rminating r e
sis
tance Rr i s a
ssumed
e
qual to R,. T he powe r dens
ity a t t
he antenna i sa s g
iven by (3-34
).
S
ub s
titut
ing (3-39
), (3-34
), and R, = 7 3 into ( 3
-16
), w e obta
in, fo
r the
maximum e fect
ive aperture o
f alinear I
-wavelength a n
tenna,
. _ 12
07E 2X2 3
0 2
A
.. — 4
1
.2E
273 — , ji
-X = 0
. .
13 X2
1
Thed
e
riva
tion o
fth
i
sva
luei
sgi
ven i
nChap
.5.
5
2 AN TE N N AS [CH
AP. 3
C
ompar
ing (
3-40
) with (3
-35
), t
he max
imum efec
tive a
per
ture o
f t
he
l
i
nea
r 4
-wave
length ant
enna i
sabou
t 10 p
er c
ent g
rea
ter t
han t
hat o
f
t
he s
hor
td ipo
le.
T
he maximum e fe
ctive a
per
ture of the 4-wave
length antenna isap-
p
rox
imately t
he same asanarea 4by 4wavelength on as
ide
, asilus
trated
i
n F
ig. 3
-7a. T his a
rea is.
4square wavelength
. A n e
l
ip t
ical
ly shaped
L
i
nea
r h a
lt-wa
ve
an
tenna
(
a
) (
b
)
FIG
. 3-7
. ( a
) Maximum e fect
ive aper
ture o
f linear 4
-wave
leng th a
ntenna i
sapproxi-
mately r
epre
sented b
y re
ctangle 4by 4w avelength on aside
. ( 6
) Maximum efective
a
perture o
f li
near 4
-wave
length antenna r
epresen ted b
y e
ll
iptical a
rea o
f 0
.13 square
w
ave
leng
th.
a
perture o f0 .13 s qua re w ave leng th i ss hown i n F ig. 3 - 7b. T he p hy s
ical
s
i
gnificance o ft hese ape rture s i st hat p owe rf rom t he i nciden t p lane w ave
i
sa bso rbed o ve r an a rea o f t hi s s i
ze b y t he a ntenna a nd i sd elive red to
t
he t erm ina ting r e
sis
tance .
At yp ical t hin 4 -wave leng th a ntenna may h ave a c onduc tor d i ame ter
o
f 1 /400 w ave leng th, s o tha t i t
s p hy sical a per tu re i so nly 1 /800 s quare
waveleng th. F or such a n a ntenna t he max imum e fec tive a pe rtu re of
0
.13 s qua re w ave length i sa bou t 1 00 t ime sl arge r
.
3
-9 . R elation o fA per ture t oD irectiv ity a nd G ain. I n C hap. 2t he con-
c
ept o fd irectiv ity w as d eve loped f or ap oint s our ce o fr adiat
ion o r t r
ans-
m
i t
ting a ntenna . B y r eciproc i ty, t he s hape o ft he r adia tion p a
t te rn o fa
t
ransm it t
ing a n tenna i si den tica l w ith i t
s p atte rn w hen i tis ar eceiving
a
ntenna ( s
ee S ec. 1 0
-2) . T hu s, the c oncep t ofd irectiv i
ty , w hich i sb ased
o
n p atte rn s hape , can b e ex tended t o r eceiving a ntenna s
, t he d ire c t
ivity
b
eing t he s ame f or both t ransm ission a nd r ecep tion .
T he A perture o frece iving a n tenna s h as b een d i scus sed i nt he p re ceding
s
ection s. I t f ollow s t hat i ft he d i
rec tivi ty of ar e
ceiving a ntenna i si n
-
c
rea sed, i t
s max imum e fective a perture i sincreas ed i nd irect propo rt
ion.
There fo re, t he max imum e fec tive a pe rture s o f t wo a nt ennas , A .., a nd
A.„
,,, a re i nt he s ame p ropo rtion a s t he d irectivitie s o ft he t wo a ntennas ,
D, a nd D .. T hati s
,
D, A
,,,1
(
3
-41
)
D
. A.
„.2
S
e
c. 3
-
10] THE ANTE N N A AS AN APERT U R E 5
3
I
n C hap
. 2t he g
ain of at r
ansm itt
ing a
nt enna with re
spect to aloss
les
s
i
so
t ropic s
our
ce w asshown tob ee qualt
ot he di
rectiv
ity timesthe an
tenna
e
ff
iciency. Ifthe def
ini
tion ofg a
in isnow extended toinclude both l
os
ses
,
a
s e xpre
ssed by the ef
iciency factor kand the e fe
ct of impedance mis
-
match, we may repla
ce ki n( 2
-51) by t
he efect
ivene s
s ra
tio a;then
Go = aD (
3
-42
)
w
here Go isthe ga
in of atransm it
t ing orr e
ceiving antenna with r
espect to
alo
s s
less is
otropic antenna. T he i s
otropic antenna i sassumed t o b e
t
e
rm inated for max imum p owe r t r
ansfer, but the a ntenna under c on-
s
i
deration may or may not be. I ft he antenna isterminated for maximum
p
owe r t
rans
fer, a = ka nd ( 3
-42) r educes to (2
-51)
.
L
et us now c ompa re the g a
in o f t wo antennas, Go, and G02
. I f the
d
i
rectivit
ieso ftheseantenna sa reD , and D2 a nd the
ire fect
iveness ra
tios,
a
,and a2,r e
spectively
, weh ave from ( 3-41
)
Go1_ a1D1 a1A•

m
il
(
3
-43
)
G
02 a
2D2 a
2A .
.
2
B
y (3
-17) t
he p
roductofthe maximum e
fec
tive a
per
ture a
nd t
he e
fec
tive
-
n
essra
tio i
sthe e
fec
tive ap
erture
. Ther
efore
, (
3-
43) be
comes
G0
1 _ A•1
(
3
-44
)
G0
2 A
.2
where A.
, a nd A., a
re the e
fective apertures o
fantennas 1and 2
.
3
-10. Max imum E fect
ive Apertu
re o fa n I
so
tropic S
ource
. T he max
i-
mum e fe c
tive aper
ture o fan iso
tropic source w
il
l n ow b
e der
ived
. T he
d
ire
ctivity o f a
n iso
tropic source i
su n
ity. I fantenna 1 i
sa n i
so
trop
ic
s
ource, then, i
n( 3
-41), D, = 1a nd
A.
.
, = —= (
3
-45
)
D
,
Equat
ion ( 3
-45) sta
tes that the maximum e fect
ive aper
ture o f a n
i
s
otropic a
ntenna (an
tenna 1)isequa
lt othe r
a
tio o
fthe max
imum e f
ec tive
a
perture t
o the d
ire
ctiv
ity ofany antenna (
an
tenna 2)
. We h ave already
c
a
lculated t
he maximum e fec
tive a
pertureand d
i
rect
ivity f
o
r ashort d
ipo le
a
ntenna. T hese are (3
/87)X2 and 3/2
, re
spect
ive
ly. I nt
roducing t hese
v
aluesinto (3
-45) g
ives
A
.
,.
.1 —3
3xx2
s
nr
X2 — X
72 — 0
4 .079 X2 (
3
-46
)
S
ubs
titut
ing (
3-46
) in(
3-45)
, we o
bta
in t
he re
lat
ion tha
t t
he d
irec
tiv
ity
o
fany antenna i
sequa
l t
o it
s max
imum efec
tive aper
ture
, d
iv
ided by t
he
5
4 ANTE N N AS [
CHAP
. 3
max
imum e
fect
ive a
per
ture o
fan i
sotropic a
ntenna
. Thatis
,the d
ire
ctiv
-
i
tyofa
ny a
ntenna i
sequa
l t
o4 r/X 2 t
imes i
t
s maximum e
fec
tive a
per
ture
.
T
hus
,
(
3
-47
)
3
-11
. Max imum Efec tive Aper
ture and Direc
tiv
ity of I
sotropi
c, S hort
D
ipole
, and I- WavelengthA n
tennas. T he maximum e fect
ive aperture of
ali
near 4-wave
leng th antenna was c
alcu
lated in S
ec. 3-8 as 0
.13 squa re
w
avelength. T he di
rect
ivity of t
he 4-wave
length antenna c an n ow b e
c
a
lculated fr
om ( 3
-47) a
s
3
0
D =4
r7-3
w = 1
.
64 (
3
-48
)
T
he maximum e fe
c t
ive ape
rtu
re a
nd d
i
rectiv
ity o
fisot
rop
ic, s
hor
t d
ipo
le.
a
nd 4
-wavelength antennas h
ave n
ow been ca
lcu
lated. The va
lue
s are
s
ummarized i
nT able 3
-1.
TABLE 3
-
1
Maximum
An
tenna e
fect
ive D
ire
ctiv
ity D
bdi
rec
tiv
ity
'
a
per
ture
,X'
I
s
otrop
ic —
1 = 0
.079 1 0
4
1
-
S
hor
tdi
pole 3
1191
0
. .76 1
.5
8
w
30 1
.64
L
inear 4
-wave
leng
th -
,
57,r
--= 0
.13 2
.14
•Db d
i
rec
tiv
ity = 1
0 l
o
gio D
.
3
-12. F ri
is Transm ission F ormu la
. A s af ur
the r ilu
strat
ion o f the
u
ti
lity of the aper
ture c oncept, itw i
ll be applied to the der
iva t
ion o f a
s
imple f ree
-spa
ce t ransm iss
ion f ormu la w h
ich h a
s b een presented b y
H
. T. F r
iis.1
Refe
rring to Fig
. 3- 8
, a n is
otropic, 100 per cent eff
ic
ient' po
in t sour
ce
r
adiates ap owe
r W ,. A t ad istance ri nfr
ee space, the powerd ensi
ty is
1A Note o
n aSimple Transmis
sion Formu
la, P
roc
. I
.R
.E.
, 3
4
, 2
54-256
, May
, 1
946
.
*Powe
r rad
iated e
qual
s p ower i
npu
t.
S
ec
. 3
-
12] THE ANTE N N A AS AN APE RT U RE 5
5
P=
4
W2 (
3
-49
)
The p
ower W, de
livered t
o t
he e
quiva
len
t i
mpedance a
ppea
ring a
cro
ss
t
he a
ntenna t
e
rminalsi s
W
,A,
= A
.'P— 4 2
. (
3
-50
)
i
r
whe
re A., is t
he efec
tive aper
ture of t
he re
ceiving antenna
. I
f t
he
s
ource i
sno
ti s
otrop
ic butha
s ad ire
ctiv
ity D
,, (
3-50) b
ecomes
W„
W
, 4 2 -5 1
(
3 )
F
rom (
3
-47
) w
ehave
4
1
-
D
. = —x3 A•
,
. (
3
-52
)
w
here A.„„ isthe max
imum e fec
tive aper
ture of the source or trans-
m
itt
ing a n
tenna. T he concept of apertu
re, or
iginally developed f or
r
e
ceiving a
ntennas
, i
shere e
xtended t
otransmitt
ing antennas
,t he aper
tu re
i
s
ot
ropi
c
s
o
urce
•
WI
R
ece
iver
F
la. 3
-8
. F ree
-space transm
iss
ion circu
it c
ons
ist
ing o
f i
s
otrop
ic s
ource a
nd r
ece
iving
h
orn o
f max
imum e fec
tive a
perture A.,
.
o
f at ran
smitting a
ntenna be
ing equa
l to i
t
s ape
rture w
hen u
sed as a
r
e
ceiving an
tenna . I
ntroduc
ing (
3-52) i
n
to (
3-5
1) give
s t
he F
ri
is t
rans
-
m
iss
ion formula,
'
W,
(
3
-53
)
W
, X2r
2
Th
is fo
rmula may be made more g
ene
ral b y r
ep
lacing t
he maximum
e
fect
ive a
per
ture o
f the s
our
ce by i
t
s efe
ctive a
perture A
.,
. T hen w
e
h
ave
W,
W
. — xy (
3
-54
)
The r
at
io W,/ W
, i
n (
3-54) may be c
al
led a p
owe
r tr
ansfe
r r
at
io. It
e
xpres
ses the f
r
act
ion o
f the powe
r input t
o at r
ansmit
ting a
ntenna
1I
n t
he f
o
rmu
la a
s g
iven b
y F
r
iis b
oth a
per
ture
s a
re max
imum e
fec
tive a
per
ture
s.
5
6 ANTENNAS (
CHA
P. 3
which ispicked up and d el

ivered t o the t
ermina
ls of ar ece
iving antenna
a
t ad i
stance ri n fr
ee s pace
. T he p ower-
trans
fe r ra
tio isexpressed by
(
3-54) interm s o
ft he efect
ive aperture s o
fthe t
ran smitt
ing and receiv
ing
a
nt ennas
, t heir s
eparation, and t he w ave
length
. E quation (3
-54 ) isa
f
ar-f
ield r
elation a
nd h ence wil
l not a pply i
f ristoo s ma
ll compared with
t
he size o
ft he antenna
. Howeve r
, t he er
ror isl
ess than af ew p
er c en
t i
f
d 3
2
r> — (
3
-55
)
X
where disthe maximum l ineard imension o
fe ithera ntenna
. T he fo
rmula
i
salso r
est
ricted tof r
ee-space ci
rcuit
s. I ftransm is
sion isvia adirect p
ath
a
nd asimple ground r ef
lect
ion,t he p
owe rtransferratio may li
eb etween th
e
e
xtremes off our times the value given by (3
-54 ) and zero
, depending on
w
he the
r the direc
ta nd ref
lected wave sre
inforce orc ancel a
tt he re
ceiv
ing
l
o
ca t
ion.
PROBLEMS
3
-1. Wha t ist he maximum e fective aperture of am ic rowave a n
tenna with a
d
ire
ctivity o
f9 00?
3
-2. Wha tist he max imum p ow e
rr e
ceived at ad i
stanc e of0.5 kilomete
ro ve ra
f
r
ee-space 1,
000- Mc cir
cu i
t cons
ist
ing o f atransm i
t t
ing a ntenna w ith a25-db gain
a
nd a receiv
ing a ntenna with a 20-db g a
in ? T he g a
in i sw ith respect t
o al os
s-
l
e
ss is
otropic s
ource. T he t
ransmitting a nt
enna i nput is1 50 w a
tts.
3
-3. Wha t isthe max imum e f
e ct
ive a pertu
r e (approxima tely) f o
r abeam a n-
t
enna having ha
lf-pow er width
so f3 0°a nd 35°i nperp endicular planesinte
rsecting
i
nthe beam a x
is? M inorl obe
s ares mal
l and can b e neg
le cted.
CHAPTER 4
ARRAYS OF PO
INT S
OURCES
4-1. I n
troduc t
ion .
' I n C hap. 2a n a ntenna w as c on sidered a s as ingle
p
oin t sour ce. I n C hap . 3a n a ntenna w a s t reated a s a n a pertu re
. I n
t
his c hapte r w e return a gain t o t he p o
in t -sou rce c oncep t, h oweve r, ex-
t
ending i tt o ac on s
ide ration o f array s o f p oin t s our ces. T his a pproach
i
so f g reat v alue s i
nce t he p attern o f a ny a ntenna c an b e r egarded a s
p
roduced b y a n array o f p oint s our ce s. Much o f t he d iscu ss
ion w i
ll
c
once rn a r ray s o f isot ropic p o
in t s ou rce s w hich may r epr esen t many
d
ife rent k i nd s of a ntennas . A rray s o f n on iso tropic b ut s imilar p oint
s
our ces are a lso treated , l eading t o the p rinc ip le o fp at tern mu ltiplication.
F
rom a rray s ofd iscrete p oin t source s w e p ro ce ed t o c on t
inuou s a rrays of
p
oin ts ource sa nd Huygen s' principle.
4-2. A rrays o f Two I sotrop ic P oint S our ces. L et u s i n
troduce t he sub-
j
ect o f ar ray s o f p oin t s ou rces b y c on s
ide ring t he s imple s t situation,
n
ame ly, tha t o f t wo i sotrop ic p oint s our ce s. A s ilu s trat
ion s, five cases
i
nvolv ing t wo i s
otropic p o
int s ources w ill b ed iscu ssed.
C
as e 1. Two I sotropi cP ointS ourceso fS ame Amp litud eand P ha se. T he
f
i
rst c ase w e s hal
l a na lyze i st hat o f t wo i sotrop ic p oint s ou rces h aving
e
qua l amp li tude s a nd o sc
illa t
ing i n t he s ame p ha se
. L et t he t wo p oint
s
our ces, 1a nd 2 ,b e s epa ra ted b y ad is tance d a nd l oca ted s ymme tr
ically
w
ith r e
spe ct t o the o r
ig in o ft he coo rdina te s a s s hown i nF ig. 4 -1a. T he
a
ngle 0 i s m easured c ounte rclockw is e f rom t he p o sitive z a xis
. T he
o
rigin o ft he c oordinat e s ist aken a s t he r efe rence f o r p hase. T hen a t a
d
istan t p o
in t i n the d ire ction 0 t he f i
eld f rom s our ce 1 i sr etarded b y
c
os 43
,w hile the f i
eld f rom s our ce 2 i sa dvanced b y i d
, c os q s
,w here
d
,i sthe d istance b etween t he sour ces e xp res sed i nr ad ian s
. T hat i s
,
2
4
rd
c
l
, = -r
II
n c
alculating p at
terns much labor may b esaved ineva
luat
ing tr
igonom etr
ic func-
t
i
onsb yexpressing the argument o
ft hef unct
ion inturnsin
stead o
fi nr
adiansord eg
r e
es.
T
hose n
o t a
lready f amil
ia r w
ith t
his timesaving te
chnique may re
fer t
o the d
iscus
sion
i
nthe Appendix o n " Radians
, d
egrees, and turns
." A t ab
le o
ftrigonometric f
unct
ion s
o
farguments e xpressed in t
urns i
sa l
so i n
cluded inthe Append
ix.
5
7
5
8 ANTE N NAS [
CHAP
. 4
T
he t
o
tal f
i
e
ld a
t al
a
rge d
i
stance ri
nthe d
i
rec
tion 4
)ist
hen
E = Eoe
-i t Eoe
't (
4
-1)
w
here 1
G = d
, , c
os 4
)and the amp
litude o
f t
he f
i
e
ld c
omponen
ts a
t t
he
d
i
stance ri
sgi
ven by Eo.
9
0*
T
od i
stan
t
p
o
int
(
a
)
Eoe
"iT (
f
rom s
ource 2
)
toe-i (
f
rom s
o
urc
e1) (
b
)
Fm. 4
-1. ( a) Re
lation t
o coordinate sys
tem of two is
otropic po
in t s
ource
s separa
ted
b
y ad i
stance d. (
b) Vec
to r add
ition of t
he f
i
elds fr
om t wo iso
tropic po
ints s
ou r
ces of
e
qual ampli
tude and same p hase loca
ted as i
n (a
). (c
) Field pattern o
f two is
otropic
p
oint s
ources o
fe qual ampli
tude a nd same p
hase loca
ted a s i
n (a) f
or t
he ca
se w here
t
he s
eparat
ion di s w avelength.
T
he fi
r
st term i
n (
4
-1) i
sthe c
omponent o
f t
he f
i
e
ld due t
o sour
ce 1
a
nd the se
cond t
erm t
he c
omponent due t
o s
our
ce 2. Equa
tion (4-1
)
may b
e r
ewritt
en
E=2
Eoe
+
it
2 +e-4 (
4
-2)
2
SE
C
. 4
-
2] AR RA YS OF POI NT SO U RCES 5
9
w
hich b
y at
r
igonome
tric i
d
ent
ity i
s
E=2
E0 c
os 1'
2
-= 2
E c
o
s (l
-
c
2c°
8
t
h
) (
4
-
3)
Th
is r e
sult may a lso be obtained with the a
id oft he v
ector diagram'
s
hown i n Fig
. 4 -
1b, from w hich (4-3
) fol
low s d
ire
ctly. We n o
te i n Fig
.
4
-lb that the phase ofthe total fi
eld E does n
ot change as afunc tion o
f
. T
1
, on orma l
ize (4-3
), thati s
, make it
s maximum v alue un
ity, s
et2 E0 =
1
. S uppos e f
urther that dis Iw ave
length. T hen dr = T. I ntroducing
t
hese condit
ions into (4
-3) gi
ve s
7
E= c
os (-
2 c
os 4
) (
4
-
4)
The fi
eld pattern of Ev s. a sexp ressed b y (4-4
) ispresented inF ig. 4-1c.
The pa t
tern i s ab idirectional figure o f eight with max ima a long t he y
a
xis
. T he s pace pattern i sd oughnu t-shaped , being a fi
gure ofr evolution
o
ft h
is p at
tern a round t he xa xis
.
The s ame p attern c an a lso be o btained b y loca
ting s ou
r ce 1 a t t he
o
r
igin o ft he coo rd
inates a nd s ource 2 a t ad i
stance d along the p os
itive
xaxis as indicated i n Fig. 4-2a. T ak ing n ow the fi
eld from s ource 1a s
r
efe
rence , the field fr
om s our ce 2 i n t he di
rection 4)isa dvanced b y dr
c
os 0. T hus, the total f i
e
ld E a t al arge distance ri sthe vector sum o f
t
he fi
eldsf rom t he two s ourcesa sg iven b y
E = E0 Eoe+
i
# (
4
-5)
w
here 4
, = dr c
os4)
T
he r
ela
tion o
ft hes
ef i
eld
si sind
icated b
ythe v
ecto
rdiag
ram o
fFig
. 4
-2b
.
F
rom th
e vec
to rdiagram the magn
itude o
fthe t
ota
l f
i
e
ld is
E= 2
E0 c
o
s—/ = 2
4 E0 c
o
sd, c
°
82 (
4
-6)
2
a
s o
btained b
efo
re i
n (4-3
). T he phase o
f t
he t
ota
l f
i
eld E is
, however
,
n
ot c
onstan
t i
nt h
is c
ase but i
s4/2
, ,asalso s
hown b
y r
ewr
iting (4
-5) a
s
E = E0(
1 e
") = 2
Eoe
'
t(e4 + — 2
Eoe'
t c
ost (
4
-7)
2
2
No
rma
liz
ing b
yse
tting 2
E0 = 1
,(4
-7) b
ecome
s
E = ef2 c
t
o
s Ye
2
_ —— c
os 2
t f
r
2 (
4
-8)
I
n (
4
-8) t
he c
os
ine f
a
cto
r g
ive
s t
he a
mpl
itude v
ar
iat
ion o
f E
, a
nd t
he
q
ti st
o b
e no
ted t
hat t
he quant
ities r
epre
sented he
re b y v
ecto
rs a
re no
t t
rue s
pace
v
ector
s but m
ere
ly v
ector r
epre
sentations o
ft he t
ime phase (
i
.e
., pha
sor
s).
6
0 ANTE N N AS [CH
AP. 4
e
xponent
ial or angle f
actorgi ves t
he phase v
ar
iation w
ith r
espec
t tosource
1as the r
eference. T he pha se va
riat
ion for t
he case of I-wave
leng th
s
pacing (
d
, =r ) isshown b y the d
ashed li
ne i
nFig. 4
-2c
. H e
re the phase
a
ngle w
ith re
spec t t
ot he phase ofsour
ce 1i sg
iven by# 12 = (T/2) c
os0 .
Eoe #(f
rom s
ource 2
)
(
b
)
+ 90' .
.
-.—
-
--.
...
.
.
,
\ z „
,
--Ro
tat
,on a
round s
ource 1 /
\
"
.
. /
Ne r R
otat
Ion a
round c
enter p
o
int o
farray /
\
0
' \ or
\ /
\ /
\ /
N
... /
\.
.
... .
." (
c)
_ .
..,
— 90'
0
' 9
0' 1
E
30' 270
' 360
'
no. 4-2. ( a) Two i sotropic point sources with the origin of the c
oo rd
ina te sy
stem
c
oincident with one oft he sources
. (b) Vector addition ofthe fi
elds f
rom t wo is
otrop ic
p
oint sources ofe qua
l amp litude a nd same p hase loca
ted a s in (a
). (
c
) P hase of total
f
i
eld as af unction of4 3for two isotrop
ic p oint source
s o fsame amp litude a nd pha se
s
paced 4w ave
length a part
. T he phase change isz e
ro w hen re
ferred t
ot he cente
r p o
in t
o
ft he ar
ray b ut i
s0 /2 asshown b yt he dashed curve w hen r
eferred t
os ource 1.
The magn itude v ar

iation f o
r t hi
s c a
se h as a lready b een pre sented i n
F
ig. 4-1c
. When t he p hase i sr e
ferred t o t
he p oint midway b etween t he
s
ources (Fig. 4
- 1a
), the re isn o p hase c hange a round t he ar
ray a s s
hown
b
y the solid li
ne i n Fig
. 4 -2c. T hus, a n observe r at af i
xed distance o b-
s
erves no p hase c hange w hen t he a rray isr ota ted (wi
th respe ct to c i
S
)
a
round i t
s m id-point, b ut ap hase c hange ( d
a shed c urve of Fig. 4-2c) is
o
bserved i fthe ar
ray i sr otated with s ource 1a st he c
enter o
fr ota t
ion.
Case 2. Two I sotropic P aint S ources of S am e Amp li
tude B ut O pposite
Phase
. T h
is case isiden t
ical w i
th t he one w eh ave j u
st cons
ide red excep t
t
hat the t wo sources ar e in oppo s
ite p hase instead o f inthe same p hase.
L
e t t
he s ources be l o
ca ted a s in Fig. 4-1a. T hen the tota
l f i
eld i n the
d
irect
ion t i
6at alarge distance ri sgiven b y
E = Eoe+ — Eoe-
i t (
4
-9)
:
4
r
.c
. 4
-
21 AR RA YS OF POI NT SO U RCES 6
1
p
r
om w
hich
E 2
jEo s
i
n = 2
jEo s
i
n (l
- c
c os (
b
) (
4
-10
)
2 2
Whereas in Case 1 E q
. ( 4-3) invo
lves the co
sine of 0/2
, ( 4
-10) for
Case 2involves the s
i
ne. E quat
ion ( 4
-10) al
so in
cludes an operator j
,
i
ndica
ting that t
he phase reversal of o
ne of t
he s
ources i
n Case 2r esu
lts
i
n a9 0° p
hase sh
ift o
ft he total f
ie
ld as compared w
ith the t
ota
l f i
e
ld for
F
m.4
-3
. Re
lative f
i
e
ld pat
tern f
or t
wo i
s
otropic p
o
int s
ource
s o
fthe s
ame amp
litude
,
u
t o
ppo
site phase
, s
paced jwave
leng
th a
part.
C
ase 1
. T h
is isun
impo r
tant h
ere
. T hus
, p u
tting 2
jEo = 1 a
nd c
on-
s
i
der
ing t
he s
pec
ial c
ase o
f d= A
/2, (
4
-10) becomes
E=s
i
n (
12c
os (
1
)
) (
4
-11
)
T
he d
ir
ec t
ions 0
. o
f max
imum f
i
eld a
re o
btained b
y s
e
tting t
he a
rgu
-
m
ent o
f (
4-11) e
qua
l t
o ±(2k 1
)7/2
. T hu
s,
I.
c
os4
)
„
, = ±
(2k + 1
);. (
4
-11a
)
w
here k = 0
,1,2,3
. .. For k= 0,co
sO. = ±1 a
nd =0
°and 1
80°
.
T
he n
ull d
i
rec
tion
sdlo a
re g
iven b
y
c
os 00 = ±
lor (
4
-11b
)
F
or k= 0
, o= ±90
°.
6
2 AN TE N N AS [CH
AP. 4
T
he h
al
f-powe
r d
i
rec
tion
s a
re g
iven b
y
-
2 c
os(
1
)= (
4
-11
c)
For k= 0 , = ±60 °, ±120 °

.
The f i
e
ld p a tt
ern g iven b y ( 4-11) i ss hown i n F
ig. 4 -3. f he p attern
i
s ar e
la tively f a
t f igure o f e igh t wi th t he max imum f i
eld in t he same
d
irec t
ion a s the l i
ne j oining t he s our ces ( xa x
is). T he s pa ce pattern i sa
f
i
gure o f revolution o f t h
is p attern a round t he x axis
. T he t wo sour ces
,
i
n t hi
s c ase, may b e d escribed a s as imp le type of " end-fire" array. I n
c
on tras t to this p atte rn
, t he i n-phase p o
int s our
ces p roduce a p attern
w
ith t he max imum f i
eld n o rma l to t he l i
ne joining the s ources
, a s shown
i
n F ig
. 4 -1c. The t wo s our ces for t h
is c ase may b e d escribed a s asimp le
"
b road side" t ype ofa rray.
Case3 . Two I sotrop icP o int S our c
es o ft h
e S ame Amp li
tud ea nd i n Phase
Quad ratur e
. L et t
he t wo p oint s ource s be located as inF ig. 4-
1a . T ak ing
t
he o rigin o f the coord ina te s as t he r e
ference f or phase, l et s
our ce 1 b e
r
eta rded b y 45° and s ource 2 a dvanced b y 45°
. T hen t he total fi
e
ld i n
t
he d irection ckat al arge dis tance ri sg iven b y
E = E0e
+ 3( 4+
:
) E
„e -'
( 'a +
I
) (
4
-12
)
F
rom (
4
-12
) w
e o
bta
in
E= 2
E0 c
os (
71 t
- c
o
s 4
)
) (
4
-13
)
L
ett
ing 2
E. = 1a
nd d = X
/2, (
4
-13
) b
ecome
s
E= c
os -
1
-; c
os y
6
) (
4
-14
)
The fi
eld p attern given b y ( 4
-14) isp resented in Fig
. 4-4. T he s pace
p
attern i s afi
gure of revolution of t
his pa t
te rn a
round the x a
xis
. Mo st
o
ft he radiat
ion i si
nt he se
cond a nd third q uadran
ts. I tisin
teresting to
n
ote tha t t
he f i
e
ld int he direct
ion 4)= 0 ° isthe s
ame as inthe direction
= 1 80°
. T he d
irections 0„, of maximum f i
e
ld are o
btained by s e
tting
t
he argumen t o f(4
-14 ) equal tok r
, whe re k = 0 ,1
,2 ,3. ... Inthis w ay
we obtain
7 I
.
-
4 -
2 c
os4
)
„
, = k
r (
4
-15
)
F
or k= 0
,
-
2 c
os 0
„
, = —4
- (
4-1
6)
SE
C
. 4
-
2] AR R A YS OF POI N T SO U R CES 6
3
a
nd
(
f
r
. = 1
20°a
nd 2
40° (
4
-17
)
9
0*
1
20°
6
0'
1
50° 3
0*
1
80'
Fm. 4
-4. R e
lative f
i
e
ld pa
ttern o
ft wo i
s
otropic p
oint s
ource
s o
fsame ampl
itude and
i
np ha
se quadra
ture f
or as
pacing o
f iwavelength
. T he s
ource t
othe r
i
ghtleads t
hat
t
othe le
ft b
y 90°.
I
fthe s
pac
ing b
etween t
he s
our
ces i
sreduced t
o Iw
ave
leng
th, (
4
-13
)
b
ecomes
E= c
o
s (5
4± : c
os 4
,
) (
4
-18
)
The fie
ld pattern f o
rt hi
s c ase i
silustrated by F
ig. 4
-5a. I tis acardioid-
s
haped , u n
id i
rectional p attern with max imum f i
e
ld i n the negative x
d
irection. T he s pace p at
te rn i
s af i
gure of r
evolution of th
is p att
e rn
a
round t he xa x
is.
As imple m ethod o f checking the direct
ion of maximum f i
e
ld isi lus-
t
rated b y Fig. 4-5b. S ource 2 leads source 1by 90° as ind
icated b y the
v
ec tors in the t op diagram . B y t he time the fi
e
ld f r
om s ource 2 h as
a
rrived a t source 1,t he p hase o
f source 1h as a
dvanced 9 0° so t
ha t the
f
i
eld s add int he —x d i
re c
tion as shown i n t
he middle diagram. O n the
6
4 ANTE N N AS [
CHAP
. 4
o
ther hand
, by the time t he fi
e
ld from s
ource 1ar
rive
s a t s
our
ce 2,the
p
hase of s
our
ce 2 h a
s a dvanced 90° s
o t
hat the t
wo fi
elds a
re in pha
se
o
pposit
ion, a
nd, the
refo re, t
he t o
tal f
i
e
ld in t
he +x direct
ion isze
ro as
s
hown inthe bo
ttom d iag ram.
—I
P
.
r- :
4
-1.
4-r
. (
b
)
ha. 4-5
. ( a) Relat
ive fi
e
ld pattern of two i
so
tropic s
ource
s of s
ame a mpl
itude and
i
n phase quadra ture f
or aspac
ing of }w ave
length
. S ou
rce 2 l
ead
s source 1 by 90
°.
(
b
) Vectord iagrams ilu
strat
ing f
i
eld re
inforcement i
n —x d
irect
ion a
nd f
ie
ld cance
lla
tion
i
n +x direction
.
Ca
se 4. General Cas
e of Two I
sotrop
ic P oin
t Source
s ofE qual Amp l
itude
a
nd Any P has e Dif
fer
en c
e. P ro
ceeding n ow to a more genera
l si
tua t
ion,
l
e
t us cons
ider t he c
ase oftwo is
otrop
ic p oint s
ources o
fe qual amplitude
b
ut ofa ny phase diference b
. T he tota
l p hase d
iference 0 between the
f
i
eldsfrom sou rce 2and sour
ce 1at ad is
tant p o
int i
nt he di
rect
ion 0 ( s
ee
F
ig. 4
-2a) i
st hen
1
,, = d
,co
sck+ 3 (
4
-19
)
Se
c
. 4
-
2] AR R A YS OF POI NT SO U RCES 6
5
Taking s ource 1 as the re

ference for phase
, t he pos
itive sign in (
4
-19)
i
ndicates tha t s
ource 2 isa dvanced in phase b y the angle a. A m
inus
s
ign w ould b e used to ind
icate a p hase re
tardation. I f
, i n
stead o
f re
-
f
err
ing t he phase tosource 1
,i tisre
ferred tothe centerp o
int ofthe a
r
ray,
t
he pha se oft he fi
e
ld from source 1a t adistant point isgiven by —442
a
nd t hatf r
om s ource 2b y -
1
-0/2. T he t
otal f
ie
ld isthen
i
t -t
E = E0(
e 2 e'
) = 2
E0 c
o
s—4
1 (
4
-20
)
2
No
rma l
izing (
4-20)
, we h
ave t
he g
eneral e
xpre
ssion f
or t
he fi
e
ld p
atte
rn
o
ft wo i
sot
rop
ic source
sofequa
l amp
litude a
nd arbi
tra
ry pha
se,
E= c
o
s t (
4
-21
)
whe
re i kisgiven b y (4
-19). T he three cases we have discussed are ob-
v
ious
ly s pec
ial ca
se s of (4-21)
. T hus, C ase
s 1 ,2, and 3 a re obtained
f
rom (4-21) when ö= 0 °
, 180°, a
nd 9 0
°, re
spectively
.
C
ase 5 . Most General Case of Two I so
tropic Point Source
s o f U n
equal
Ampli
tud e and Any P hase D iff
erence
. A s ti
ll mo re general si
tua t
ion,
i
nvo
lving t wo iso
t ropic point sources
, e x
ists w hen the amp litudes are
u
nequal and the phase di
fference isarb
itrary. L et t
he sources besituated
s i
a n F
ig. 4-6a wi th source 1a t the or
igin. A ssume t hat the source 1
(
a
)
FIG
. 4-6. ( a
) Two i sotrop
ic p o
int s
ources of u
nequal amp
litude a
nd arbitra
ry pha
se
w
ith respec
t t o c
oordinate system. (
b
) V ector a
ddit
ion of f
i
elds f
r
om u nequal s
ource
s
a
rranged as in (a
). T he amplitude o
f source 2 i
sas
sumed to be sma
lle
r t han t
hat of
s
ource 1b y the f
actor a
.
h
as t
he la
rger a
mpli
tude a nd that i
ts fi
e
ld at alarge di
stance rhas an
a
mpl
itude of Et,
. L et the fi
eld f
rom s ource 2 be of amp l
itude aE0
(
0 < a< 1) a
tthe d
istance r. Then
, re
ferring t
oFig. 4
-6b
,t he magn
itude
a
nd pha
se ang
le o
fthe total f
i
eld E i
sgiven by
/ as
i
n i
k
E = Eo .01 + a c
o
s 1
k
)2 + a2s
i
n2 l
k a
rc
tan 1+ a c
os 0 (
4
-22
)
6
6 ANTEN N AS [CH
AP. 4
where 4
,= d ,c os4 , + 5a nd t he phas e a ngle ( L) isr efer
red t os ource 1.
This i
sthe p hase angle Eshown i nF ig. 4 -6h.
4
-3. N on isotropic But Sim i
lar P o
in t S our ces and t he P rinc
iple of P at
-
t
ern Mu ltiplication. T he c ases con s
ide red i n the pre ceding s e
c t
ion a l
l
i
nvolve iso
t ropic p o
int source s
. T hese c ases c an readi
ly b e e x
tended t o a
more g
ene ra l s
itua t
ion inw h ich the s our ces a re noniso
t ropic but s
im ilar
.
The word s imilar ishe
re u sed toi ndica te t hatt he var
ia tion with a b
solute
a
ngle 4
,o f b oth t he amplitude a nd p has e o f the fie
ld i st he same.' T he
maximum amp litudes of t he i ndiv
idua l s ources may b e u nequa l
. I f
,
h
oweve r, they a re a lso equal, the
Y s
our ce s are not o n
ly s imi
lar b ut a
re
Short i
den ti
ca l
.
d
ipo
les As a n examp le, let us recon s
ider
Case 4 o f Sec. 4 -2 i n w h
ich t he
s
our ce sa r
ei dentical, with the mod i
-
f
i
ca tion t hat b oth s ources 1a nd 2
h
ave f ie
ld p a
ttern sg iven by
FIG
. 4-7
. Two n onisotrop
ic sour
ces w
ith
r
espect t
ocoo
rdinate system. E
. =E
f
,si
n# (
4
-23
)
Pa
tterns o
ft h
is t
ype might b
e p
ro-
d
uced by s
hort d
ipo
les or
iented p
ara
llel t
ot he xax
is a
s s
uggested b
y F
ig
.
4
-7. Subst
itut
ing (4-23
) i n (
4
-20
) a nd no
rma l
izing b
y se
tting 2E
,; = 1
g
ives t
he f
i
eld pa
tte r
noft he a
r
ray a
s
E=s
i
n 4
,co
s—4
1 (
4
-24
)
2
where # = d,c os4)+ 5
This r
esult isthe s
ame a s obta
ined b y mult
iplying the pattern o
f the
i
ndividual source (
sin qt
.
) by the p a
t te
rn of t wo is
otropic point s
ources
(
cos0 /2)
.
I
fthe simi
la r b
ut unequal poin
t s ources o
f C a
se 5 (Sec. 4
- 2) e
ach has
apattern asg i
ven by (4
-23)
, the total normal
ized p a
ttern is
E=s
i
n 4
, -01 ± a c
os 1
,
0 2 ± a2 s
in 2 I
, (
4
-25
)
H
ere a gain the result isthe s ame as that o b
tained by mult
iplying the
p
attern of the individual source by the pattern of a
n array of i
so
tropic
p
o
in t source
s.
These are examp les ilu
st rat
ing the principle o
f pa
tte
rn mu l
tip
licat
ion,
w
hich may b e expressed a
s f o
llows: T
he f i
e
ld p att
ern ofan ar
ray ofn on-
i
s
otropic b u
t s imi
lar p o
int s ource
s isthe p roduct o
f the pat
tern of the
1T
he patte
rns n
ot o
nly must b
e oft
he s
ame s
hape b
ut a
l
so mu
st b
eor
ien
ted i
nthe
s
ame di
rec
tion t
obe ca
lled "
s
im i
lar
."
SE
C
. 4
-
3] ARRAYS OF POINT S
OURCES 6
7
i
nd iv idua l sour ce a nd t he p atte rn o f a n array o f i so
tropic p o
in t s our ce s
,
having t he s ame l ocat ion s
, rela tive a mp
litude s, a nd p has e
s a s t he n on-
i
sot rop ic p o
in t s our ces. T hi
s p rincip le may b e a pplied t o ar rays o f a ny
numb er o f sour ce s prov ided o nly t ha t t
hey a r e sim i
lar. T he i ndiv idua l
n
on i sotrop ic s our ce ora n
tenna may b e off i
nite size b ut can b ec on sidered
a
s ap oint sour ce s i
tua ted a t t he p oin t in the a ntenna t o w hich p ha se i s
r
efe rred . T his p oin t i ssaid tob e t he " phase c enter."
T he a bove d i
s cu ss
ion o fp atte rn mu ltipl
ication h as been c once rned o nly
w
i th t he fie
ld p at tern o r magn itude o fthe f i
eld. I ft he fi
eld o ft he n on-
i
sotrop ic sour ce a nd t he a rray o fi sotrop ic s
our cesv ary inp ha se wi th s pa ce
a
ng le , tha tis,h ave ap ha se patte rn w hich isn ot ac onstant, the s ta temen t
o
ft he p r
inciple o fp a
t tern mu l tiplica tion may b e e xtended t o i nc
lude t his
mo re g eneral c a se a s f ol
low s: T he t otal f
ie
ld p a
ttern o f a n a rray o f n on-
i
sotr opi c but s im i
la r s ou r
c e
s ist he p rodu ct oft he ind iv
idua l s ource p at
t ern
a
nd t he p a
ttern o f a n a rray of i s
otr opic point s our ces each l ocated a t t h
e
p
ha s e c en
t er oft h
e i ndi vidual s our ce a nd having t he s ame relative a mp l
itud e
a
nd p hase, w h i
le t h
e t o
tal p hase p a
ttern i st he sum o ft he phas e p at
t ern s o f
t
he i ndividual s ou rce a nd t he a rray o f is
otropic p oin t sources
. T he t otal
p
ha se p a
t te
rn i sr e
ferred t o the p ha se center o f t he array. I n s ymbo ls,
t
he t otal fi
eld E i sthen
E= f
(e
, c
k
)F(0
, (
b
) /L
(0, (
I
) + F
„
(e, q
s
) (
4
-26
)
F
ield Pb.
.. '
,
l
ettere
w
he re f(
e, =fi
e
ld pattern ofi n
dividual sour ce
f
„
(0,q !
) =p hase pat
te rn o
fi ndividua
l s ource
F
(0,16) =f i
e
ld pattern ofa r
ray o fis
otrop ic sources
F„
(e, =phase pat
te rn o
fa rray ofisotropic sources
The patterns a
re expressed in (
4-26) as af unction o fboth p
olar ang
les
t
o indicate that t
he principle of pattern mu lt
iplication app
lie
s t o s
pace
p
atternsa sw el
l a
st othe t wo-d
imen sional c
a ses we have been c
onsider
ing.
To ilustrate t
he pr
inciple, l
et us a pp
ly itt o t wo spec
ial modif
ica
tions
o
fC a
se 1( Sec. 4
-2
).
E
xample 1. A s
sume t
wo id
ent
ica
lpoin
ts our
cessepa
rated b
y adi
stanc
ed ,each
s
o
urce having th
ef i
e
ld p
att
ern gi
ven b
y (
4-23
) asmightbeo b
tained b
yt wo s
hort
d
i
polesarranged asinF
ig
.4 -
7. Let d= X
/2 and t
h
ep haseang
le 6= 0. T hen t
he
t
o
tal fi
e
ld pat
t e
rn is
E= s
i
n c
o
s t c
o
s4)
) (
4
-27
)
T
his p
att
ern isilu
stra
ted by F
ig. 4
-8c a
st he p
r
oduct ofthe in
dividua
l sou
rce
p
at
tern (
s
in0)shown at(a
)and t
hearr
ay patt
ern co
sR T/2
)c o
sck
li a
ss hown a
t(h)
.
T
he pa
tte
rn iss
harperthan i
twa
si nCase 1(S
ec.4
-2
)f orth
ei s
ot
ropics o
urce
s. In
t
h
isins
tance
,t h
em aximum fi
e
ld o
ftheind
ividuals
ourc
ei si
nthedire
ction q
5= 90°
,
6
8 ANTEN N AS [
CHAP
. 4
w
hich c
o
inc
ide
s w
ith t
he d
i
rec
tion o
fthe max
imum f
i
e
ld f
o
r t
he a
r
ray o
f t
wo i
s
o-
t ic s
rop ourc
es.
F
la
. 4
-8
. Example of pa
ttern multipl
ication. Two n oniso
tropic but i
den tical po
int
s
ources o
f same amplitude and phase, s
paced iw ave
length apa
r t
, and arrang ed as i
n
F
ig. 4-
7, produce t
he p at
tern shown a t ( c
)
. The i ndiv
idual source h
a s the p a
ttern
s
hown at (a)
, which
, w hen mult
ipl
ied b y the pa
ttern o
fan array oftwo is
o tropic po
int
s
ources (
of the same amplitude and p hase) as shown at (b
), yie
lds the t otal a
rray
p
attern o
f (c
).
E
xample 2
. L
etusc on
side
rnextthe s
i
tuat
ion inwhi
ch d= X
/2 a
nd 6= 0a
sin
E
xample 1bu
t w
ith i
nd
ividua
l s
ource p
att
erns g
iven b
y
E0 = g c
os4
) (
4
-28
)
T
his t
ype o
fp a
tte
rn might b
e p
roduced b
y s hort d
ipoles or
iented parallel to t
he
yax s i
is a nF ig
. 4
-9. H e
re t
he max
imum f i
eld o fthe ind
ividual s
our ce isi nthe
direction (4
)= 0 )o f anu
ll from t he a
r-
ray, w hi
le the indiv
idual sou rce has a
nulli nthe d
irect
ion (4
)= 9 0
°)o fthepat-
tern max imum o f the a
rray . B y the
principle of pat
tern multiplication the
total normalized f
ie
ld is
E= c
os(
6co
s t c
osd
o
) (
4
-29
)
F
io
. 4-
9
. A r
ray of t wo noniso
tropic The to
tal a
rray pa
tte
rn in t
he x-
y
s
ource
s with r
espe
ct t
ocoord
ina
te system. p
lane a
sgiven by (
4-2
9
) isi
lus
tra
ted i
n
F
ig
. 4
-10
ca sthe p
roductofthe i
nd
ivid
-
u
al s
ource p
attern (c
os4) shown a
t (
a
) and t
he a
rray p
att
ern 1c
os [
(T/2
) cosOn
s
hown at(b
). T he t
o
tal a
r
ray pa
tte
rn i
nthe x
-ypl
ane has f
ourlo
bes w
ith nu
llsa
t
t
he xand y a
xes.
The a
bove e
xamp
les i
lus
tra
te t
wo a
ppl
ica
tions o
f t
he p
r
inc
iple o
f
S
ec
. 4
-
9
p
atte rn mu ltiplication toa rray s i nw h
ich t he source h as as imple p at
te rn.
Howeve r
, i nt he mo re general c ase the individual s ource may r epresent a n
a
nt enna o fa ny c omplexity p rovided t hat the amp l
itude a nd p hase o f it
s
f
i
eld c an b e e xpressed as af unc t
ion o f angle, t hat i sto say, p rovided
t
ha t the f i
eld p attern a nd t he p hase pattern w ith r espect to t he p hase
c
ente ra rek nown . I fonly t he totalf i
eld p a
ttern i sd es
ired, phase p at
tern s
n
eed n ot bek nown p rovided t ha t the individual sour cesa re i
den t
ical.
I
f the a rray s in t he above e xample s are p arts o f st
il
l larger a rrays,
t
he s mal
le r array s may b e regarded a s nonisotrop ic point source s in the
l
argera rray, a nothera pplica t
ion o fthe principle ofp at
tern mu ltipl
ica tion
y
ielding t he c omp lete p attern. I n t h
is w ay t he p r
inciple o f p attern
multiplication c an b e a pplied n t imes to f i
nd t he p atterns of a r
ray s of
a
rray so fa rray s.
F
la. 4-
10. E xamp le ofp a
ttern mu lt
ipl
ication. T otal ar
ray p attern (c
) as producto f
p
attern (a
) ofi ndividual nonisotropic source and pattern (6
) of array of t
wo i s
otropic
s
ources
. T he pattern (b) fo
r t he array of two i
sotropic source
s isi d
entica
l w ith that
o
f Fig
. 4-86
, b ut the ind
ividua l source pattern (
a) isrotated through 90° with respect
t
o the one i
nF ig. 4-8a
.
4
-4. E xamp le o f P attern S ynthes is b y P attern Mu l t
iplication. T he
p
r
inc iple o f pat tern mu ltip l
ica tion , d iscussed i n the p re ceding s ection, i s
o
f g reat v alue i n pa tte rn s ynthe sis. B y p a
t tern s ynthe s
is i sm eant t he
p
ro cess o ff i
nding t he s ou r ce o ra r ray o fs ources w hich p roduce s ad es
ired
p
at tern. T heo re t
ically a n a rray o f i s
otropic p oint s ou rces c an b e found
which w il
l p roduce a ny a rb i
t rary p attern. T h
is p ro cess i sn ot a lway s
s
imp le a nd may y ie
ld a na rray w hich i sdificult o ri mpo ssible t ocons truc t.
As imp ler,l e
sse l
egan t a pp roa ch t ot he problem o fa ntenna s ynthesis isb y
t
he a pp l
ication o f p attern mu ltiplica t
ion t o c ombina tions o f p ractica l
a
rray s,t he comb ination w hich b esta pp roxima test he d esired p attern b eing
a
rrived a tb y at r
ial-and -er ror p roce ss.
To i lustrate t h
is a pp lica t
ion o f p a t
ter n mu ltipl
ica tion , let us cons ide r
t
he f ol
low ing h ypo the tica l p rob lem : Ab roadca st
ing s tation ( in the 5 00-
t
o 1 ,500 -kc f requency b and ) r equire s ap at
t ern i n t he h orizon tal p lane
f
ulfi
lling t he c ond ition s i ndicated i n Fig. 4-11a . T he max imum f i
eld i n
-
7
0 AN TE N N AS [
CHAP
. 4
t
ensi
ty, w
ith as l
i
ttle v
ar
iat
ion as pos
sible
, isto be r
ad
iated in the 9
0°
s
ector b
etween no
rthwest and nor
theast
. No n u
lls i
n the patte
rn can
o
ccur in t
h
is se
ctor
. Howeve r, nu
lls may occu
r in a
ny direc
tion in t
he
NW U
ni
form maximum
NE
(
b
)
N
u
ll
SW (
a)
F
lo. 4
-11
. ( a
) R
equ
irement
sfo
rpa
ttern o
fbroadca
sts
tat
ion
, a
nd (
b
) i
dea
lized p
atte
rn
f
u
lfi
ll
ing them
.
c
omplementa
ry 270° s
ector
, bu
t, asa n additiona l requ iremen t
, n ul
ls mu st
b
epresentinthe d
ue eas
ta nd due southwe std irec t
ions i no rde rt op r
even t
i
n
ter
ference w
ith othe
r stat
ions in these d irections. A n i dealized sec
to r
s
haped p attern f ulf
il
ling t hose r e qu
iremen ts
i
silus t
rated i nF ig.4 -11b. T he a ntenna pro-
d
ucing t h
is pa tt
ern i st oc on s
isto fa narray of
f
our v ertical tower s
. T he c urrents in a l
l
t
owe rsa ret ob ee quali n magn itude,b utt he
p
hase may b e a djusted t o a ny r ela
tionship.
There isa l
so n or estrict
ion o nt he spacing or
g
eome tr
ical arrangement o ft he t owers
.
S
i nce w e are i nterested o nly i n t
he ho r
i-
z
onta lplane p atte rn
,e ach t owe r may b ec on-
s
idered a s an i sotrop ic p oint s ource. T he
F
io. 4
-
12. A
rrangement o
ftwo p
roblem t hen b ecome so ne off i
nding as pace
i
s
otrop
ic p
oin
t s
ource
s f
o
r b
oth a
nd p hase r e
lation of f our i s
otrop ic point
p
rimary a
nd se
condary arrays. s
ourcesl o
ca ted i nthe hor
izon talp lane w hich
f
ulf
i
llst he above r equ
ir ements.
The pr
inciple of pat tern mu l
tipl
ica t
ion w il
l b e appl
ied t o t he s o
lution
o
f th
is problem b y seek ing t he patte rns o ft wo pa
ir s ofisotrop ic sources
wh
ich yield the d e
sired p at
tern w hen mu ltiplied together. F ir st le
t us
f
i
nd a p a
ir of iso
tropic s ources who se p atte rn fulf
i
lls the re quirement s of
abroad l obe of radiation w ith max imum n orth and a n ull s outhwe st
.
Th
is wil
l be cal
led the " prima ry" pat tern
.
Two iso
tropic sources p hased asa n e nd-fire array can produce ap attern
w
ith a broade r majo r lo be than w hen p hased a s ab road side a rray ( f
or
e
xamp le
, compa re Fig s
. 4 -1c and 4- 5). S ince a broad l obe t o t he north
S
e
c. 4
OURCES 7
1
i
sd e
sired
, a
n end-f
ire a
rrangemen t o
f two is
otrop
ic s
ources a
s shown in
F
ig. 4-12 w
i
ll be tr
ied
. F rom a considera
tion of p
att
e rn s
hapes as a
f
unct
ion ofsepa
ration a
nd p has
e,' as
pa c
ing between }and Iwavelength
0
=0 0
=0 0
=0
45
" 0
=45
° 03
15°
P
rimary pa
tte
rn s
econdo
ryj p
atte
rn T
ota
l o
r o
y p
atte
rn
d=0.3 X
.6=-104 °
(
c)
(
a) (
b
)
• 0 t
• 0
.31 i
•— 2
0
.3 A
le 1
0.6 '
X
•
•
0
.
3
1 . i 3
• -. 4
P
r
ima
ry a
rray S
econda
ry a
rray T
ota
l a
rray
F
la
. 4
-
13. Field p
a
tte
rns o
fpr
imary a
nd s
ec
ondary a
r
rays o
ftw
o i
s
ot
rop
ic s
o
urc
es
w
h
ich m
ult
ipl
ied t
og
ethe
rgiv
e p
att
ern o
fto
ta
l ar
ray o
ffo
uris
ot
rop
ics
ou
rce
s.
a
ppea
rs su
itab
le (
s
ee Fig
. 1-11
). A
cco
rding
ly, l
e
t d= 0
.
3X. T
hen t
he
f
i
e
ld pat
tern f
ort
he a
rray i
s
E= c
ost (
4
-30
)
w
here
0= 0
.6
1rc
os4
)+ 3 (
4
-31
)
F
or t
here t
o b
e an
ul
l i
nthe p
att
ern o
f (
4
-30) a
t 0= 1
35° i
tisn
ece
ssa ry
t
hat2
0= (2
k + 1)7 (
4-32)
w
here k -
=0,1
,2, 3...
1See f o
r examp le, G. H. Brown, D ir
ec t
iona l Antennas, Proc
. I. R
.E., 2
5, January,
1
937
; F .E .T e rman, " Rad
io E ngineers
' H andbo ok," M cGraw-Hil
l B ook C ompany ,
I
n
c.
,N ew Y ork,1 943,p .8
04;C .E.S mi
th, " Direc
tiona lAntennas
," C l
eveland Ins
titute
o
fR adio E l
ectr oni
cs, Clev
eland, Ohio, 1946
.
'
Th e azimu th a ng
l e 4
.( F
ig. 4-12) ism easured c oun
terc
lockwis e (c
cw) from t he
n
or
th. T his isc ons
istent w
ith the enginee r
ing p racti
ce ofm easu
ring p o
sit
ive an g
les
i
n acount e
rclockw ises e
nse
. H owev e
r,its hould ben oted t
hatt h
eg eode
ticazimuth ang
le
o
f a point i
sm ea su
red i nth
eo ppos
it e
,o rc l
ockw is
e ( cw)
,s e
nsef r
or- " —ref
erenced i
rec-
t
i
on
, w hich iss ometim e
st a
ken ass outh and s ome t
imes as nor
th.
7
2 ANTE N N AS [CH
AP. 4
E
qua
ting (
4
-31
) a
nd (
4
-32
) t
hen g
ive
s
1
— 0
.6T = (
2k + 1
)r (
4
-33
)
o
r
5= (
2k -
I
- 1
)r + 0
.
4257 (
4
-34
)
F
or k= 0, ö= — 1
04°
. T he p
att
ern f
o
rth
is c
ase(
d=0
.
3X a
nd 5= —
104
°)
i
silu
stra
ted b
y Fig:4-13a
.
+ 8
0er m
id-poin
t a
s p
hase
c
e n
ter
-
60 +
90
Ca
a
S
outhe
rn so
ur ce
a
s phase c
enter
-1
80 °
0
* 90
° 1
80' 2
70° 3
60'
(
a) P
r
ima
ry p
a
tte
rn.
•
I80 °
—M
id-po
int a s
+
90 1 r p
hase cen
ter
S
outhe
rn source
a
s phase c
enter
-1
80
• 90 1
80' 2
70° 3
60'
0
(
b
): S
econda
ry p
a
tte
rn
F
la. 4-14
. P hase patterns of pr
ima ry
, secondary, and tota
l array
s having t he fi
eld
p
atterns s
hown i n Fig. 4 -
13. P hase pat
terns are given for t
he phase center a
t t he
m
id-point of t
he array and a t t
he s
outhernmo stsource, t
he ar
rangement o fthe arrays
a
nd the phase centers being shown at (d
). T he phase a
ngle Eisadjusted to zero at
0i
na l
l c
ases. P arts (a) a
nd (b
) appeara bove and (c
) and (
d) o
n p.7 3
.
Next, let us f i
nd t he ar
ray o f t wo is
otropic point source
s w hich w i
ll
p
roduce a p attern t hat fu
lf
il
ls the r equiremen ts of an ull a
t = 270°
a
nd t hat a l
so h as ab road lobe t o the north. T hi
s w i
ll be cal
led t he
"
seconda ry" p at
tern. T h
is p a
tte rn mu lt
iplied b y the p r
ima ry a r
ray
p
attern w i
ll then yield the t
otal a
r ray pattern
. I fthe s
econda ry is
otropic
s
ources are also a r
ranged a s in Fig. 4-12 and h ave a phase diference of
1
80°, there is an ul
l a t46 = 270°
. L e
t the spacing d = 0 .6 X
. T hen the
s
econda ry pattern isg iven by (4
-30 )
, w here
/= 1
1
, .
27 c
os 4+ 7 (
4
-35
)
S
ec
. 4
3
The pattern i
si lu
strated by F
ig. 4-
13b
. B y the p
rinc
iple o
f pat
tern
mul
tipl
ication
, the to
tal a
rray p
atte
rn isthe p
roduct o
ft h
is p
atte
rn and
t
he pr
ima ry a
rray patte
rn, o
r
E=c
os (
54
° c
os4
5— 5
2°
) c
os (
1
08° c
os4
•± 9
. 0°
) (
4
-36
)
T
his patt
ern, w h
ich isilu
stra
ted by F
ig. 4-
13c
, sa
tisf
ies the patte
rn re
-
q
uirements
. T he complete a
rray i
sobtained by r
eplacing each of t
he
i
s
otrop
ic source
s o f t
he se
condary p
att
ern b y t
he two-
sou rce a
rray p
ro-
•
360
'
•
270 °
y
r-M
id-po
int c
is
p
hase cen
ter
-
90 ° S
outhern
s
ource a s
p
hase c en
ter
-1
80 ° 1
0° 90' 1
80 ° 2
70 ° 3
60 °
0
(
c): T
o
tal p
at
tern
o
o 0 P
hase
• c
en
ter (x
)
o 0 a
trid-po
int
0 o
f a
rrays
o 0
P
r
ima ry S
econdar
y T
ota
l
(
d
)
a
rrays a
rray a
rray
o 0
0 a P
hase
c
enter (.
Oat
s
outhern-
most
s
ou rce
6
0 1 0
F
lo. 4
-
14 (
Con
tinued
).
d
ucing t he p r
ima ry pattern. T he m id-point o f each p rimary a rray is
i
t
sp hase center
, sot ha
t this p o
in t i
sp laced att he l
o cation of aseconda ry
s
ource. T he c omplete antenna i st hen a l i
near ar ray o f four is
otropic
p
oint s our
ce s as shown in t he l ower pa r
t of Fig. 4 -13, w here now e ach
s
ource r epresents as ing
le v ert
ical t owe r
. A l
l t owe rs ca r
ry t he same
c
urren t
. T he current of towe r 2l eads tower 1a nd t he current of tower
4leads towe r 3b y 104
°, wh i
le t he current int owers 1a nd 3a nd 2a nd 4
a
re i n phase opposit
ion. T he r e
lative p hase of the c urrent isilustrated
b
y t he vec
to rsint he l
owerp art o fFig. 4-13c
.
7
4 AN TE N N AS [CH
AP. 4
The s o
lu tion o btained i so nly o ne o f a n i n
finite n umbe r o f poss
ible
s
olution si nvolv ing f ourt owe rs
. I ti s,h oweve r
, as atisfactory and p ract
ical
s
olution t ot he p roblem .
The p has e va r
iation a round t he p r
ima ry
, s e
conda ry
, a nd total arrays
i
ss hown i nF ig. 4 -14a, b,a nd cw i th the p ha se c en ter at the center point
o
f e ach a r
ray a nd a lso at t he s outhe rnmo st s our ce. T he a r
rangemen t of
t
he a rray s w i
th t heir p hase c en ter s isi lustra ted i n Fig. 4-14d f or both
c
ase s
.
4-5. N on isotropic a nd D issim ila r P oint S ou rces . I n S ec
. 4 -3 noniso-
t
ropic b ut sim i
la r p oint sour ce s w ere discus sed, a nd i tw as s hown t hat
t
he p rinciple o fp atte rn mu ltiplica tion c ould b e a pplied. Howeve r, ifthe
s
our ces are d i
s s
im ila r
, t h
is p r
inc iple i sno l o
nge r a pplicable and t he fi
elds
o
ft he s ource s mus t b e added a t e ach a ngle f
o r w h
ich the to tal fi
e
ld is
c
alcula ted. T hus, f or t wo dissim ila r sour ces 1a nd 2 s i
tuated o n the x
a
xis w ith sour ce 1a t the origin a nd t he sou rces s epa rated b y ad istance d
(
same g eome try a sF ig. 4-6
) t he t otal f i
e
ld i si ng ene ral
E = El + E3 = E
0 1
/[f
(99 a
F(0
) c
os Or ± [aF
(0)s i
n Ol2
a
F(c
k)sin 4,
/ MO) arctan f, (
4
-37
)
O
N a
F(0) c
os
w
here t
he f
i
e
ld f
r
om s
our
ce 1i
staken a
s
=E
0 /L W (
4
-38
)
a
nd f
r
om s
our
ce 2a
s
Ez = a
E0F
(4) /F;
(0) d
, c
o
s4.-
1 I
- 5 (
4
-39
)
w
her
e E0 = c
ons tant
a= ratio o f max imum amp litude o f source 2 to s ource 1
(
0 < a< 1 )
=d,c s ± 5— MO
o ) F(4 ))
, whe re
=re
la tive pha se ofs ource 2w ith re
spe ct t
osource 1
f
(0) =r e
la tive fi
e
ld p attern ofsour ce 1
f
„(0) =p ha se pattern o fs ource 1
F
(0) =r e
la tive fi
eld p attern ofsour ce 2
F
,(0) =p ha se pattern o fs ource 2
I
n (4-37
) t he p
hase a ngle ( L) i sre
ferred t o t
he p hase o
f the fi
e
ld f rom
s
ource 1ins ome reference d i
re ct
ion ( 4
) = 40.
Rather t
han perfo rm the c alculat
ion o f (
4-37)
, i tisusua
lly much e asie
r
t
o f
ind the amplitude a nd p hase of the total fi
e
ld b y ag raph
ical v ec
to r
a
ddition o
f E1 and E 2. I n t he spec
ial ca s
e w here the fi
e
ld p a
tte rn
s a r
e
i
den
tical but t
he p hase patterns a ren ot
, a= 1 ,a nd
SE
C
. 4
-
51 AR R A YS OF POI NT SO U RCES 7
5
= F
(b) (
4-40
)
f
r
om w
hich
E=2
E0 f
(0
) c
o
st f
„
(0) + 1
:
- (
4-41
)
w
here p
has
e i
saga
in r
e
fer
red t
osou
rce 1i
nsome r
e
ference d
i
rec
tion 4
%
.
9
0"
2
70"
F
la. 4
-15
. R e
lation of two n
onisot
ropic F
ro. 4-16
. Field pat
tern o
f array o
f two
d
i
ssimi
lar s
ources to c
oord
inate s
ystem. n
onisotrop
ic d
iss
imilar s
ources of F
ig
. 4-
1
5 for d= X/4 and ö = 9
0°.
+
360
°
a
;
To +
270
°
a
,
X
i+180
°
a.
+90*
0
° i I
C
e 910
° 1
80 2
70° 3
60'
0
Fm
. 4-
17. Phase p
atte
rn ofa
rray h
aving fi
e
ld p
atte
rn o
f F
ig
. 4
-
16. The p
hase a
ngle
Ei
swith r
e
spec
t tosource 1a
s p
hase c
enter
.
A
s a
n il
ust
rat
ion o
f n
onisot
ropic
, di
ssimi
lar p
oint s
our
ces, l
e
t u
s c
on-
s
i
deran e
xample i
nwh
ich the f
i
eld f
rom sou
rce 1isg
iven by
E
, = c
o
s (
1
) (
4
-42
)
a
nd f
r
om s
our
ce 2b
y
E2 = s
i
n (
t
, (
4
-43
)
w
here =d,cos(t
.
T
he r
ela
tion o
fthe t
wo s
our
cest
othe c
oord
ina
te s
ys
tem a
nd t
he i
nd
ividua
l
7
6 ANTENNAS [CH
AP. 4
f
i
e
ld p
atte
rn s a
re s
hown in F
ig. 4
-15
. Sour
ce 1i
sl o
cated a
t t
he o
r
igin
.
T
he t
o
tal fi
e
ld E i
sthen t
he vec
torsum o
fE, a
nd L
'2,or
E= c
o
s +s
i
n 4
)Z± (
4
-44
)
L
et us con
side
r the c
ase f
o
r I
-wave leng
th spac
ing (
d = X
/4) a
nd p
has
e
q
uadrature o
fthe s
our
ces (
b = 7/2). T hen
= (
cos 0 + 1
) (
4
-45
)
T
he c alcula tion f o
r t hi
s c ase i s most e as
ily carried o ut as ag raphical
v
ector a ddition . T he r esult
ing f i
eld p attern for the t otal fi
eld E o f the
a
rray i spr es ented in Fig. 4 -
16 , and t he resu
lting p has e p at
t e
rn f or the
a
ngle ti sg iven i nF ig. 4-17
. T he angle ti sthe p hase a ngle between t he
t
otal fi
eld a nd t he f
i
eld o fsource 1i nthe d i
rect
ion 4 )= 0 .
4
-6. a . L in ear Arrays o f nI sot
ropic P oint Sourc e
s o fE qual Amp l
itude
a
nd S pacing .' L etu s now pro ceed tot he case of ni s
ot ropic points ources
o
f equa l amp litude and s pacing a rranged a s al i
near a rray, as indicated
i
nF ig. 4
-18, w her e ni sany p os
itive
0
.90 ' i
nteger
. T he tota l fi
e
ld E a t alarge
T• o
•
d
istance i
nt he direc t
ion q!
)isgiven by
T
o d
i
stan
t p
o
int E = 1+ e
"
e
3" ± •••+ em "
'" (
4
-46
)
0 0
w
here i sthe t
ota
lp ha
se d
iference
d—+—d d o
f t
he fi
e
lds fr
om a d
jacen
t sources
2 3 4 5 a
sgiven by
F
lo
. 4
-18
. A r
rang
ement ofl
i
nea
r a
r
ray
o
f ni
s
otr
opi
cp o
intso
urc
es. = dr c
osi
& + (
4
-46a
)
where . 5isthe p ha se d iference of

a
djacents ource s
. I nthe c aseu nder consideration this pha se diference can
a
ssume a ny v alue. T he a mpl
itude s of the fi
elds from t he s ources are al
l
e
qual and taken a su ni
ty. S ource 1( Fig. 4-18) isthe pha se c entersot hat
t
he fi
e
ld f r
om s ource 2i sa dvanced inp ha se by 4,
;t he fi
e
ld f rom s ource 3i s
a
dvanced b y 2 0, etc
.
Equation (4-46 ) is ag eome t
ric ser
ies. E ach term r ep resen ts av ec
to r
,
a
nd the amp litude o f the t o
tal fi
eld E a nd it
s p hase a ngle tc an be ob-
t
a
ined b y ag raphical ve ctor addit
ion a s in Fig. 4-19. Howeve r, av ery
s
imple tr
igonome tric e
xp ress
ion f o
r Ec an be d eve
loped a sf o
llow s:
I
S
. A
. Sch
elkunof
, "Ele
ctr
omagnet
ic W ave
s," D
. Van No
str
and C
ompany
, I
n
c.,
N
ew Yo
rk, 1
943
, p.3
42.
J
.A. S
tra
tton
, "Elec
tromagn
eti
c T h
eory," McGraw-H
il
l Book C
ompany
, I
n
c.
,
N
ew Yo
rk, 1
941
, p.45
1.
SE
C
. 4
-
6] AR R A YS OF POI N T SO U RCES 7
7
Mu
ltip
ly (
4
-46
) b
y e
" ,g
iv
ing
E
e" = ei" e
'" -
I
- •••+ (
4
-47
)
Now s
ubt
rac
t (
4
-47
) f
r
om (
4
-46
), a
nd d
iv
ide b
y 1— e
", y
i
eld
ing
1— e
'"
E— (
4
-48
)
1— e
"
E
qua
tion (
4
-48
) may b
e r
ewr
itten a
s
e
s4 -e-'4
E = (
4
-49
)
eit —
f
r
om w
hich
E = e iEs
i
n(
n0/ 2) s
i
n (n
t
l,/2
) /
t
s
i
n (0/2
) — s
in (
0/2
) (
4
-50
)
w
here i
sre
fer
red t
othe f
i
e
ld f
r
om s
our
ce 1
. T
he v
alue o
f Ei
sgi
ven b
y
(
4
-50a
)
I
fthe p
hase i
sre
fer
red t
o t
he c
ente
r p
oin
t o
fthe a
r
ray (
4
-50
) b
ecome
s
s
i
n (
n0/2)
E— (
4-51)
s
in (
0/2
)
:
n t
h
is c
ase t
he p
hase p
atte
rn i
s as
t
ep f
unc
tion a
s g
iven b
y t
he s
i
gn o
f
(
a
)
(
b
)
FI
G. 4
-19
. ( a
) Vector add
ition of f
ie
lds a
t alarge di
stance f
rom li
near ar
ray of fi
ve
i
s
otrop
ic po
int s
ources o
fequa l amp
litude w
ith s
ource 1as the p
hase c
enter (
re
ference
f
or p
hase
). (b
) Same, but with mid
-point o
farray (s
ource 3
) as p
hase c
enter
.
7
8 AN TE N N AS [CH
AP. 4
(
4-51
). T he pha
se o f the f
ie
ld iscon s
tant w herever Eh a
s av alue but
c
hanges b
y 180° i
nd i
rectionsforw h
ich E = 0 ( nu
ll d
irect
ion s
) and (
4-51
)
c
hanges s
i
gn.
When 4
,= 0( 4-50) or (4
-51) i
si ndeterminate so tha
t for th
is ca
se E
must b
e o
b ta
ined as the lim
it of (
4
-51 ) as 4
,a pproa
che s z
ero. T hus
, for
4
,= 0w eh ave t
he re
la t
ion that
E=n
T
his i
sthe maximum va
lue w
hich E c
an a
t
tain
. H
ence
, t
he n
orma
lized
v
alue o
fthe t
ota
l f
i
eld f
o
r Em. = ni
s
E = 1s
i
n (n0/2)
. (
4
-52
)
nsin (02
)
T
he fi
eld a
s gi
ven by (
4-52
) wil
l be r
e
fer
red t
o a
s t
he "a
rray f
ac
tor."
V
alue
s ofthe a
rray f
a
cto
r as o
bta
ined f
r
om (4
-52
) f
or v
ar
ious n
umbers o
f
1
.
0 1= 1
.
9
4=2
.
8
.
7
01 5
5
.
2
.
1
O
. 1 0
* 2 0 30' 4
0* 5 0* 60' 70' 1 0
* 90 ° 1 0
0' 1
0* 1
20
' 1 30
* K O
* 1 50
' 1
60
' 17
0' M
O*
3
60
'350' 3
40' 30
'320 ° 3
10° 3
00° 2
90 °2
80 ° 2
70 ° 2
60°2
50°2
40 ° 2
30 °20 ° 2
10*2
00' 1
9
0° 1
8
0°
±
,
y
F
lo. 4-20. Universal f
i
eld
-pattern chart f
or a
rrays o
f v
arious number
s no f is
otrop
ic
p
oint source
s o
fe qual amp
litude and spac
ing. C ha
rts f
o
r al
l in
tegra
l values o
f nfrom
1through 24 a
re in
cluded inthe Appendix.
s
ourcesare presented i
nFig. 4
-20
.1 I f4 ,isknown a s af
unct
ion of4)
,then
t
he fi
e
ld pattern can be o
bta
ined dire
ctly from Fig. 4-
20.
We may c onclude f
rom the above d i
scussion that t
he fi
eld fr
om the
a
rray wi
ll be am aximum inany direction 4)fo
r which 4,= 0. Stated i
n
a
nother way, t he fi
e
lds f
rom the sources al
l arr
ive at adistant po
int i
n
t
he same phase w hen 4
,= 0. I n s
pecial ca
ses, 4/may not b
e zero f
or a
ny
1Unive
rsa
l p
attern char
ts giv
ing the a
rray f
acto
r as afunc
tion o
f 1
,
4fo
r a
l
l i
n
tegra
l
v
alue
s of nf
rom 1t hrough 2
4 are i
nc
luded inthe Append
ix.
SE
C
. 4
-
61 AR R A YS OF POI N T SO U R C ES 7
9
v
a
lue of0,a nd inth
is case t
he fi
eld isusual
ly amax imum atthe m
inimum
v
a
lue of4,.
T
o il
ustrate some oft he p
roperties o
fl i
neararraysequat
ion (
4-52
) w i
ll
n
ow bea ppl
ied toseveral sp
ecial case
s.
C
ase 1.B roads
ide array (sou
r c
es in phase)
. T he f
i
rst c
ase i
s alinear
a
r
ray of ni s
otrop
ic sources o
ft he same amp l
itude and p
hase
. T her
efore,
8= 0,and
4
.
,= d ,c o
s4 ) (
4-53)
T
o make 4
, = 0r
equire
sthat 0= (
2k + 1
)
(r/2
), w
here k = 0
,1,2
, 3...
T
he f
i
eld i
s
,there
fore, amax
imum when
7 , 3
i
r
0= - a nd —
2 2
That i s
, the max imum f i
eld isin ad irection n ormal t ot he ar
ray . H ence ,
t
his cond ition, w hich isc haracterized b y in-phase sour ces (
3 =0 )
, results
i
n a" b road side" t ype ofa rray.
A
sa ne xamp le,t he pattern of ab road s
ide array off ou rin
-phas ei so
trop ic
p
oint s ou rces of e qual amp l
itude i ss hown i n Fig. 4 -21a
. T he spacing
b
etween s ources i s iw avelength. T he fi
eld p attern i n rectangular c o-
o
rdina tesa nd the p hase patternsf ort h
i sa r
ray a r
ep re sented inF ig. 4-21b.
T
he c alculation o ft he fi
eld pa ttern o ft h
is or othe r arrays isf a
cil
ita ted
b
y f i
rst c alculating a nd p lott
ing 1 G a
, s af unction of0 . T hen b y m eans
o
ft his g raph a nd o ne o ft he array f acto r vs
. 4,for the a pprop r
iate n um -
b
e r of sou rces ( a
s i n Fig. 4-20), t he a rray factor Ei sobtained f or a ny
v
alue o f 0i nt wo s teps.
T
he r ange o f #a s afunc t
ion of 0f o
rt he broadside ar ray o
ff ouri so
trop ic
s
ources s paced f w aveleng th is +180 ° t o —1 80° a nd b ack a gain f or a
v
a r
iation o f 0from 0 °t o3 60°. T ha t is
,
v
s 4
,
0
° 1
80 °
9
0° 0°
1
80 ° -180 °
2
70° 0°
3
60 ° 1
80 °
On Fig. 4-20 i,completes two cyc

les ofv alue
s fr
om 180° to0°and back
t
o 180° for av ar
iation of 0from 0°t o360°.
C
a se 2. Ordinary end-f
ire array
. L e
t u s now fi
nd the phase a
ngle be
-
t
ween a djacent sources tha
t i srequ
ired to make t he f
i
eld a max
imum i n
t
he direct
ion o ft h
e array (0 = 0 )
. A n array ofthi
s type may be c
al
led
a
n " end-f
ire" a r
ray. F or th
is w e subst
itute the cond
ition
s 0 = 0a nd
6 = 0i
i n
to ( 4-
46a), fr
om w h
ich
(
4
-54
)
8
0 ANTE N N AS [
CHAP
. 4
Hence
, for a
n end-f
ire a
rray
, the phase between s
our
ces isreta
rded p ro
-
g
ress
ively b
y the s
ame amoun t a
s the s
pacing be
tween sou
rces inradians
.
Thus
, i ft
he spac
ing is Iw ave
length, source 2 i
n F
ig. 4-18 shou
ld l a
g
s
ource 1by90 0;s
ource 3shou
ld la
gs ource 2b y 9
0°
, e
tc.
0 =9
0*
d
=t,
d d d
1-
, '
I I - I
1
80° -
4
.- -e
- -•
- -e — 0
/
=(f
i 2 3 4
A
r
ray
F
ield (
a)
pattern
/
1
/
/ .,
. -- -
0
°
- \ ,
\ \ -
*
- P
hase c en
ter
\ at mid-po
int
-90 °- ‘ o
f array
g -1
80 *
0
0
2 -2
70 °- r
- P
hase center
a a
t sourcel „) (
b
)
t
2
.̀
. , .
." t
0 9
0° 1
80° 2
70° 360 .
0
1
F
la. 4-21
. ( a
) Field pat
tern ofb roads
ide a rray offour iso
tropic po
int sources ofsame
ampl
itude and phase
. The s pacing be
tween s ources i
n fw avelength
. ( b) F
ield pat
tern
i
nr e
ctangular c
oordinates a
nd p hase patterns ofs ame array with phase c
enter at mid
-
p
oint and a
t source 1. The re
ference direction for phase i
st aken a
t0n •9 0°
.
As a n examp le, the f

i
eld pa
t tern of an end-f
ire a
rray of f
our is
otropic
p
oint s ources ispresented i
n Fig. 4-
22a. T he spac
ing between s
our ce
s is
iw aveleng th, and 8 = — 7. T he fi
e
ld p at
te rn inre
ctangular c
oordinates
a
nd t he pha se patte
rn s a
re s
hown i nF ig
. 4-22h. T he s
ame shape off i
eld
p
attern i so bta
ined i nth
is c
ase if 6= A -
1rsince with d = X/2 t
he pattern
S
ec. 4
-
1
i
sbid
irec
tional
. Howeve r
, i
fthe s
pac
ing isle
ss t
han X
/2
, the maximum
r
ad
iat
ion isi n t
he d
irec
tion 4
) = 0w hen ö = —d, a
nd i
n the d
irec
tion
= 1
80° when (5= +d,.
0
=90°
(
d
)
2
70'
F
ie
ld p
attern
A
rray 1
.d I d -
1•d
1
E
+
180
°
P
hase c
ente
rat
m
id-po
intofar
ray
*
k
r
s;
0
ss
,
- -
1
„
-
6
.-
- 9
e
N s
r
. P
hose c
ente
r
(
b
)
• -
• 1
80 a
t s
ource 1
" /•
-2
70* :s.
-
a
•
ss e 1
I
•i I
• —
360.
0 9
e 1
8
e 2
70. 3
60.
0
F
za. 4-22
. ( a
) Fie
ld p a
ttern o
f o
rdina ry e
nd-fi
re ar
ray of f
our i
sotrop
ic point s
ources
o
fs ame amplitude. S pacing i
s w avelength
, a nd t
he p
hase ang
le 8 = —r . ( b
) Field
p
attern inrectangula
r coo rd
ina
tes and phase patt
erns o
fsame array with phase c
enter
a
tm id-point and a
tsource 1. The r
eference d
irect
ion f
orp ha
se i
sa t =0.
Cas
e3. E nd
-fi
rea r
ray with i
ncr
ea s
ed dir
ectivi
ty. The s
itua
tion discus
sed
i
nC ase 2
,namely, fo
r &= —d ,
, produces amax imum f
i
eld i
nt he d
irect
ion
5 = 0b
q ut does no
t give t
he maximum d i
rec t
ivity
. Ithas been s
hown b y
Hansen and Woodya rd
' that alarger d
irect
ivity iso
bta
ined b y i
ncreas
ing
t
he phase c
hange between source
s so that
a= —(
a
, +1
.) (
4
-55
)
W. W
. Hansen a
nd J. R. Woodyard
, A N ew P
rinc
iple i
n D
irec
tiona
l A
ntenna
D
esign
, P
roc
. I
.R.E
., 2
6, Ma
rch, 1
938, 3
33-345
.
8
2 ANTE N N AS [
CHAP
. 4
T
his cond
ition w
i
ll be r
e
ferred to a
s t
he c
ondi
tion f
o
r "i
ncreased d
irec-
t
i
vity
." T hus f
o
r the p
hase difer
ence o
f t
he fi
e
lds a
t alarge d
is
tan ce
w
eh ave
= d
,
(co
s — 1
)— (
4
-56
)
A
s a
n example
, t
he f
i
e
ld p a
ttern of a
n e
nd-f
ire ar
ray o
f four i
s
otrop
ic
p
o
intsour
cesfort
hi
scase i
silu
stra
ted inF
ig
. 4-23
. T he s
pac
ing b
etween
9
0°
d
u-1 -
- -• -• • 2
I 2 3 4
A
rray
F
lo. 4-23
. F ield p
attern of e
nd-f
i
re ar
ray o
f f
our i
so
tropic po
int s
our
ces of equa
l
ampl
itude spaced wave
leng
th apar
t. The pha
sing is ad
jus
ted fo
r inc
reased di
-
r
ect
ivity (6
s
ources is w aveleng th, a nd t herefo re 5 = — ( 57/4 )
. H ence, t he c ondi-
t
i
ons a re the s ame a s f
or the a rray w i th the p atte rn ofF ig. 4 - 22, excep t
t
hatt he p hase d iference b etween s ou rce si sincrea sed b yr /4. C ompa r
ing
t
he fi
e
ld p a ttern so fF igs. 4
-22a a nd 4 -23 , i
ti sappa rentt ha tt he a ddi t
iona l
p
hase d i
fference y ields ac onside rably s harpe r ma in l obe i n the d irec t
ion
=0 . Howeve r
, the b ack lo besi nt his case aree xcessively l arge b ecau se
t
he la
rge v a
lue o fs pacing r e
sult s int oo g rea t ar ange i n
To r ea
lize t he d irectivi
ty i ncrea se a forded b y the a dditiona l p hase
d
iference r equire s tha t! b
e restric ted ini t
s range t o av alue o f7 /n at
= 0a nd av alue i nthe vicinity o f 7a t4 )= 1 80 °
. T his can b e fulf
illed
i
fthe s pacing i sr educed . F o r examp le
, t he fi
eld p attern o f a n end -f
ire
a
rray of 10 i sotropic p oint sour ces o fe qual amp litude a nd spa ced Iw ave-
l
ength isp re sen ted i nF ig
. 4 -24a f or t he p hase c ond i
tion g iving i ncrea sed
d
irect
ivity ( o = —0 .6r). I n c on t
ras t t o this pat tern, o ne isp re sented i n
F
ig. 4-24b f or the i dentical an tenna w i th the p hasing o fa n ord inary e nd-
f
i
rea rray ( IS = —0 .5r )
. B oth p atte rn sa rep lotted t ot he same max imum .
S
Ec
. 4
-
3
T
he i n
creased d i
rectivity i
sa pparent fr
om t he grea
ter s
harpne
ss of the
u
pper p a
tt ern
. I nt egrat
ing the patte
rn, in
cluding the m
inor lobe
s, the
d
i
rectivi
ty o ft he upper pat
tern isfound to b
e a bout 1
9 a
nd ofthe lower
p
att
ern a bou t 1. T he b
eam w id
thsa nd di
rectiv
i t
iesfo
rthe two pa
tterns
a
recompa red inT able 4-
1.
TABLE 4
-1
E
ndfi
re with
O
rdina
ry e
ndf
ire
i
n
creas
ed di
rectiv
ity
B
eam width b
etween h
alf
-power p
o
ints 6
8° 3
7°
B
eam width b
etween f
i
rst n
ul
ls 1
06° 7
4°
D
irec
tiv
ity 1 1
9
T
he maximum oft he fi
e
ld p
attern
o
f F
ig. 4
-24a oc
curs a t 4
, = 0a nd
= —7/n . I n general
, any i n
-
c
r
eased dire
ctiv
ity e nd-f
ire a
rray,
(
a
)
w
ith max
imum a t = —7/n, h
asa
n
ormal
ized fi
e
ld pat
te rn g
iven b
y
A
rray
12 34 5 67 8 9 1
0
E= s
i
n (
7
/2n
) s
i
n (
n4
./2) (
4
-56a
)
s
in (
0/2
) d d d d
=—
X
4
Case 4 .A rray w ith max

imum f i
eld
i
n a n a rb
itrary d irec
tion
. L e
t u s
c
onsidert he c a
se o fan ar
ray with a
f
i
eld p attern h av ing a maximum i n
s
ome a rb i
tra ry direct
ion O in
otequal
t
o k w/2 w he re k = 0 , 1
,2 , o
r 3. (
b
)
Then ( 4-46a) b ecome s F
la. 4 -24. F ie ld p at
terns of end-f
ire ar-
r
ays of 1 0i sot ropic point s
ou rce
so fe qual
0 = dr c
osc
6i + 5 (
4
-57
) amplitude s pa ced w
avelength a pa rt
.
The pa ttern a t ( a
) has the phase ad
ju sted
Bys peci
fy ing t he spacing d
„ t he re-
f
or i ncrea sed d irec
tivity (6 = —0 .67),
q
uired p hase dife rence öi sthen d e- whi
le t he p att ern a t (1
4 hast he p
hasing of
t
e
rm ined b y (4-57). a
no rdina ry e nd -f
ire ar
ray (6 = —0 .5 7 )
.
Asa ne xamp le suppo se t
hat n= 4 ,
d= X /2 a nd t hat w e wish to h ave a maximum f i
eld in th
e direc
tion of
4
,= 6 0
°. T hen S = —r/2 , yielding the f
i
eld pat
tern s hown inFig. 4
-25
.
4
-6. b . Nu l
l D irectionsfor A rrays of nIs
otrop
ic P o
in t S
ources o
fE qua
l
Ampl i
tud e and S pac ing. In t hi
s s e
ction s
imple method s a
re di
scussed f
o
r
f
i
nding t he dir ect
ion s of the p attern nu
lls of t
he a rrays cons
idered in
S
ec. 4-6a.
8
4 ANTE N N AS [CH
AP. 4
Fo
llowing t
he procedure g
iven by S
chelkunof'
, the nu
ll d
ire
c t
ions f
or
a
n array o
f nis
otropic po
int s
ource
s ofequal amp
litude a
nd s
pacing o
ccur
when E = 0or, p
rovided tha
t the d
enominatorof n
ot ze(
4
-
4
8
)i
ros
, when
el" = 1 (
4
-
5
8)
E
qua
tion (
4
-
5
8)r
equ
ire
s t
hat
7
/
1
1, ±2I
fir 4
-
5
(9)
w
here K=1
,2
,3.
.
900
. k
-d-+
-d-4
.
-d•
1
1
80
1 2 3 4
A
rray
d
= 4
-
2
706 3
00'
F
la. 4
-25
. F ie
ld pat
tern o
f a
rray o
f f
our i
s
otrop
ic p
oint s
ource
s o
f equa
l ampl
itude
w
ith p
hasing a
dju
sted t
ogive max
imum at,/-.60°
. T he s
pac
ing i
s iwave
leng
th.
E
qua
ting t
he v
a f4
lue o ,i
n (
4
-
5
9)t
oit
sva n(
lue i 4
-
4
6a
)gi
ves
1
/,= d
,
.co
s 00 -
I
- 5— ± 2K7
n
(
4
-
6
0
)
T
hus
,
0 = a
0 r
cco
s F
(±2
K
, _ )1_15
(
4
-
6
1)
L\ n Id
,J
whe
re (
Po g
ives t
he d
i
rect
ion o
fthe p
att
ern nuls
. No te t
hat v
alue
s of K
must b
e e
xcluded f
or wh
ich = mn
, w he K
re m = 1, ... Thu
s, i
f 2
,3
,
K=m
n
, Eq. (
4
-
5
9) r
educe
s t
o4,= ± a
nd t
he d
enom 2
m
T
inatorof (
4
-
4
8)
1S
. A. Sche
lkunof, "E
lectromagnet
ic Waves," D
. Van No
strand C
ompany, Inc
.,
N
ew Y ork
, 1943, p
.343
.
S
. A
. Schelkunof, "A Mathematica
l Theory o
f A
rray
s," B
el
l Sys
tem T
ech
. J.
, 22,
8
0-107
, January, 1
943
S
ec
. 4
-
5
e
quals z
ero s
o tha
t the nul
l cond
ition o
f (4
-58
), t
hat the nume
rato
r o
f
(
4-48) b
e z
ero
, i
sinsuf
fic
ien
t.
In ab
roads
ide a
rray 5 = 0,so t
hat f
o
r th
is c
ase (
4
-61
) b e
comes
=a
r
cco
s (± 2Kir- ) — a
r
cco
s (+ 12 ) (
4
-62
)
nd, n d
A
s a
n example
, the f
i
e
ld p
att
ern o
fFig
. 4
-21 (
n =4
, d= X
/2, 5= 0
)
h
asthe n
ull d
i
rect
ions
=a
rcco
s (± I ) (
4
-63
)
2
For K = 1, = 6
0° and ±120°
, a nd f
or K = 2, 00 = 0° a
nd 1
80°
.
Thes
ea rethe s
ix n
ul
l direc
tionsfor t
his a
rray
.
I
f 00 i
n(4
-60) i
sreplaced by i
t
sc omplementary a
ngle 70 (
s
ee F
ig
. 4
-18
),
t
hen (4
-62) b
ecomes
'
Y
o = a
rcs
in (± n
—
i
dC—X) (
4
-64
)
I
fthe a
r
ray i
slo
ng, s
otha
t n
X >
> KX
,
KX
± — (
4
-65
)
n
d
T
he f
i
rstn u
llsei
thers i
de o
fthe m
aximum o
ccu
rfo
rK = 1
. T
hese a
ngle
s
w
i
ll b
ed e
signated m. T
hus
,
7
0
1 =
' ±n
—
d (
4
-66
)
a
nd the t
o
tal b
eam width o
f t
he ma
in l
obe b
etween f
i
r
st n
ul
ls f
or al
o
ng
b
road
sidear
ray i
sthen
2X
2 7 01 (
4
-67
)
n k‘
F
o r t
he fi
eld patt
e rn i
nF ig. 4-21 th
is wid th i
sexac
tly 60°
, w h
ile as g
iven
b
y (4-67) itis 1rad, o
r 57
.3 °
. T h
i s pa
tt ern i
sfo
r an ar
ray 2w ave
lengths
l
ong. T he agreemen t would be betterw ith l
ongerarrays
.
Turning next to end
-fi
re arrays, the condit
ion fo
r a n ord
inary end-f
ire
a
rray isthat 5= —d i. T hus
, for th
is case (
4-60
) becomes
c
o
s 00 — 1 = 2
1C7 (
4
-67d1
n
d,
f
r
om w
hich w
e o
bta
in
2= a
r
csin ± 6r
r (
4
-67b
)
n
d,
8
6 ANTE N N AS Nu m
. 4
o
r
4
1
. = 2a
rcs
in ± J
2
nd
(
4
-67
c)
A
sanexample
, the f
i
e
ld p
atte
rn o
fFig
. 4
-22 (
n =4
, d= X
/2, ô= —7
)
h
as t
he n
ul
l d
i
rection
s
= 2a
rcs
in ± N I
I
T (
4
-67d
)
F
orK = 1 ,(
t
h
, = ±60°; f
o
rK = 2 ,d
h = ±90°
, et
c.
I
fthe a
rray i
slo
ng, s
o t
hat n
d >
> KX
, (
4
-67c
) become
s
(
4
-68
)
T
he f
i
rst nu
lls e
ithe
r si
de ofthe ma
in l
obe o
ccur f
o
r K = 1
. T
hese a
ngle
s
w
i
ll b
e de
signated Om . T
hus,
(
1
)
0
1 Jn
±4t —
d
(
4
-69
)
a
nd the t
o
tal beam w
idth of t
he ma
in l
obe b
etween f
i
rs
t n
ul
ls f
or al
o
ng
2
o
rd
inary e
nd-f
ir
e ar
ray i
sthen
,
(
4
-70
)
F
ort he fi
e
ld p att
e rn i
nFig. 4-22 t
his w
idth i
sexac
tly 1
20°, wh
ile a
sgiven
b
y (4
-70 ) itis 2rad, o
r 15 °
.
F
or e nd-f
ire arrays wi
th i nc
reased d
irec
tiv
ity as p
roposed by Hansen
a
nd Woodya rd, the cond
ition isthat 8= — (d, -I 7
/n)
. T hus
, f
or th
is
c
ase (4
-60) become s
d
,
(co
s 4
,
0 — 1
) — = ±2 Kr
— (
4
-71
)
f
r
om wh
ich
= a
rcs
in ±
.\1
271
1
, (
2K — 1
) (
4
-72
)
o
r
c
k
o = 2a
rcs
in ± N I L (
2K — 1
) (
4
-73
)
I
fthe a
rray i
slo
ng, s
o t
hat n
d >
> KX
, (
4
-73
) b
ecome
s
NIA
- (
2K — 1
) (
4
-74
)
T
he f
i
rst n
ul
ls e
i
the
r s
i
de o
fthe ma
in l
obe
,Om
, o
ccur f
o
rK = 1
. T
hus
,
4
)
0
1 ± j
d (
4
-75
)
S
Ec
. 4
-
6] ARRAYS OF POINT SO URCES 8
7
a
nd the t
ota
l b
eam wid
th oft he main l
obe b
etween f
i
rs
t n
ul
ls f
or al
o
ng
e
nd-f
ir
e a
rray w
i
th i
n
creased d
i
rect
ivi
ty ist
hen
2
00, 2\ 1
17 (
4
-76
)
nd
Th
is width i s1/ 0, o r 71 per cent, o
ft he width oft he ordinary e nd-f
ire
a
rray. A s a n examp le, t
he o rdinary e nd-f
ire array p at
tern o f Fig. 4-24b
h
as ab eam w idth b e
tween f i
rst n u
lls of 106°
. T he width o fthe p attern
i
n Fig. 4
- 24a f or the ar
ray w i
th i ncreased d i
rectivity is7 4°
, o r 7 0 per
c
ent as much .
Table 4-2 l i
s
t s the fo
rmu las f or null dire
c t
ion s and b eam w id ths for
t
he diferent a rrays cons
ide red a bove. T he n ul
l d i
rections in c o
lumn 2
a
pply to a rrays o f any length. T he f ormula s in the t h
ird a nd f ourth
c
olumn s are app rox
ima te and a pply on
ly t ol ong arrays.
TABLE 4
-2
NULL D
IRECTIONS AND BEA M WIDTHS BET WEEN FIRST NULL
S
FOR L
INEAR ARRAYS OF n I
SOTROP
IC POINT SOURCES
OF EQUAL AMPL
ITUDE AND SPACING
(
The a
ngle
s a
ree
xpr
essed i
nrad
ian
s. T
o c
onv
ert t
odeg
ree
s, mu
ltip
ly b
y 5
7
.3)
B
eam w idth
T
ype of Nul
l d
i
rec
tions Nul d
irect
ions b
etween f
i
rst
a
rray (
a
rray a
ny l
eng
th) (l
ong a
rray) n
ull
s
(
long a
rray)
G
enera
l 0= a
r
cco
s[(±2
nKr 6
)t
c
as
e •
KX 3
B
road
side yo= a
r
csin(± I
- -)
CX l
'
o='
"
-± —
n
d n
d 1 n
d
O
rd
ina
ry
0= 2 a
rcs
in ±
.\1 - d
k ±
.„ii
-
f
-Fx 2
4
.01^
-
s
22 -
.\r
n
2 -
d1X
e
ndf
i
re 2
nd nd
E
ndfire
w
ith in-
c
r
ea sed di
-
r
e
c t
ivity
(
t
o= 2 a
rcs
in ±
.Nlit -
(2K— 1
)
(
Han sen 4
nd n
d n
d
and Wood -
yard)
8
8 ANTE N N AS [
CHAP
. 4
The f
ormulas inT ab
le 4-2 h
ave been used t
o ca
lcula
te the curve
s pre-
s
ented i
n Fig. 4-26
. T he
se curves s
how t he b
eam w idth between fi
rst
n
ul
l s a
s afunction of nd),f
or t
hree type
s of a
rrays: b
roadside
, ordinary
2
00'
-
u
t nls
l
1
50*
_
rs
i
tween f
_
I
0
_
e
th b
inary e
r
d nd -
f
ire
_
-
id
nd -
E f
ire w
ith
eam w
5
0* i
n
creased d
irec
tiv
ity
'
- 1
3
roads
ide
B
c 1
0 2
0 5
0 I
C
nd
(
app
rox
. a
r
ray l
e
ngth
)
Fm.4-26. B eam w
idth b
etween f
i
rs
tn u
lls a
s afunc
tion o
fnt
h,forar
rayso
f nis
otrop
ic
p
oint s
ources o
fequa
l ampl
itude
. F or l
ong a
rrays
, ndx i
sapprox
imate
ly e
qua
l to t
he
a
rray l
ength
.
e
nd-f
ire, a nd e nd-fire w ith i ncreased d irec
tivity . The q uan tity n d),
(= nt
l/X) isa pprox
ima tely equa l tothe leng th oft he array i nw ave lengths
f
orl o
ng array s
. T he exa ct va
lue o fthe a rray l e
ng th is( n — 1 )c lk.
The beam w idth o f long broad side array s isi nve r
sely p ropor tional t o
t
he a rray leng th, w hereas t he beam
wid th o f long e nd -f
ire type s isi n
-
versely p ropo r
tiona l to t he s qua re
rooto fthe array l ength. H ence,t he
beam w id th i n the plane o f al o ng
li
nea r b road s
ide a r
ray i s much
s mallert han f o
re nd -f
ire type so ft he
same l e
ng th a s shown b y Fig . 4
- 26.
It s hould b e n oted , howeve r, tha t
the b road s
ide a rray h as a d isc-
shaped p attern w ith an arrow b eam
F
lo. 4
-27
. V olume array ofpoint s
ources wid th in ap lane t hrough t he array
w
ith e
qual s
pacing i
nt he t
hree c
oordinate axis b u
t ac i
rcula r patte rn ( 360 °
d
i
rec
tions
.
b
eam width
) inthe p
lane normal t
o
t
he a
rray ax
is. On t
he o
the
r h and
, t
he e
nd-f
ire a
rray h
as a c
iga
r-shaped
p
atte
rn wi
th the s
ame b
eam width i
nalplane
st hrough t
he a
rray ax
is.
S
ec
. 4
9
4-6
. c. S ome R emark s on Volum e A r
rays. Iti si nterest
ing t o digress at
t
his point to c onsider the possibi
lit
ies a nd limitation s of av o
lume d is-
t
r
ibu t
ion' o f e qually spaced p oint sources
. S uppo se w e h ave a s pa
ce
a
rray consisting ofl i
near a
rrays ofn ,, n,
, and n , sour ces inthe t hree co-
o
rdinate directions
. F o
r equal spacing int he three c oordinate direc t
ions
,
t
he case w here n, = 5 ,n , =3 ,a nd n, = 2i silu s
t rated inF ig. 4-27. I f
t
he fi
eld p at
te rns o f t
he arrays ine ach coordinate d irect
ion a re E. (0
, 0)
,
E
.(0, 0)
, a nd E .(0
, 0 ) t
hen b y the pr
inciple of p a
tte rn mu lt
iplication the
t
otal a
rray f ac
to r E. of avolume d is
tribution ofi sotropic points our ces i
s
E
.(e
,(I
) =E
.( 0,4E
r( 0,(
6
)E.
( 0,(
k
) (
4
-77
)
Suppose t
hat we wish t
o have maximum r adiation inthe +x direct
ion.
Then the a
rrays inthe y a
nd zd i
rections ar
e b roads
ide arrays whi
le the
a
rray inthe xdire
ction i
san end-f
ire ar
ray. T he pa
ttern i
nt he x
-y plane
E„ depends on
ly on the xand yarrays. T hus,
E
.. =E
,(0
,(b
)E,
(0,(
I
) (
4
-78
)
T
he p
attern i
nthe x
-
zpl
ane
, E„
, d
epend
son
ly o
nthe xa
nd za
r
ray
s, s
o
t
hat
E
s. =E
.( 0,(
k
)E.
( 0,e
l
) (
4
-79
)
I
fi n (4-78) E .
(0, 0) i s much s harpe r than E .(0, 0)
, t hen E ., isnearly
e
qual t o E.(0
, 0 ). T o h ave a n app rec
iab le efect on E„ , E,(0, 0
) mu st
b
e a pproxima te
ly a s sharp a s E .(0
, 0 )
. T hat isto s ay
, as harp pattern
must b e mu l
tiplied by ap attern n ear
ly a s sharp i n orde r to be made
a
ppreciably s harper. T herefore, ift he y a r
ray i s much s harper than the
xarray, one m igh t a
s w e
ll u se o n
ly t he y a r
ray. O n the other hand i f
t
he xa rray is much s harpe r
, t hen o ne migh t as wel
l u se only the xarray.
Fo
r b o
th t o cont r
ibute e qually i tisr equired that b oth be e qual
ly sharp,
o
rt hat
E
1( 0,(4
) = E(8 ,4 (
4-80)
S
imilar r
emarks may b
e made conce
rning t
he pat
tern i
n t
he z
-z p
lane
a
s re
lated t
o the x a
nd zarrays
. I t f
olows t
hat
, for e
qua
l pa
ttern
s in
t
he x
-ya nd x
-z p
lanes
, we mus
t make
n
, =n
,
i
fthe s
pacing b
etween s
ource
s i sthe same i
nboth ar
rays. Ifthe yand z
a
rray
s are, f
or e
xample, 10 wavelengths l
ong [
(n
, — 1 )d = 10 X]
, then
t
he x a
rray must b
e near
ly 100 w ave
lengths l
o
ng to have much e
f
fect on
t
he beam width o
fthe main lobe
. Howeve r
, as ma
ll xarray may b
e de-
'G
. C
. Southworth
, C e
rta
in Facto
rs Af
ect
ing t
he Ga
in o
f D
ire
ctive A
ntenna
s,
P
roc
. I
.R
.E.
, 18, 1
502-1536
, S
eptember
, 1
930
9
0 ANTE N N AS [
CHAp
. 4
s
irable i n order to o btain a u n
idi
rec t
iona l p attern in t he x d i
re ction.
Assum ing n ow that t he x array isunidire ct
iona l
, then any g reate r le ngth
would n ot produce much e fect on the ma in-lobe b eam w idth u nless i ti
s
o
f the o rder of 100 w avelengths
. A n xa rray l e
ss than 1 00 wave leng ths
l
ong w ould
, n everthele ss
, have some e fect o n the direc
tivity b ecau se of
t
he c hange i tproduce s int he minor-
lobe p attern. F rom t hese c onside ra-
t
ions itisa pparentt ha tb roadside
-area a rraysa reg enera
lly tob ep refe rred
o
ve rs i
ngle li
neare nd-fire typesf o
rp encilb eam s, si
nce they require s ma l
ler
maximum d imen sions. Howeve r, f
or ar rays of mode rate direct
iv ity w ith
d
imen s
ion s of afew w avelengths or le
ss t hese rema rks do n o
t n eces sa r
ily
a
pply.
4
-6. d. D irec
tions of Max ima for A rray s of nI so
tropi c Point S ou rce
s o f
E
qua l Amp li
tud e and S pacing. L et us n ow pro ceed to ad iscuss
ion o ft he
methods for locating t he p os
itions o f the p attern max ima. T he ma jor-
l
obe maximum u sual
ly o ccu r
sw hen 0 = 0 . T h
i s i
sthe case fort he b road-
s
ide or ordinary e nd-f
ire a rray. T he ma in lo bes o
f the b roadside a rray
a
ret hen at 0= 9 0°a nd 270 °
, w hi
le fort he ordina ry end fi
ret he ma in lobe
i
sa t0° or 180° or both. F o
r the end -f
ire a r
ray w ith increased di rectivity
t
he ma in-
lobe max imum o ccurs at av a
lue o f 0 = ±r/n w i
th t he ma in
l
obe at0° o r 180°
. R eferr
ing t oF ig. 4-24a , t
he ma in-lobe max imum ( f
ir
st
maximum ) for th
is case occu rs at the fi
rst max imum o f t
he n ume rator of
(
4-51).
T
he max ima o f the m ino r lobes a re s i
tua ted betwe en t he f i
rs t
- a nd
h
ighe r
-order n ul
ls. I t has b een p ointed o ut b y S
che lkunof t ha t these
maxima o ccu r a pproxima tely w heneve r t he n umerator o f (4-5 1) i s a
maximum , t hat is
,w hen
.n
O ,
s
m — =.
1
. (
4
-81
)
2
Refer
ring t
o Fig
. 4-
28, w e no
te t ha
t the numera
tor o
f (4-5
1) v a
ries a
s a
f
unction of 0 more rap
idly t han the denominato
r sin (0/2)
. T his is
e
special
ly tr
ue when n islarge. T hus, al
though t
he nul
ls occur exac
tly
where sin (4/2) = 0 , the max ima o ccu
r approx
ima te
ly w he
re s i
n
(
n0/2 ) = 1. Thiscondi
tion requires t
hat
n# 7
(
4
-82
)
w
here K = 1
,2, 3...
S
ubst
itu
ting t
he v
a f4
lue o ,f
r
om (
4
-82
) i
n
to (
4
-46a
) g
ive
s
±
(2K -
I
- 1
)
r
d
,co
s (
k
„
, + S— (
4
-83
)
n
T
here
fore
S
ec
. 4
-
1
{
[±(2Kn + 1
)
7
a
rcco
s (
4
-84
)
w
here (
1
)
,
. =d i
rect
ion oft
he m
inor
-lobe max
ima
F
or abr
oads
idearray
, 6= 0so t
hat (
4-84
) b
ecome
s
a
r
cco
s ±
(2K + 1
)
X
(
4
-85
)
2
nd
A
s an e
xamp
le, the f
ie
ld pa
ttern o
f F
ig
. 4
-21 (
n = 4
, d= X
/2, 5= 0
)
h
as t
he m
ino
r-lobe maxima a
t
±
(2K + 1
)
4
4, a
rcco
s (
4
-86
)
4
F
or K = 1,0
„, = +41
.4° and +138.6
°. T hese a
re t
he approx
ima
te
d
i
rec
tion
sfo
rthe max
ima o
fthe f
our m
inor l
obe
s ofth
is p
atte
rn.
+
1
+
i
S
in!
'
"
1
.
W
= 8
0°
Fm. 4-28. Graphs o

f the n
ume ra
tor (s
in m
G/2) a
nd denomina
to r (
s
in 0/2
) o
f t
he
a
rray f
a c
tor a
s f
unct
ions o
f0,show ing t
he v
alue
s o
f 4
,corre
sponding t
o max
ima a
nd
n
ulls o
f afi
e
ld pat
tern f
o
r the c
ase n = 8
.
F
ora
n o
rd
inary e
nd-f
ir
e a
r
ray 6= —d
,so t
hat (
4-8
4) b
ecome
s
[±
(2K -
I
- 1
)
X
4
)
„
, a
rcco
s -
I
- 1 (
4
-87
)
2
nd
9
2 ANTENNAS [
C
ilAp
. 4
wh
ile
, f
ora
n e
nd-f
ir
ear
ray w
ith i
ncr
eas
ed d
ir
ect
ivi
ty, 6= — (
d
, r
It
t) a
nd
r
=
e
.ar
cco
s
X
[
1
±(
2
K+1
)
]+ 1
} (
4
-88
)
The a
bove formu
las f
or the a
pprox
imate l
o
cat
ion o
f t
he m
ino
r l
obe
maxima a
re l
i
sted i
nTable 4
-3.
TABLE 4
-
3
D
IRECTIONS OF MINOR
-LOBE MAX I MA F
OR LINEAR ARRAYS OF n
I
SOTROPIC P
OINT SOURCES OF EQUAL AMPL
ITUDE AND S PACING
T
ypeo
far
ray D
ire
ction
sofm
ino
r-lobe m
axima
4
)
•- arccos{[ ±(2K+1)
ir ]1 }
G
ene
ral 3lc
:
n
±(
2K + 1
)
X
B
road
side (
/
)
,
„,..
2
-
arcco
s
2
nd
O
rdinary e
ndf
ir
e 4
;
6„
,
••
•areco 2 K+ 1
s[ ± ( )
X +11
2
nd
E
ndf
ire wi
th i
nc
reased d
ir
ect
ivi
ty
(
1
)
.^-
,arcco
s{ x— [
1± (
2K+ 1
)
1+ 1
}
(
Hans
en and Woodyard
) 2
nd
The amplitudesofthe f
ie
ld atthe m
inor-lobe maxima are a
lso o
fin
teres
t.
I
t has been shown by Sche lkunof t
hat since the numerator o
f (4
-52) is
a
pproxima tely un
ity a
t the maximum of am inor l
obe
, the re
lat
ive ampl
i-
t
ude of am inor-
lobe max
imum E mL i sgiven b y
1
(
4
-89
)
E ML ns
in (
0/2
)
I
ntroduc
ing t
he v
alue o
f f
rom (
4
-82
) i
n
to (
4
-89
) y
ie
lds
1
Em
z. f
=
"-' • (
4
-90
)
nsm [
(
2K 1
)7/2n
]
When n >
>K , tha
t i
s
, f
or t
he fi
rst f
ew minor l
obe
s of a
n a
rray o
f al
a
rge
n
umber o
fs ources
, w
e h
ave the f
urther a
pprox
ima t
ion
2
EU
L (
2K 1
)7 (
4
-91
)
S
e
c. 4
OURCES 9
3
Thu s, f
or arrays o f al a
rge n umb er o f sources t he re
lative amp li
tude
o
ft he fi
rst f
ew m ino rl obes isg i
ven b y ( 4
-91) f or K = 1 ,2,3 ,etc. I n a
b
roads ide or ordina ry e nd-f
ire array, t he ma jor-lobe max imum i sunity
s
o that the re
la t
ive amp litudes oft he max imum a nd fi
rst f
ive mino rlobes
f
or arrays of these t ypes a nd many s ou r
ces a re 1 ,0.21
, 0.13, 0.09, 0.
07,
a
nd 0 .06. F rom t he c urve f or n= 2 0 i n Fig. 4-20 w e have the c or
re-
s
pond ing re
lative a mpl
itude s given b y 1 ,0.22, 0.13, 0.09
, 0 .
07, a nd 0.
06.
Fo
r a n end-f
ire a r
ray w ith increased directivity t he maximum f or 4,= 0
a
nd n = 2 0 occursa ti ,= 7 /20 = 9 °
. A tt his value o f1,the a
rray factor
i
s0 .63. P utting t he max imum e qual t o un i
ty t hen make s t
he r e
lative
amplitudes 1,0 .35, 0 .
21, 0 .
14, 0 .
11, a nd 0 .09. I t isi n
terest
ing t o note
i
n (4-90) that the max imum a mpl
itude o fthe s ma l
lest minor lobe occurs
f
or 2 K + 1= n . T hen
s
i
n [
(2K + 1
)1 _ 1
2n (
4
-92
)
a
nd
1
EuL '
-
'— (
4
-93
)
n
The c ond i tion 2K + 1= ni se xactly f u

lfi
lled w hen n i so dd f ort he m inor-
l
obe max imum a t 0= 1 80 ° (
see F ig. 4 -20 ). When ni se ven , the cond ition
i
sa pp roxima tely f ulfi
lled b y t he m ino r l obe s n ea rest 1 /= 1 80 °
. T hu s
,
t
he max imum amp l
itude o ft he s malle st m ino rl obe o ft he f i
eld p attern of
a
ny a rray o f ni sotrop ic points ou rces o fe qua l amp litude a nd spa cing w i
ll
n
eve r b e l e
ss t han 1 /n o fthe ma jo r-
lobe max imum . A n e xcep t
ion t o th
is
i
sw here t he r ange o f 0e nd sa fte r an ulli nt he a rray f acto rh asb een p assed
b
u tb efo re t he n ex t max imum h a sb een r eached . I nt his c ase the max imum
o
ft he s ma lles t m ino r lobe may b ea rb itra r
ily s mall
.
4
-7. L inea r B roads ide A rrays w ith N onun iform Amp litude D istribu-
t
i
on s. G ene ra l C ons idera t
ions . I n t he p re ced ing s e
ction , our d i
scu ssion
was l im ited t o l i
nea r array s o f ni so tropic s our ces o f e qual amp litude.
This d iscu ss
ion w ill n ow b e e xtended t o the mo re g ene ra l case w he re the
ampl i
tude d i
s tr
ibu t
ion may b e n onun ifo rm . I n in troduc ing t h
i s subje ct
,
i
ti si n s
truc tive t o compa re f i
eld p a
t te rns o ff our t ype s o f ampl i
tude d is
-
t
r
ibu t
ion s,n ame ly,u niform, b inom ial,e dge,a nd o ptimum . T ob es pecific
,
l
et u s c on side r al i
nea r array o ff ive i sotrop ic p oin t sour ce s with 4w ave-
l
eng th s pa cing . I ft he s ource s a re i n p ha se a nd a ll e qua l i n a mplitude,
we may c alcula te t he p attern a s discu ssed i nS ec. 4-6, t he r e
sult b eing as
s
hown i n F ig.4 -29 b y t he p at tern d esigna ted u n
if orm. A u niform d is
-
t
r
ibu tion y i
eld s t he max imum d irectiv ity. T he p a ttern h a s ah alf-powe r
b
eam w id th o f2 3°, b ut the m ino r lo be s are r elative ly l arge. T he a mpli
-
t
ude o ft he f i
rstm ino rl obe is2 4 p erc en to ft he ma jo r-
lobe max imum ( s
ee
9
4 A N T E N N AS [CHAP
. 4
F
ig
. 4-20
, n= 5). In s
ome a
ppl
ica
tion
s t
h
is m
ino
r-lobe amp
litude may
b
eu ndes
irab
ly l
a
rge
U
n
ifo
rm B
inom
ial O
p
tim
um
1
111
1
1 1 1 I 1
• 1 1 1 •
1 4 6 4 1
1 1 I 1 1
I1.
6 1
.
916 1
Ed
ge
I • • • 1
1 0 0 0 1
F
ra. 4-29. Norma l
ized f i
e
ld patterns ofbroads
ide arrays off i
ve iso
tropic p o
in t s
ources
s
paced w
avelength a part. All sources a
re i
n the same p hase, but the re
lative amp l
i-
t
udes h ave four diferent distr
ibutions: uni
form, binom ial
, o pt
imum , and e dge
. O nly
t
he u pper h a
lf of the p a
ttern iss hown. The r elat
ive amp l
itudes of the f i
ve sources
a
re indicated ineach c ase by t
he array be
low the pattern, the he
ight o fthe line a
te ach
s
ource b e
ing p ropor t
ional to its amp l
itude. A l
l p atterns are adjusted t o the same
max
imum ampl itude.
To reduce the si
de-lobe level o
f li
near i
n-pha
se broad
side a
rrays, J
ohn
S
tone S tone' propo
sed t hat the sour
ces have amp
litudes p
roport
ional t
o
t
he coe
f f
icient
s of abinom ia
l serie
s ofthe f
orm
(
a-I
- = (
n — 1
)
a-2b (
n — 1
)
(n — 2
) à " )b2 + •••(
4
-94
)
2
!
IJ
ohn S
tone S
tone
, U
.S. P
aten
ts 1
,
643
,323 a
nd 1
,715
,433
.
S
ec
. 4
-
5
whe
re nisthe n
umbe rofs
our
ce s
.* Thu
s, f
o
rar
ray
s o
fth
ree t
osi
xsour
ces
t
he re
lat
ive amp
litude
s a
regiven b
y
n R
ela
tiv
eamp
litud
es
3 1
,2,1
4 1
,3,3
,1
5 1
,4,6
,4,1
6 1
,5,1
0
, 10 ,1
, 5
Applying t he b inom ial dis tribu tion t o the a rray o f five s ources spaced
iwaveleng th a pa r
t, t he sour ce s h ave t he relative a mp l
itude s 1 ,4,6 ,4 ,1 .
The re
sulting p attern,d es
igna ted b i nom ial
,i ss hown i nF ig.4 -29. Me thod s
o
fcalculating s uch p atterns a r ed iscu ssed i nt he n exts ection. T he pattern
h
as n o mino r lobe s
, b ut th
i s h as b een a chieved a t the expens e of an i n-
c
reased beam w id th ( 31°)
. F or s pa cing s of iw aveleng th o r l e
ss between
e
lemen ts
, the m ino r lo bes are e l
imina ted b y S tone 's binom ial d i
str
ibu tion .
Howeve r
, the i ncrea sed b eam w id th a nd t he l a
rge r atio o fc urrent amp li-
t
udes required i nl arge array s a red isadvan tage s
.
A
t t he other e xtreme f rom t he b inom ial d istribu t
ion , w e m ight t r
y a n
e
dge distr
ibu tion i nw h
ich o nly t he e nd s our ces o ft he a r
ray a re supplied
w
ith p owe r
, t he t hree c ent ral s our ce s b e
ing e ither o mitted o r i na
ctive .
The re
la t
ive amp l
itude s of t he f ive- sour ce a rray a re, a cco rdingly, 1 ,0 ,
0
, 0, 1. T he a rray h as
, t he refore , d egene rated t o t wo s ource s 2w ave -
l
engths apa rt a nd h as t he f i
eld p attern d esigna ted a s edge i n Fig. 4 -29.
The beam w idth b etween h alf -powe r p oints o f t he "ma in" l obe (norma l
t
o the array ) i s1 5°, b ut "m ino r" l obes a re t he s ame a mplitude a s t he
"main" lobe.
Compa ring t he bi nom ial a nd e dge d i
s t
ribu tions f ort he f i
ve-sour ce array
w
ith i-wave leng th s pacing, w eh ave
4-
power M
inor
-lobe amp
litude
Type o
fdi
str
ibut
ion
b
eamwidth (% o
f majorlobe
)
B
inom ia
l 3
1° o
Edge 1
5° 1
00
A
l though f or mo s
t a ppl
ications i tw ou
ld b e des
irable to combine the
1
5° b eam w idth o f the edge distribut
ion w i
th t he z
ero m inor-
lobe l
evel
o
ft he binom ial di
stribution
, t h
is c ombinat
ion i snot possible
. Howeve r,
i
fthe dis
tribu t
ion isb etween the binomiala nd the e
dge type, acompromise
b
etween t he b eam w idth a nd the side
-lobe level c
an b e made. T hat is
,
t
he s i
de-
lobe l eve
l will not be zero, bu
t the beam w idth w i
ll be l
e
ss t
han
'The c
oef
f
ic
ient
s of the b
inom
ial s
e
rie
s a
re v
ery s
imp
ly o
bta
ined f
r
om P
asca
l's
t
r
iangle (
s
ee A
ppendix
).
9
6 ANTE N N AS [
CHAP
. 4
f
or t he b inom ial d istribu tion . A n amp litude d istribu tion o f t his n atu re
f
or l inea r in-pha se b road side a rray s h a s been p ropo sed b y Do lph ' w hich
h
a s t he f urthe r p rope rty o f o p t
im iz ing t he r e
lation b etween b eam w idth
a
nd s ide -lobe l evel. T ha t i s
, i ft he s ide-
lobe l eve l iss pe cified, t he b eam
w
id th b etween f i
rst n ulls i sm in im ized ; o r
, c onve rsely, i ft he b eam w id th
b
etween f i
rst n u
l ls i ss pe cified , t he s ide -
lobe l e
ve l i sm in im ized . Do lph 's
d
istribu tion i sb ased o n t he p roper tie s o f t he T cheby schef p o
lynom ials
a
nd a cco rding ly w i
ll b er e
fe rred t oa st he Do lph -Tcheby schef o ro ptimum
d
istribu tion .
App ly ing t he Do lph -Tcheby s che f
f d istribu t
ion t o o ur a rray o f f ive
s
our ce s w ith 4 -wave leng th s pa cing , l et us s pecify a s ide -
lobe l eve l 2 0 d b
b
elow t he ma in l obe, t ha t i s
, am ino r-lobe amp litude 1 0 p er c en t o f the
main l o be. T he r ela t
ive amp li tude d is tr
ibu tion f or this s ide -
lobe l evel is
1
,1 .6
, 1 .9, 1 .6
, 1a nd y i e
ld s t he p at te rn d esigna ted o ptimum i nF ig. 4 -29.
Me thod s o f calcu lating t he d ist r
ibu tion a nd p at tern a re d iscu ssed i n the
n
ex t s e ction. T he b eam w idth b etween h al f-powe r p o
in ts i s2 7 °, w h
ich
i
sl ess t han f o r t he b inom ia l d ist ribu tion. Sma ller b eam w id th s c an b e
o
b tained o n
ly b yr a
ising t he s ide-lobe l e
vel. T he Do lph -T cheby schef d is-
t
r
ibu tion i nclude s a l
l d ist ribu tion s b e tween t he b inom ia l a nd t he e dge.
I
nf act, t he binom ia la nd e dge d is tribu tions a re s pecialc ase so ft he Do lph -
Tcheby schef d i
s tribu tion , t he b inom ial d i
s tribu t
ion c or respond ing t o a n
i
nf
in ite r atio b e tween ma in - a nd s ide -lobe l evels a nd t he e dge d i
s tribu tion
t
o ar atio o f u n
i ty. T he u n
ifo rm d istribu t
ion i s
, h oweve r, n ot as pecial
c
ase o ft he Do lph -Tcheby sche ffd is tribu t
ion .
Refe rring t o F ig. 4 -29 , w e may d raw a n umbe r of g ene ral c onc lusion s
r
ega rd ing t he r e
la tion b etween p atte rn s and amp litude d istribut ion s. We
n
ote t ha t i fthe amp litude t ap ers t o as mallv a
lue a t the e dge o ft he a rray
(
binom ial d i
s tribut ion ), m inor l obe s c an b e e l
im ina ted . O n t he o the r
h
and , i ft he d ist ribu tion h as a n i nve rs e tap e r w ith max imum a mp l
itude
a
t t he e dge s a nd n one a t t he c en te r o ft he a rray ( edge d ist r
ibu t ion ), t he
m
ino r l ob es a r e a ccen tua ted b eing , i n f a
ct, e qua l to t he "ma in" l obe.
F
rom t hi s w e may q uit e p rope r
ly c onc lude t ha t t he m ino r-lobe l evel is
c
losely r elated t o t he a brup tne s s w ith w h
ich t he amp l
i tude d is tribu tion
e
nds a tt he e dge o ft he a rray . A n a brup td iscon tinu ity i nt he dis tribu tion
r
esul ts i n large m ino r l ob e s, w hile a g radua lly t ape red d istribu tion a p-
p
roa ch ing z ero a t t he e dge m in im ize s t he d iscon t
inu ity a nd t he m ino r
l
obe s
. I n the n ex ts ection , w es hall s eet ha tt he a brup td is con tinu i ty p ro-
d
uce s l arge h i ghe r " ha rmon ic" t erm s i n t he F ou r
ie r se r
ie s r ep re senting
1C. L. Dolph, AC ur
rent D
istribution f
or Broads
ide Arrays Which Optimize
s the
R
elat
ionship between Beam Width a nd S
ide-
lobe Level
, Proc
. I.R
.E., 3
4
, N o. 6,335-
3
48, June
, 1946.
H. J.Riblet
, di
scus
sion on Dolph's Paper
, Proc
. I.R.E
., 35
, No, 5,489-492, May,
1
947
.
SE
C
. 4
-
7
t
he p atte rn. O n t he o the r hand , t hese h ighe r h armon ic t erm s a re s mall
when t he d istribu tion t ape rs g radua lly t o as mall v alue a t t he e dge .
The re i sa n a na logy b etween t his s i
tua tion a nd t he F ourie r a naly s
is o f
wave s hape s. T hu s, as qua re w ave h as r e
lative ly l arge h ighe r h armon ics,
whe rea s ap ure s i
ne w ave h as n one, t he s qua re w ave b e
ing a nalogou s t o
t
he u nifo rm a rray d i
s tribu t
ion w hile t he p ure s ine w ave i sa nalogous t o
t
he b i nom ial d ist ribu tion .
The p re ced ing d iscu ssion h as b e en c once rned w ith a r
ray s of d iscre te
s
ou rce s s epa ra ted b y f inite d istance s. Howeve r, the g ene ral c onc lusion s
c
once rning amp li tude d is tribu t
ion sw h
ich w e h ave d rawn c an b ee xtended
t
o l arge a rray s o fc ontinuou s distribu tion s ofa n inf
in ite n umbe r o f poin t
s
ou rce s
, s uch a s m igh t e xist int he c ase of ac on t
inuou s cur ren t d istribu -
t
ion o n am etals hee to ri nt he c ase of ac on tinuou sf i
eld d istribu tion a cro ss
t
he mou th o f a n e lec tromagne tic h o
rn . I f t he amp litude d i
st ribu tion
f
o
llow s aG au ss e rror c urve , w hich i ss im i
la r t o ab i nom ia l d i
s tribu tion
f
or d iscre t e s ou rce s, t hen m inor l obe s are a b sen t b ut t he b eam w idth i s
r
e
la tive ly l arge. A n i ncrea se o f amp litude a t t he e dge r educe s t he b eam
w
id th b u t r esult s i nm ino r lobes, as w e h ave s een . T hu s
, i nt he c ase o fa
h
igh -ga in p arabo lic r ef
lec tor t ype o f a ntenna , t he i lum ina tion o f t he
r
eflecto r b y t he p rima ry a ntenna i su sually a rranged t o t ape r towa rd t he
e
dge o ft he p arabo la. Howeve r, ac omp rom ise i sg ene ra l
ly made b etween
b
eam w id th a nd s ide-lobe l evel s o that t he i lum ination i sn ot ze ro a t t he
e
dge b uth a sa na pp reciab le value a si n aD olph -T cheby sche ffd is
t ribu tion .
4
-8 . L inea r A rrays w ith N onun iform Amp litude D istribu t
ions . T he
Dolph -Tchebyschef O ptimum D is tr
ibu tion. I n t his s ection l inea r i n
-
p
ha se a rray s w ith n onun iform amp litude d ist r
ibu t
ions a re a nalyzed , a nd
t
he d eve lopmen t a nd a pp lication o f the Do lph -Tcheby sche ff d i
s tribu tion
a
red iscu s sed.
Let u s c ons ide r al i
nea ra rray o f a n e ven n umbe r n . of i sotrop ic p oint
s
ou rce s o f u nifo rm s pa cing d a r
ranged a s i n F ig. 4 -30a . A l
l s our ces a re
i
n t he s ame p ha se. T he d irection 0 = 0 i st aken n orma l to t he a rray
w
i th t he o rigin a tt he c en te roft he a rray a ss hown . T he i ndiv idua ls our ces
h
ave t he amp li tude s Ao A1,A2,e tc., as i ndica ted , t he amp li
tude d is tr
i-
bution b eing s ymme trica l a bout t he c ente r o f t he ar ray . T he t o tal f i
eld
E.
. f rom t he e ven n umbe r ofs ou r
ce s a t al arge d istance i n ad ire ction 0
i
st hen t he s um o ft he f i
eld s oft he s ymme trica l p airs o fs ou rces, o r
3
4
. n. — 1
E
.. = 2
A, c
o
sLk -
I 2
A, c
o
s -
-+ •••-
I
-2Ak c
o
s( 2 0) (
4
-95
)
2
w
her
e
P
e
rd
= —x s
i
n 0= d
,si
n 0 (
4
-96
)
9
8 AN TE N N AS [
CHAP
. 4
E
ach t
e
rm i
n (
4
-95
) r
epr
esen
ts t
he f
i
e
ld d
ue t
o as
ymme
trica
lly d
i
spo
sed
p
a
ir of t
he s
our
ces
.
Now l
et
2
(k + 1
) =e
l
.
w
here k = 0
, 1 , 3 ...s
, 2 o t
hat
n
. — 1 2
k + 1
2 — 2
T
hen (
4
-95
) b
ecome
s
k
•• N-I
E
„. = 2 E i
lk c
os (2
k + 1 I
,) (
4
-97
)
k-0 2
w
here N = n1/
2
N
ext l
e
t u
s cons
ide
r t
he c
ase o near a
f al
i rray o
fan o
dd n
umbe
r no o
f
0
=0
E
ven
(
a)
-
40 S.
AK AK
0
=0
O
dd
Fm. 4
-30
. L inear b
road
side a
rrays o
f ni
s
otrop
ic s
ources w
ith u
nifo
rm s
pac
ing f
o
r a
e
ven and a o
dd.
i
sotropic po
int sources of uni
form s pac
ing arranged as in Fig
. 4-30b.
The amp l
itude d
istr
ibution issymme t
rical a
bout the c
ente
r source
. T he
amplitude o
fthe cente
rs ource i
staken as 2
,
4 0,t
he nex
t as A,
, the n
ext as
A2,e tc
. T he to
tal fi
e
ld E „
. from the odd numbe r o
f s
ources at alarge
d
istance in ad
irect
ion 0i sthen
En.= 2
A0-
I
-2A
, c
os 0+ 2
.
A 2c
o
s20 + •••+ 2
Ak c
os(
n° —
2 1 1
,
) (
4
-98
)
SE
C
. 4
-
9
N
ow f
o
rth
is c
ase l
e
t
2
k + 1 = n0
w
here k = 0
,1,2
, 3 .... T
hen (
4
-98
) b
ecome
s
.0
1
E, = 2 kE A, c
os (
2k I
P-
) (
4
-99
)
k(
) 2
where N = ( no — 1 )/2
T he s e
rie s exp ressed b y ( 4-98 ) o r b y ( 4
-99 ) may b e r ecogn ized a s a
f
i
nite F ourie r ser
ie s o f N t erm s
.' F or k = 0w e h ave a c ons tan t t erm
2A0 r ep resen t
ing t he c ont r
ibut ion o f t
he c ente r sour ce. F or k = 1w e
h
ave t he t erm 2 A 1c os i ,r epr esen ting t he con tr
ibu tion o ft he first p air of
s
our ces o n e i
the r s i
de o f the c en ter sour ce
. F or e ach h ighe r v alue o f k
we h ave a h igher h armon ic t erm w hich i n each c ase r epre sents t he c on-
t
r
ibu t
ion o f ap air o f s ymme trica l
ly d isposed s our ces. T hus, t he t otal
f
i
eld p attern i ssimp ly t he s um o f as er
ie s oft erm s o fi n
cr easing o rde r in
t
he s ame w ay t ha t the w ave f orm o fa n a l
terna t
ing c urrent c an b e r epre-
s
ented a s aF ourier s er
ie s i nvolv ing , ing eneral, ac ons tan t t erm, af unda -
menta l t erm , a nd h ighe r h armon ic t erm s. T he f i
eld p attern o f a n even
n
umbe r o f s ource s a s g iven b y ( 4
-95) o r (4-97) i sa lso a f i
nite F our ier
s
er
ie s b u t o ne w hich h as n o c ons tan t term a nd o nly o dd h a rmon ics. T he
c
oef f
ic
ient s A 0,A I,...i nb oth s eries are arbitrary a nd e xp ress t he amp li-
t
ude d is tr
ibu tion.
T o i lust rate t he F ourie r n ature o f the f i
e
ld -pa t
te rn e xp ression , l et us
c
ons ide r t he s imp le e xamp le o f a n a r
ray o f n ine i s
o tropic p oin t s our ces
s
paced iw ave leng th a par t, h aving t he same amp li
tude a nd p hase. H ence ,
t
he c oef fi
cient s a re related a s f o
llow s: 2A 0 = A1 = A 2 = A 3 = A , = I .
The n umbe r ofs our ces i so dd; h ence t he exp ress
ion f or the f i
eld p at tern
i
st hen g iven b y (4-99 ) as
E
, = f± c
os 0+ c
o
s 2
1
,
1
, + c
os3
0 + c
os4
1
/, (
4
-100
)
The fi
rst te
rm ( k =0 ) is aconstant s
ot hat the fi
eld pattern is ac i
rcle of
ampli
tude ia s shown i n Fig. 4-31a
. T he second t e
rm ( k = 1 ) may b e
r
egarded a s the f undamenta l term of the F ourier ser
ie s and g i
ves t he
p
attern oft he two sour
ce s (A, inFig 4
-30b) ei
the rside ofthe cente r
. T his
p
attern h as 4l obes of max imum amp litude o f unity as i lustrated i n
F
ig. 4-31b. T he next t
e rm (k = 2 ) may b e regarded as t he se
cond h ar-
monic term a nd gives the pattern ofthe next p a
ir ofs ources (A , in Fig.
4
-30b). T h
is p a
tte rn h
a s 8l obes a
s s
hown b y Fig. 4-31c. T he l a
st t wo
t
erm s represent the th
ird a nd f our
th ha rmonics, and t he patte rns have
1I
rving Wolf
, De
term inat
ion o
ft he Rad
iat
ing S
ystem Which W
ill P
roduce aS
pec
i-
f
i
ed Direc
tiona
l Character
ist
ic, P
roc
. I.R.E
., 25
, 6
30-643
, May, 1
937.
1
00 ANTEN N AS [CH
AP. 4
1
2 and 1
6 lo
bes
, re
spec
tive
ly, a
s i
nd
icated b
y F
igs. 4
-31d a
nd (
e
). T
he
a
bove r
e
lat
ions may b
es ummar
ized a
sinT ab
le 4
-4
.
T
ABLE 4
-
4
k S
ource
s S
pac
ing F
our
iert
erm P
atte
rn
0 1 0 Cons
tant Circ
le
1 2 1X Fundamental 4l
obes
2 2 2X 2
dh armonic 8l
obes
3 2 3X 3
dh armonic 1
2lobes
4 2 4X 4
th harmonic 1
6lobes
T
he algebraic sum ofthe patt
ern s g
iven by the five te
rm s isthe t
otal
f
a
r-f
ield pattern of the a
rray w hich i
sp resented in Fig. 4-31f
. I f the
m
iddle source of the a
rray has z e
ro a mp
litude or i s om
itted, the t
otal
p
att
ern ist hen the s
um o f t
he four t
erm s fo
r w h
ich k = 1 ,2,3 ,and 4.
I
fin addit
ion t he pa
ir of s
our
ces A , i
so m
itted, the to
tal p a
ttern i
st he
s
um o f t
hree terms for wh
ich k = 2 ,3 ,a nd 4. S ince these a
r e h
igher
(f
)
To
ta
l
p
a
tt
ern
0
(
a)
F
ig. 4-31
. R e
solution of total p
attern o
f a
rray o
f nine is
otropic sources i
nto Fourier
c
omponen ts due to center source and pa
irs o
f sy mmetr
ical
ly d i
spo sed sou
r c
es. T he
r
e
lative fi
eld p
atte
rn o ft he ent
ire a
rray i
sshown by (f
). T he lower h a
lves ofpatte
rn s
a
re not s
hown. ( No te that the e
nd-fi
re l
obes a
re w
ider than the broadside l
obes
.)
h
armon ic t
erms
, w e may properly expec t t
hat inthis c
ase the m inorlobes
o
f the t o
tal p
attern wi
ll be accentua ted. I ti sapparent f
r om t he above
d
i
s cussion that the fi
e
ld p attern o f a ny symme tr
ical amp litude d i
str
i-
b
u t
ion c an beexpres
sed a s ase
rie
s o ft he fo
rm o f(4
-97) or (4-99).
Proceeding now to t he Dolph-Tcheby schef a mpl
itude d i
s t
ribution, i
t
w
i
ll b e shown that the coef
fi
cients oft he p a
ttern se
ries
' can b e u n
iquely
d
eterm ined so as to produce a p a
t tern o f min
imum b eam w idth for a
lEqua
tions (
4
-95
), (
4
-97
), (
4
-98
), a
nd (
4
-99
).
SE
C
. 4
-
01
s
pec
ified si
de-lobe l
e ve
l. T he f
ir
st s t
ep inthe deve
lopmen t o
fthe Dolph-
T
cheby schef d i
str
ibu t
ion i sto show t hat (
4-97) and (4
-99) c
an b e re-
g
arded a s po
lynomia ls o
fd eg
ree n. — 1a nd no — 1,tha
t is
, po
lynom ial
s
o
fd egree equal t
o the number ofs ources l
e
ss 1. In t
he p
resentdiscuss
ion
we shal
l consider only the c
ase of t he b
roadside t
ype of a
rray
, t ha
t is
,
where ö= 0 . T hus,
= d
,si
n 0 (
4
-101
)
Now b
yde Mo
ivre
's t
heo
rem
,
ei"" = c
os m + js
i
n m = (
cos'2
1 + js
i
n -
t
2Y" (
4
-102
)
O
n t
ak
ing r
ea
l p
art
s o
f (
4
-102
) w
e h
ave
c
os m _
—Re c
os 2
+ •• i
sm y
2
(
4
-103
)
E
xpand
ing (
4
-103
) a
s ab
inom
ial s
e
rie
s g
ive
s
m
(m -1
) -2 /
f
l
' • 2
c os in = c os" 2
! C O8
2 2 2 2
—
I
k
m
(m — 1)
(m — 2)
(m — 3) — 4 •4
c
os —sm — — ••• (
4
-104
)
4
! 2 2
P
utt
ing si
n' (0
/2) = 1— c os
' (
0/2)
, and s
ubs
titu
ting p
art
icu
lar v
alue
s
o
fm, (
4-
104 ) t
hen r
educe
s t
othe f
o
llowing
:
= 0, C O8 M = 1
2
m = 1
, c
os m-
2 = c
o
s 2
0
m = 2
, c
o
s m 2 = 2c
os
' 1
2-— 1
1
i (
4
-105
)
0
m = 3
, c
os m 2 = 4c
o
s -
4
/ — 3c
os—
4
1
2 2
'
m= 4
, c
o
s m 4-
1 = 8c
o
s' -
t — 8c
os
' t± 1
2 2 2
e
tc
.
N
ow l
e
t
x= c
o
s —
2 (
4
-105a
)
1
02 ANTENNAS [
CHA
P. 4
w
hereupon t
he e
qua
tion
s o
f (
4
-105
) b
ecome
c
o
s m = 1 when m = 0
2 '
c
os m— x when m = 1
2 ' (
4
-106
)
c
os m = 2
x 2 - 1
, when m = 2
2
e
tc
.
The p
olynomia
ls o
f (4
-106) a
re c
a
lled T
cheby
schef p
o
lynom
ial
s, w
hich
may b
e des
igna
ted i
ngenera
l b
y
T
„
,(x
) = c
os m2
'
1 (
4
-107
)
F
or p
art
icu
lar v
alue
s o
fm, t
he f
i
rs
t e
i
ght T
cheby
schef p
o
lynom
ials a
re
To(
x
) = 1
Ti(
x
) = x
To(
x
) = 2
x2 — 1
T3(
x
) = 4
x2 — 3
x
(
4
-108
)
T4(
x
) = 8
x4 — 8
x2 ± 1
T5(
x
) = 1
6x 5 — 2
0x 2 + 5
x
To(
x
) = 3
2x 1
.— 4
8x 4 1
8x 2 — 1
T7(
x
) = 6
4x 7 — 12x 5 5
6x 2 — 7
x
We note i
n (4
-108
) that t
he deg
ree of t
he po
lynomia
l i
sthe same a
s
t
he va
lue ofm.
The r
oots o
fthe p
olynomia
ls o
ccur w
hen cos m
(0/2
) = 0orw hen
m2
—
' = (
4 2k — 1
)—2 (
4
-109
)
w
here k = 1
,2,3
, ...
T
he r
oots o
fx,d
es
ignated x
'
, a
re t
hus
x
' = c
os [
(2k — 1
) (
4
-109a
)
We have shown t hat co

s m (0/2) can b e e
xpre
ssed as ap olynom ial of
d
egreem . T hus
, (4-97) and ( 4
-99) a
ree xpres
sib
le aspo
lynom ialso fd egree
2
k 1and 2
k, r
espe ct
ively, since e
ach are t
he s
um sofc os
ine polynom ials
o
f the fo
rm c os m(0/2 )
. F o
r a n e
ven n umber n, o
f sources 2k 1=
n
, — 1 ,w hi
le fo
r a n o dd n umbe r n
o
, 2 k = no — 1. T he
refore, (4-97)
a
nd (4-99), wh
ich e xpress the fi
eld p
attern of asymmetric in
-pha se equi-
S
ec
. 4
-
03
s
paced li
neara rray o
f ni s
o t
rop ic point sour
ce s
, ar
e polynomials ofd egree
e
qual tothe numbe rofs ources les
s 1 . Ifw en ow set t
he a
rray polynom ial
a
s given by (4-97) or (
4-99) e qual to the Tchebyschef polynom ial ofl i
ke
d
egree (m = n— 1 )and e quate the array coeff
ic
ients to t
he coeffi
cients
o
ft he Tchebys chef po
lynom ial, then the amp l
itude di
str
ibution given b y
t
hese coeff
i
cien ts is aTcheby schef d i
stribut
ion a nd the fi
e
ld p attern of
t
he array cor
re sponds t
o t he T cheby s
chef p olynomial ofdegree n - 1 .
i a
i Tm (
x
) ,
1 —4 T i
T
i
I, 5 , 4T 3 /
"T2 14 - 3 t
i
• % ' /T
‘‘ %
I / 2
- 2 / T
\ I (
I)) ./ "
T ‘
. .
.
,
.
.
.
.
--
I -
- _
_
.
. To
. . , .
,
-
1
. ,
• •
-
.
.
.- .
5 -• 11
.
0
--
'
's
. ; X
--
0-
-
_
T1
-=
2
, 3
T3
- '4
F
in. 4
-32
. T
cheby
schef p
olynom
ials o
f d
egree m = 0 t
hrough m = 5
.
The Tcheby
s chef po
lynom ials o
f degree m = 0 t
hrough m = 5 ar
e
p
resented i
n F
ig. 4-32
. R efe
rring to F
ig. 4
-32
, t
he f
ollow
ing p
rope
rtie
s
o
ft he po
lynomialsare wor
thy o fno
te:
1
.Al
l pass t
hrough t
he p o
int (1
, 1
)
.
2
. F
orv a
lues of xi
nt he range —1 < x< + 1
,the polynomia
ls al
l l
i
e
b
etween o
rdinate values of +1 a
nd —1
. All roo
ts occur be
tween
—1 < x< ± 1 ,and all max
imum va
lue
s i
nthi
s range are ±1
.
We may n ow d escr
ibe Do lph's m ethod o f app
lying the T chebyschef
p
olynomial to obta in a n o p
timum p attern
. S uppose tha
t w e have a n
a
rray of s
ix source s
. T he fi
eld p a
tt e
rn i sthen a p o
lynomial o f degree
5
. I fth
isp o
lynom ial i
se quated tot he Tchebyschef polynomial ofd egree
5
,s hown in F
ig. 4 -33, then t he opt
imum p attern may b e der
ived a s fo
l-
l
ows: Le
t the ra
tio o ft he ma in-lobe max imum t o the mino
r-lobe level be
s
pecif
ied a
sR . T hati s
,
R — ma
in-
lobe max
imum
s
i
de-
lobe l
e
vel
1
04 ANTE N N AS [Cu
sp. 4
The point (4
, R ) o n t
he T5( x) p
olynom ia
l c urve then corresponds to t
he
main-
lobe max imum , while t he mino r lobes a r
e confined t o a maximum
v
alue o f 1
. T he roots o
f t he p o
lynom ial correspond t o the nu
lls of t
he
f
i
eld pattern
. T he i mportan t property o ft he Tcheby schef polynomial i
s
t
hat ift h
e ra
tio R i ss p
ecified the be
am w idth t oth
ef ir
st n u
ll (x = xf) i
s
minimized
. T he corol
lary a lso ho
ld s that ift h
e beam w idth isspec
if
ied t
he
r
atio Ri smaxim iz
ed ( s
ide-lobe level minim ized).
(
X0,
R)
T
5 (
X)
1
0 .
5 11
Al X0 X*
-
0
-
X
i'
1 1 1
0 .
5 i
FI
G
. 4
-33
. T
chebyschef p
olynom
ial o
ffi
th d
egree w
ith r
e
lat
ion t
o c
oord
ina
te s
ca
les
.
T
he p
rocedu
re w
il
l now b
es ummarized. L e
tu s w
rite (
4
-97) a
nd (
4
-99
)
a
ga
in. Itistobe n
oted t
hat t
hey a
re func
tions o
f0/2. T hu
s,
E
„
. = 2 E A k cos [( 2 k 1
) 11 (
neven
) (
4
-110
)
k 2
a
nd
k1
.1
= 2EA k cos (2 k 1 ) o
dd) (
4
-111
)
Since we ar
e u sual
ly interes
ted only in t
he re
lative f
i
eld pa
ttern, t
he
f
a
c tor 2befo
re the summa tion sign i
n(4
-110) and (
4-111) may b
edropped.
F o
r an ar
ray o f ns ources
, the fi
r
st step i
sto selec
t the T
chebyschef
p
olynom ia
l oft he same degree asthe a
rray p
olynomial, (
4
-110) o
r( 4
-111
).
T
his i sg
iven by
T
.-1(x
) (
4
-112
)
S
ec
. 4
-
81 AR RA YS OF POI NT SO U RCES 1
05
w
here ni
sthe n
umbe
rofs
our
cesa
nd m = n — 1
. N
extw
echoo
se f
land
s
o
lve
T
,
„(x0)= R (
4
-113
)
f
or xo. Re
ferring to F
ig
. 4-
33, we no
te that
, for R> 1 , xo i
sal
so g
reate
r
t
han 1 . Th
is presents adi
ff
icul
ty si
nce according t
o (4
-105a) x mu
s t b
e
r
es
tricted t
o the range —1 < x < +1 . I f
, however
, ac hange o
fsca
le is
made by i
ntroduc
ing an ew abs
cissa w (
F
ig. 4-33), w
here
w — (
4
-114
)
x
o
t
hen t
he r
e
str
ict
ion o
f(4
-105a
) c
an b
efu
lf
il
led b
y p
utt
ing
w= c
o
s (
4
-115
)
2
w
here now the range o
fwi sres
tricted t
o —1 < w < + 1 . T he patte
rn
p
olynomial
, (4-110) o
r (
4-111)
, may n ow be expre
ssed as apolynomial in
w
. T he f
ina
l s t
ep isto equate the Tchebyschef po
lynom ia
l of (4-
112)
a
nd the a
rray p o
lynomia
l obtained b ysubs
titut
ing (4
-115) i
nto (4
-110) or
(
4
-111). T hus,
T
.-
1(x
) =E
„ (
4
-115a
)
The coeffic
ient s o
ft he array p olynom ia
l a r
e t hen o btained f rom ( 4-115a),
y
ielding t he Do lph-Tcheby schef amp l
i tude d is
t ribu t
ion wh ich i s a n
o
ptimum f ort he s
ide-
lobe l eve
l s pecif
ied.
A
s ap roo f of t
he o pt
imum p rope rty o f the T cheby schef p o
lynom ial,
l
e
tu scon side rany otherp o
lynom ialP (x) ofd egre e 5w h
ich p assest hrough
(
xo,R ) inF ig. 4
-33 and t he highe st roo
t x fa nd f o
r a l
l s malle r values ofx
l
i
es b etween +1 a nd —1 . I ft he r ange in o rdina te o f P (x) i sl e
s s t
han
±1, then t hisp o
lynom ialw ould g i
ve as mallers ide-
lobe l evelf ort h
i ssame
b
eam w idth , and To( x
) w ould n ot b e optimum . S ince P (x) l i
e s between
±1 i n the r ange —x ; < x< x
f it mus t in
ter se ct the c urve To( x) in
a
t least m + 1= 6p oints, includ ing (x0,R ). Two p olynom ials of the
s
ame d eg re e mw h
ich inte r
sect i nm 1p o
in ts mu st b e t he s ame p oly-
n
om ial,
' s ot hat
P
(x) = To(
x
)
a
nd the To(
x
) po
lynomia
l i
s
,t he
r e
fore
, the o
pt
imum.
I
f the s
pac
ing be
tween sources e
xceeds w
ave
leng
th, i
t s
hou
ld b
e
T
his fo
llows from the f
ac
t that apolynom
ial of d
eg ree m ha
s m + 1a rb
itra
ry
c
onstants
. F urther
, i
f m ± 1points o
n the p
olynomia
l's curve a
re s
pec
ifi
ed, m 1
i
ndependent equa t
ions w
ith m -
I 1unknowns c
an be wr
itten and t
he m + 1constants
t
hereby determinec.
1
06 ANTEN NAS [
CHAP
. 4
n
oted that as the spacing a pproa ches 1w aveleng th a l arge l
obe deve lops
a
t 0 = ±90 ° wh ich e qual s t he main l obe when d = X . Howeve r
, i fthe
i
ndiv
idual sources o f the a r ray are n onisot
rop ic, t hat i s
, a
re direct
iona l
w
ith the maximum a t 0 = 0a nd with l i
tt
le orn o r ad
iation at 0 = ±90 °
,
t
hen by patte
rn mu l t
iplica tion t he l
obe s ofthe t otal pattern at 0 = ±90 °
c
an be made s mal
l.
4
-9. Examp le o f D olph -Tchebys che ff Distribu tion f o
r a n A rray o f
E
ight Sources
. T o ilust rate t he m ethod for f inding the D olph-Tcheby -
s
chef di
str
ibu t
ion,l etu sw o rk the fo
llowing prob lem :
An ar
ray o f n = 8i n-pha se isotropic sour ces, s pa
ced i w aveleng th
a
part
, isto h ave a side-lobe l evel 26 db b e
low t he ma in -
lobe max imum .
F
ind the amplitude d istribu tion f u
lf
ill
ing t h
is r equ iremen t that produce s
t
he minimum b eam w id th b etween f i
rst nul
ls, a nd p lot the fi
e
ld p attern.
S
ince
S
ide
-lobe l
e
vel i
ndb b
e
low ma
in-
lobe max
imum = 2
0 l
o
g10 R (
4
-115
b)
i
tfo
llow
s t
hat
R= 2
0 (
4
-116
)
T
he T
chebys
chef p
o
lynom
ial o
fdeg
ree n — 1i
s T7(
x
). T
hus
, w
ese
t
T7(
x0)= 2
0 (
4
-117
)
The v
alue o
f xo may b
e d
ete
rmined b y t
r
ial and e
rro
r fr
om t
he 777(
x
)
e
xpans
ion a
sgiven in(
4-
108
), o
r xo may b
e c
alcu
lated f
rom
xo = E
R
+ VR2-0 '1 ± (R - VR2-1
)11 (
4
-118
)
S
ubs
titu
ting R=2
0and m = 7i
n(4
-118
) y
ie
lds
xo = 1
.
15 (
4
-119
)
Now s
ubs
titu
ting (
4
-115
) i
n (
4
-110
) a
nd d
ropp
ing t
he f
a
cto
r 2
,we h
ave
Es = /
1
5W ± A1(
40 — 3
w) ± A2(
160 — 2
00 -
I
-5w
)
± A3(
6
4w 7 — 12 0 -
I
-560 — 7
w) (
4
-120
)
B
ut w = x
ixo s
o tha
t mak
ing t
h
is s
ubs
titu
tion i
n (
4
-120
) a
nd g
roup
ing
t
e
rms o
fli
ke d
egree
,
E
. —6
4A 3 7± 1
6
44 2 — 12A 3 z
5 + 4
A, —2
0/
12± 5
6A3 x3
7 x
x
o x
: x
:
(
4
-12
1)
+ Ao — 3
A, ± 5A2 — 7
A2 x
xo
T
he T
cheby
schef p
olynom
ial o
fli
ke d
egree i
s
T7(
x
) = 6
4x7 — 12x5 -
I
-562 — 7
x (
4
-122
)
SE
C. 4
-
91 AR R A YS OF POI N T SO U RCES 1
07
Now e
qua
ting (
4
-121
) a
nd (
4
-122
)
E
. = T7(
x
) (
4
-123
)
F
or (
4-123
) to b
e t
rue r
equ
ires t
hat t
he c
oeff
ic
ien
ts of (
4
-121) e
qua
l t
he
c
oef
f
ic
ients o
fthe t
e
rms ofli
ke d
egree i
n (
4
-122)
. T he
refo
re,
6
44o 6
4
(
4
-124
)
xo
o
r
A
, = x
T
,-= 1
.
15 = 2
.66 (
4
-125
)
I
n as
imi
lar w
ay w
e f
i
nd t
hat
A
, = 4.56}
A
, = 6.82 (
4
-126
)
Ao = 8
.25
T
he r
e
lat
ive amp
litude
s o
fthe 8s
our
ces a
re t
hen
1
,1.
7, 2
.
6, 3
.
1, 3
.
1, 2
.
6, 1
.
7, 1
T
o o
bta
in t
he f
i
e
ld p
atte
rn g
iven b
y t
he Do
lph
-Tcheby
sche
ff d
i
str
ibu
-
-4 1
T7(
x
)
—3 i
T
o po
int
(
1
.
15,20) ;
—2
—1
0 b
! I i f f f
-.
6 - -.
2 .
2 4 .
6 1
.
0 X0
-
i X-
0-
--2
1
Fm
. 4
-34
. T
chebysehef p
olynom
ial o
f t
he s
even
th d
egree
.
t
i
on, w
e re
cal
l t
hat I
i
/2 = (
d
, s
i
n 0
)
/2, c
os (
0/2
) = w
, a
nd w = x
/x0,
f
r
om which
d
,si
n 0
x = xo c
os (
4
-127
)
2
T
he value o
f xc o
rresponding to agiven va
lue of 0,a s o
btained f
rom
(
4
-127
), ist
hen i
ntroduced inthe a
ppropria
te Tchebyschef po
lynomial
, i
n
t
h
is c
ase T7(
x), o
r scaled f
rom a graph of t
h
is polynomial
, as shown i
n
1
08 ANTENNAS [
CHA
P. 4
F
ig
. 4-34
. T he v a
lue of t
he p
olynom ia
l f
or t
hi
s value of xisthen t
he
r
e
lat
ive fi
eld s
trength in t
he d
ire
ction 0. In g
enera
l, as 0ranges f
rom
—7/2 t
o +7/2, t
he var
iable
s1/
/2,w,a nd xr
ange a
sindica
ted b
yT ab
le 4
-5
.
TABLE 4
-
5
V
ariab
le R
ange
I
.
_
2
2 2
d,
C
O
S —
2
d,
xo C
O
S—2
Thus
, in genera
l, as 0ranges fr
om —7/2 t o 0to +7/2, xranges f
rom
s
ome point
, such as ainFig. 4
-34, t
o xo a
nd back a
gain t
o a
,the o
rdina
te
v
alue g
iving the r
e
lative f
i
eld in
tens
ity.
I
n our problem, d, = r, and xo = 1.15
, so tha
t the r
ange o
f xisas
s
hown inT able 4
-6.
TABLE 4
-
6
V
ariab
le R
ange
7
0
2
0 1
.
15 0
Hence, at 0 = —90 ° we star

t a t t
he origin i n F
ig
. 4 -34 ( po
int b)
, and as
oapproa ches0 ° we proceed tot he ri
ght along the p o
lynom ia
l curve reach
-
i
ng the point (xo,R = 1 .15
, 20) w hen 0= 0 °. A s 0c on t
inue stoincrease
,
w
e r etrace the p olynom ia
l c urve, reaching t he o r
ig in w hen 0 = 9 0°
.
T
hu s, the pattern issymme tr
ica l about the 0= 0 ° direct
ion.
As ap rel
im inary step to p
lotting the f i
e
ld p att
ern , iti susua
lly helpfu
l
t
o make a p l
o t of xv s
. 0f r
om ( 4
-127). T hen
, k now ing the values of x
f
o
r t he n u
lls and m ax ima of the T .(x) c urve, the c orr
esponding v alue
s
o
f 0 may b e d etermined. A s many i n
t e
rmed iate p o
ints as are Deeded
S
ec
. 4
-
10] AR R A YS OF POI NT SO URCES 1
09
may a
lso be o
btained i
nt he s
ame manner. Fol
low ing t
h
is pro
cedure, t
he
f
i
eld patt
ern for our prob
lem of t
he eight
-source ar
ray ispresented i
n
F
ig.4-
35a inrectangula
rc oord
ina
tesand inFig.4-35h i
npola
rc oord
inate
s.
1
)
9
.
=O•
R
elative f
i
eld
f
i
eld
1R
elat
ive
(
a
)
(
b
)
9
0* 60
. 3
0' C
t 30
. 6
0° 9
0*
0 A
rray
Ma. 4-35. R elative fi

e
ld p at
tern o f b
road s
ide ar
ray o feight i
s
otropic s
ources s
paced
iwave leng
th a part. T he ampl i
tude distribut
ion g i
ves am inimum b eam width fo
r a
s
i
de-lobe leve
l o ne-twentie
th o f t
he ma in lobe
. T he pat
tern isshown i n r
ectangu
lar
c
oordinatesat( a) and i
np olarat (b)
. B o
th diagrams show the p
attern on
ly fr
om —91 °
t
o +90 °, t
he othe rhalfo fthe pattern be
ing ident
ical.
4
-10. C ompa rison o f Amp litude D is tr
ibu tions f o
r E igh t
-sou rce A rrays .
I
n t he p roblem w orked i n t he p re ced ing s ection , t he s ide-lobe l e
ve l w as
2
6 d b b e
low t he max imum o ft he ma in b eam ( R = 2 0)
. I ti sofi nte rest
t
o c ompa re t he a mp litude f or th is c a se w ith t he d i
s tr
ibu tions f or o the r
s
ide-lobe l evels
. T hi s isd one i nF ig. 4 -36, i nw hich t he r e
la tive amp l
itude
d
istribu t
ion s a re s hown f or e i
gh t-sour ce a rray s w ith s ide-lobe l eve
ls
r
ang ing f rom 0d b t o a n inf
in ite n umbe r ofd ecibe ls b elow t he ma in b eam
max imum . T he i nf
in ite dbc ase co rre spond st o R =c o( ze
ro s ide-lobe l eve
l )
a
nd i sid entica l with S tone's b inom ia l di s
tribu tion. T he r elative amp li-
t
ude sf ort his c ase ar e 1 ,7,2 1, 3 5
, 3 5
, 2 1
, 7 ,1 . T he r atio o f amp litude so f
t
he c enters our cest ot he edge s ou rces i s3 5 t o 1. S uch al arge r atio w ould
b
e v ery d ificul t to a chieve i n p ra ctice. A s t he s ide-lobe l evel in creas es
(Rd ecreas es), t he amp litude d i
s t
ribut ion b ecome s mo re u niform , t he r at
io
o
f t he cent e r t o edge amp l
i tude s b eing o nly a bout 3t o 1f or the 2 6-db
(R =2 0
) c ase. T he 2 0
-db c ase ( R = 1 0) i s mo re u niform , w ith a n amp li-
t
ude r a
tio o fo nly 1 .7 to 1 . T he 1 4-db c ase ( R = 5 ) exhib its as t
ill mo re
uniform d istribu tion b ut s how s a n i nver s
ion, t he max imum amp l
i tude
having s hi
fted t o t he o utermo st s our ces ( 1 a nd 8 )
. T he u n
iform d is-
t
ribu t
ion i sn o t as pe cial cas e o ft he D olph -Tcheby schef d i
stribu tion , a n
i
nve rsion o ccur ring b efore t he u ni form c ase isr eached . A s t he s ide-lobe
l
eve li sra
ised s t
illf urthe r
, t he distr ibu tion t end s mo re t owa rd a ne dg et ype,
t
he a mplitude o ft he i nners ource sd ec reasing s till furthe r
. I n the e xtreme
c
a se, whe ret he s ide l obesa ree qua lt ot he ma in -lobe l evel ( 0d b
, orR= 1 )
,
1
10 ANTE N N AS [
CH4p
. 4
t
he ampli
tude s ofa l
l oft he inner s
ources ar e z
ero, and the distr
ibu tion i
s
o
fthe edge t ype dis
cu ssed inc onnect
ion w ith F ig
. 4-29. T hus, both the
b
inomial and e dge distribut
ion s ar
e s pec
ial c ases of the Do lph-T cheby-
s
che
ff di
stribu t
ion, b u
t t he u n
iform amp litude d is
tribution i snot
. T he
p
oint o
f neare st approach t o the un
ifo rm d is
tribution isf o
r a n Rv alue
b
etween 5 a nd 1 0
. R eferr
ing t o F
ig. 4 -
20 a nd i n
terpolating for n= 8
b
etween the c urves fo
r n= 1 0 and n = 5 ,i tisinterest
ing t o note that
t
he ra
tio of t he main-lobe max imum t o t he m inor-
lobe max ima r anges
f
rom about4 .3 to 8f o
r a n a
rray ofe i
gh t sources ofu ni
form a mpl
itude .
e
R l
amp
t
latude
i
ive
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
L
inea
r a
r
ray o
f 6sou
rces
FI
G. 4-36
. C ompar
ison o
f Do
lph
-Tcheby
sehef amp
litude d
i
str
ibu
tion e
nve
lope
s f
o
r
v
ariou
s side
-lobe l
e
vels
.
T he Do lph-T cheby schef o ptimum amp l

i tude distribu t
ion, as d i
scu ssed
i
nt he p receding s ect
ions , i
so p
timum o nly i fd > X /2, w hich cove r
s t he
c
ases o f mo st interest for broad side array s. B y ag ene ra
lizat
ion o f t he
method , h oweve r
, cases with s mallerspa cing s can also be o pt
im ized.'
In c onclu s
ion, i t should b e p o
inted o ut t hat t he p ropert
ie s of t he
Tcheby schef p o
lynom ials may b e applied n ot only t o a n
tenna p atterns
a
s d is
cu ssed a bove but a l
so to o ther s
itua tions. I ti sn ecessary, howeve r
,
t
hat t he function t o b
e o pt
im ized b e exp ressib
le as ap o
lynom ial
.
4-11. C on t
inuous A r rays
. I n t he p
re ceding s ect
ion s, the di
scu ss
ion h as
b
een r e
stricted to array s ofd is
cre te poin t sources
, t hat i s
, to arrays o fa
f
in
ite n umbe r of source s s
epa rated b y f i
nite distance s
. We n ow p roceed
1
H.J
.Rib
let
, P
roc
. I.
R.E.
,35
, No
.5,4
89-492
, May
, 1
947
.
SE
C
. 4
•
11
t
o ac on s
ideration o fc on
t inuous array s ofp o
in t sour ces
, t hat is
, a r
rays of
a
n i nf
inite numbe r of s ources separa ted b y infini
te sima l dis
tance s
. B y
Huyg ens' pr
incip le, ac on t
inuou s array o f point s ou r
ces i sequ ivalent to
ac ont
inuou s fi
eld d i
stribu t
ion. I n t his way, our d iscussion ofc ontinuous
a
rray s can be extended t o inc
lude the r adiat
ion p atterns o ffi
eld d istr
ibu-
t
ion s a
cross aper tures
, a s
, f o
r examp le, the pa ttern o fa n electromagne t
ic
h
o rn w here t
he f i
e
ld d i
stribu t
ion acro ss the mou th o fthe h orn i sk nown.
We shall now d evelop a n expression f or the f a
r f ie
ld o f ac ontinuous
a
rray o fp o
int s ources ofu ni
form a mp l
itude a nd o ft he same p hase. L et
t
he a r
ray o fleng th a be p aral
lel t
o t he ya x
is w ith i t
s cen te
r at t he or
igin
-
\\T
o
di
s
tan
t
F
. p
o
int
0
X
C
ontinuous
o
rray
F
la. 4
-37
. C
ont
inuous b
roads
ide a
r
ray o
fpo
int s
ource
s o
fle
ngth a
.
a
s i
ndica
ted i
n F
ig
. 4-37
. T hen the f
i
eld d
E at adi
stant p
oin
t in t
he
d
i
rect
ion 0due t
o the po
int sour
ce s i
n t
he i
nf
in
ite
simal l
eng
th dy a
t a
d
i
stance yf
rom t
he o
rig
in is
d
E =—
Aej
j(_ 0)dy A dy (
4
-128
)
cdY = 6
T
i
w
here # = c
o
/c = 27/X and A i
s acon
stant i
nvo
lving ampl
itude
. T he
t
o
tal fi
e
ld E a
t t
he d
istan
t po
int i
sthen the i
n
tegrated v
a
lue of (
4-
128)
o
verthe a
r
ray o
flength aasg
iven b
y
E=f —
/2 —
a A
a/2 r
,
e
"" "" )d
y (
4
-129
)
Bo
th A a
nd t
he t
ime f
a
ctor may b
e t
aken o
uts
ide t
he i
n
teg
ral
, a
nd r
,
may a
l
so b
e i
fr,>
> a
. Thu
s,
Ae a
tt fa/2
(
4
-130
)
12 ANTENNAS [
CHA
P. 4
B
ut, r
e
fer
ring t
o F
ig
. 4
-37
,
ri = r— ys
i
n 0 (
4
-131
)
S
ubs
titut
ing ( 4
-131
) i
n (
4-130
) a
nd t
ak
ing t
he c
ons
tan
t f
a
cto
r ei
n 'o
ut-
s
i
de the i
nteg
ral, w
e h
ave
a
/2
E= A
' eJ
o
y s
in dy
(
4
-132
)
L a/2
w
here
A
e"" -
$ '
)
A
' — (
4
-133
)
I
nteg
rat
ing (
4
-132
) y
i
eld
s
1
9
. .
s
2A
' e'T l
in°— e-
1 7sn°
i
E— (
4
-134
)
)
3s
in 0 2
j
w
hich may b
e w
rit
ten a
s
2
A' .
E— #s
i
n 0 s
i
n (
4
-135
)
L
et
t
k
' = t
l
a s
i
n 0= a
,si
n 0 (
4
-136
)
w
here a
, =f
i
a = 2
7
ra/X = a
rray l
e
ngth i
nrad
ian
s
T
hen
2
A' .
E— . s m (
4
-137
)
sm 0 2
B
ut f
r
om (
4
-136
)
/
3s
in 0=
a
s
o t
hat (
4
-137
) b
ecome
s
E= a
l' s
i
n (
#
7
2
) (
4
-138
)
4
,72
No
rma
liz
ing (
4
-138
) g
ive
s f
i
nal
ly
E— s
i
n (t
V/2
)
(
4
-139
)
/
2
Equat
ion (4
-139) expres
ses t he far fi
eld, or Fraunhofer difract
ion
p
attern
, of acont
inuou s broadside ar
ray o f l
ength a, having u n
iform
ampl
itude a
nd pha
se. F or nd i
screte
, equally s
paced s
ources, i
tw as pre
-
v
ious
ly shown by (
4-52
) that OPn orma
lized va
lue ofthe total f
i
eld is
S
ec
. 4
41] AR R A YS OF POI NT SO U R CES 13
s
in (
n0/2
)
E (
4
-140
)
— ns
in (
0/2)
wher
e4 .,= d
,c o
sc t
)-I a
F
o r i
n-phas
e source
s, 5= 0. C
ompa
ring F
igs
. 4
-
18 a
nd 4
-37 w
e n
ote
t
hatc t
. = 0-I 7
/2, s
othat
1
,
G = —d
, s
i
n 0= —
lid s
i
n 0 (
4
-141
)
F
orsmal
lv a
luesof0,w
hich o
ccu
rfo
rsma
llv
alue
sof0
,d,o
rbo
th, (
4
-140
)
c
an b
eexpre
ssed a
s
E .s
i
n (7
1
.
1,
P/2
1 s
i
n ( f
lnd/2
)s i
n 0)
(
4
-142
)
n
#12 — (
f
ind/2)sin 0
T
he l
e
ngth ao
fthe a
r
ray o
fdi
scr
ete s
our
cesi
s
a= d
(n — 1
) (
4
-143
)
w
here n = n
umbe r ofs
ource
s
d= spacing
I
f n>> 1
, a_
,
.,
_
‘n d
, and (
4
-142) b
ecome
s
s
i
n (
9a/2
)si
n 0
) s
i
n (
a,/2
)si
n 0
)
E— (
4
-144
)
(
3a/2
) s
i
n 0 — (
a
,/2
)si
n 0
w
here a
,
. =f
la =2Ta/X
B
y (4
-136
) t
h
is c
an now b
eexp
res
sed a
s
s
i
n (C/2
)
E— 0,
/
2 (
4
-145
)
which i si den tical with t he v a

lue o btained i n (
4
-139) for t he c ontinuous
a
rray . T hu s
, t he f i
eld p attern f o
r a n array o
f many d iscrete s our
ces
(
n > > 1 )a nd f or s mall values o f v
,
I,ist he same a
s the p at tern o f acon-
t
inuou s a r
ray o ft he s ame leng th
. I ft he array i
slong, tha t is
, ifn d >> X,
t
he ma in b eam a nd t he fi
rstm ino r l
o besa re c
onf
ined tos mall value s o
f0 .
I
t
, t herefore, f o
llow s that t he ma in f eatures o
f the pat tern o f al a
rge
a
rray a re t he s ame , w hether t he array h as many discret e s ources or is
ac ontinuou s d i
st r
ibution o fs ources
. Many o ft
he conclus ion s der
ived in
p
rev iou s se ct
ion s c oncerning a mp
litude d istr
ibut
ions f o
r a rrays o f dis
-
c
rete s ource s c an a l
so b e applied to c ontinuous a
rrays prov ided t hat t
he
a
rray s arel arge.
The n ul
l d irections 0 0o
ft he continuou s a
rray p
attern are g iven b y
-
E = ±K
ir (
4
-146
)
2
w
here K = 1
,2,3
..
14 ANTE N N AS
T
hus
,
KX
0
0 = a
r
csin (± 7
-‘)
F
or al
ong a
rray (
4
-147
) c
an b
eexpr
essed
0
0 ±— rad c
_
-
• ±57
.3K d
eg (
4
-148
)
a), a),
w
here a),= a
/X
T
he beam width b
etween f
i
rs
t n
ul
ls (
K = 1
)fo
r al
ong a
r
ray i
sthen
2
0o
, —
2 rad —
15 d eg (
4
-149
)
a), a),
I
ti sto be noted t
hat (4
-147), (
4-148)
, and (4
-149) are i
dent
ical w
ith t
he
e
xpress
ion s gi
ven fo
r the broads
ide array of d
i
screte sou
rces
, ifnc
l i
sr e
-
p
laced b y a( s
ee Table 4
-2). T here
fore, t
he nul
l lo
cations fo
r a
rrays o
f
e
i
the rdiscre
te orc
on t
inuouss ou
rcesa rethe s
ame prov
ided on
ly tha
t n>>1.
R
elat
ive S
pherica
l
fi
eld wave
f
ront
7 P
owe
r l
e
vel
i (
a) (
b
)
1
5 I
d 5 O 5 1 0 1
5 /P
lane w
ays
FI
G. 4-
38. Ma in-lobe fi
eld p
atterns o
f Fm. 4
-39. Spher
ica
l and plane wave
c
ont
inuous un
ifo
rm b roads
ide a
r
ray s5,10
, f
ron
ts w
ith s
e
condary w
aves o
f Huygens
.
a
nd 50 wave
lengths lo
ng.
The f
i
eld pat
te rnsoft
he ma
in beam ofcont
inuousarraysofpoin
ts our
ces
5
, 10, a
nd 5 0 w ave
leng
ths lo
ng are compared i
n Fig
. 4-38
. I t may be
n
oted that the b eam wid
th between hal
f-powe
r p o
ints
, °Hp, o
f al ong
,
u
niform broadside ar
ray i
sgi
ven approximate
ly by
0
.9
OH
P = 0
.90
01 =— r
ad (
4
-150
)
o
r
°
Hp 1 d
eg (
4
-15
1)
a),
S
e
c. 4
-
12
] ARRAYS OF POINT S
OURCES 1
15
4
-12. Huygens ' Pr
inciple
.' T he pr
incip
le propo sed b y C hris
tian Huy -
g
ens (1629-1695), n
ow often ca
lled Huyg ens' p
rinciple, has been o ffunda-
menta
l i mportance to the developmen t of wave t heory
. A ccording to
Huygens, e
a ch po
int of aw ave front c
an be conside red a
s the s ource o
fa
s
econdary s pher
ical wave. T he s econdary s pherical w ave s from t he
p
oints on aw ave fr
ont then comb ine to f
orm a n ew w ave f ront, t
he new
S
hee
t
.
0"
R
ela
tive amp
litude
P
lane
wave
(
a
) (
b
)
F
l
a.4
-
40. P
l
anew
avei
n
cid
ento
nop
aqu
esh
eetw
i
th s
l
oto
fwi
dth a
.
w
ave fron
tb e
ing the e
nvelope o
fthe se
condary wave
let
s. T hus as
pherica
l
w
ave from a si
ngle point s
our
ce propagates a
s aspherica
l wave a
s indi
-
c
ated i
nF ig
. 4-
39a. O n t
he o
ther hand, a
n in
fin
ite p
lane wave c
ont
inues
a
s aplane wave a
ss ugges
ted by F
ig. 4-
39b.
IJ.C.Slatera nd N .H.F r
ank, "Intr
odu ction toT heoreti
calP hysics," M cGraw -Hil
l
B
ook Comp any, Inc
., N ew Y o
rk, 1933
, C hap s
. 26a nd 27
.
Max B o
rn, " Op t
ik," Verlag Ju
lius Spr
ing er, Ber
lin
, 1 933, Sec
. 4 , p .1 42
.
A
r no
ld S omm er
feld, Theori
e d e
r I3
eugung , C hap
. 2 0o f" D
iferential u nd Integral
-
g
l
ei
chung en d er M echanik u nd P hys
ik," F rank a nd v on M ise
s, E d
i tors
, F r
i edr
ich
V
i
ew eg drSo hn, Brun sw
ick, 1935.
J
.A . S t
r at
ton , " E
lect
r oma gne
tic T h
e ory," M cG raw -Hil
l B ook C ompany , Inc.
,
N
ew Y ork, 1941,p .4 60
.
J
.C .S l
at er
, " Microwav e Transmiss
ion," M cGraw-Hill B ook C ompany , Inc
., N ew
Y
ork, 1942
,p .2 56
.
R
.C .S pencer,F ou r
ierI n
tegralM ethodso fPatternA nalysis
, Rad iation L ab
. M .I
.T.
R
ep. 76
2-1, 1 9
46.
B
.B .B ak era nd E.T .C opson, "TheM a
th em ati
calT h eory ofH uyg en s
' P r
incipl
e,"
O
xford U n
iversity Press
,N ew Y o
rk, 1939
.
1
16 ANTE N N AS [
CHAP
. 4
Let us c ons
ider now t he si
tua tion shown i n Fig. 4-
40a i n w h
ich a n
i
nf
inite plane e l
ect
romagne t
ic w ave i sin
cident o n an inf
inite fl
at sheet
wh
ich iso paque to the w aves
. T he s
heet has as lot o
f w idth a and of
i
nf
inite le
ng th inthe di
rection no rmal to t
he p age
. T he fi
e
ld everywhe re
t
ot he r
ight o fthe s
heetist he r
esulto fthe se
ction ofthe w ave that p
asses
t
hrough the s l
ot. I f ais many w avelengths
, t he fi
e
ld distr
ibu t
ion across
t
he slo
t may b e a
ssumed, i n the f i
r
st approxima t
ion, to b e uni
form a s
M
ino
r
l
obe
S
hee
t
Ma
jor
l
obe
1
X
(
a) (
6
) (
c
)
F
resne
l p
atte
rns
P
lane
wave
F
raunhofe
r
p
at
terns
(
d
)
F
la. 4
-41
. F
resne
l a
nd F
raunho
fer p
att
ern
s o
f as
l
ot o
f w
idth a
.
s
hown i n Fig. 4 -40b. B y Huygen s
' principle t he fi
eld everywhe re to the
r
ight o
f the s heet ist he same a s t
hough e ach p oint in the pl
ane o f the
s
lot i
sthe s our ce of an ew spherica
l w ave. E ach o fthese point source
s is
o
f equa
l amp l
itude a nd p hase. T hu s
, b y Huygen s
' pr
inciple the slotted
s
heet wi
th a u ni
fo rm f i
e
ld a cro
s s t
he o pening c an b e r
eplaced b y ac on-
t
inuous array o f p o
in t sources which j us
t f i
l
ls t he open ing. T he fi
eld
p
a t
tern in t he x -y plane ( F
ig-40a) ist hen c a
lcu lated the same a s for a
SE
C
. 4
-
17
c
ont
inuous li
near a
rray of po
int s
ources o
f l
ength a o
r
ien
ted p
aral
lel t
o
t
he yax
is.
T
he fa
r fi
eld
, or Fraunhofe
r dif
ract
ion patt
ern, o
f s
uch a
n a
rray was
s
hown i
nt he p
reced
ing sec
tion t
ob e g
iven b
y
s
i
n (072)
E— 0,
/2 (
4
-152
)
whe re I P = ( 22-a/X ) sin 0a nd w here 0 i si n t he x -y p l ane ( F

ig . 4 -
37 ).
This p attern , i n the x- y plane , i si ndependen t o ft he e x ten t o f t he a rray
i
nt he zd irect
ion ( norma l t ot he p age )
.
I
n d eriv ing ( 4-152), i .
e.
, ( 4
-145 ) o fS ec. 4 -11 , the t ota l field a t ap oin t
was o bta ined b y i ntegra t
ing t he c ontribu tion s f rom a c ontinuou s a rray
o
f s ou rces d istributed o ver al e ngth a . F or p o
in ts a t ag r ea t d is
tance
f
rom t he a rray t he i n
teg ral can b e simplified , a nd t he i nteg ra tion i seasy ,
a
s d emon strated i nt he p reced ing s ection. F o r point s n ea r t o t he a rray ,
h
oweve r
, t he integral d oes n ot s imp l
ify i nt his w ay b u
t c an b e r educed t o
af o rm k nown a s F resne l
's i n
teg ral
. T his i nteg ral i s o ften e valua ted
g
raph ica lly w ith t he a id of ac urve k nown a s aC ornu s p
ira l. T he f ie
ld
v
aria tion n ear t he s lo
t a s o bta ined i n t his w ay i s c ommon ly c a
lled a
F
re sne l d if raction p a
tt ern. A long a s t
raigh t line p arallel t o t he s l
ot a nd
as ho rt d istance f rom i t
, t he f i
e
ld v ar
ia t
ion i sa s s ugge sted a t ( a) i n F ig.
4
-41, t he v ar
iation a pprox ima ting t he u nifo rm d is
t ribu t
ion o ff i
eld a t t he
s
lot a s s hown i nF ig. 4-40b. A s t he d is
tance x f rom t he s lot i si ncrea sed ,
t
he F re sne l p a
t tern s change t h
rough a s eries o f t ransitiona l f orm s
, s uch
a
s s ugge s ted a t ( b
) i n F ig. 4 -41 , u ntil a t l arge d i
stance s w e e nt er t he
F
raunho fe r reg
ion a nd t he p atte rn a ssume s af orm a s s ugge s ted b y ( c
) i n
F
ig. 4 -41. O rdina ri
ly t he F raunho fer p atte rn i so btained b y r ota ting t he
s
lot a round i ts cen ter s o that t he f i
eld i so bserved a t ac on stan t r adius
r
athe r t han a t ac onstan t d i
stance x . T he r esulting f i
eld p at tern i np ola r
c
oo rd ina te si sthen a ss ugg ested a t (d) inF ig. 4 -
41 . O nce w eh ave e ntered
t
he F raunho fer r egion, t h
is p atte rn i st he s ame a t al
l g rea te r d is tance s.
For ap o
in t to b e i nthe F raunho fe r reg
ion , i t mu s t be a t as uf icien t d is-
t
ance f r om t he slots ot hatw ec an make t he a ssump tion t ha tl i
ne se x tend ing
f
rom t he e dges o f the s lot to t he p oint a r e p arallel. T his i sc ommon ly
a
ssumed t o b e the c ase w hen t he p oint i sa t ad istance rf rom t he s lot
g
iven b y
(
4
-153
)
whe
re ai sthe w
idth o
ra per
ture o
fthe sl
ot, wh
ich isassumed t
o be la
rge.
Thus
, the la
rger the a
perture o
r t
he shorter t
he w ave
leng
th, the g
reater
must b
et he d
is
tan ce a
t which t
he p
att
e rn ismeasured ifw
e wi
sh toa void
t
he ef
fec
ts ofFresnel d
ifract
ion.
1
18 ANTE N N AS [CH
AP. 4
An ea r
ly u ni form t ype o ff i
e
ld d istr
ibu t
ion a cro ss a n a perture s uch a s
d
iscu ssed a bove i n c onne ct
ion w ith F igs. 4-40 a nd 4 -41 o ccu r
s i n o ptics
when a b eam o f light i sinciden t o n as l
it
. I t a lso may b e re al
ized b y
t
he f i
eld d istribu t
ion a cross the mou th o f al o
ng e l
ec tromagne t
ic h o rn
antenna a si nF ig. 4-42a. S ince t he p at
tern o f au niform f ie
ld d istribu t
ion
i
st he s ame a s t he p attern o f au n
iform d i
st r
ibu tion o f point s ou r
ce s of
e
qua l e xten t
, a nothe r f o
rm o f a n tenna e quiva len t t o t he o pt
ica l sl
it o r
e
lectromagne tic h orn i s au ni
fo rm c urrent s hee t
. T his c an b e a pp roxi-
mated b y a" billboa rd" t ype o f a r
ray, a s i n F ig. 4- 42h, h aving many
d
ipole a ntenna s c arrying e qual c urren t
s. T he e xpression s w hich h ave
b
een d eveloped c an t hu s be a pplied t o ac alcula tion o f the F raunho fer
d
if
fra c
tion p a
t te rn o f an o pt
ical s l
i t or the far f i
eld o f ah orn or u ni
fo rm
c
urren ts hee t
. I ft he fie
ld o rcur ren td i
stribution a crosst he sl
ito ra ntenna
a
pertur e i sn otu n
ifo rm, t he form f a
cto rf o
rt he d istribu tion w i
ll a ppea r in
t
he i n
teg ral f or t he f i
eld e xpression . T he resul t may o r may n ot b e i n
-
t
egrable a naly tica l
ly . Howeve r, i ft he a pertu re i s larg e
, t he r elations
d
eveloped f or a mplitude d istr
ibu t
ion s o f array s o f dis crete sour ces c an
b
ea pplied t ot he c ase ofc ontinuou s arrays o fs our ces.
I
t shou ld b e m entioned t hat Huygen s
' p r
incip le i s n ot w ithou t i t
s
l
imitations. T hu s, i tn eglects t he v ector n atu re o f the e l
ectromagne tic
f
i
eld. I ta lso n eg lects t he ef
fect o fc urren t
s w h
ich f l
ow a t the edge o ft he
s
lot
, asi nF ig s
. 4 -40 a nd 441 , ora tt he edge o ft he h orn, a s inF ig. 442a .
A
rray
o
f
d
ipoles
wi
th
r
ef
lec tor
F
lo. 4
-42
. E
lec
tromagne
tic h
orn a
ntenna a
nd a
rray o
fdipo
les w
ith r
ef
lec
tor
.
Howeve r, ifthe aperture i ssuff

ic
ient
ly l arge a nd w e conf
ine our at
ten t
ion
t
o di
re ction s r
oughly n orma l to ape
r ture, t he scalar theory of Iuygen s'
p
rinc
iple g ives s
atis
fac tory result
s.
4
-13. R ectangular
-a rea B roadside A rrays. T he m ethod o f obtain
ing
t
he fi
eld p atterns ofl i
nea r ar
ray s d
i
scu ssed i nt he preceding sect
ion s can
b
e easily e xtended t o the c a
se of rectangu lar broad side arrays
, t hat is
,
a
rrays o f sources w hich o ccupy a f l
at a r
ea o f rec
tangu lar shape
, a s in
F
ig. 4
- 43. F orsuch ar ec tangulararray, the f i
eld pattern inthe x-y plane
(
as af unction of 0) dep ends o n
ly on t he y d imen sion ( a
) of the array,
SE
C
. 4
19
whi
le the fie
ld p attern int he x-z plane (as af unction of0 ) d
epend s only
o
n t he zd imen s
ion ( b
) o f the array. T he assump t
ion is made t hat the
f
i
eld o rcurrent distr
ibu t
ion a c
ro s
s t he a
rray int he yd irect
ion isthe same
f
or a ny v a
lues o f zb etween ±b/2 . L
ikewise, i tisa s
sumed t hat the
amplitude distr
ibu t
ion a cross the array i nthe zd irect
ion i sthe s
ame f or
a
l
l v alues of yb etween ±a/2 . T here
fo re
, the f i
eld pattern in the x-y
p
lane i scalculated a s though t he a r
ray c ons
is ts only of as ing
le linear
a
rray ofh eight ac oincident with t he ya xis (yarray )
. I n the same w ay,
t
he p atte
rn i n the x-z plane iso btained b y calculating the pattern of a
F
la. 4
-43. Rec
tangu
lar b
road
side a
r
ray o
f h
e
ight a a
nd l
e
ngth b w
ith r
e
lat
ion t
o
c
oord
inates
.
s
ing
le l inear a r
ray o f length b c oinciden t with t he z axis (za r
ray )
. I f
t
he array a lso hasd epth int he xd irection, thati s
,h ase nd-f
ire directivi
ty,
t
hen t he p attern in t he x-y plane i st he produc t of the p atterns o f t
he
s
ing
le l i
nea r xand ya r
rays,w h
ile the p attern inthe x-
zp lane ist he product
o
ft he pa tterns ofthe xa nd za r
ray s.
I
ft he a rea occupied b y the array i sn ot r
ectangu la
r ins hape , the above
p
rinciples d o not hold. Howeve r, the a pproxima te fi
eld p at
tern s may b e
o
btained i nthe ca
se o fa na r
ray o fe l
ip ticalarea
,f orexamp le, bya s
sum ing
t
hat iti s arectangu lar area as in F ig
. 4 -44a or in the c a
se o f ac ircu
lar
a
rea b ya ssum ing tha t i
ti ssquare a s inF ig. 4
-44h.
From t he fi
eld p atterns in t wo p lane s (x
-y a nd x-z) of ar ectangular
a
rray t he b eam w id ths b e
tween h a
lf-powe r point s can be o btained. I f
1
20 ANTE N N AS (CH
AP. 4
t
he mino
r l
obe
s a
re n
ot l
a
rge
, t
he d
i
rec
tiv
ity D i
sthen g
iven a
pprox
i-
ma
tely b
y
D = 4
1
,253/0
114 (
4
-154
)
w
here 0?and ce
,are the h
alf
-powe r b
eam wid
ths i
ndegree
s inthe x
-y and
x
-
z plane
s, r
espect
ively.
A
n expre
ssion fo
r the d
irect
ivi
ty of al
arge r
e
ctangu
lar broad
side a
rray
F
la
w
. 4
-
ith e
44
qu
. E
iva
l
ipt
lent s
C)
ical a
r
quare a
r
(a
)
ray w
ith e
ray (
b)
.
quiva
len
t r
e
ctangu
lar a
r
(
b
o
)
ray (
a
) a
nd c
i
rcu
lar a
rray
o
f h
e
ight aa nd width b (
Fig
. 4-43
) and wi
th a u
niform amp
litude dis
-
t
r
ibu
tion may a
lso b
e de
rived di
rect
ly a
sfo
llows
: B
y ( 2
-38
) t
he dire
ctiv
ity
o
fan a
ntenna i
sgiven by
4
7
r f
(0
,
D — (
4
-155
)
fff
(0
, 4
)sin 0d
Od4
)
where f
(0
,4) i
sthe space p
owe
r pat
tern
, wh
ich v
arie
s a
s t
he s
quare o
fthe
s
pace fi
eld p
attern
. F rom (4
-152
) the s
pace f
i
eld p
atte
rn of al a
rge
r
ectangu
lar a
rray i
s
s
i
n (a, s
i
n 00 ) s
i
n (b, s
i
n0 )/2
)
E
(0, 4
)— (
4
-156
)
(
a
, s
in 012 (
b
, s
in0)/2
w
he re a
, = 2 7
ra/X
b
, = 2 3-b/X
T
he ma in -beam max imum i si n the direct
ion 0 = 4 ) = 0i n Fig . 4-43.
I
n ( 4
-156), 0= 0a t the equator, while in (4-155
), 0 = 0a t the north
p
ole. F or large array
s a nd relat
ively s harp beam s we c
an t he
re fore re-
p
lace si
n 0a nd sin 4
)in (4-156) by the a ngles
, whi
le sin 0in (4
-155 ) can
b
e set equal to uni
ty. A ssum ing that the array isun
idire
ctional ( no fi
e
ld
i
n —x d irect
ion )
, the i
ntegral inthe denom inator of (
4
-155) then b ecome s
r/2 r/2
IJ
r s
i
n' (i
rc
tOIX
)si
n' (Tb4
)/X
) d
o 4
(
4
-157
)
(
7a0/X)2 (
rb
4)/X
)2
-.12 -r
/2
S
ec
. 4
-
13] ARRAYS OF POINT SOURCES 1
21
Making t
he lim
its o
fintegrat
ion — coto -I
-coi n
stead of —7/2 to +7/2
,
(
4-
157 ) may be eva
luated as X2/ab
. T he
refore
, t he app
roximate di
rec
-
t
iv
ity D o f al a
rge unid
irect
ional r
ec
tangu la
r b road
side array wi
th a
u
niform ampl
itude d
ist
ribution i
s
4
7ab a
b
D = —r- = 1
2
.6 (
4
-158
)
X
A
s an example, t
he direct
ivi
ty of ab roads
ide array of he
igh t a= 1 0 X
a
nd le
ngth b = 20 Xi sfr
om ( 4
-158) equal to2,520, o
r3 4d b.
Bythe app
roxima t
ef ormula of(4-154), and t
aking the h
alf-powerbeam
w
idthsgiven by (
4-151), t
he di
rect
iv i
ty o f al
arge un
idirec
tional broad
side
a
rray w
ith au n
ifo
rm a mpl
itude di
st r
ibu t
ion isapproximately
4
1 '2
53ab a
b
D= 5
12 X , - 1
5
.9 X
-
5 (
4
-159
)
T
his i
sabou
t25 p
erc
ent
, o
r 1d
b, h
igher t
han t
he v
alue g
iven b
y (
4
-158
).
PROBLE MS
4
-1
. a
. S
how tha
t the re
lat
ive E(0) pattern o
f an a
rray of two i
den
tica
l
i
s
otrop
ic i
n-p
hase po
int s
ources a
rranged a
s i
n the f
i
gur
e isgi
ven by
B
() = cos [
(
d,/2
) sin4
], where d
,= 2 vd/X
.
b
.Show t
hat t
he m
axima
, n
ul
ls, a
nd h
a
lf-pow
er p
oin
ts o
fthe p
att
ern a
re
g
iven b
y t
he f
o
llow
ing r
e
lat
ion
s:
Max
ima
: 4
)= a
rcs
in (± 1)
k X
]
Nu
lls
: 4
)= a
rcs
in [ (
2 4
- 1
)
2
d
[ (
2k + 1
)X]
Ha
lf-power p
oint
s: 4
)= a
rcs
in
4
d
w
here k = 0
, 1
,2, 3. .
1
22 ANTENNAS (
CHAP
. 4
c
. F
o r d= Xf ind t
he max ima, null
s, and hal
f-powerp oint
s, and fr
om t hese
p
oints and a ny a dditional points that may b e needed p l
ot the E (
4))
p
attern for 0° < 4 ,< 3 60°
. T here are four maxima, four null
s, and
e
i
gh t ha
lf-pow e
r p oints.
d
. R
epea t f
or d = 3X /2.
e
. R
ep eat f
or d = 4X .
f
. R
ep eat f
or d= X /4. N ote that this pa
tt e
rn has two maxima a nd two
h
a
l f
-pow er points b u
t n o nu
lls
. T he h
alf-power po
ints a
r e minima.
4
-2
. a
. D
e r
ive an e xpres
sion f or E(0) f o
r an array of fo
ur identical i
sotropic
p
oint s
our ce
s arrang ed asi nthe figure
.
d—0
-£A•
4—d —— — ——
The s pa cing db etw een each s ource a nd t he cent e

r point oft he a r
ray is
3X /8. S ources 1a nd 2 a re i np ha se, a nd sour ces 3a nd 4 i no pposite
p
ha se w i th respect t o 1a nd 2 .
b
. P
lot, a pp roxima tely, the norma lized f i
eld p a
t te
rn .
4
-3
. a
. Wha ti sthe expression forE (4
))f ora na rray oft wo p o
ints our ce
sa rranged
a
si nt he f i
gure for Prob. 1. T he s pa cing di s 3X/8. T he a mplitude of
s
our ce 1i nt he 4, pl
ane i sgiven b y Ic os4 )I,a nd the phas e by4 )
. T he
amp li
tude o fs ource 2 i sgiven b y Ic os (4
)— 4 5°) I,and t he pha se by
— 4 5°.
b
. P
lott he n orma l
ized amp l
itude a nd t he p haseo fE (4) ref
e r
ring the p hase
t
ot he c enter point oft he array.
4
-4
. a
. Derive a n exp r
e s
sion f or E(0) f o
r al inear in-pha se broadside a rray of
f
our i d en t
ical isotropic point s our ces. T ake c i
) = 0i n t he broad side
d
irec t
ion . T he spa c
ing b etw een s ou rces is5 X/8.
b
. P
lot, a pp roxima tely, the norma lized f i
eld p a
tt e
rn ( 0
° <4 ,< 3 60°).
c
. Rep eat p arts aa nd bw ith the c hang ed c ondition that the amp litudeso f
t
he f ou r sources a re propo rtional t o the c oef f
ic
ients o f the binom ial
s
erie s for (a+b )
.- 1 .
4
-5
. a
. C
alculate and plot cos 0a s x,a nd cos 30 as y,f o
r —1 < x < +1 .
C
ompa re w
ith the curve fo
r T.(x).
b
. C
alculate a
nd plotc os 0asx,a nd cos6 0asy ,for —1 < x< +1 . Com -
p
are with t
he curve for T6(x)
.
4
-6
. a
. F
ind the Do
lph -Tcheby schef currentdist
ribution f
ort he min
imum beam
w
idth of ali
neari n
-pha sebroad s
ide array offive i
s
otropic po
int s
our
ces
.
T
he spacing b
etwe en source
si sIw ave
length, and t
he side
-lobe l
e
vel i
sto
b
e 20 db down. T ake (A= 0i nt he b
road s
ide dire
ction.
b
. L
ocate the nu
lls and m axima oft he minor lo
be s
.
ARRAYS OF POINT SOURCES 1
23
c
. Plo t, a pproxima tely, the no rma lized fi
eld p atte rn (0° <4 .< 3 60°).
d
. Wha ti st he h a
lf-pow erb eam w id th?
4
-7. a
. Find t he Do lph-Tcheby schef c ur rentd i
s tribu tion f o
rt he m inimum b eam
wid th o f al i
nea r i n
-pha se b road side a rray o f eight i sotrop ic s ource s
.
T he s pa c
ing b etwe en element si s Iw aveleng th, a nd the s ide-
lobe l evel is
t
ob e4 0d b down . T ake q!
) = 0i nt he b road side d ir
ec tion .
b
. L oca te the n u
lls and t he max ima o fthe m ino rl obes.
c
. Plo t, a pproxima te
ly , the norma lized f i
eld p atte rn (0° <c k< 3 60°).
d
. Wha t ist he h a
lf-pow er beam w idth?
4
-8
. a. D erive a ne xpre ss
ion f o
r E(0 ) fo ra n array o f ni dentical i so
t ropic p oint
s
our cesw he re 0= f (4
),d ,6)
. 4 )i sthe az
imu thal p osit
ion a ngle w ith 0= 0
i
nt he direction o ft he array. 6i sthe p has e lag b etwe en s our ces aso ne
move sa l
ong t he a rray i nthe 0 = 0 °d i
r ection a nd di st he s pacing .
b
. P
lo tt he n orma lized f i
eld aso rdina tea nd 1 /asa bscis
sa f or n= 2 ,4 ,6 ,8,
1
0, a nd 1 2f or0 ° < 0< 1 80°.
4
-9
. a. Plo tE (0 ) fora ne nd -fi
r earray o f n= 1 0i den t
i cali s
otrop ic p oints our ces
s
pa ced 3X /8 a pa r
t w ith 6= — 3 214.
b
. R ep eat w ith 6= —1 -[
(3/4 ) + ( 1/n )
].
4
-10. a
. C a
lcu latet he directivity of ab road s
ide a r ray o ft wo id entica li s
otrop ic
i
n-pha se p o
in t sour ces spaced 4w aveleng th a pa r
t along t he p olar a x
is,
t
he field p attern b eing given b y
E= c
os (
1 co
s 0
)
2
w
here 0i
sthe p
ola
r a ng
le.
b
. S
how t
hatthe d
i
rectiv
ity fo
r ab
roads
ide a
rray o
ftwo i
den
tica
lis
otrop
ic
i
n
-phas
e po
int s
ources s
paced adi
stance di
sgiven b
y
2
D —
1-
I
- (
X/ 2
7
rd) s
in (
27a/X
)
4
-11
. a
. C
alcula
te the d
ir
ect
ivity o
fan end-f
ire ar
ray oft wo i
den
tica
l i
sot
rop
ic
p
o
in tsourcesinphase o
ppo
sit
ion, spaced 4w ave
length a
part a
l
ong t
he
p
olaraxis
, the r
e
lat
ive f
i
eld p
attern being g
iven by
E= s
in (1 c
os 0
)
2
where 0isthe p
o
lar angle
.
b
. S
how t ha
t the d
i
rect
ivity ofan o
rdina
ry end
-fi
re array o
ftwo i
d
ent
ica
l
i
s
o t
ropic po
int s
our
ces spaced adi
stance di
sg iven by
2
D —
1+ (
X/4
2-d
) s
in (
47d/X
)
4
-12. Ab roadcast
ing s
t
ation r
equi
res t
he ho
rizontal p
lane p
attern i
ndica
ted b
y
t
he f
igure
. T he m ax
imum f i
e
ld in
tens
ity i
stob e r
adiat
ed nor
thea st w
ith a
s l
i
tt
le
d
ecr
ea se a
sp o
ssib
le inf
i
eld i
nten
sity i
nthe 9
0°secto
r between north a
nd eas
t. No
1
24 ANTENNAS [
CHAP
. 4
n
ull
sa rep ermi
tted inth
issecto
r. Nu lls may o
ccur i
nany di
rect
ion inthe comple-
mentary 270° se
ctor
. H owever, itisrequir
ed tha
t nu
lls must b
e pre
sen t fo
r the
d
irect
ions ofd ue west a
nd due southwest, ino
rder t
o pr
even t i
nt
erference with
o
thers t
ationsi nthe
se di
rec
tions
.
NE
MOX
I
ntens
ity nearly
un
ifor m
N
ull
45 .
SW
Des
ign af o
u r
-vert
ical
-towerarray tofu
lf
il
lt hese r
equi
rements
. T he c
urr
en t
sa re
t
obee qual in magni
tude inal
l towers
, butthe phase may beadjus
t ed t
oa ny re
la-
t
i
onship. T hereisalso n
ores
trict
ion onthe spac
ing orgeometr
icalarrangemen t
so f
t
he t
owe r
s. P lotthe fi
e
ld pa
ttern.
4
-13. Calculate and p
lot t
he fi
eld and p
ha se pa
tterns f
or a
n array oft wo is
o-
t
rop
ic source
s oft he s
ame amplitude and p
ha se
, fo
r two ca
ses
:
a
. d= -
3 X
4
b
. d= -
3 X
2
P
lotthe fi
e
ld pat
tern inp ola
r coo
rdina
tes and p
hase pa
ttern i
nrectan
-
g
ula
rc oordina
tes wi
th
1
.P hase c
enter a
ts ource 1
2
. Phase c
enter a
tm id-point
4
-14
. C a
lculate a
nd plot t
he fi
e
ld a nd p
hase p
atte
rns o
fan array o
ft wo n
oniso
-
t
r
opic d
is
similar s
ources f
or wh
ich t he t
ota
l fi
e
ld i
sgiven b
y
E= c
osc
h± s
in Ob
i,
w
here 1
,
Ga= d
, c
o
s4. + 3= (
cos4
) 1
)
T
ake s
our
ce 1a
sthe r
e
fer
ence f
o
rpha
se.
ARRAYS OF POI NT SOURCES 1
25
4-15. C a
lcula
te the Dolph-Tchebyschef d i
stribution of asi
x-sou
rce broadside
a
rray forR= 5 ,7
,a nd 10
. E xplain t
he v a
riation.
4
-16 . InC ase 5ofSec
. 4-2 f
ort wo i
sotropic poin
ts ources o
funequal ampli
tude
a
nd a ny phase d
ife
rence show thatthe phase angle o
ft he t
ota
lfi
eld w
ith mid-point
o
ft he ar
ray asp ha
se center i
sgiven by
a
rctan (a 1 t
an t)
a± 1 2
4
-17
. Ca
lcu
late a
nd p
lot t
he f
i
e
ld and p
has
e p
att
ern
s f
o
r t
he c
ase
s o
fFig
. 4
-21
a
nd 4-
22 a
nd c
ompare w
ith t
he c
urve
s s
hown.
4
-18. a . Wha ti sa n e xpre ssion f or t he f i
e
ld p at tern o fa n a rray o ff ive iden t
ical
i
sotrop ic p oin t s our ce s a rrang ed i nl ine a nd s pa ced ad istance da par t
?
The p has e l ead o fs our ce 2o ver 1 , 3o ve r 2 ,e tc., i sa .
b
. Wha t v alue s hould a h ave t o mak e t he a rray ab road side t ype ? F o
r
t
hi s b road side c a se w ha t a r e the r ela tive c ur ren t magn itude s o f the
s
our ce s f or
1
. Max imum d ire ctiv ity
2
. N o s ide l obes
3
. S ide l o be s e qua l i n magn itude t o "ma in" l o be
4
-19. Ab roadca st ar ray o ft wo v er t
ical t ow ers w ith e qua l c urren ts i stoh ave a
h
orizon talp lane p a tt
e rn w ith ab road max imum o ff i
eld i nten sity t ot he n orth a nd a
n
ul a ta n azimu th a ng le o f1 31 °m ea su red c oun terclo ckw i se f r
om t he n orth. S pec-
i
fyt he arrang emen t oft he t ow ers, t heirs pacing , a nd p ha sing . C alculate a nd p l o
t
t
he fie
ld p atte rn i nt he h orizon tal p lane .
4
-20. Ab roadca sta rray w ith t hree v er t
icalt ow e rsa r
rang ed i n as t
raigh th o rizon-
t
a
ll i
ne ist oh ave ah orizonta lp lane p a ttern w ith ab road m aximum o ff i
eld inten sity
t
ot hen orth a nd n ul
lsa ta z
imu th a ngle so f1 05 °, 1 47 °
, a nd 2 13 °m ea sured c ount e r
-
c
lockw isef rom t he n o rth . T he t ow ers n eed n o th av ee qua l c ur rents. F ort he p ur-
p
ose ofa nalysi s t he c ent e r tow er ( No. 2 ) may b e r e garded a s t wo t owe rs, one b e
-
l
onging t oa n a rray o ft owe r
s 1a nd 2a nd t he o the r t oa n a rray o ft owe rs 2a nd 3 .
S
p ec
ify t he arrang emen to ft ow ers, t he i
rs pacing , c urr ent s
, a nd p hasing. C alcu late
a
nd p lott he f i
eld p att ern i nt he h ori zon tal pl ane.
4
-21. Ab roadca sta r ray o ff ou rv er t
ical t ow ers w ith e qua l c urren ts i stoh ave a
s
ymme trical f ou r-lobed p atte rn i n t he h or
izon tal p lane w i th max imum f i
eld i n
-
t
ensity tot he n orth ,e ast,s outh ,a nd w e
sta nd ar educed f ield i nten s
ity t ot he n orth-
e
ast
,s ou thea st
,s ou thwe st,a nd n o rthwe st e qua l too ne-ha l ft he max imum . S pecify
t
he array a rrang emen t
, o rienta tion , s pacing, a nd p ha sing . C a
lcu la te a nd plo t the
f
i
eld p a
t tern i nt he h orizon tal p lane .
4
-22. a . C alcu la tea nd p lot t he f i
eld p a t
te rn o f al i
nea r a rray o fe igh t is
ot ropic
p
oin t s our ce s o fe qua l amp litude s paced 0 .2 w ave leng th a part f or the
o
rdina ry e nd -f
i re c ond ition .
b
. R ep ea t, assum ing t ha t the p ha s
ing s atisfiest he H ans en a nd Woodya rd
i
ncrea s ed d ir ec t
ivi ty c ond ition.
C
.C a
lcu la te t he d ire ctivi ty i nb oth c ases b y g raph ica l i n
teg ra t
ion o ft he
e
ntir e p atte rn .
1
26 ANTENNAS [
CHAp
. 4
4
-23. C alcula te a nd p lot t he p atte rns i nb o th p lane s p e rpend icu lar t o ar ectan -
g
ula rs he e
tc a rrying ac u rrento fu nifo rm d en sity a nd e ve rywhe r eo ft he s ame d i
r ec-
t
ion a nd p hase i ft he s hee t m ea sures 1 0 b y 2 0 w ave leng th s. Wha t ist he a pprox i-
mate d irectivity?
4
-24. a . C a
lcu la te a nd p lot t he f i
eld p att e
rn o f al inea re nd -fi
r e array o f 12 i s
o-
t
r opic p oin ts ource s ofe qua l a mpli tude s pac ed w ave leng th a part f o
r
t
he o rdina ry e nd-fire cond i t
ion .
b
. C a
lcu la te t he d irectivity b yg raph i cali nteg ra tion o ft he e ntirep attern .
No tet ha ti ti sthe p owe rp atte rn ( squa reo ff ie
ld p at t
e rn) w h
ich i stob e
integ rated . I ti s mo stc onven ien tt o make t he a rray a xis coinc ide w i th
the p ola ro r za x
iso fF ig.2 -2s ot ha tt he p a tter ni s af unc t
ion o nly o fO .
c
. C a
lcu la te t he d ir ectivity b y t he a pp rox ima te h a
l f-pow er b eam -wid th
m ethod , a nd c ompa re w ith t ha t o btained i n ( b)
.
4-25. a . C alcu la tea nd p lott he p at tern o f al i
nea rb road side a rray o f1 2i sotrop ic
poin t s ou rce s ofe qual amp litude s pa ced w aveleng th a pa rt w ith a l
s
our ce s int he same p ha se.
b
. C a
lcu la te t he d i
rec tivity b yg raph ica l i n
t eg ra tion o ft he en t
i re p attern ,
and c ompa re w ith t he d irectiv ity o btained i nP rob . 2 4f ort he s ame s ize
array o p era ting e nd f i
r e.
c
. C alcu la te t he d ire ctiv
i ty b y t he a pp rox ima te h a
lf-pow e
r b eam -wid th
m ethod , a nd c ompa re w ith t ha t o b tained i n( b).
4
-28. a . C a
lcu la te a nd p lot t he p atte rn o f al inea re nd -f irea rray o f1 2i sot
rop ic
poin ts ou r ce so fe qua la mp litude s pa ced w ave leng th a parta nd p ha sed
t
o f ulfil
l t he H an sen a nd Woodya rd i ncr ea sed -d ire ct
iv ity c ond i t
ion .
b
. C alcu la tet he d i
re ctivity b yg raph ica l i n
teg ra tion o ft he entir e p attern ,
and c ompa re w ith t he d ire c
tiv ity o btained i nP rob . 4-24 a nd 4 -25.
c
. C alcu la te t he d irec t
ivity b y t he a pprox ima t e h a
lf-pow e
r b eam -wid th
m ethod , a nd c ompa re w ith t ha t o btained i n ( b
).
4
-27. R eferring t oF ig. 4-18 a s
sume t ha t the u niform a rray o f ni sotrop ic p oin t
s
our ces i sconne cted b y at ra nsm ission s ys tem e xt end ing a long t he a rray w ith t he
f
eed p o
in tats ou r ce 1s ot hatt he p hase o fs our ce 2l ags 1b yc o
d/ v,3l ags 1b y2 tod/ v,
e
tc.
,w here vi st he p ha se v e
loc ity tot he r igh ta long t he t r an sm ission s ys tem . S how
t
hat t he f a
r f i
eld i sg iven b y ( 4
-5 1) w her e = d ,[co sc t
s— ( 14 )], w he re pi st he
r
e
la tive p hase v elo city ,i .
e. p= v /cw here ci st he v e
loc i ty o fl i
gh t
. S how a l
so t ha t
p= c of orthe b road side c ase, p = 2f or max imum f ie
ld a ti t
)= 6 0 °, p = 1f oro rd i-
n
ary e nd -f
irec ase,a nd p= 1 /[1 (1/2nd) ] fori ncrea sed -d ir
ec tiv ity end -firec ase.
4
-28. C onside r t ha t t he a rray o fd isc re te s ource s i nF ig. 4 -18 i srepla ced b y a
c
ontinuou sa r
ray o fl eng th L a nd a ssume t ha ti ti se ne rgized l i
ke t he a rray o fP rob .
4
-27. S how t ha t the f ar f i
eld f ort he g ene ral c ase o fa ny p hase l a g $3
'p er u n
it d is-
t
ance a long t he c on tinuou sa rray i sg i ven b y ( 4-145 ) w he re 4 / = L , cos — L=
L
,[co s
tp— ( 1/p )), w he re p= v /ca si nP rob .4 -27. S how a lso t hatf orthe f o urc ase s
c
onside r ed inP rob . 4 - 27 t he p v a
lue s a re t he s ame e xcep t f o
r t he i ncrea sed -dire c-
t
iv
ity e nd-f
ire c a se w he r e p= 1 /[1 (1/2/4 )].
CHAPTER 5
THE ELECTRIC D
IPOLE AND
THIN LINEAR ANTENNAS
5
-1. T he S hort Electric D ipo le. S ince a ny l i
neara n
tenna may b e con -
s
i
de red a s con sist
ing o f al arge n umbe r of v ery s hort c onductors c on -
n
ected i ns er
ie s, iti sof i ntere st to e xam ine firs
t the r adiation proper t
ie s
o
f short c onduc tors. F rom a k nowledge o f t he prope rt
ie s of s
hor t con -
d
ucto r
s, w e can t hen p ro ceed t o ast udy o fl ong li
nea r conduc to
rs s uch a s
a
re common ly e mployed i np rac t
ice.
As hortl i
nea rconduc to r iso f
ten c aled as hortdip ole
. I n the fo
llow ing
d
i
scu ss
ion , as hort dipole i sa lway s offinite length e ven though i t may b e
v
ery sho r
t. I ft he dipole i sv anishingly s hort, itisa n inf
initesimal d ipole
.
Let us con s
ide r as hor t dipo le such a s shown i nFig. 5 -1a. T he l ength
Li sv ery shor t compa red t o t he w aveleng th
(
L < X )
. P la tes at t he e nd s o f the d ipole +
q
I
i
p
rovide c apa c
itance l oad ing. T he s
ho rtl ength — I T I
a
nd t he p resence o f the se p lates result i n a L L
u
niform c urren t Ia l
ong t he e nt
ire l e
ng th L T ra
nn
e
smiss
ion I I
o
f t he dipo le. T he d ipole may b e energized •-q
b
y ab a
lanced t r
an sm iss
ion l ine, a
ss hown. I t (
a
) (
b)
i
sa ssumed t ha tthe t ransm ission li
ne does n ot Ma . 5-1
. A s hort dipole
r
adia te and , therefore
, i t
s p resence wi
ll be dis- a ntenna (a
) a nd it
s equiva-
r
ega rded, Rad iation f rom t he end p lates is l ent (
b
).
a
lso c ons
ide red t ob en egl
ig ible. T he diame ter
doft he d ipole iss mal
lc ompared t oi t
sl e
ng th (d<<L ). T hus,f orp urpo ses
o
fa na lysis w e may c on s
ide r t hat t
he short dipole appears as inF ig. 5-1b.
Here i tc onsists simply o f at h
in conduc tor of le
ng th L with a u ni
fo rm
c
urren t Ia nd p oint c harge s qa t the ends. T he curr
en t and c harge a re
r
e
la ted b y
F
i
g = (
5
-1)
d
l
5-2
. T
he F
ie
lds o
f aS
hor
t D
ipo
le.
' L
et u
s n
ow p
roceed t
o f
i
nd t
he
1J
. Aharoni
, " Antennae
," O x
ford Un
iver
sity P
res
s, New Y o
rk, 1946
, p. 16.
A
. A
lford, Ultra-
short Electromagnet
ic Waves
: Radia
tion
, Elec
. E ng
., Ju
ly, 1
943
.
Ramo and Wh innery, "Fie
ld sand Wavesin Modern Rad
io," John Wiley and S
ons
,
I
nc
., New Y o
rk, 1944, p.430.
1
27
1
28 ANTE N N AS [
CRAP
. 5
f
i
elds eve
rywhe re around a s
hor
t dipole
. L e
t the d
ipole of l
ength L b
e
p
laced co
incident with t
he zaxi
s and w i
th i t
s c
ente
r at the o
rigin a
s i
n
F
ig. 5-
2. T he re
lation of t
he e
le
ctric fi
eld components
, E . and E0 is
t
hen as shown. I t isas
sumed that the m ed
ium surrounding the d
ipo
le
i
sairorv acuum.
D
i
pole
X
Fm. 5-2
. R
ela
tion o
f d
ipo
le t
o c
oord
i- F
in. 5
-3
. G
eome
try f
o
rshor
tdipo
le.
n
ates
.
E
lec
tric a nd magne tic fi
elds can b e expressed in te
rm s of vector a nd
s
calar potentials
. S ince w e wil
l be i n
terested not on
ly i nt he fi
e
ld s near
t
he dipole b ut also a t di
stances w hich are l a
rge compa red to the w ave-
l
ength, w e mu s
t u se r e
tarded p otentials
, t hat i
s
, e xpress
ions i nvolving
t— r /c
. F or ad ipole located as in Fig. 5 -2 o
r Fig. 5-3
, the r e
ta rded
v
ector p ot
en tial of the el
ectric current has o n
ly one componen t, n amely,
A. I tsv alue is
A = f"
2 M d
z (
5
-2)
4
T -L/2 8
w
here [
I
] i
sthe r
e
tarded c
urren
tgi
ven b
y
[
i
] = 4
e 1"
(110
- (
5
-3)
I
n (5-2
) a nd (5-3)
z =d istance to apoint on the c
onductor
/0 = peak v alue i
ntime o fcurren
t (uni
form along dipole
)
=p ermeab ili
ty offre
e s pa
ce
I
ft he dis
tance f rom the dipole isla
rge compared t o i
ts l
ength (r>> L)
a
nd i fthe w avelength islarge compared to t
he length (A >> L
), we can
p
ut a = ra nd n eg
lec
t t he phase dife
rences of the fi
eld con
tribu
tions
Sz
e
. 5
-
2] THI N L
I N E A R AN TE N N AS 1
29
f
r
om d if
erent p
arts o
f the w
ire
. T he i
nteg
rand i
n (
5
-2) c
an t
hen b
e
r
ega
rded as ac
ons
tant, s
o t
hat (
5-2
) b
ecomes
A .
(
5-4)
4
rr
T
he r
e
tarded s
ca
larp
oten
tia
l Vo
f ac
harge d
i
str
ibu
tion i
s
v = 1 f[
p
] (IT (
5
-5)
4
re Jv 8 -
w
here [
p
] i
sthe r
e
tarded c
harge d
ens
ity g
i
ven b
y
[
p
i=p
o
e
—o —D (
5
-6)
a
nd d r = i
nf
inite
simal volume element
e= d
ie
lectr
ic constant o
ff r
ee space
S
ince the r
egion of cha
rge in the ca
se o f t
he dipo
le be
ing cons
ide
red i
s
c
onfined t
o t
he point
s at the e
nd s a
s inFig. 5
-1b
, (5-5
) r
educe
s to
1{
10 — 1
0}
V= — (
5
-7)
4
1
re St 83
F
rom (
5
-1) a
nd (
5
-3)
[
q
] = [
I
] d
t = 10 f "
(1- )d
t = (
5
-8)
i
c
o
S
ubs
titu
ting (
5
-8) i
n
to (
5
-7)
,
-
\ \
T
op
o
int
V—4
re
/
0
jw P
F
e
s"(1
- e(
* )] (
5
-9)
L
Refer
ring to F
ig. 5
-4, when r>> L,
t
he line
s connect
ing the ends o
fthe
d
ipole and t
he poin
t P may b e c
on-
s
idered as p
ara
lle
l so t
hat
D
i
pole 4
.
C°
81 = r— —
2 c
os 0 (
5
-10
) no
. 5
-4
. R
ela
tion
s f
o
rshor
tdipo
le w
hen
r> L
.
a
nd
8
, = r± —
2 c
os 0 (
5
-11
)
S
ubs
titu
ting (
5
-10
) a
nd (
5
-11
) i
n
to (
5
-9) a
nd c
l
ear
ing f
r
act
ion
s, w
e h
ave
1
30 ANTEN NAS [
CHAP
. 5
.
e
aL d
os •( L aw
l
h e i
. (t
—i) re r c
o
s — 2
, — c
os 0
)
V— (
5
-12
)
4
re
jc
a L r2
wher
e t
he te
rm L2 c
os2 0
/4 i
nthe d
enomina
torh asb
een neg
lected i
ncom-
p
ari
son wi
th r2b
y assuming t
hat r>> L
. B y d
e Mo
ivre
's theorem (
5-12
)
b
ecomes
.
w
e -D c
os c
o
L c
os 0 L
V— 4
re
jcu
r2 [(c
°8 a
, 2
c ± js
i
n 2
c Xr c
os
( coL c
os 0 .. c
o
s 0
)( L
_ c
os 2
c Is
m 2
c r— c
o
s 0
)
] (
5
-13
)
I
fthe w
ave
leng
th i
s much g
rea
ter t
han t
he l
e
ngth o
fthe d
ipo
le (
X>> L
)
,
t
hen
c
o
L c
os 0 r
L c
os 0
c
os — c
os 1 (
5
-14
)
2
c X
A
i
nd
s
i
n c
o
L c
os 0 ca
l
. c
os 0
(
5
-15
)
2
c —
I
ntroduc
ing (5
-14) and (5
-15
) i
n
to (
5
-13
), t
he e
xpre
ssion f
o
r t
he s
ca
lar
p
otent
ial t
hen r
educe
s to
.
1
7 /0/
,co
s 0ei"
(
` -i
)(1 c
(
5
-16
)
4r
ec \
r j
c
o r/
Equations (5-4
) a nd (5-16) express t
he vectora nd scalarp otent
ia ls every-
where due to as ho r
t d ipole
. T he only restr
ict
ion s are that r> > La nd
X> L . T hese equations g i
ve the vector and sca
la r potentia
ls a t ap oint
Pi n te
rm s of the distance rt o the point from t he cente
r o f the dipole,
t
he angle 0 ,the l e
ngth o f the dipo
le L , the current o n the dipole
, a nd
s
ome c onstants
.
Know ing the vector p ot
en t
ial Aa nd the sca
lar p o
ten t
ial V, the electric
a
nd magne t
ic fi
elds may t hen b e o
btained from the relat
ion s
E= —
jc
eA — V V (
5
-17
)
a
nd
H =—
1V X A (
5
-18
)
I
L
I
twil
l be d
es
irab
le to o
btain E a
nd H i
npola
r coo
rdina
tes
. T
he p
o
lar
c
oord
inate c
omponent
sf o
rt he v
ecto
rpoten
tia
la re
A= a
,A, a
,A, a
,A, (
5
-19
)
SE
C
. 5
.
2] THI N L
I N EA R AN TE N N AS 1
31
S
ince t
he v
ector p
otentia
l f
or t
he d
ipo
le ha
s o
nly azc
omponen
t, A
, = 0
,
a
nd A, and A
, are g
iven by (
s
ee F
ig. 5
-5
)
A
, = A
, c
os 0 (
5
-20
)
A
, = —A
,si
n 0 (
5
-21
)
w
here A
, i
sasg
iven b
y (
54)
. I
n p
o
lar c
oord
ina
tes t
he g
rad
ien
tof Vi
s
1a
v 1 aV
V V= a
, -- a
• (
5
-22
)
(
1
r r a
0 rs
i
n 0a
o
C
alcu
lat
ing now t
he e
l
ect
ric f
i
eld E f
rom (
5
-17
), l
e
t u
s f
i
rs
t e
xpre
ss E
i
nit
s po
larcoo
rdina
te c
omponent
s. T hus
,
E= a
,E, afEe as.
E
. (
5
-23
)
F
rom ( 5
-17
), (
5-19
) and (
5
-22) t
he
t
hree c
omponen
ts of Ea
re t
hen
A
, A
,
a
V
E
, = —-
a—
r (
5
-24
)
1a
v
E
.= — (
5
-25
)
F
in. 5
-5
. R
eso
lut
ion o
fvec
torp
otent
ial
1 aV (
5
-26
) i
n
to A
, a
nd A
, c
omponen
ts.
= —
jc0A,
rs
i
n oa
4)
I
n (5
-26) A, = 0
. T he s
econd t
erm i
sa l
so ze
ro s
i
nce V i
n (5
-16) i
sinde
-
p
endento f4
,sothat aV/a4
) =0 . Therefore
, E, =0. S
ubsti
tu t
ing (
5-20
)
i
n
to (5-24
) and (
5-21
) into (5
-25
), w
e have
E
, = —
jtaA
, c
os 0— .
17 (
5
-27
)
a
nd
b y
E
, =j
c
oA,s
i
n 0— o-
T (
5
-28
)
I
ntroducing n
ow t
he v
a
lues o
fA,from (5
-4) a
nd V fr
om (5
-16) i
n
to (
5
-27
)
a
nd (5-28) a
nd p
er
form
ing t
he i
nd
icated o
pera
tions
, we o
btain
1
,1
,co
s 0e
l"
(s j_ 1)
E
, — 2 -I
- • (
5
-29
)
2
re .
7
c
or3
a
nd
E
t /oL
sin O
c"(
`- ) + .
1 a)
(
5
-30
)
4
re \
cr 3 i
co
r/
1
32 AN TE N N AS [
CHAP
. 5
I
n obta
ining (5
-29) and ( 5
-30
) the r
elat
ion was u
sed t
hat µ = 1/c 2,
w
here c= velo
city o
fl i
ght.
T
urning o
urattent
ion n ow t
othe magnet
ic f
i
e
ld, t
h
is may b
eca
lcu
lated
b
y (5
-18)
. I n p
olar c
oordinate
s t
he c
url o
fAi s
A a' [
0(rs
i
n 0
)A o a
(
rA t)
]
V X — .
rs
2i
f
t e a
e a
d
,
a
, aA
, a
(
rsi
n O
tto
± rs
i
n e[ a
o ]
o
r
[
a
(7 q
_
. 8
A]
r a
r W . (
5
-31
)
S
ince A, = 0 ,the fi
rs
t and f ourth t
erm s o
f (5
-31) are zero. F rom (5
-4)
a
nd (5-20
) a nd (5
-21) w e n ote that A, a nd At are independent of0, so
t
hat the s
econd and third t erm s of (
5-31) are a
lso zero
. T hus
, on
ly the
l
ast t
wo terms in (
5-31) c
en tribut e s
o that VXA , and hence a l
so H
,h ave
o
nly a 4,c omponent. I n troducing ( 5-20) and ( 5
-21) in to (5
-31)
, p e
r-
f
orming t
he i nd
ica
ted o peration s
, and s ubst
itut
ing this re
su lt i
nto (
5-
18),
we h
ave
1 I= H
, — 1°
Ls
in 0e' (
s
-D (i
. ± 1
)
(
5
-32
)
4
7 c
7 -
2
r
a
nd
H
, = Ho = 0 (
5
-33
)
Thu
s, the fi
e
lds from t he dipole have on
ly three c
omponen t
s E „ Et,
a
nd 1/0. The componen t
s Eo,H„ a nd He a
ree ve
rywhe re z
ero.
When ri svery l
arge, t
he term s i
n 1/r2 and 1
/r3 i
n (5
-29), (5
-30)
, and
(
5
-32) can be negle
cted i n f
avo r o
f the te
rm s i
n 1/r
. T hus
, i n t
he fa
r
f
i
e
ld E, isneg
ligib
le, and weh ave efec
tively on
ly two f
i
eld components, Et
a
nd H., g
iven by
Et — j
uLL s
i
n0 e"(')
(
5
-34
)
4
7
rec2r
a
nd
Ho — i
wIoLs
i
n 0 (
5
-35
)
4
i
rcr
T
aking t
he r
a
tio o
f Et t
o Ho a
sgi
ven b
y (
5
-34
) a
nd (
5
-35
), w
e o
bta
in
Et 1
•= e
--=
c NF
: = 3
77 o
hms (
5
-36
)
T
his i
sthe i
n
trin
sic i
mpedance o
ffr
ee s
pace
.
Sz
e
.
. 5
-
2] THI N L
I NEA R ANTE N N AS 1
33
C
omparing (5
-34
) a
nd (5
-35) we n
ote t
hat E• a
nd Ho ar
e intime p
hase
i
n the f
ar f
i
e
ld. We n o
te also t
hat t
he fi
eld pa
tterns o
f both a
re p
ro-
p
ort
ional t
o si
n 0. T
he pattern i
sindependen
t o f 4
, s
o tha
t the s
pace
p
at te rn isd oughnut -shaped, b eing a f i
gure ofr evolution ofthe p a
tt ern in
F
ig. 5 -6a a bou t the a xis of the d ipo le. R efer r
ing t o the near-f
ield e x-
p
re ssion s given b y ( 5-29), (5
-30 ), a nd ( 5
-32), w e n ote tha
t for as mall r
t
he e lectr
ic f i
eld has t wo c omponen ts Er and Eo,w hich are both int ime
p
hase q uad rature w ith t he magne tic f i
e
ld, a s in ar e
sonator. A t i n
ter-
med ia te distances, Er a nd Er c an a pp roach time q uadrature so that t he
t
otal e l
ectric f i
e
ld v ector rotate s in ap lane p aral
lel t o t
he d i
rection o f
p
ropaga t
ion , t hus e xhibit
ing t he
p
henomenon o fcross-fie
ld .1 F ort he
E
. a nd Ho c omponent s
, t he n ear-
f
i
eld p at
tern s are t he s ame a s t he
f
ar-f
ie ld p a
tte rns,being p roportiona l D
ipo
le D
ipo
le
t
o s in 0( F
ig . 5-6a
). Howeve r, t he
(
a) (
b
)
n
ea r-field p attern for E , isp ropo r-
t
i
ona l t o cos 0a s indica ted by F ig. FI G
. 5-
6. N ear-and fa
r-f
ie
ld pat
t erns o
f
Et a
nd H# c
omponent
s f
o
r s
hor
t d
ipo
le
5
-6h. T he space p a
ttern fo
r Er isa
(
a
)a nd n
ear
-field p
attern o
fE,componen
t
f
i
gure o f r
evolution of thi
s pattern ( b
).
a
round t he d
ipole axis
.
L
et u
s now c onsider t
he si
tuation a
tv ery l
ow f requenc ies
. T h
is wil
l be
r
eferred toast he quasi
-sta
tionary, o
r d
-c
, case
. S ince from ( 5
-8)
,
[
I
] = /0e1"
(
' -D = j
w
fq) (
5
-37
)
(
5
-29
) a
nd (
5
-30
) c
an b
erewr
itten a
s
[
q
]1
, cos 0O
w, +
(
5
-38
)
Zr
e \
c
r r
a
nd
[
Of
,sin 0( C
O2 j
o 1
) (
5
-39
)
E
, = 4
re c
r c
r r
The magne
tic f
i
e
ld i
sgi
ven b
y (
5
-32
) a
s
1 1
r
i 0t
ko
(
5
-40
)
4
r k
c
r r
A
t low f
r
equenc
ies, c
oa pproa
che
s z
e
ro s
o t
hat t
he t
e
rms w
ith a
,int
he
n
ume ra
torcan b
e neg
lected. A s0
.
1 0
,we a
l
so h
ave
[
q
] = goe
i"(
' -i
) = go (
5
-41
)
IS
ee "Ve
ry High F
requency Technique
s," b
y Rad
io Res
ear
ch L
abo
rato
ry S
taf
,
McGraw
-Hil
l B
ook Company, I
nc
., N ew York
, 1
947
, p
. 1
99
.
1
34 ANTEN N AS [
CHAP
. 5
a
nd
[
I
] =I
. (
5
-42
)
T
hus
, fo
r the q
uasi
-sta
tionary
, o
r d
-
c, c
ase
, t
he f
i
e
ld c
omponen
ts b
ecome
f
r
om (5
-38)
, (5
-39)
, and (5
-40)
,
E'_ 2
1,
L, 7
,_
.1
7
(
5
-43
)
2
7
ree
E 2
./
2 L1
3
1
!_i0
(
5
-44
)
°_ z
i
rer3
H h
,
/,sin 0
(
5
-45
)
#— 4
7
1
1.2
The re
striction t hat r> > Ls t
ill a ppl
ies.
The exp re ss
ions f or the e lectric fie
ld, ( 5
-43 ) a nd ( 5-44) , a re identical
t
o those o btained i ne lectros ta t
ics f o
r the fie
ld o ft wo p oin t c harges, -Fq.
a
nd —q0,s epa rated b y ad istance L . T he re
la tion f o
r t he magne tic fi
eld,
(
5
-45 )
, may b e r ecognized a s t he B iot-Sava rt r e
lation f or t he magne tic
f
i
eld of as ho rte lemen tc a
r rying as t
eady o rs lowly v arying c urrtn t
. S ince
i
n the e xp ression s f or the q uasi-stat
iona ry c ase t he f i
elds d ecrease a s
1
/r2 or 1/r5,t he f ie
lds a re c onfined t o the vicinity oft he d ipole a nd t here
i
snegligible r ad iation. I n t he g eneral expre ss
ion s for t he f i
elds, (5-38),
(
5
-39), a nd ( 5-40 )
, i ti sthe 1 / r term s w h
ich a re i mportan t i nt he far fi
eld
a
nd hence t ake i nto accoun t t he radiation.
The exp re s
sions f o
r t he f i
eld s f r
om a s hort d ipole d eveloped a bove a re
s
umma r
ized i nT able 5 -
1.
I
f w e h ad b een i nterested o n
ly i n the f a
r f ie
ld, t he d evelopment b e-
g
inn
ing w ith ( 5-5) could h ave b een much s imp lif
ied. T he s cala r potential
Vdoe s not c on tribute t o t he f ar fie
ld, so that b oth E a nd H may b e d e-
t
e
rm ined f rom A a lone. T hu s, from ( 5-17)
, Ea nd H o ft he f ar fi
eld may
b
e obtained v e ry simp ly from
I
EI=E
* = —i
c
ol
ie (
5
-45a
)
a
nd
I
H 1= H# = l
' = —° A
. (
5
-45h
)
w
her
e Z = V71/e
- = 377 o
hms
O
r H may b
e o
btained a
sbefo
re f
r
om (
5
-18
) a
nd E f
r
om t
h
is. T
hus
,
. = I
IHI = I
-
1 AIV XIII (
5
-45
c)
a
nd n
eg
lec
ting t
e
rms i
n1/e
,
l
El = Ef = Z
H.= z I
— VX Al (
5
-45d
)
A
TABLE 5
-
1
F
IELDS OF A SHORT ELECTR
IC D
IPOLE*
1
-
3
C
omponent G
ene
ral e
xpre
ssion F
ar f
i
eld Q
uas
i-s
tat
iona
ry
MI
. c
os 0(
12 ± .
1 2) 0 q
oL cos 0
E
,
2
we c
r i
c
or / 2
Tera
MI
,s i
n 0(
co 1 [
I
]Lj
o)s
in 0 j
60w
[I] s
in 0L q0L s
in 0
E
. 2 + 2-I .13
4w
e c
r C
r '
ow ) t
rec2r — r X 4
wer3
[
I
ll, s
i
n 0(
j
ai 1
) [
I
]Ljw s
i
n 0 j
[I
] s
in 0L loL s
in 0
H# + 2 —
4
r c
r r 4
wcr 2
r X 4
17 2
•
The r
es
tric
tion a
ppl
ies t
hat r> L a
nd X> L. T
hequanti
tie
si nt
h
e tab
le a
r
einin
ksuni
ts, t
ha
tis
, Ei
nvolt
s perme
ter
, Hina m
- c
e
p
e
resperm et
er, Ii
na mp
eres
, rinm
ete
rs,et
c. [
i
]isa
sgi
ven b
y (5
-37)
. Thr
eeofth
efi
e
ld c
omponen
tsofa
n e
le
ctr
ic di
pol
e a
reeve
rywh
ere
z
e
ro, t
ha
ti s
,
Ei
o He 0
C
o
C
a
1
36 ANTE N N AS (
CHAP
. 5
5
-3. Rad iat
ion R esistan ce o
fS hort E
lectric Dipole. Let u
s now ca
lcu-
l
a
te the r
ad iation res
istance o fthe shor
t dipole ofF ig
. 5-
1. T h
is may be
d
one asfollow s
. T he P oyn t
ing vector ofthe fa
r f i
e
ld isin
tegra
ted o
ver a
l
a
rge sphe re t o obtain t he tota
l p ower r ad
iated. Th is power i
st hen
e
quated to 12/ ? where I i sthe rms curren
t o n the dipo
le and R i
s ar e
-
s
i
stance
, c al
led the radiation res
istance ofthe dipole
.
The a
verage P oynting v ectorisgiven by
P = iR
e (
E XH
*) (
5
-46
)
T
he f
ar
-f
ie
ld componen
tsa
reE
.and H
,sot
hatt
he r
ad
ialc
omponen
toft
he
P
oyn
ting v
ectoris
P
. = iR
eE.H: (
5
-47
)
w
here and 1
E f 4 a
re c
omplex
.
T
he f
ar
-fie
ld componen
ts a
re r
e
lated b
y t
he i
n
trin
sic i
mpedance o
fthe
med
ium. H ence
,
E
, = H
,Z = H
, \F
: (
5
-48
)
T
hus
, (
5
-47
) b
ecome
s
P
. = iR
e ZH
,H: = 1 I1
4 1
2Re Z = i I141 2 N
iLe
T (
5
-49
)
T
he t
o
tal p
owe
r r
ad
iated W i
sthen
w=fP, d f f
s = 1N a'ff1
e o o
l
"
-1
4i.
r
.s
i
n0d
oc
k
, (
5
-50
)
whe
re t
he ang
les a
re a
sshown i
nFig
. 5
-2 a
nd I
H.
I i
sthe a
bso
lute v
a
lue o
f
t
he magne
tic f
ie
ld, w
hich f
r
om (
5-35
) i
s
IH
, I— c
o
loL s
i
n 0 (
5
-51
)
4
i
rcr
S
ubs
titu
ting t
h
is i
n
to (
5
-50
) w
e h
ave
W — 1
3
\
F
L 0
2/g
L2 r" f's
2 e 72 Jo 0
i
ne 0c
1
0di
t
) (
5
-52
)
U
pon i
n
teg
rat
ing
, (
5
-52
) b
ecome
s
i ei/
32/
:L2
W = (
5
-53
)
12r
Th
is ist
he av
erage powe
r o r ra
te a
t w h
ich ene
rgy isst
reaming ou
t of a
s
phere s
ur
rounding t
he dipole
. H ence
, itisequal t
o t
he power r
adia
ted.
A
ssuming no l
oss
es, i
tisa l
so equa
l to t
he power d
el
ivered t
o the d
ipole
.
SE
C
. 5
4] THI N L
I NE A R ANTEN N AS 1
37
Ther
e fo
re, W mus
t be equa
l t
othe squa
re o
fthe r
msc urren
t /fl
owing on
t
he dipole t
ime
s are
sis
tance R c
a
lled t
he r
ad
iat
ion r
es
istance o
fthe d
ipo
le.
Thus
,
f
l 77 7
11
.
t0 1
‘,L \2R
(
5
-54
)
1
2
7r — V2)
S
o
lving f
o
rR,
R
-NT I
;°
e21
O
w2 (
5
-55
)
F
or a
i
r o
r v
acuum N
/ W
e = 3
77 = 1
20r o
hms s
o t
hat (
5
-55
) b
ecome
s
R= 8
0w2 ()
2 = 8
0721
2 (
5
-56
)
A
s a n e xamp le s uppo se t hat LA = 1 /10 . Then R = 7 .9 o hm s. I f
/A = 0
.
01, t
hen R = 0
.
08 o
hm. Thu s, t he r adia t
ion r e
sistance o f as hor t
d
ipole i ss ma l
l.
I
n d evelop ing t he f i
eld e xpr ess
ion s f or t he s hort d ipole, w hich w e
r e
u
sed i n ob taining ( 5-56 ), t he r estric t
ion w as made t ha t X> > L . Th i s
made i tp ossible t on eglec t the p hase d if erence o ffie
ld c ontribution sf r
om
d
if erent p ar t
s o ft he d ipole. I f L = 4w e v iolat e th
is a ssump tion , b ut,
a
s a ma tte r o f in
t erest, l et u s f i
nd w hat t he r adiation r es
i s
tance o f a4 -
waveleng th d ipole i s
, w hen c a
lcu la ted i n t his w ay. T hen f or / A, = 4 ,
we o btain I t= 1 97 o hm s. T he c orre ct v alue i s1 68 ohm s ( s
e e Prob . 5-4),
which i ndica tes t he magn i tude o f t he e rro r i ntroduced b y violating t he
r
estriction t ha t X> > Lt ot he e xtent o ft aking L = X /2.
5-. T
4 he F ields o f aS hor t D ipole b y t he He rtz V ector Me thod . I n
S
ec. 5 -2 the f ie
lds o f as hort d ipole w ere o bta ined b y am ethod i nvolving
t
he u se o f v ector a nd s calar p oten tials. A no ther e quiva lent m ethod
which i ss ome t
ime s e mployed make s u se o ft he H er
tz v ecto r
. S ince t his
method i sf requen tly f ound i n t he l i
te ratu re, i tw il
l b e of i n
teres t to u se
i
tt o f i
nd t he f i
elds o f as hor t electric d ipo le. T he f i
e
ld s s o obtained a re
i
den t
ica lw ith t hose f ound b yt he vec to r-scala rp otentialm ethod ,i ndica t
ing
t
he e quiva len ce oft he t wo p rocedure s.
The r e
ta rded v ecto r p oten tial o f a ny e lectric-curren t d i
stribu tion i s
g
iven b y
A= fI- v r1d
r (
5
-57
)
w
her
e t
he r
e
tarded c
urr
ent d
ens
ity [
J
] i
sgi
ven b
y
L
T
] = (
5
-58
)
1
38 AN TE N N AS [
CHAP
. 5
Mu
ltip
lying n
ume
rato
r a
nd d
enom
ina
tor b
y e(
5
-57
) may b
e w
rit
ten a
s
a
n
A= m
e T t- (
5
-59
)
whe
re
a
n _ r
i
n d
(
5
-60
)
a
t —4i
re iv r
w
he r
e trepresent
s time and 7 v
olume
. T he q uanti
ty I isthe r
eta
rded
He
rtz vecto
r o r r
eta
rded Her
tzian po
tential
. S ince [
J] i
sthe o
nly time
d
ependent quantity on t
he r
i
ght si
de of (
5-60)
, w e h
ave f
or t
he r
eta
rded
Her
tz ve
ctor
n
= 1rf[J] di d7 —
1
-
Wd r (
5
-61
)
J
,
A
4r
e r %
re m r
S
ince
n=
w
e o
bta
in f
r
om (
5
-59
)
A =j
c
umell (
5
-62
)
a
nd
H = - -j A (
5
-63
)
c
o
me
I
fthe r
eta
rded H
ertz ve
cto
r isk
nown
, b
oth E a
nd H e
verywhe
re c
an
b
e c
alcu
lated f
r
om the r
e
lat
ions
E=c ell -
o2m I-V (V •H
) (
5-6
4
)
=/
we V X I (
5
-65
)
T
hus, Eand H are d
er
ivable from a s i
ngle po
tential f
unc
tion
, H. Sub
-
s
t
itut
ing (5
-63
) into (
5-64
) a nd (5-65)
, t he
se re
lation
s may b e a
l
so r
e
-
e
xpre
ssed i
nterm
s ofAa lone
. T hus,
E = —j
c
oA — V (V •A
) (
5
-66
)
H = -
1 V X A (
5
-67
)
A
Le
t us now f i
nd the re
tarded H er
tz v ec
tor f
or ashort e
l
ect
ric d
ipo
le.
The ve
ctor potentia
l fo
r the dipole ha
s o n
ly a zcomponent a
s g
iven by
(
5-4
). T he
refore
, from (5-63
) t he Hertz vec
tor h
as on
ly a zcomponent
g
iven by
n
. goL
e
l̀
•(` —D
(
5-68
)
4
rrc
oe
SE
C
. 5
-
51 THI N L
I NEA R ANTEN N AS 1
39
I
n p
olar c
oord
ina
tes I h
as two c
omponent
s, o
bta
ined i
nthe s
ame w
ay a
s
t
he c
omponentsofAin(5-20
) and (
5
-21). Thus
,
r
i =a
,
II. c
os 0— a
,
II, s
i
n 0 (
5
-69
)
S
ubs
titut
ing (
548 ) i
nto (
5
-69), a
nd th
is i
nturn i
n (
5
-65
) a
nd p
er
form
ing
t
he i
nd
icated o
perat
ions
, y
ield
s the r
e
sult t
hat
Ho - I
l-1
--
s -
j 1 9(
2
c.
7
. ± 1- (
5
-70
)
4r r2/
This r e
sult i s identica l wi th t hat o btained p reviou s
ly i n ( 5
-32). We
c
ould h ave a nticipa ted t h
is r esult since s ub s
titu t
ing ( 5
-63) i n
to ( 5-65 )
g
ives ( 5
-67), from wh ich (5-32) w as obtained.
S
ubs t
ituting ( 5-68) i nto (5-69) a nd this int urn i n( 5
-64 ) t
hen g ives t he
e
l
e ctr
ic f i
eld E e verywhe re
. T he e xpressions f or t he t wo c omponen t s
,
E
, a nd Et,s o o btained a re i dentical with t hose a rr
ived a t i
n (5-29) a nd
(
5-30) b y the u se ofv ecto
ra nd s ca
larp o
t entials
.
5
-5
. T he T hin L inea r A ntenna .' I n t his s e
ction e xpres
sion s for t he
f
ar-f
ield p a
t tern s oft hin li
nea ra ntenna sw ill bed eveloped . I tisassumed
t
ha t the antenna s ares ymme t
rically fed at t he cente r by ab alanced t wo-
w
ire t ransm ission l ine. T he a ntennas may b e o f any l ength, bu t iti s
a
ssumed t ha t the cur r
ent d is
tribu t
ion i ss i
nuso idal. C u r
rent-distr
ibu tion
.
\
T1
,II
y/ n -//
-
- )
\
2
.
2 +
x A 1
-
7A f
x 2 A
F
lo
. 5-7
. A
pprox
ima
ten
a
tura
lcu
rren
tdi
st
ribu
tion f
o
rth
in
,li
ne
arc
e
nte
r-f
ed a
n
tenna
s
o
fvar
iou
sle
ngths
.
measur
emen ts i
ndicate tha
t thi
s i s agood a
ssump tion provided that the
a
ntenna i sthin
, t hat i
s
, w hen the conducto
r d i
ame ter isles
s than, say,
X
/100. T hus
, the si
nusoidalcurrent d
istr
ibut
ion a pprox
ima testhe natural
d
ist
ribution o n thin antennas
. E xamp les o
f the a pproximate n a
tural-
c
urrent dist
ributions on an umbe r of th
in, l
inear cent
er-fed antennas of
IR
amo a
nd Wh
innery
,"Fi
eld
sand W
ave
sinM
ode
rn R
adio
," J
ohn W
i
ley a
nd S
on
s,
I
n
c.
, New Y
ork
, 19
44, p
.43
2.
1
40 ANTE N N AS [CH
AP. 5
d
iferent length ar
e ilustra
ted inF ig. 5-7
. T he c
u rren
tsa r
e inp hase over
e
ach I -wavelength se
ction and ino pposite phase overthe next
.
Referr
ing t o F
ig. 5-8
, le
t us now p roceed to develop the f
ar-f
ie
ld e qua-
t
ion
sf or as ymmetrical
, th
in, li
nea r
, center
-fed antenna ofl e
ngth L. T he
re
tarded value ofthe c
urrenta ta ny
\ r
. o'
,
cun
t po
int zo n t he an
tenna r e
ferred to
t
h
stan
t
ap
o
inta
t ad
i
stance si
s
[
I
] = J
o
s
i
n
[ Xr 2 (
1
(
5
-71
)
I
n (
5
-71
) t
he f
unc
tion
s
i
n [
-2L
r-(
la ± z
)]
X 2
i
sthe fo
rm f a
c tor for t
he c u
rrent
o
n the antenna. T he expres
sion
(
L/2) zi
sused w hen z < 0a nd
(
L/2) - z*iused w hen z > 0. B y
F
lo.5-8
. R ela
tions f
o
rsymmetrica
l,th
in, r
ega
rding t
ne antenna as made upof
l
i
near
, center
-fed an
tenna o
fle
ng th L
.
aser
ies of inf
ini
tes
imal dipo
les of
l
ength d
z, t
he f
i
eld of t
he ent
ire a
ntenna may then be obta
ined by in
te-
g
rating t
he f
i
e
lds fr
om al
l ofthe d
ipole
s making up the an
tenna
. T he far
f
i
elds dE
, and d
i/, a
t adi
stance sf
rom the in
fin
ites
ima l d
ipo
le d
z ar
e ( s
ee
Table 5
-
1),
dE
, jah
r[/1si
n d z
(
5
-72)
s
X
d
llo = j[
1
1 s
i
n °d
z (
5
-73
)
2
sX
S
ince E• = ZH, = 120wH.
, itwi
ll s
ufi
ce t
o ca
lcula
te Ho. The v
alue o
f
t
he magnet
ic f
i
eld Ho f
or t
he e
nt
ire a
ntenna i
sthe i
nteg
ral o
f (
5
-73
) over
t
he l
ength o
fthe a
ntenna
. T hus
,
L/2
= dH4, (
5
-74
)
—L/2
Now i
nt
roduc
ing the v
a
lue o
f[I
] f
r
om (
5
-71
) i
n
to (
5
-73
) a
nd s
ubs
titu
ting
t
hi
s i
nto (
5
-74) w
eh ave
j
/ 0s
i
n 0el" {f ° 1 . r21
1
. 'L C
OS
H
, -
si
sn — - z)
]e-
1 d
z
2X —L/2 X 2
f
J
o
"
2 Is
8
i
n P
I(
-/
-
!-z)]e -
i
* d
z} (
5
-75
)
S
ze
.
. 5
-
5] THI N L
INEA R ANTEN N AS 1
41
I
n (5
-75), 1/
s af
ects o
nly the amp
litude, and hence at ala
rge di
stance it
may be re
garded as acons
tant. A l
so at al arge d
istance
, the diference
b
etween sa nd rcan b
e negle
cted init
s e fec
t o n t
he a mp
litude al
though
i
t
se fec
to nt he p
hase must b
ec on
sidered. F urther
, from Fig
. 5-
8,
s= r— zc
os 0 (
5
-76
)
S
ubs
titu
ting (
5-76
) i
n
to (
5
-75
) a
nd a
l
so rf
o
r si
n t
he amp
litude f
a
cto
r.
(
5
-75) b
ecomes
H
o g os
i
nOe fw
(
' - )ff ° [
27r (L 8
s
i
n — — z
)le
s 'dz
2
Xr -
L
/2 X 2
rL
/
2sin [
[-1
Lr .
12_z
•d
z (
5
-77
)
± x 1
S
ince f
3= c
o
/c =2
7
r/X a
nd 0
/4T = I
X
, (
5
-77
) may b
e r
ewr
itten a
s
Ho = 0/0 s
i
n e "(
' )ff eit
h a" s
i n [ 0( z
)] d
z
4
7
rr -L/2
el
,. c
o. s
i
n [1
3(k
, z)
] d
z }
(
5
-78
)
Jo
T
he i
n
teg
ral
sar
eoft
he f
o
rm
f e
"si
n (
c b
x
) d
x = a
2 b 2 [
asi
n (
c b
x
) — bc
o
s (
c b
x
)] (
5
-79
)
w
here f
o
rthe f
i
rs
t i
n
teg
ral
a= 0 c
os 0
b=
c= 1
3
L/2
F
or the se
cond in
teg
ral aand car
e t
he s
ame a
s i
nthe fi
r
st i
nteg
ral
, b
ut
b = —0. C ar
rying t
hrough t
he t
wo i
n
teg
rat
ion
s, a
dding t
he r
esu
lts
, a
nd
s
impl
ifying y
ie
lds
An,[
cos(
(3L c
os 0
)(2
) — c
o
s(1
3L/2
)]
1
/0 = 2
7r
s
in 0
Mu
ltip
lying Ho b
y Z= 1
20
7rg
ive
s E
, a
s
—j
60[/0][
cos (
(3L c
o
s 0
)
/2) — c
o
s (
01
4/2
)]
(
5
-81
)
s
in 0
w
here [ oe
Id = J i
"
('D
E
qua
tions (
5
-80
) and (5-81
) are t
he e
xpr
ess
ions f
or the f
a
r f
i
e
lds, H
,
a
nd Eo,of asymme
trica
l, cent
er-
fed
, th
in li
near a
ntenna o
f l
e
ngth L
.
1
42 ANTE N N AS [CH
AP. 5
The shap e oft he far-f

ield p attern isg iven b y the factor i n t
he bra ckets
The factors preceding t he bracke ts in (5-80 ) and (5
-81 ) gi ve the i
nstan ta-
n
eou s magn itude o ft he fi
elds as function s o fthe ant enna c urrent and t he
d
istance r. T o obtain t he r m
sv a
lue o ft he f i
e
ld, w e let [I
o
] e
qual the r ms
c
urrent a t the location o f the current m ax imum . T here i sno fa
cto r i n
-
v
olving p hase in (5-80) o r (5
-81 )
, since t he cente r o
ft he antenna ist aken
a
s the p hase center. H ence a ny phase c hange o ft he fi
eld s a
s af unction
o
f 0w i
ll be aj ump o f1 80°w hen the p atte rn fac
to rc hange ss i
gn.
A
se xamp leso ft he far-f
ield p at
tern s ofl i
nearc enter-fed a n
tennas, t h
ree
a
ntenna s o f diferen t lengths w i
ll b e c on s
idered. S ince t he a mplitude
f
actori sindependen to ft he length, on
ly t he re
lative fie
ld p atternsasg iven
b
y t he pattern factorw ill bec ompa red .
F
lo.5-9. F ar
-fie
ld p atternsofI -wave-
l
eng
th, ful
l-wav elength, a nd 3 -wave-
l
eng
th a ntennas. The a n
tenna s are
c
enter
-fed
,a nd the curren tdis
tribut
ion
i
sassumed to bes inusoidal
.
C
ase 1
.i-wa
vel
eng
th A
ntenna
. When L = X
/2
, t
he p
atter
n f
a
cto
r b
e
-
c
omes
I
T
-
2 c
o
s 0
)
E— (
5
-84
)
s
i
n 0
Th
is pat
tern iss hown in F
ig. 5
-9a. It i
so n
ly sl
igh tly more dire
c t
iona
l
t
han the pa
ttern ofan inf
in
ites
imal or s
hor
t dipo
le w hich i
sgiven b y s
i
n
0
. T he beam wid th b
etween hal
f-power p
oints o
f t he 4-wave
leng th an
-
t
enna is78°asc ompared to90°forthe s
hor
t dipo
le.
Ca
se 2. Ful
l-wave An
tenna. When L = X ,the patt ern f
a
ctor becomes
E — c r c
os (
i os 0
)± 1
(
5
-85
)
s
i
n 0
T
his p
atte
rn i
sshown i
nFig
. 5
-
9h.
S
ec
. 5
-
6] THI N L
43
C
ase 3
. 4
-wav
eleng
th An
tenna
. When L = 3X
/2
, t
he p
atte
rn f
a
cto
ris
E-
c
o
s( 3
-w c
s
i
n 0
os 0
)
(
5
-86
)
The p attern for this c ase i spresen ted i n Fig. 5 -9c

. W ith the m id-point
o
f t he a n
tenna a s p hase c enter, t he p hase s h
ifts 1 80° at each n u
ll, the
r
e
la tive p hase of the l obes being i ndica ted b y t he + a nd - s igns. I n
a
l
l t hree cases
, (a), ( b), and ( c
), t he s pace p attern is af i
gure ofrevolut
ion
o
fp attern shown a round t he a x
is o ft h e antenna .
5
-6. R adiat
ion R es istance o f4 -wave leng th A ntenna . T ofind the r
adia-
t
i
on r es
i s
tance, t he P oyn t
ing v ec tor i s in
tegra ted o ver al a
rge s phere
y
ielding t he powerr adiated,a nd thisp owe ri sthen e qua t
ed t o(/
0/ 0 ) 2R
o,
where Ro i sthe radia tion resistance a t ac urren t max imum p ointa nd Io i
s
t
he p eak v a
lue int ime o ft he c urren t a t this po
in t. T he tota
l powe rradi-
a
ted W w as gi
ven i n (5
-50 )' int erm s ofH , for as hort dipole
. I n (5
-50),
I1 4 Iist he abso
lu te v alue. H
ence , the c orrespond ing v a
lue ofH , f
or a
l
i
nea ra nt enna iso btained f rom ( 5-80 ) b yp utting I N o]I= / 0
. S ubst
itut-
i
ngt h
is into (5
-50 ), w e o b
tain
S
r, f
iL1 2
w . 1
5/: j
'"
d
edi
t
. 5-
( 8
7)
7 0 J
o s
i
n 0
,[
cos (—
O
L2 c
os 0) - c
o
s11 2
=3
0
1
:f. si
n 9
2
d
e 5-
( 8
8)
E
qua
ting t
he r
ad
iated p
owe
rasg
iven b
y (
5
-88
) t
o VA 0/
2 w
e h
ave
w. nRo
(
5
-89
)
2
a
nd
s
r
, ,
0,[
cos (
-2- c
o
s u
) - c
o
s)1
f
9 2
R
o = 6
0 s
i
n 0 2 d
e (
5
-90
)
whe
re the rad
ia t
ion re
sis
tance Ro isre
ferred t
ot he c
urren
t max
imum . In
t
he case o
f a4 -wave
length a n
tenna th
is isat t
he cen
ter oft
he an
tenna o
r
a
tt he t
erminals ofthe t
r an
sm is
sion l
i
ne (see F
ig
. 5-7
).
P
roceeding n ow t
oe valuate (5
-90
), l
et
u= c
os 0 a
nd d
u = -s
i
n 0d
e (
5
-91
)
lw = S P •c
i
s = iN/1
7;f I
H,I
td8
1
44 AN T E N N AS [CH
AP. 5
b
y w
hich (
5
-90
) i
str
ans
formed t
o
Ro = 6
0
+
,
f(
c-
1
o
f
t
/
.
s — u— c
os/
-
31)2
2 1— u
2 2 d
u (
5
-92
)
B
ut
1 1 1( 1 4. 1 )
(
5
-93
)
1— u2 — (
1+ u
)
(1 — u
) — 2\1+ u ' 1— u
/
A
lso p
utt
ing k = 0
L/2
, (
5
-92
) b
ecome
s
R
. = 3
0 1+
1 F
(co
sku — c
os k
)2 ± (
co
sku — c
osk
)21 d
u
(
5
-94
)
1- u
T
his in
tegra
l gi
ves t
he r
adiat
ion re
sis
tance f
o
r at hin li
near a
ntenna of
a
ny le
ngth L. F o
r t
he s
pecia
l ca
se be
ing c
ons
idered w he
re L = X/2
, we
h
ave k = 7/2. Thus
, i
n t
he cas
e of ath
in 1
-wavelength an
tenna, (
5-94
)
r
educe
s to
r+1 [
coe (
7
1
-
14/2
) + c
os2 (
ru/2
)1
R
o = 3
0 J
-
1 1+ u 1— u d
u (
5
-95
)
N
ow i
nthe f
i
rst t
e
rm l
e
t
d
v
1+ u = I
L a
nd u = _
d (
5
-96
)
I. 7
a
nd i
nthe s
econd t
e
rm l
e
t
v
' c
hi
1— u = — a
nd d
u = - - (
5
-97
)
7 7
No
ting a
l
so t
hat (
v— 7
)/2 = (
7 — v
'
)/2
, E
q. (
5
-95
) b
ecome
s
f 2r cos 2(
(v v_ . _
.
. i
, /oN
Ro = 6
0 ""` d v (
5
-98
)
B
ut c
os
' (
x/2
) = 1
(1 + c
osx
) s
o t
hat
Ro = 3
0 f " 1 + c°8 (
I
) — 7) d
v — 3
0 f
.2
' 1— vcm v d
v (
5
-99
)
J
o v
The l
as
t integra
l i
n (5
-99
) is afo
rm wh
ich i
stabula
ted
. T
his i
n
teg
ral i
s
o
ften d
esignated a
s C
in (
x) (
see App
end
ix)
. Thus,
CM (
x r
) = J
O
1
—co
sv V
d
v — i
n7x —C
i (
x
)
= 0
.577 + I
n x— C
i (
x
) (
5
-100
)
whe
re 7 = e=1
.
781
, o
rin 7 = c= 0
.577 = E
ule
r's c
onstan
t
Se
c
. 5
-
6] THI N L
I N E A R AN TE N N AS 1
45
T
he p
art o
fth
is i
n
teg
ral g
i
ven b
y
C
i (
x
) = I
n'y
x —C
in (
x
) (
5
-10
1)
i
sca
lled t
he c
os
ine i
n
teg
ral
. T
he v
a
lue o
fth
is i
n
teg
ral i
sgi
ven b
y
c
osv x2 X4 X6
(
5
-102
)
2
12 + 4
14 —6
16 + •••
When xi
ssma
ll (
x <0
.
2),
C
i (
x
) •
-
• i
n-y
x = 0
.577 + i
nx (
5
-103
)
When xi
sla
rge (
x>> 1
)
,
s
i
n x
C
i (
x
) = (
5
-104
)
.
2
-
.2
-
.3
.
4
.
6
2 3 4 5 6 7 9 I
C
X
FI
G
. 5
-
10. C
osine i
n
teg
ral
.
Acurve ofthe co
sine in
tegra
l a
s af unct
ion of xispresented inF ig
. 5
-
10.
I
tist o be n
oted that C
i (x) c
onverges around z
ero at large value
s o
f x
.
F
rom ( 5
-102) and (5
-100) we o
bta
in C in (x
) as a
n i
n f
ini
te s e
rie
s,
x 2 x 4 xi
3
C
in (
x
) = (
5
-105
)
2
12 —4
14 + 6
16 — •••
1
46 ANTE N N AS [
CHAP
.
Whi
le di
s cus
sing C
in (x
) and C
i (
x)
, m ent
ion may b
e made o
f a
nother
i
n
tegral which commonly oc
curs i
n impedance c
a
lcu
lat
ions
. T h
is i
st he
s
i
ne in
tegra
l ,' S
i (
x
), g
iven b
y
's
in v
S
i(x
) = f — d v —x 5
!
5 — ••• (
5
-106
)
o v 3
!3
When xi
ssma
ll (
x <0
.
5),
S
i(x
) x (
5
-107
)
When xi
sla
rge (
x>> 1
)
,
c
os x
S
i (
x
) ^
-
=
-
• 7 (
5
-108
)
2
Acurve o
fthe s
i
ne in
tegra
l as afunc
tion of xisp
resented in F
ig
. 5
-11
.
I
tistoben o
ted t
hatSi (
x) c
onve
rgesa round 7
r
/2 a
tl a
rge va
lues o
fx.
2
.
0
•
4
1I
1
.
0
L
6
1
,
4
3
1
.
0
.
8
.
6
.
2
It 1
11 1
0o 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1
0
F
la. 5
-
11. S
ine i
n
teg
ral
.
R
etu
rning n
ow t
o (
5
-99
), t
h
is c
an b
ewr
itt
en a
s
R
. =3
0 CM (
2
7r
) =3
0 X2
.
44 = 7
3 o
hms (
5
-109
)
Thi
s isthe we
ll-known v a
lue for the r
adiat
ion r es
istance o f at h
in, li
near,
c
enter
-fed, I-wavelength a ntenna w ith sinu so
idal c urren t distr
ibution.
The t
erminal i mpedance also in
cludes some i n
ductive r e
a ctance ins e
ries
w
ith Ro (see Chap . 10
). T o make t he rea
c tance zero, t hat is
, to m ake
t
he antenna resonant, require
s t hat the antenna b e af ew p e
r c en
t l e
ss
t
han wave
leng th. T h
is shortening also result
s i n ar educt
ion i n the
v
alue ofthe r
adiation res
istance.
'
Se
e Append
ix.
. 5
SE
C -
7] THIN L
INEAR ANTENNAS 1
47
In some c ases it may b e i mpo ss

ib le o ra tl e
ast very ted
ious toi nteg
rate
t
he r adiation-res
istance e xp ression a na lytica l
ly. I n s
uch c ase
s o ne can
c
arry o ut the in
teg ration g raph ically .'
5
-7. R adiat
ion R es
is tance a t aP oin t Wh ich IsN ot aC u
rrent Max imum .
I
fw e c a
lculate, for e xamp le, t he r adia t
ion r e
sistance of aI -wavelength
a
ntenna ( see Fig
. 5 -
7) b y t he a bove m ethod , w e ob
tain i t
s value at a
c
urrent max imum . Th is i sn ot t he p oint a t w h
ich the transmission li
ne
i
sconnec ted. N egle c
ting a n
tenna l osse s
, t he value
o
fr adia t
ion res
istance s oo bta ined i st he resistance
Ro which w ould appea ra tt he t erm ina ls of at r
an s
-
m
ission l i
ne conne cted a t ac urren t max imum i n
t
he an tenna, provided t hat t he c urren t d is
t ribution
o
n the a ntenna i sthe s ame a sw hen i ti scen ter
-fed
a
s in F ig. 5-7
. S ince a c hang e o f t he f eed p o
int
f
rom t he center o f the a ntenna may c hange t he
c
urren t distr
ibution, t he rad ia t
ion r esistance Ro i s
n
w
o
atve
t
l
h
ee
ngv
t
ah
lua
n
e
nte
w
e
nhn
ic
ahor
wo
nua
l
d
nybs
e
ymm
e
ae
s
tu
rr
i
ce
ad
lao
n
nte
a
nna
whose l e
ngth i s not a
n o dd n umb e
r o f 4 w ave-
l
engths. Howeve r
, Ro can b e eas
ily t rans
formed
t
o the value w h
ich w ou
ld app ear across the termi-
n
also fthe transmiss
ion li
ne connected a tthe center Fm
. 5 -
12
. R elation of
c
ur
rent /I a
t transmis
-
o
fthe a ntenna. s
i
on-l
ine t e
rminals t o
This may b e done b y equating ( 5-89) to t he c
ur
rent / 0 at c u
rren
t
p
owe r suppl
ied b y the tr
ansm is
sion l i
ne, given b y ma
ximum .
nR12 , w here I, isthe current a mplitude at t he
t
erminals and R , isthe rad
iation resistance at this p
o
int
. S
ee F
ig
. 5
-
12.
Thus,
_
1
2 R = _
1 A
2 R
l
(
5
-110
)
2 2 °
w
here Ro i
sthe rad
iat
ion res
istance c
alcu
lated a
t t
he cur
rent max
imum
.
T
hus, t
he r
adia
tion re
sis
tance appea
ring a
t the t
e
rmina
ls is
R
, = (
b) 2R0
The c
urren
t I, at adi
stance x f
r
om t
he n
eare
st c
urren
t max
imum
, a
s
s
hown inFig. 5
-
12, i
sgiven b
y
= lo c
os1
3
x (
5
-112
)
1Ane
xampl
eo fs
uch aca
lcu
lat
ion i
sgi
ven i
nN. Ma
rchand, "
Ul
trah
igh Fr
equ
ency
T
ransm
iss
ion a
nd R
adia
tion
," J
ohn W
il
ey and S
on
s, I
nc
., New Y
ork, 1
947
, p.1
63
.
1
48 ANTE N N AS (CH
AP.
T
her
efo
re, (
5
-111
) c
an b
eexp
ress
ed
R
, — R
o (
5
-113
)
c
oe fi
x
When x = 0 ,R , = Ro;b ut w hen x = X

/4, R , = Oa if Ro 0 0. Howeve r
,
t
he r adiat
ion r es
istance m easu red a
t ac urren t minimum ( x = X /4) is
n
ot i nf
ini
te a s w ould be calculated f
rom ( 5-
113 ), si
nce an actual antenna
i
sn o
t i nf
initesimal
ly thin and the cur
-
r
ent at am in
imum p o
in t i
sn ot zero
.
R
elative I
c
urrent Neverthele ss
, the rad
iation res
istance
a
t ac urren tm in
imum may i np ract
ice
Distance along a
ntenna b
e v ery l arge, t
hat is
, t housands of
o
hms
.
R
ela
tive 5
-8. F
ields o
f aTh
in L
inear An
tenna
p
hase
with aUn ifor m T ravel
ing Wave . T he
ang
le Wave d irect
ion
(
log)
f
or egoing d
isc uss
i on h
as been c
o nfined
D
istance a long a ntenna t
ot he ca
se o fa ntenna sw ith sinu soidal
F
lo . 5 -13
. C urrent amp litude a nd c
ur rent d istributions. Th
is c u rrent
p
hase r e
lations along a na ntenna c a
rry- d
is tr
ibution may b e rega rded a s t he
i
ng as i
ngle uniform t raveling w ave. s
t anding w ave p roduced b y t wo u n
i-
f
orm ( unat tenua ted) t ravel
ing w aves
o
f e qua l amp l i
tude mov ing i no pposite direct
ions a long the a ntenna . I f
,
h
oweve r, only o ne s uch w ave i spresen t on the a ntenna, t he c u
rren t d i
s-
t
r
ibut ion i su niform . T he a mplitude i s ac ons tant a long t he a ntenna ,
a
nd t he p has e c hange s l i
nea rly w i
th d istance as s uggested b y Fig. 5- 13.
W
ave
T
er m
ina
ted s
i
ngle w
ire a
ntenna
(
c) L
ong h
el
ica
l b
eam a
ntenna
(
b
)
(d) I L
ong t
h
ick l
i
nea
r a
ntenna
T
erm
ina
ted r
homb
ic a
ntennn
F
ro. 5
-14
. V
arious a
ntennas h
aving e
s
sent
ial
ly as
i
ngle t
ravel
ing w
ave
.
T
he c ondit
ion o f aun
iform tr
aveling wave on a
n antenna i
sone o fcon
-
s
i
derable impo rtance
, asthis c
ondit
ion may b eapprox
imat ed i
n an umber
o
f antenna s y
stem s. F or e
xamp le
, as i
ngle-wi
re antenna te
rm inated in
i
t
s c haract
erist
ic i mpedance
, as in Fig
. 5 -
14a, may h ave es
sen t
ial
ly a
S
zc. 5
.
81 THI N L
I NE A R ANTE N N AS 1
49
u
nifo rm t r
ave ling w ave .' T h
is t ype o f a ntenna i so f
ten r e
ferred t o as a
Beverage o r w ave a ntenna . At ermina ted r homb ic a ntenna ( F
ig. 5 -14b)
may a lso have e ssentially as ingle t raveling w ave . O the rt yp eso fa ntenna s
t
hat h ave, i n t he f i
rst a pp roxima tion, as ingle o utgo ing t raveling w ave,
a
re al ong h elical beam a nt enna a nd a l ong , t hick l i
nea r antenna a s il u
s-
t
rated i n Fig. 5 -
14 c a nd ( d
). T hese a ntennas h ave n o term inat ing i m-
p
edance b ut b ehave s imi la r t o t ermina ted a ntenna s
. T hus, t he t hick
l
i
nea r c onduc to r has a c ur rent d istribu t
ion s im ila r to at h
in t erm ina ted
l
i
nea r c onduc to r
, a nd t he p atte rns a r
e s imila r i ft he c onduc tor d iame ter
i
sn ot t oo l arge. T he r esu lts f or at rave l
ing w ave o n al i
nea r conduc tor
c
an b e a pplied t o ah elix, a s s hown i n C hap . 7 , b y c onsidering t hat
t
he h elix c on sists of an umbe r o f shor t l i
nea r s egmen ts
. O n the l inear
a
ntenna s, th e p hase v e
lo ci ty o f t he trave ling w ave i ss ubstan tial
ly e qual
t
ot he v elocity o fligh t
. Howeve r
, t he p has e v elo c
i ty a long t he conduc tor
o
f ah elicalb eam a n
tenna may d if er
a
pp reciab ly f rom t he v elo city o f
l
i
gh t. H ence,t o make t he r esultso p- P
p
l
icab le t oa ny o fthe a ntenna t ype s
s
hown i n Fig. 5 -
14, t he f i
eld s f rom
a
n a ntenna w ith a t raveling w ave
w
ill b e d eve loped f or t he g ene ral
c
ase w here t he p has e v elo city vo f
t
he w ave a long t he c onduc tor may
h
ave a ny a rbi trary v a
lue .'
P
roceed ing n ow t o f ind t he f ie
ld z
, Wove
r
adiated b y at raveling w ave o n a C
onductor
d
i
rect
ion
t
hin linea rc onduc tor,l etu sc on side r Fm . 5 -15. R elation o f c onducto r o f
ac onduc to r o f leng th b c oinciden t l ength b w ith s ingle travel
ing w ave to
w
ith t he za xis a nd w ith o ne e nd a t c ylind r
ica l coordina te sy
stem.
t
he o
r
igin o
f acy
lindr
icalcoo
rdina
te
s
ys
tem (p
, E
,z )asinFig
.5-15
. I tisas
sumed tha
t asing
le, u
ni
form t
r
ave
l-
i
ngwave is mov
ing t
ot he r
i
ghtalong t
he c
onducto
r.
S
ince t he f i
e
lds of a n antenna a re n o
t c onfined t o the i mmed ia
t e vic
inity o f the
a
ntenna , itisn ot po
ssible top rovide an onref lecting t erminat ion w ith al ump ed i mped -
a
nce. However , alumped i mpedance may g reatly r educe refl
e ct
ion satt he term ination.
2A
. A lford, Ad i
scu ss
ion o f m ethod s emp loyed i n ca
lcu lation s o
f electromagne t
ic
f
i
e
ld so fr adiating c
onducto rs, Elec
. C ommun ., 1 5
, 7 0-88, July, 1 936. T reatsc ase w her
e
v
elocity ise qual tolight.
J
.D . K raus and J.C. W il
liamson , C harac teristicso fhelicala ntenna sradiating i nthe
a
x
ia l mode , J. App l
ied P hys., 19, 87-96, J anua ry , 1948. T reats g enera
l c as
e.
J
. G rosskop f
, Obe r die V erwendung z weier L osung san s
iitze d er Maxwe l
ls chen
G
leichungen b e
i der B erechnung d er electromagnet ischen F e
lde r strahlende r L eiter
,
Hochfrequen z
technik u nd Eled roakustik
, 4 9, 2 05-211 , June , 1 937. T reats case w here
v
elocity ise qual tolight.
1
50 A N T E N N AS [CH
AP. 5
S
ince t
he cur
rent i
se nt
irely i
n the zdire
ction
, the magne
tic fi
e
ld has
b
ut one component HE. T he E d
irect
ion isnormal t
o the page a
t P in
F
ig
. 5-15
, and i
ts p
os
itive s
ense i
so utward f
rom the p
age
. T he magne
tic
f
i
e
ld H E c
an be o
bta
ined f
rom the Hertz v
ecto
r H . S
ince t
he c
urr
ent is
e
nt
ire
ly i
nt he zd
i
rec
tion
, t
he H
er tz v
ecto
rhaso nly azc
omponent
. T hu
s,
.a
n
,
HE = j
o
.
m(C
7 X 1) 1 = j
c
u
e—ap (
5
-114
)
w
here I
, ist
he zc
omponen
t o
fthe r
e
tarded H
ertz v
ecto
r a
t t
he p
oin
t P
,
a
sgiven b
y
— 1f °
d (
5
-115
)
4
7
rjw
e 0 r
w
here
[
I
] = /0 s
i
nw(
t —e
r z,
v) (
5
-116
)
w
here z
, = ap
oin
t o
n t
he c
onduc
tor
a
nd
v p
c o
r P= (
5
-117
)
I
n ( 5-117), pi st he rat
io o f the veloc
ity a long t he conducto r vt o the
v
e
lo city o fl i
ghtc . T hi
s r a
tio wil
l be cal
led t he relative p
hasev eloci
ty.
All the c ondit
ion s re
quired f or ca
lculating t he magne t
ic fi
eld d ue to a
s
i
ng le traveling w ave on the l
inearc onducto ra re con ta
ined int he re
lations
(
5
-114 ) t h
rough ( 5-
117). T hat i s
, if[ I
] i n ( 5
-116 ) iss ubst
i tuted into
(
5
- 115 )
, a nd I , from this equation into (5-
114 ), a nd the ind
ica ted opera-
t
i
on s p erformed , w e obtain the fie
ld HE. L et us n ow proceed t o carry
t
hrough t hi
sc a
lculation
. T o do this
, let
u = t— — (
5
-118
)
C v
Now s
i
nce
r= [
(
z — z
,
)2 (
5
-119
)
w
e h
ave
1
(
5
-120
)
d
z
, r
e P
c
E
qua
tion (
5
-115
) n
ow b
ecome
s
. —
H I
Oc•
r z s
in(du d
u (
5-121)
4
rj
coe — zi — r
ip
w
here t
he n
ew l
im
its a
re
u
, = t— I
l a
nd u2 = t— 7
:
1 — 5
(-
122
)
C v
SE
C
.5-
8] THI N L
I N E A R AN TE N N A S 1
51
I
ntroduc
ing (
5
-12
1) i
n
to (
5
-114
) w
e h
ave
I
c a f" s
i
nco
u
HE = z —z
,— r
/p d
u (
5
-123
)
C
onfin
ing our a
tten
tion n ow t
o t
he fa
r fi
eld
, that i
s
, at al
arge di
stance r
,
w
hich isv
ery much large
rt han b
,the quant
ity z,c
an beneglected a
nd the
d
enominatorofthe in
tegrand c
ons
idered tob e ac
onstant z— rip. T he
re-
f
o
re (5
-123) b
ecome s
o
c a(
— c
o
s +c
o
scu
l
t')
HE — (
5
-124
)
4
70
.
1 z— r
/p
P
erfo
rming t
he d
ife
ren
tia
tion w
ith r
e
spe
ct t
op,(
5
-124
) b
ecome
s,
lop
11 = 4
.
rr
•[
(z — r
/P)(
sin c
o
u2 — s
i
n c
a
ul) (X/2Tp
)(co
s c
o
u2 —C
OS
(
5
-125
)
(
z—r /p
)2
A
t a
rb
itra
rily l
a
rge d
i
stance
s, t
hat i
s
, w
here
z r
/p >
> 2
7);
a
nd f
o
r t
he c
ase w
here
s
i
n c
o% — s
i
n c
o
u, 0 0
(
5
-125
) r
educe
sto
I
.
° B
i
n 7 (
s
in c
o
u, —s
i
nan
t i) (
5
-126
)
H
1 = 4
7
fr c
os 7 — 1
/p
w
her
e t
he r
e
lat
ion
shave b
een i
n
troduced f
o
r r>
> bt
hat
= C
OS a
nd (
5
-127
)
I
ntroduc
ing the va
lues of u
, and u2 i
n
to (
5-126
) from (
5-122
) a
nd b
y
t
r
igonome t
ric man
ipula
tion, (
5
-127
) can b
e p
ut inthe f
o
rm,
H1= { S
in 7 [
s
i n—
w
b (
1 — pc
os 7
) 3
2
7r
, 1— p c
os 7 2
pc
c
o
b
/ [
co(
t — — pc
os 7
)] (
5
-128
)
Equa
tion (5-128
) gives t
he instantaneous magnet
ic fi
e
ld at l
arge dis-
t
ances f
rom the li
nea
r antenna carry
ing as i
ngle t
ravel
ing w
ave of amp l
i-
t
ude /2,in terms of the di
stance r, d i
rect
ion angle 7
, r
ela
tive p hase
v
eloc
ity p, r
adian fr
equency c, c
o onductor le
ngth b,time t
,and velocity
1
52 AN TE N N AS [CH
AP. 5
o
f l
igh
t c . The distant or f
ar e
lec
tric fi
e
ld E
, isobta
ined fr
om H E by
E
, =I -
11Z w
he re Z = 377 ohms
.
I
n (5
-128) the shape of t
he f
i
eld patt
ern i
sgiven b
y the e
xpre
ssion i
n
Wo
ve
d
i
rec
tion
(
a
) (
b
) (
c
)
F
lo. 5
-16
. F ar-f
ie
ld patterns o
flinear 4
-wave
length antenna car
rying auni
form trave
l-
i
ng wave (
t
or i
ght) f
o
rt hree cond
itions o
fre
lative p
hase veloc
ity (p = 1
.0
,0 .8
, and 0
.6
).
The t
i
lt a
ngle rand t
he h a
lf-power beam widths a
re ind
icated for e
ach p
attern
.
t
he braces { 1 . T he exp
re s s
ion i n
dicated a s an a ngle L g ives t he phase
o
ft he fi
eld referred to t
he o rigin o fthe c oordina te s ( s
ee F ig. 5-15) as the
p
ha se c ente r. T he r elative p hase
p
=1
.0
p
a t
te rn a t ac onstan t d istance is
g
iven b y t he r ight-hand t erm,
Wove (
c
obl2p c
) ( 1 — pc o s- y
)
.
c
h
rec t
,on
S
eve ra
le xamp lesw i
lln ow b econ-
j
. -5A s
idered t o i lustrate t he n ature of
t
he f i
eld pat terns o b ta
ined o n li
near
c
onduc torsc arrying au n
iform t rav-
T.s e e
l
i ng w
a ve
.
Ca
s e 1. L in ear 4 -wa v
elength An -
t
enna. L
et u s c on s
ide r a l i
near
FI
G
. 5-17
. F ar
-fi
eld p
atte
rn o
fl inearf i
ve- a
nt enna , 4 w aveleng th l ong a s
w
avelength ant
enna c
arry
ing a u
niform
t
rave
ling wave (
p 1
)
. measur ed inf r
ee-spa ce wavelengths.
Assum ing t hat p= 1 ,t hat is
, the
p
ha se v e
locity al
ong t he antenna i
sequa l to tha t of light, t
he p at
te rn
c
a
lcu lated from (5-128) isasshown by F
ig. 5-16a. T he diference between
t
h
is p a
ttern and t hat f
or ali
near 4
-wavelength a ntenna w i
th as i
nuso
ida l
c
uiren t dis
tribut
ion o r s
tanding wave (Fig
. 5 -
9a) i sstriking. T he lobes
a
re s harper a nd also ti
lt
ed f o
rward i
n t he case o f the t raveling w ave
S
ac
. 5
-
1
1] THIN L
INEAR ANTENNAS 1
53
a
ntenna ( Fig. 5- 16a ). T he ti
lt i sin the d ire ct
ion o f the tr ave l
ing w ave.
The ti
lt a ngle 7 o f t he d i
rection o f max imum r adia t
ion i s2 5° a nd t he
b
eam w idth b etween h alf-powe r p o
int s isa bou t 6 0°
. T his isi n c
on trast
t
o 7 = 0a nd a b eam w idth o f 78° for the 4 -wave leng th a ntenna w i
th a
s
i
nu so
ida lc urrent d istribu t
ion o rs tanding w ave.
Asthe p hasev elo city oft he traveling w ave o nt he 4 -waveleng th an tenna
i
sreduced, t he t i
lt a ngle i sincreased a nd t he b eam w idth reduced f urther
a
s ilustrated b y t he p atterns o f Fig s
. 5 -16 b a nd ( c
) w hich a re for t he
c
ases o
f p= 0 .8 a nd p = 0 .6
, r e
sp ectively.
Cas
e 2 . Lin ear A ntenna 5 Wa v
elengths L ong. T he fi
eld p a ttern f or a
5
-waveleng th l inea r a ntenna w i th a s ingle t r
ave ling w ave i sp resen ted
i
n Fig
. 5 -
17 f o
r t he c ase w here p = 1 ( tha t is, v= c )
. T his p at
te rn i s
t
ypicalo ftho se forl ong, termina ted a ntenna s
, t he r adiation b eing b eamed
f
orward in ac one h aving t he antenna a s its a x
is. T he t i
lt ang le for t h
is
a
ntenna i sa bou t 6 8°
. A s the l ength o f t he a ntenna i si n
c reased, t he
t
i
lta ngle increase sf urthe r
, reaching av a
lue o fa bou t 7 8° w hen t he l ength
i
s2 0w aveleng th sf or p= 1 .
PROBLEMS
5
-1
. a
. Two e
qualst
atic e
lec
tric chargesofoppos
ites
ign s
epa
rated b
y ad
ist
ance
Lcon
sti
tute ast
atic e
lec
tric dipo
le. Show t
hatth
ee l
ectr
icpo
tent
ialata
d
is
tance rf
rom such ad ipole isgi
ven by
Q
L c
os 0
V—
4 7er2
w here Qi sthe magn i tude o feach cha rge and 0ist he angle b e
twe en the
radiu s rand the line join
ing t he cha rge s (ax
iso fdipole)
. I ti sassumed
that ri svery l a
rge c ompa red toL.
b
.F ind t he vector v a
lue o ft he e
lect
ric f i
e
ld E a t alarge distance f rom a
stat
ice l
ectr
ic dipole b yt aking the grad iento fthe potent
iale xpre
s s
ion in
part ( a
).
5-2. U s
ing t he va
lue o fthe H er
tz v ector for as hort o
sc
illating dipole asg iven
i
n( 5-68) obtain E a nd H b y the H ert z v
ector m ethod, tha
t i s
, by p e
rform ing the
o
pera t
ionsi n d
ica ted i
n( 5-64) a nd (5-65),and c onfirm t he f
actt hatt he fi
eld
ss oob-
t
a
ined a reiden t
i calwith the fi
eld sgiven int he column h eaded " Genera l Expression"
i
nT able 5-1.
5
-3 . The i nstantaneou s current d istr
ibution o f athin li
near cente r
-fed a ntenna
2wave length sl ong issinusoidal a ss hown.
a
. Ca
lcu
latea nd p
lotthe p
attern o
fthe fa
r f
i
e
ld.
b
. What i
sthe r
adiat
ion r
es
istance r
ef
err
ed to ac
urren
tl oop
?
c
. What i
st he r
adia
tion r
es
istance a
t the t
r
ansmis
sion-
line t
e
rmina
ls a
s
s
hown?
1
54 ANTENNAS [
CHAP
. 5
d
. Wha t i sthe r adiation r es
istance X /8 from ac urren tlo
op ?
5
-4
. A s
sume t hat the c ur rent i sofu niform m agnitude a nd inp hase a l
ong t he
e
nt
ire l
ength of aX /2 t h
in l i
nea re l
emen t.
a
. C a
lcula te and p l ot the pattern o fthe far fi
eld.
b
. Wha t i sthe r adiation r es
istanc e?
c
. Tabula te f o
r c ompa rison
(
1
) R adiation r esistance o fp a
r t ba bove.
(
2
) R adiation r esistance att he c ur
ren tl o
op o f aX /2 t
hin l i
neare lemen t
w
ith s i
nu soida l in-phase cu rr
en td i
stribution.
(
3
) R adiation r esi
stance o f aX /2 dipole ca
lcu lated bym eanso ft he short
d
ipole formu la.
d
. Discusst he three resu l
t stabulated inp art cand r ea
son sfort he diferences.
5
-5
. C a
lculate a nd p l o
t t he r ad
iation-fie
ld p a
ttern i n t
he plane o f two t hin
l
i
near I
-waveleng th a ntenna s w ith equal i n
-pha se curr ents and the s pacing r e
la-
t
i
onship s
hown . A ssume s inu soidal cur
ren t distr
ibu t
ion s.
r -
)
4
I
.
_ - -).
---1
0-1
..
5
-8. a
. E xpress in in
tegral form t he r
eta rded vec tor p o
ten tia
l at ad istance r
f
rom the c ent
er of at h
in linear I-waveleng th a ntenna . T he antenna is
p
aralle
l t othe ya x
is, and i t
s c
en ter isatt he o
rigin. T he cur
r ent isin
p
ha s
e a long the antenna , and i ts magni tude c orrespond s to ac osine
f
unction ofd i
stance f r
om t he o
rigin.
b
. Wha tr e
la t
ion sinvo
lv ing the ve
c torp otentialy i
eld t he e
lec
t r
ic and m ag-
netic fi
e
ld s (Eand H ) at al a
rge distance?
c
. Wha t ist he in
tegral form f o
r the retarded H e
rt z vector a
t ad istance r
from the i -wave
length a ntenna o fp ar
t (a)?
5
-7
. Calculat ethe fi
e
ld pattern inthe pl
ane o fthe full-wave a ntenna shown int he
.
-
---
---
f
i
gur e
. A s
sume t hatthe curren
td ist
ribu t
ion oneach wireissinu
soida
l and t
hatal
l
c
urrents a
re inp hase
. P lot t
he pattern
.
5-8
. a. Calculate and plot t
he far
-fie
ld p a
tternint he p
lane o
f athin l
i
near e
le
-
m
en to ne fr
ee-space wave
leng th lo
ng, c
arrying asi
ngle u
ni
form tr
avel
ing
w
ave f or 2cas
e softhe re
lative phase v
e
lo c
ity p= 1a nd 0.5
.
b
. Rep eat fo
rt he si
ngle c
ase nf anelement 10 Xlo
ng and p = 1.
CHAPTER 6
THE L
OOP ANTENNA
TH
IS c
hap ter isd evoted t o the l o
op a ntenna . F irst
, t he f i
eld p attern
o
f as ma
ll l oop isd erived v ery simp ly b y c ons
ide r
ing t ha t t he loop i s
s
quare and c ons
is t
s off our shor t l
inea r dipoles
. T he same f i
eld e quation s
a
ret hen developed b y as omewha tl onge rm e thod ba sed o n the as sump tion
t
hat the s mal
l loop ise quivalent to as hort magne t
ic d ipole. F ina l
ly, t he
g
eneral case oft he lo
op a ntenna w ith u n
iform c u
rren t i
st rea ted f o
r lo ops
o
f any size. A lthough mo st o f t
he d evelopmen t c oncerns c ircula r loop s
,
s
quare loopsa rea l
so discussed, and i ti sshown t hatt he f
a rfie
ld so fci
rcu lar
a
nd squa re loops oft he same a rea a re the s ame w hen t hey a re s mall b ut
d
iferent w hen they ar elarge.
6
-1. T he Sma l
lL oop. Av ery simp le m ethod off i
nding t he f i
e
ld p atte rn
o
f as ma
l l loop ist reated i n thi
s s ec t
ion. C onside r ac i
r cula r loop o f
r
adius aw ith au n
iform i n
-pha se curren t as sugges ted b y Fig . 6-1a. T he
S
quare
l
oop
Fm. 6
-1. C
ircu
lar l
oop (
a
) a
nd s
qua
re F
lo. 6
-2. Re
lat
ion o
f s
qua
re l
oop t
o c
o-
l
oop (
b
). o
rdina
tes.
r
adius ai sver
y s ma
ll compared t o the wave
length (a < X ). S uppose
n
ow t ha
t the c
ircular l
oop isrep
r esented by asquare loop o
fs ide l
ength
d
,a l
so with a uni
fo rm in
-phase curren t
, a
s shown in Fig. 6
-1b. I n th
is
way, t
he lo
op can be tr
eated a
sf our short l
i
neardipole
s, w ho
se propert
ies
1
55
1
56 ANTE N N AS CHAp
. 6
w
e have a
lready i
nves
tiga
ted i
n Chap
. 5. Let dbe c
hosen s
o t
hat t
he
a
rea o
fthe squa
re l
oop i
sthe s
ame a
sthe a
rea o
fthe c
i
rcu
lar l
o
op. That
i
s
,
d2 = T
a
s (
6
-1)
I
ft he loop i
sor
iented a
s in Fig
. 6-
2, it
s far e
lect
ric fi
eld has on
ly a
n
E# c
omponen
t. To f
ind t
he f
ar-f
ie
ld patte
rn i n t
he y-
z p lane
, itison
ly
n
ecessary to c
ons
ider two o
f the f
our smal
l linea
r dipole
s ( 2 and 4
). A
c
ros
s s e
ction t
hrough the l
oop in t
he y-
z plane ispresented in Fig
. 6
-3
.
-
\
o p
T o
d
ii
sn
tt
ant
Fm
. 6
-3
. C
ons
truct
ion f
o
rfi
nding f
a
rfi
e
ld o
fdipo
les 2a
nd 4o
fsqua
rel
oop
.
S
ince t
he ind
ividua
l s mal
l d
ipo
les 2a nd 4 are nond
irect
iona
l in t
he y
-
z
p
lane
, the f
ie
ld pat
ter n o
f t
he lo
op in t
his pl
ane isthe same a
s t
hat f
o
r
t
wo is
otrop
ic po
int source
sastreated i
nS ec
. 4-2
. T hus
,
E
. = e
"" E#
0 e
-"" (
6
-2)
w
here Eg,= e
l
ect
ric f
i
e
ld f
r
om i
nd
ividua
l d
ipo
le a
nd
=—
rd s
2 i
n 0= d
,si
n 0 (
6
-3)
X
I
tfo
l
low
s t
hat
E
. = s
i
n (
g1 s
i
n 0
) (
6
-4)
The f
acto
r ji n(6
-4) i
nd
icat
est ha
tt he t
ota
l f
i
eld E4,i
sinphase q
uadra
ture
w
ith the f
i
eld 4 0 o
fthe i
nd
ividual d
ipo
le. T h
is may be r
eadi
ly s
een by a
v
ecto
rc onstruc
tion o
fthe t
ype ofFig
.4-lb o
fC hap
.4 . Now ifd< X,(6-4
)
c
an be wr
itten
E
. = —
jE.0 d
,sn 0
i (
6
-5)
The f
ar fi
e
ld of t
he ind
ividual dipole was deve
loped i
n Chap. 5, b
e
ing
g
iven i
n Table 5
-
1. I n deve
loping t he d
ipole f
o
rmula, t
he d
ipole w
as in
t
he zdirec
tion
, whereas i
n the present ca
se itisi he xd
n t irect
ion (
see
SE
C
. 6
-
21 THE LO OP AN TE N N A 1
57
F
igs
. 6 -
2 a nd 6-
3). T he ang
le 0i n the dipole f
ormula ism easured f
rom
t
he dipole axi
s and is90° in t
he present case. T he a
ngle 0i n (6
-5) i
sa
d
if
ferent angle w
ith r
espect to t
he dipole
, being asshown inF igs
. 6-2 a
nd
6
-3
. T hus, weh ave f
o
rt he fa
rf i
e
ld E .0 ofthe ind
ividua
l dipole
j
60
1rVIL
E
.0 — rX (
6
-6)
whe
re [I
] ist
he r
eta
rded curren
t o
n t
he dipo
le and ri
sthe d
i
stance f
r
om
t
he dipo
le. S
ubst
ituting (
6-6
) in(
6
-5) t
hen give
s
6
0TV
ILd
,si
n 0
— (
6
4)
Bu
t the le
ngth L o
f t
he shor
t dipo
le isthe same a
s d, t
hat i
s
, L = d.
Not
ing a
lso tha
t d
„ = 2rd/X and t
hat the a
rea A o
fthe l
oop i
s d2,(
6
-7)
b
ecomes
1
211
r 2V
]s i
n 0A
— x2 (
6
-8)
This i
sthe instantaneous va
lue o ft he E. c
omponent oft he f
ar f
i
eld ofa
small l
o
op o farea A. T he peak value ofthe f
ie
ld isob
tained by r
epla
cing
[
I]b y/0
,w here /0 i
sthe p
eak curr
en ti ntime o
nt he l
o
op. T he o
the
rc ompo-
nent o
ft he f
arf i
e
ld o f t
he loop is
w h
ich i
so bta
ined from ( 6
-8) byd ivid-
i
ng b y t
he intrin
sic impedance of t he
medium,i nthiscase,freespace. T hus,
, _ _1
1/ 0 A
£
• _1
120
7
,r _
r-3 (
6
-9)
X
(
a
) (
b
)
6
-2 . T he S hort Magne tic D ipole
. F la. 6-4
. ( a
) R ela
tion of s mal
l l o
op
Equivalen ce t o a L oop. Another o f area A t o s hor
t magne t
ic d ipole
method o ft reat
ing t he s mal
ll oop isby o flength 1
. (b) S hort magnet
ic dipole.
making u se o f its e quivalence t o a
s
hort magne t
ic dipole. T hu s
, as mal
l loop o farea A a nd c arrying a u n
i -
f
orm i n
-pha se e l
ectric c urrent Ii sreplaced b y an e quivalen t magne t
ic
d
ipole o fl ength 1as s hown i nFig. 6-4a. T he magne tic d ipole i sassumed
t
o ca r
ry .af i
ctit
ious magne t
ic current L .
T he re
la t
ion b etwe en t he loop a nd it
s equ ivalent magne t
ic d ipole w ill
n
ow b e developed. T he momen t oft he magne tic d
ipo le i sq„
,1 w here q „
, is
t
he p ole s t
reng th at e a
ch e nd as in Fig. 6-4h. T he magne tic c urren t is
r
elated tot hisp o
le streng th by
= —A d
i (
6
-10
)
w
here I
. = Ie
1
58 ANTE N N AS [
CliAP
. 6
I
nteg
rat
ing (
6
-10
) w
ith r
e
spec
t t
otime
,
I„
,
(
6
-11
)
3
0
4i
T
he magnetic moment o
f t
he l
oop i
sIA
. E
qua
ting t
h
is t
o t
he momen
t
o
fthe magnet
ic d
ipole
, w
e have
q
„
,
1 = I
A (
6
-12
)
S
ubs
titu
ting (
6
-11
) i
n (
6
-12
),
I1
(
6
-13
)
.
7
0
.
41
T
his may b
e r
e
exp
res
sed a
s
,
X
I
„
,1 = —
jconI A = —
j211— A
L
IA = —
j2r —
x I
A (
6
-14
)
or
I„
,
1 = —j
240r2IT
11
‘ (
6
-15
)
I
n r
e
tarded f
o
rm (
6
-15
) i
s
[
/
„
,]/ = —j
240
7r1
/1 (
6
-16
)
w
here V
.] =
[
I
] =
Equations ( 6-15) a nd ( 6-16) relate a

l
oop o f area A a nd c ar rying a c ur-
r
ent /t o its e quivalen t magne tic
d
ipole o flength 1ca rrying af i
ctit
iou s
magne tic curren t I„
,.
6-3
. T he S hort Magne tic Dipole.
Far Fields. I n this se ction t he far
f
i
eld so f ashort magne tic d ipo
le w i
ll
b
e c alculated. T hen a pplying t he
Fm. 6 . R
-5 e
lat
ion of short magne
tic
e
quiva lence r e
la t
ion b etween al oop
d
ipo
le to c
oord
inates
.
and magne t
ic d ipole d eve loped i n
S
ec. 6-2
, w e ob
tain the far f
i
eld o
f as mall circularl oop.
The m ethod off i
nding the f
i
elds of as hort magne tic dipo le i sf o
rma lly
t
he same ast hate mployed inSec
. 5-2tof ind t he fa
rf i
eld o f as ho rte l
ectric
d
ipole
. T he only diference i
st hat el
e c
t r
ic c urren t Ii sr eplaced b y a
B
Ec
. 6
-
3] THE LO OP ANTEN N A 1
59
f
i
ct
itiou
s magne t
ic c
urrent I.
, a
nd t
hat Eisrep
laced by H. T hen with
t
he magne
tic dipo
le o
riented a
s i
n F
ig
. 6
-5
, the r
etarded v
ecto
r poten
tial
Fofthe magne
ticcur
ren t i
s
F= f d
v =k- f+
112g
-m
ide vo
lts 2s
ec (
6
-17
)
4
1
- r a
mp me te
r
T
he ve
ctorpoten
tial Fha
s o
n
ly azc
omponen
tF.
. I
ntroduc
ing t
he v
a
lue
o
fthe r
eta
rded c
urrent
F am
. .
+
11/
2 eh
qs-D d
z
F, L i/2 r (
6
-18
)
I
f r>> land X>> 1
,the p
hase d
ifer
ence o
ft he c
ont
ributionsofthe v
ar
ious
c
urrent e
lements o
fleng
th dz a
long t
he magnet
ic dipo
le can be n
eg
lected
.
Hence
, the i
ntegmnd in (
6
-18) may be r
ega
rded as aconstan
t, and (
6-18
)
b
ecome s
_ 4
rr
(
6
-19
)
T
he e
l
ect
ric f
i
e
ld E i
sob
tained f
r
om F b
y t
he r
e
lat
ion
,
E=-
1 V XF (
6
-20
)
I
L
R
eso
lving F. in
to it
s spher
ical o
r po
lar c
oord
inate c
omponen
t s Fo a
nd
F
. a
nd taking t
he cu
rl o
f Fa s i
n (
6
-20)
, t
he Eo c
omponen
t ofthe e
l
ectr
ic
f
i
e
ld isfound t
ob e
E [
/
„
,]/s
i
n 0(
.
cc
ro 1
)
o — (
6
-21
)
Th
is isthe only c
omponen t of the el
ectr
ic fi
e
ld produced by a magnetic
d
ipo
le oriented as i
n F ig
. 6 -5
. I t i
si n
teres
ting to note t
hat (6
-21) is
i
dent
ical with t
he e
xp ress
ion f or Ho deve
loped for ashort e
l
ectr
ic d
ipole,
p
rovided that Ein(6-21) isr ep
laced b yHa nd I.
, by I( s
ee Tab
le 5
-1).
The r
elat
ion of (
6
-21 ) applie
sa ta ny di
stance f
rom the magnet
ic d
ipole,
p
rovided only t
hat r> > /a nd X >> 1. At al a
rge di
stance rthe se
cond
t
erm of( 6
-21) c
an ben eglected, and (6
-21) be
come s
E j
[L
,1
0.
)/sin 0 j
[
I,„
]s in 0
1
o— 4
wcr 2
r X
T
his ist
he f
ar el
ectr
ic f
i
eld f
rom a shor
t magnet
ic d
ipole o
fle
ngth 1a
nd
c
arry
ing a f
i
ct
itious magne
tic c
urren
t I.. T he f
ar magnet
ic f
i
eld Ho o
f
1
60 ANTEN NAS [
CHAp
. 6
t
he magne
tic d
ipo
le isre
lated to E
., by t
he i
n
trin
sic i
mpedance o
f t
he
med
ium, i
nthis c
ase
, f
r
ee space
. H ence
H j
[
/] s
i
n /
(
6
-23
)
24
hrr X
S
ubst
itut
ing n
ow f
ort
he moment[
/„
,]
/in(6-22
)and (
6
-23
) t
he e
quiva
len
t
v
alue f
or alo
op a
sgi
ven b
y (6
-16
), w
e ob
tain
1
2072[
/
]si
n 0A
— x2 (
6
-24
)
a
nd
= TV
]si
n 0A
(
6
-25
)
r X2
These aret hen t he f ar-field e qua tion sf or as malll oop o fa rea A c arry ing
acurrent I . T hey a r e i dentica l wi th ( 6
-8 ) a nd ( 6
-9) d eve loped i nS ec. 6 -1
b
y t he m ethod u s
ing a s qua re l oop o f f our s ho rt linea r e l ectric d ipole s
.
The fi
eld pat tern i nt he p lane o f ac ircula rl oop w i th u niform c urren t i sb y
s
ymme try ac i
rcle. T he f ar-f
ield p at tern i nt he p l ane o f as ma lls qua re l o op
w
ith u ni
form c urrent may a lso b es hown t ob e ac irc
le ( Prob . 6- 6)
. T hu s
,
i
tappea rst ha tt he f arf i
eld so fs mallc ircu la ra nd s qua re l oop sa rei den t
ica l
p
rovided thatb o
th h av et hes am ea rea.
Both E ,a nd Ho v ary a st he s ine o ft he a ngle 0a si lustra ted i nF ig . 6 - 6
.
The fi
elds ar e i ndependen t o f0 . H ence , t he s pace p attern s a re f igure s o f
r
evolution o ft he p at tern o fF ig. 6 -6 a round t he p o
la ra xis, t he f orm b eing
t
hat of ad oughnu t. T his p atte rn i si den tica l i ns hap e t o t ha t of as ho rt
e
lectric d ipo le o r
ien ted p aralle l t o t he p ola r
o
r za xis.
6
-4. Co mpar ison o f F ar F ie lds o f Sma ll
L
oop a nd S hor t D ipo le. I t i so f inte res t t o
c
ompa re t he f ar-field e xp re s
sion s f or as mall
l
oop w i th t ho se f or as hort e l
e ctric d ipo le.
The c ompa rison i s made i n T ab le 6 -1. T he
p
resence o f t he o pe rator ji n t he d ipo le e x-
p
ression sa nd i tsa bsence i nthe l oop e qua tions
Fm.6-6
. F ar-fi
eld patte rn for i
ndica te t ha t t he f ie
ld s o f the e lectric d ipo le
asmallloop
. a
nd o ft he l oop a rei nt ime p ha se q uadra tu re,
t
he c ur ren t Ib eing i n t he s ame p ha se i n
b
oth d ipole a nd l o
op . T his q uad rature r e
la tion ship i s af undamenta l
d
iference b etwe en t he f i
eld s o fl oop sa nd d ipo le s
.
The formu la s i nT able 6 -1 a pply t o al oop o riented a s i n F ig. 6 - 2 a nd
adipole orien ted p ara l
lel t o t he p ola r or za xis. T he f o
rmu la s a re e xac t
o
nly f or van ishing ly s mall l oop s a nd d ipo les. Howeve r, t hey a r e g ood
S
e
c. 6
-
5] THE LOOP ANTENNA 1
61
a
pprox
imation
sforl o
op s u
p t
o /1
1 w
ave
leng
th i
n d
iame
ter a
nd d
ipo
les u
p
t
o tt
o-w
ave
length l
ong.
TABLE 6
-
1
F
AR F
IELDS O
F SMALL E
LECTR
IC D
IPOLES AND L
OOPS
F
ie
ld E
lec
tric d
ipo
le L
oop
E
, —j
607
E/J s
i
n 0L 1
201
-2[
/
] s
i
n 0A
E
lec
tric
r A r x2
j
[
i] s
i
n 0L eV
] s
i
n 0A
Magne
tic H
, — He — r x2
2
r A
6
-5. T he L oop A ntenna . G eneral Case. T he g
ene
ral c
ase o
f al
oop
a
ntenna w ith u n
iform , i
n-pha s ec u
r-
r
entw i
lln ow bed i
scu ssed. T he si
ze
o
fthe loop isnotr e
stricted to as mal
l
v
alue compa red to t he w aveleng th dA0
a
si nthe preceding sections b ut may d
A0 \ \
a
ssume a ny v alue. T he m ethod o f (
SO) 1 \
t
reatmen t f o
llow s t hat g iven b y
Fos
ter.
'
Letthe loop ofradiu s ab el ocated T
o poin
t P
-
z
w
ith it
s c enter at the o r
igin o f theinx pl
ant
c
oord
inatesasi nFig. 6-7
. T he cur-
r
ent I is unifo
rm a nd i n p hase
a
round t
he lo
op. Although t h
i scon-
d
it
ion isre
adily obtained when t he
l
oop i
ssmal
l, iti
sn ot an atural con-
d
it
ion f
orlarge lo
op se nergized at a
p
oint
. F o
rl oopsw i
th p er
ime te
rs of
a
bout 1wavelength orl a
rge r, phase/X
s
h
if t
ersofsome type mu
st be i
n
tro- F. 6 -
7
. L oop o
fany r
ad
ius awi
th r
e
la
-
d
uced a t inte
rvals around t he ti
on toco
ord
ina
tes
.
p
er
iphery i
nordert oapprox
imate a
u
niform
, in
-phase cu
rren
t on t
he lo
op. Assuming t
hat the c
urren
t isuni
-
1D
onald Fost
er, L
oop An
tennas with Un
ifo
rm C u
rrent, Pro
c. I.R
.E.
, 3, 6
2 03-607,
O
ctob
er, 1
944.
Adi
scus
sion ofci
r
cularlo
opso fci
rcumf
erencel e
sst h
an iw avel
ength (C),< i)with
n
onun
iform cu
rrentdi
str
ibu
tion isg
iven b
yG.G linsk
i,N ote o
nC ir
cularLoop A
n tennas
w
ith N
onuniform Cur
rentDist
ribut
ion,J. Appl
i ed P
hys.
, 1, 6
8 38-644
,J u
ly, 1
947.
1
62 ANTE N N AS [CH
AP. 6
f
orm and inp hase, t
he far-f
ie
ld e xp
ressions w i
ll b ed er
ived w ith the aid of
t
he ve
cto rpotential o
ft he el
ec tric c
urrent. T he v ectorp otentia
l w il
l fi
rst
b
e developed fo
r ap air ofs hort, diame tr
ically o ppo sed electr
ic dipoles of
l
eng
th a do
, as inFig.6-7. T hen i n
tegrating o vert he loop,t he t
otalv ector
p
otential i so btained, and from t his
;Lb t
he f
ar-field c omponen tsared erived.
S
ince t he c urrent i sconfined t o
t
he lo
op , t he o n
ly componen to fthe
v
ector p otential h aving a v a
lue is
.
4. T he o therc omponen tsar ezero:
A
, = A ,. = 0 . T he i nf
in
i tes
ima l
v
alue a t t he p o
in t Po ft he 4,com -
2
(3o c n0
os 0 s
i .je p onen t o fAf r om t wo diame tr
ically
o
pposed i n f
in
ite s
ima l dipolesi s
P
er
ime
ter o
f l
o
op d
A. — dM (
6
-26
)
4
i
rr
I
'
m. 6-8
. C ro
ss se
ct
ion i
n x
-
z p
l
ane
t
h
rough l
oop o
fFi
g. 6
-
7. where dM i
st he c
urrent momen t
d
ue to o
ne p
a
ir ofdiame t
rical
ly op
.
p
osed i
nf
in
ites
imal d
ipo
les o
fl e
ngth, ado. In t
he 4
) = 0plane ( F
ig. 6
-7
)
t
hes;
6component o
fthe r
e
tarded cur
rent moment d
ue toone dipole i
s
] ad
[
I oco
s (
6
-27
)
w
here [I
] = Ic,
e"
(') a nd /0 i
sthe peak currentint
ime o
nt he l
oop
.
F
igure 6
-8i
s acros
ss ect
ion through t he lo
op int
he x
-
zp l
ane ofFig. 6
-7.
R
eferr
ing now t
o Fig. 6-8
, the resultant momen t dM a
t al a
rge d
istance
d
ue to apa
ir o
fdiame t
rical
ly oppo sed dipoles i
s
dM = 2
j
[I]a d
4
) c
o
s4)s
i
nt- (
6
-28
)
w
he re 4
,= 2
,3a c
os4)si
n 0r
ad
ians
I
ntroduc
ing th
is v
alue f
or4
,i
nto (
6
-28
) w
e h
ave
dM = 2
.
7
[1]a c
os4
)[s
in (
3a c
osc
f
)si
n 0
)
]d4
) (
6
-29
)
Now s
ubs
titu
ting (
6
-29
) i
n
to (
6
-26
) a
nd i
n
teg
rat
ing
,
A
, f
s
i
n (
$a c
o
s4,s
i
n 0
)co
sgbd
4
) (
6
-30
)
2
e
rr o
o
r
j
z
[lla
— JOa s
i
n 0
) (
6
-31
)
2
r
w
here J
, is aB
esse
l f
unc
tion o
ft he f
i
rs
t o
rde
ra nd o
fargument (
3asi
n 0
)
.
T
he in
tegrat
ion of (
6
-30) i
sperformed o
n equ
ivalen
t dipo
les w
hich a
re
S
ec
. 6
-
6] THE LO OP ANTEN N A 1
63
a
l
l si
tuated att he o
r
igin b
ut h
ave dif
erent o
r
ienta
tions w
ith respe
ct to4,
.
T
he retarded curren
t [I
] i
sre
ferred t
o the o
r
igin and
, hence
, i sc
onstan
t
i
nthe in
tegration.
T
he fare l
ectr
ic fi
e
ld oft
he l
oop has o
nly ai
t,c
omponen tgiven by
E
, = (
6
-32
)
S
ubs
titu
ting t
he v
alue o
fA,f
r
om (
6
-31
) i
n
to (
6
-32
) y
i
eld
s,
E
• — a
c
o[f
la J
,
(13a s
i
n 0
) (
6
-33
)
2r
o
r
6
01
13a [
I
]
E
, — J
,
(fi
cts
i
n 0
) (
6
-34
)
This e
xpres
sion g
ives t
he i
n
stan
taneou
s ele
ctr
ic f
i
eld at ala
rge d
i
stance
rf
r
om al oop o
fany rad
iusa. The p
eak va
lue o
f Ed,i
sob
tained b
yp ut
ting
[
I
]=I
.
,where I i
sthe p
o eak v
a
lue (
in t
ime
) ofthe c
urren
t o
n t
he lo
op.
T
he magnet
ic f
ie
ld He a
t al
arge d
i
stance i
sre
lated t
o E• b
y t
he i
n
trins
ic
i
mpedance o
fthe med
ium, i
nthi
s c
ase, f
r
ee s
pace. Thus
,
f
i
a2
r[
1
]
He J
,
(fta s
i
n 0
) (
6
-35
)
Thi
s express
ion g ives t
he in
stan taneous magne tic f
ie
ld at alarge d
i
stance
rfrom aloop o fany radius a
.
6
-6. Far-f
ield Pa t
terns o
fC ircularL oop Antennas with Un
iform Curren t
.
The f
ar-f
ie
ld p atte
rn sfor aloop ofa ny si
ze areg i
ven by (6
-34) and (
6-35).
They dife
r in magn itude by af acto
r ( E, =I -
1
,Z). F or alo
op of agi ven
s
i
ze, ti
ai sconstanta nd the s
hape o fthe fa
r-f
ield pat
tern i
sgiven as afunc-
t
i
on of 0b y
Ji(
C>,s
i
n 0
) (
6
-36
)
w
here C),i
sthe c
i
rcum
ference o
fthe l
o
op i
nwave
leng
ths
. T
hat i
s
,
2
7
ra
CA = =/
3
a (
6
-37
)
T
he v a
lue o fs in 0a s af unction o f 0r anges in magn i
tude b etween zero
a
nd unity. When 0 = 9 0°, the r
ela t
ive fie
ld is.1,
(Cx) ,a nd as 0de
creases
t
ozero
, t hev a
lues o ft h
er e
la t
ive fie
ld v ary inaccordance w i
th theJ,c urve
f
r
om J1( C
A) t o zero. T h
is isi lu
s trated b y Fig
. 6 -9 i
n w hich a r
ect
ified
f
i
rs
t-orderB e
s se
l c urve isshown as af unct
ion o f C),s
in 0.
A
sa ne xamp le,l etusf i
nd the patternf or aloop 1w avelength indiameter
(
C),= 7 = 3 .14). T he re
lative fi
e
ld i nt he d
irect
ion 0 = 9 0
°i sthen 0
.285.
A
s 0d ecreases, the f i
e
ld intensity r i
ses, r
eaching a max imum o f0.582 at
1
64 ANTENNAS [
CHA
P. 6
a
ngle 0of about 3
6°. As 0decreases f
ur
the r
, t
he fie
ld in
tensi
ty al
so de
-
c
r
ea se
s, r
eaching z
ero a
t 0= 0°
. T he p
atte
rn int he o
the
rf our q
uadrant
s
i
ssymme t
rical, t
he comp
lete p
attern b
eing as p
resented i
nF ig
. 6
-106.
0
.
6
0
.
5
=
50
.
2
0
.
1
2 k 5 6 7 8 9 1
0 I 1
2 1
3 14 1
5 1
6
9 CAs
i
n
6
0°
3
0°
0
° 8
F
la
. 6
-
9. Pa
tte
rn c
har
t for l
o
ops w
i
th u
n
ifo
rm c
u
rren
tasg
i
ven b
y f
i
r
st-
ord
er B
es
sel
c
u
rveas af
u
nct
ion o
f Cx s
i
n 8
.
I
t i sp ossible t o o btain t he p attern b y ag raph ical c onstruc t
ion. T h
is
i
silus tra ted f o
rt he case w eh ave justc onsidered o f C),= rb y the a uxil
ia ry
c
ir
cle q uadrant i n Fig. 6 -9. T he a ngle 0i slaid o f around t he arc o ft he
c
ir
cle. T he rad ius o ft he c i
rcle ise qua l to Cx s in 9 0° = Cx,w h
ich i nt h
is
c
ase isr . T he f i
eld i nt he direction 0= 6 0°
, fori ns
tance , ist hen g iven b y
d
raw ing a p erpend icu lar t o the a x
is o f t he a bscissa a nd c on t
inu ing t h
is
p
erpend icu lar u n
til i ti ntersects t he J , c urve g iv
ing a v alue o f r elative
f
i
eld, i nt h
is c ase, of0 .443 , ass hown i nF ig. 6-9.
Turn ing n ow t o ac onside ration o fl oop s ofo the r size, iti sto b e n oted
f
rom F ig. 6 -9 t hat t he max imum f i
eld i si n the d irection 0 = 9 0° f or al
l
l
oops w hich a re l ess t han 1 .
84 w aveleng th s i n c i
rcum ference ( l
es s than
0
.585 w aveleng th i n diame ter). A s a n e xamp le, the p atte rn f o
r al oop
il
lyw ave leng th i n diame te r isp resen ted i n F ig. 6 -10a. T he p atte rn i s
p
ractica lly as ine p attern a s would b e o btained w ith av ery s mall loop.
By w ay o f c ontrast, t he p attern f or al oop 5w ave leng th s in d iame ter
i
ss hown i n Fig. 6 -10c. I n this case, w hich i st ypica l for l a
rge c ircular
l
oops w ith u niform c ur ren t
, t he max imum f i
eld i si n ad ire c
tion n ea r
ly
no
rma l t o the p lane o f t he loop, w h
ile t he f i
eld i n t he d ire ct
ion o f the
p
lane o ft he l oop is.sma ll.
A
l
l p attern s i n Fig . 6 -10 a re a d
jus ted t o t he s ame max imum . T he
s
pace p a tterns f or the t h ree cases i nF ig. 6-10 a r e fi
gure s o fr evolu t
ion o f
SE
C
. 6
-
7] THE LO OP AN TE N N A 1
65
t
he p
att
ernsaround t
he p
olarax
is. Itist
obe no
ted t
hatthe f
i
e
ld exac
tly
n
ormal t
o t
he l
oop i
salways z
e
ro, r
ega
rdle
ss o
fthe s
i
ze o
fthe l
oop
.
D
i
ame
ter•
-,
C),
.0-
314
D
i
ame
ter-
CA 3
.
14 D
i
ame ter- 5
A
Ch -1
5
.7
F
ro. 6
-
10. F a
r-f
ie
ld pa
tte
rns o
floops o
f0.
1, 1
,and 5w
ave
leng
ths d
iamete
r. Un
iform
i
n
-phase c
urrent i
sas
sumed on t
he lo
ops
.
6
-7. The Sma l
l Loop a s aS pecial Case
. T he rela
tion
s o
f (
6-34
) a nd
(
6
-35) apply t
ol oopso fany s
ize
. I twi
ll now b
es hown tha
t f
o
rthe spec
ial
c
ase of as ma
ll loop
, t he
se express
ions reduce t
o the one
s o
bta
ined pre-
v
ious
ly.
Fo
r s ma
ll argumen ts of t
he f i
rst
-order Bes
sel funct
ion
, t
he f
o
llow
ing
a
pproximate re
lation can be u
sed.'
J,
(
x) = (
6
-38
)
w
here x i
sany var
iab
le. When x = 1 , t
he approximat
ion of (
6-38) is
a
bout 1pe
r cent i
n e
rror
. T he r
e
lat
ion becomes exact a
s xapproa che
s
z
e
ro. Thus, i
fthe p
er
imeter o
fthe l
oop i
s 1wave
leng th o
r l
e
ss (C ),< 1
)
,
Fo
rsma
ll a
rguments
, t
he JI c
urve i
snear
ly li
nea
r (
see F
ig
. 6-9
). The g
enera
l r
e
la-
t
i
on f
o
r aH
emel f
unc
tion o
fany order ni
s J(x) x
^/n
!2‘
, where Ix I< 1
.
1
66 ANTE N N AS [CH
AP. 6
(
6
-38) may b
e app
lied t
o (6
-34
) and (
6
-35
) with an e
rro
r wh
ich i
sabout
1pe
rcent o
rles
s. E qua
tion
s (6
-34
) a
nd (
6-35
) then b
ecome
6
0
10a
[I]$a s
i
n 0 1
2071/
lain 0A
— x2 (
6
-39
)
2r
t
3
a
[II0a s
i
n 0 i
r
[1
]sin 0A
Ho — (
6
-40
)
4
r r X2
T
hesefar-f
ield e
quationsf or asmal
l loop areident
icalw ith tho s
e o b
tained
i
near
lie
rs e
ction
s (see Table 6
-1)
.
6
-8
. R adiat
ion Resistance ofLoops.' T o fi
nd the rad
ia t
ion r e
sistance of
aloop antenna, the Poyn t
ing v e
ctor i sintegrated o ver
al
arge sphere y
ie
lding the tota
l powe r W r adiated. T h
is
p
owe risthen e
quated tot he s
quare o
ft he efective current
o
n the lo
op timest he r
adiat
ion res
istance R ,.
W=- I
gR
2R. (
6
-41
)
where /0 = p eak currenti nt ime o n the loop. T he radia-

t
ion res
istance soo btained isthe v a
lue w hich wou ld appea r
a
tt he loop terminals connected t ot he tr
an smission line as
s
hown i n Fig. 6-11. T he s i
tuation s hown i n F ig
. 6 -11
Fm. 6
-11
. L oop o
ccu rsn atural
ly o n
ly o n smalll oops. H oweve r
, i twill be
a
nd tr
ansmi
ssion a
ssumed t hat the currentisu niform a nd inp hase fora ny
l
i
ne. r
adiu sa,t hiscondition being o btained b ym eans o fp hase
s
hif
t ers
, mu lt
iple feeds, or other d evices (see Sec. 14-20).
The average P
oyn ting v e
ctoro f afa rfi
eld isg iven b y
Pr =1
111
1 2R
ez (
6
-42
)
whe
re IH Iist
he ab
solute va
lue ofthe magnet
ic f
i
eld and Z i
sthe i
ntr
insic
i
mpedance ofthe med
ium , which inth
is case i
sfree s
pace. Subs
titut
ing
t
he ab
solute v
a
lue of Ho f
rom (6-35
) fo
r IH Ii n(6
-42) y
ields
1
5w(f
i
ct10
P
, — 2 J2
) ,
(
3a s
i
n 0
) (
6-43
)
r2
T
he t
otal p
owe
r r
ad
iated W i
sthe i
n
teg
ral o
f P
, o
ver al
a
rge s
phe
re.
T
hat i
s
,
2r r 2
W = f
fP, d
s = 1
5
2- (3
a10)
2f0 f .
1
,
(fla s
m 0
)sm 0d
0d.
c
5 (
6
-44
)
1The p
rocedure f
o
llows t
hatgiven b
yF oste
r, L
oop A
ntenna
s w
ith Un
iform C
urrent
,
P
roc
. I.R
.E., 32
, 603-607
, October
, 1
944.
S
ze
.. 6
4] THE LO OP AN TE N N A 1
67
o
r
W = 3
0T2(
f
ta1
0) 2 f 40
3a s
i
n 0
)si
n 0d
O (
6
-45
)
0
I
nthe c
ase o
f al
oop t
hati
ssma
lli
ntermso
fw ave
length
s, t
he a
pprox
ima
-
t
i
on of(6
-38) c
an be a
ppl
ied
. Thus (
6
-45
) r
educe
st o
W =1
2§T
2
(pa
)4n s•3
0d
O = 1
0
1r2/
34a4/
: (
6
-46
)
0
B
utt
he a
rea A = T
a2 s
o (
6
-46
) b
ecome
s
W = 1
0# 4A24 (
6
-47
)
A
ssum
ing n
o a
ntenna l
o
sses
, this p
ower equa
ls t
he p
owe
r d
e
live
red t
o t
he
l
o
op t
erm
ina
ls a
s gi
ven by (
6-41
). T he
refore
,
R' = 1
0
13 4A2I
: (
6
-48
)
2
a
nd
R
, =3
1,171( 4
x2)2 = 1
97C1
, o
hms (
6
-49
)
o
r
I
?
, 3
1
,200( 4 )2 o
hms (
6
-50
)
Thisi sthe radiat

ion r e
sis
tance of as mal
lsingle-turn loop a
ntenna, ci
rcula
r
o
r s quare, with u niform in-phase c urrent
. T he r e
lation isa bout 2p e
r
c
en t inerror w hen the loop pe
rime ter is 1w ave
leng th. Ac ircular l
oop of
t
his perime ter has ad iameter of a bout 110-wavelength. Its radiat
ion re
-
s
i
s tance b y (6
-50) isn ear
ly 2.5 ohm s.
The rad
ia t
ion r e
sistance of as mall loop cons
isting of o
ne or more turn
s
i
sg iven byl
R
, = 3
1
,200(n -
x2
11-
)2 o
hms
w
here n = number o
ft u
rns
L
et us n
ow p
roceed to f
i
nd the r
adia
tion re
sistance o
f ac
i
rcula
r l
oop o
f
a
ny rad
iusa. Tod othis we mus
t in
tegra
te (6-45)
. However, t
he i
n
tegra
l
o
f (
6-45
) may be r
eexp
ressed. T hu
s, i
ng ene
ra l
,'
f0 j i
(X s
i
ni 0
)si
n 0d
O = f2s J
2
(y) d
Y (
6
-51
)
. 2 X 0
IA. A
l fo
rd a nd A. G. Kandoian, Ultrah
igh
-frequency Loop Antenna
s, Trans
.
A
.I.E.E
., 59, 8
43-848
, 1
940.
2G. N
. Wa tson, "
A Treat
ise o
n the Theory o
f Bess
el Func
tion
s," C
amb r
idge Uni
-
v
ers
ity Press
, London
, 1922
.
1
68 ANTE N N AS [
CHAP
. 6
w
here yisa
ny funct
ion
A
pply
ing (
6-51) t
o (
6-45
) w
e o
bta
in
2$
4
W =3
01
. 21
3
aig f J
2
(Y) d
y (
6
-52
)
0
E
qua
ting (
6
-52
) a
nd (
6
-41
) a
nd p
utt
ing t
i
a = Ch y
ie
lds
R
, = 6
02
-2C
)
, IT Ch J
2(y
) d
y o
hms (
6
-53
)
T
hisisthe r
adiat
ion res
istance a
sgiven by F
oste
rf o
r asing
le-
turn c
i
rcu
lar
l
o
op with u
niform in
-phas e cu
rrent a
nd ofany c
ircumfer
ence Ch.
When t
he loop i
slarge (Cx > 5
), we c
an u
se the a
pproximat
ion
J
2(Y
) d
i
/ 1 (
6
-54
)
s
otha
t (
6
-53
) r
educe
s t
o
a
R
, =6
0r2Cx = 5
92Cx = 3
,720 (
6
-55
)
F
or aloop of 1
0 waveleng
ths p
er
imet
er, t
he rad
iat
ion r
esis
tance by (6
-55)
i
snear
ly 6,
000 ohm s
.
F
orv a
lues o
f Cx b
etween Iand 5t
he i
nteg
ral in(6
-53
) can beevaluated
u
s
ing the t
ransfo
rma t
ion
f
2Ck 2
Ch
o J
2
(Y) d
y = L J d
y — 2
J,(2C
x) (
6
-56
)
whe
re the e
xpress
ions o
n t
he r
i
ght o
f (6
-56
) are t
abu
lated f
unc
tion
s.'
For p
erimete
rs of o
ver 5wave
lengths (Cx > 5
) one c
an al
so use t
he
a
symp tot
ic d
evelopment
,
1
•1
0 2s J2( Y) d
y 1— — = [ s
i
n (
2x — ± 1 cos (2 7r
\
Vrx 4
/ 1
6x X — 4) ] (
6-57)
where x = = Cx
For sma
ll va
lues o
fx,o ne c
an u
se as
e
rie
s o
bta
ined b
y i
n
teg
rat
ing t
he
a
scending power s
e
ries f
o
r J2. Thus
,
.
J02
: X
3 1 X2 X4 X6 X8
J
2(Y
) d
Y = ( 5
6 1
,
080 + 3
1, (
6
-58
)
680
When x = Ch = 2 (
per
ime
ter 2w
ave
leng
ths
), t
he r
e
sul
t w
ith f
our t
e
rms
The in
teg ra
l invo
lving Jo for the in
terval 0 < x < 5(whe
re x CO i
sgiven by
A.N.L owan a nd M . A b
ramow itz, J. Math. Phy
s., 2
2
, 2-12
, May, 1
943
; and al
so by
Na
tl
. Bur. Standards Tech. Memo 2 0.
Va
luesof Jia regiven in many tables. See, f
orexample
,Jahnkeand Emde, "Tab
les
o
fF unc
tions," B. G. Teubner, Leipzig, 1
933, p
. 157
.
Sa
c
. 6
-
9] THE LOOP ANTENNA 1
69
i
sa bout 2p e
r cent i
ne r
ror. T hi
s s ame percentage erro
r i sobtained w
ith
o
ne term w hen the p
er
ime terisabou t 1w avelength.
A graph s howing the radia
tion r es
istance o f si
ngle-turn lo op
s with
u
niform current as afunct
ion oft he ci
rcum ference i
nw avelengths isp
re-
s
en
ted i nFig. 6
-12. T he da
ta fo
rt he c
urve are based onF oste
r's fo
rmulas
1
0
,000
1
9
7CI —- -
.-
3
,000
, .
.,
/ 5
92 CA
E 1
,
000 /
/
o 3
00 /
.
6
I
.
1
0
0
4
.
)
•
0 3
0
1
7
,
1
0
0 3
0
*
-
6
0
c
r
0
.
3
1 I
0
.
) I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 I
i
Lo
op c
i
rcum
ference
, CA
F
ia. 6
-12
. Radiation r
es
istance of s
i
ngle-turn c
ircu
la r l
oop with u
niform
, i
n
-pha
se
c
urr
ent a
s af
unct
ion of t
he l
oop c
ircumference i
nw aveleng
ths, C),
.
a
s g i
ven above. C urves fo
r the approximate formulas ofs ma
ll and l
arge
l
oop sares hown b yt he d
ashed li
nes.
6-9. Di
rec t
ivity o
fC ir
cularL oop A n
tennas with Uniform C u
rrent. T he
d
irectiv
ity D o fa nantenna wasd ef
ined in( 2
-31) asthe ra
tio of maximum
r
adiation i n
tensity to the average radiat
ion i n
tensi
ty. T he max imum
r
adiation i
ntensity fo
r aloop a
ntenna isgiven byr 2t
ime s(6
-43). T he a
ver-
a
ge r ad
iat
ion i nten
sity isgi
ven by (6-45) d
ivided by4 T. T hus, t
he di
rec-
t
ivi
ty o f aloop is
2CAP
(CA s
i
n 0
)
D — (
6
-59
)
f
g
" J2(
y
)di
/
T
his isF os
ter's expre
ssion f
or the di
rect
ivity of ac i
rcular l
oop w
ith
u
ni
fo rm i
n-phase cur
rent ofany c
ircumference CA. The angle 0i
n (
6
-59)
i
sthe v
alue fo
rw h
ich the f
i
eld i
s amaximum .
Fo
r as ma
ll loop (CA < 1
), t
he d
ire
ctiv
ity expre
ssion r
educes t
o
3 •2 3
D =-
2s
in =-
2 (
6
-60
)
1
70 ANTE N N AS [CH
AP. 6
3
ince t
he fi
e
ld is a maximum at 0= 9 0°
. T he va
lue o
f4i st
he same a
s
f
or ashor
t e l
ectr
ic dipo
le. T h
is i
sto be expected s
i
nce t
he p
atte
rn ofa
s
hort d
ipo
le isthe s
ame a sfo
r as ma
ll l
oop.
F
or al
arge lo
op (C),> 5)
, (6
-59
) reducesto
D =2
Cx.
I
:
(Cxs
i
n 0
) (
6
-61
)
F
rom F
ig. 6-
9 we n
ote that f
or a
ny lo
op wi
th C),> 1
.84
, the max
imum
v
a
lue o
f J,
(C),s
in 0
)is0 .582
. T hus
, the d
i
rect
ivi
ty e
xpres
sion o
f (6
-61
)
f
o
r al
arge l
oop b
ecomes
D =0
.68C), (
6
-62
)
The d
irect
ivity of al
oop a
ntenna as afunc
tion o
ft he lo
op ci
rcum fe
rence
CA i
spresented in F
ig
. 6
-13
. C urves b
ased on t
he approximate r
elat
ions
o
f(6-60) and (
6-62) f
orsma
lland large l
o
opsareindicated bydashed li
nes
.
a
5
°
C
\ 0
.
68C A
1
2
. 4 P i
3
,.
"
2.
..
...
...
.. 0-
3 , 1
(D
irec
tiv
ity o
f i
s
otrop
ic s
ource
0
2 3 4 5 6 7 9
L
oop C
ircumference
, CA
F
la. 6-
13. D irect
ivity of c
i
rcula
r loop antenna w
ith un
iform, i
n-pha
se c
urrent a
s a
f
unct
ion of l
oop ci
rcum f
erence i
n waveleng
th s
, C. (Af
ter Fo
ste
r.)
6
-10 . T able ofL oop F ormu las. T he re
la t
ionsd eveloped i nthe p
receding
s
e
ction sa res umma rized i nT able 6
-2. T he generala nd large l oop f
ormu las
a
reb ased o n F oster's result
s.
6
-11 . Squa re L oops. I tw ass hown i nS ec.6-3t hatt he far-fi
eld pat
te rns
o
fs quare a nd c i
rcula r loops oft he same a rea ar
e i d
en t
ica l w hen the loops
a
re s mall (A < A2/10 0)
. A s ag ene ral
ization, w e may s ay t hat t
he prop -
e
r
tiesd epend o nly o nt he area and t hatt he shape oft he loop h as noe fect
w
hen t he loop i ss ma
ll
. Howeve r, this isn ot the case w hen the loop is
l
a
rge. T he p attern o f ac ircular loop of a ny size isi ndep endent of t he
a
ngle 4,b u
ti s afunc t
ion o f 0(see F
ig. 6-2)
. O nt he otherh and,t he pa
tte rn
Se
c
. 6
-
11
] THE LOOP ANTENNA 1
71
o
f ala
rge square l
oop i
s afunction o
fb oth 0and 0. R efe
r r
ing toF ig. 6
-14,
t
he pa
ttern in aplane normal to t
he pl
ane oft he l
oop and p a
rallel to two
s
ide
s (1and 3), a
s ind
icated by the l
ine AA'
, i ssimply the pa
tte rn oft wo
p
oint s
ources rep
resenting si
de s 2and 4 of the loop. T he pa
tt ern in a
T
ABLE 6
-
2
F
ORMULAS F
OR C
IRCULAR L
OOPS W
ITH UN
IFORM CURRENT
S
mal
l lo
op*
G
ene
ral e
xpr
ession L
argeloop
Q
uan
tity A < X2/10
(
a
ny si
ze l
oop) C),> 5
Cx < 1
6
0wH
IC),
.
/1(
Ch s
i
n 0
) 1
20T21
/
) s
i
n 0A
F
arE
, S
ame a
sgene
ral
r r 2 x
[
I
]CxJ
,
(Ck s
i
n 0
) 7
[1
1 s
in 0A
F
ar HO S
ame a
sgene
ral
2
r r X 2
2C)
,
R
adiat
ion
607r 2 Cx f Jo(
y y3
) d 1I
2
00 0
x) 2 = 1
97C
: 3t
7
20 2
x = 5
92 CA
r
e
sis
tance
,ohm
s o
D
ire
ctiv
ity 2
C)ol
f
(r),s
i
n 0
) 3 a
4
.
25 —
x = 0
.68C)
,
Jr .
1
2
(1) d
Y 2
A =area o
flo
op;C ., c
) i
r
cum fe
renc
eo fci
r cula
rl o
op
, wav
elength
s.
T
hes ma
lllo
op fo
rmulasapply n
otonly tocircu
larlo
opsbutalsotosq
uareloop
sof
a
r
ea Aa nd inf
a
ctt osma
llloopsofany s
hapeh aving a
na r
ea A
. T h
ef o
rmula i
n
volv
ing
C),a
ppl
ies
,o fc
ours
e,o n
ly to aci
r
cularloop
.
p
lane n orma l to the p lane o f t
he l oop a nd p a
ssing t hrough d iagonal c o
r-
n
ers
, a s i ndicated b y t he line BB ', isd i
fferent. T he c omp let
e r ange in
t
he patt ern v ariat
ion a s af unct
ion o f4 .i scon tained i n th
is 45 ° in
terval
b
etween AA ' and BB ' i nF ig. 6
-14 .
An a ddi t
iona l d iference o f l
arge c ircular a nd s quare l oops isi n the
p
attern s
. F or instance , Fig. 6-10c show s t
he p attern as af unc t
ion of 0
f
or acircula rl oop 5w ave length
s i nd i
ame ter
. B y way ofc ompa r
ison, the
p
attern f or as qua re lo op o fthe same a rea i spresented i nF ig. 6-
15. T he
s
quare l oop i s4 .44 w ave lengths o n as ide. T he p attern i si n ap lane
p
erpend icula r to t he p l ane of the l o
op a nd p aral
lel to t he sides (plane
c
ontains AA ' in F ig. 6 -14). C ompa ring F igs. 6 -
10 c and 6 -15, w e note
t
hat the p attern l obes o f the ci
r cular lo op decreas e in magn itude a s 0
a
pproa che s 90° w h
i le t he lobes o
ft he squa re l
oop a re ofe qual magn itude.
Th
isi lu strates the d ife rence oft he Bessel function p attern oft he ci
rcular
1
72 ANTENNAS (
CHAP
. 6
l
oop a
nd t
he t
r
igonome
tric f
unc
tion p
attern o
f t
he s
qua
re l
oop
. I
n t
he
a
bove d
iscu
ssion
, u
niform i
n
-phase c
urrents a
re a
ssumed
.
S
qua
re
op
3
4
5
'
X
Fl
o
. 6
-
14. La
r
ge s
qua
rel
o
op. Flo
. 6-15
. P at
tern o
f squar
e loop with
u
niform, in-pha
se cur
rent
. T he lo
op is
4
.44 wavelengths o
n asid
e. T he p
attern
i
si n aplane normal t
o the p
lane ofthe
l
oop and th
rough th
eline AA'ofFig
.6 -
14.
P
ROBLEMS
6
-1. C a
lculatea nd pl o
tt he fa
r-fi e
ld p attern n
orma lt ot he plane of ac
ir
cularl o
op
Iw avelength ind iame terw ith au nifo rm in-phasec urren td istr
ibu tion
.
6
-2. C a
lculatea nd p lott he fa
r-f ield pattern in ap l
ane n orma l tothe pl
ane ofa
s
qua rel oop and p arallel too ne si
de . T he l oop i
s 1w ave leng th on as i
de. ASUME
u
nifo rm in-phase c ur rents.
6
-3. Wha t isthe max imum e fec tive a p
erture of at hin l oop a ntenna 0.
1 w ave-
l
ength i n diamet er w ith a u niform i n-phas e c
urren t distribu t
ion?
6
-4. Wha tist he r adiation res
is tance o ft he l
oop ofP rob . 6-
1?
6
-5. Ac ir
cular l o
op a ntenna w i th u niform in-pha se c urrent h as adiame ter D.
Wha ti s
a.T he far-field p a
ttern (c alcu la
te a nd p
lo t
)
b.T he radia tion r e
sistance
c. The direc tivity
f
ore ach ofthr ee c ases w here
(
1) D=X /4
(
2) D= 1 .5X
(
3) D = 8X
6-6. R eso
lving t he s mal
l squar el oop with uniform c ur rent into 4short dipo
les,
s
how t hat the f
or-field p attern int he n lane ofthe loop i sac i
rcle.
CHAPTER 7
THE HEL
ICAL ANTENNA
7
-1. Introduc tion . T he h e
licala ntenna ,w h
ich i sdiscu ssed i nthisc hap -
t
er
, may b e r egarded a s t he c onne cting l i
nk b etween t he linear a ntenna
a
nd t he l oop a ntenna , d i
s cussed i n p receding c hap te rs
. T he h e
lical
a
ntenna i st he g ene ral form o f antenna o f w hich the l i
nea r and l oop a n-
t
ennas are s pe c
ial c a
ses
. T hu s
, ah elix o f fi
xed d iame te r col
lap ses t o a
l
oop as the s pacing a pproa che s zero. O n t he othe r hand , ah el
ix o ff ixed
s
pacing between t u rns straigh tenso uti nto al inearc onduc to ra sthe d iam -
e
tera pproache s zero.
Ah e
lix may r adia te in many mode s
. Two o ft hese r adiation mode sw il
l
b
e considered i ns ome d etail
. T hese a re: (1) the axial mode o fradia t
ion '
a
nd ( 2
) the n orma l mode o fr adiation.'
I
n the a x
ia l mode o fr adia t
ion t he f i
eld i s a maximum i nt he d i
re ct
ion
o
ft he he
lix a xis a nd i sc i
rcula r
ly p olarized o r n ear
ly s o. T he axial mode
o
fradiation o ccur s w hen t he h e
lix c i
rcum ference i soft he orde ro f 1w ave-
l
ength
. F or ag iven h el
ix , this mode o fr adiation p ers
is ts o ver ar e
lative ly
w
ide frequency r ange .
I
n the n orma l mode o fr adiation , the f i
eld is amax imum i n ad i
re ct
ion
n
orma l to the h elix a xi
s, a nd f o
r ac erta in relation b e twe en the s pacing
a
nd diame ter t he f i
eld is, int heo ry, circula r
ly p olar
ized . F or the n orma l
mode the dimen sions o f t he h el
ix mus t b e small compa red t o the w ave-
l
ength, sotha t from b and w idth a nd e ff
iciency c onside ration s th
is mode i s
n
ot readi
ly a pp l
icab le i
np rac t
ice.
IJ.D. K raus, Helical B eam A ntenna, Electronics, 2
0, 109- 111
, A pr
il
, 1 947
.
J
.D . K raus and J .C. W i
ll
iamson , Cha racterist
ics of Helical Antennas Rad iating in
t
he Axial Mode , J. App lied Phys., 1
9, 87-96, J anuary, 1948.
0. J. Glas
ser a nd J. D . K raus, Mea sured I mpedances o f Hel
ical B eam A n
tenna s,
J
. Applied Phys., 19, 193- 197, February, 1948.
J
.D . K raus, Helical B eam A ntenna s for W ide-band A pp l
icat
ions, P roc
. I.R.E .
, 36,
1
236-1242, O c
tober , 1948.
J
.D . K raus
, The H el
ica l Antenna, Proc. I.R.E .
, 37, 263-272, Ma rch, 1949
.
J
. D. K raus, H el
ical B eam A ntenna De sign T echnique s
, C ommun i
ca t
ions, 29, 6-9,
3
4-35, September , 1949.
T. E. Tice and J .D . K raus, The Influence o f Conduc tor Size on the Properties of
He
lical Beam A n
tennas , P roc
. I.R.E., 37
, 1 296, November , 1949
.
2 H
. A. Whee ler
, AH e
lical Antenna forC ircu larP o
larization, Proc
. I.R.E., 36
, 1 484-
1
488, December , 1947.
1
73
1
74 ANTE N N AS [CH
AP. 7
T
he ax
ial and no
rma l r
adia
tion mode pa
tterns o
f ahe
lix a
re c
ompared
w
ith t
he rad
iation pa
ttern
s for s
t
raight c
onductor
s and l
oop
s inFig
. 7-
1.
S
TRA
IGHT C
ONDUCTORS (
0
( =90°)
S
hort L
ong
00
II= i II= 1 II= 1
12=0 12 =0 12= 1
V =c V=
OD V=C
A
l IXl
ong
L
OOPS (
a
: =0
°)
Sma
ll L
arge
C
=A C=
12X
Ii=1
, 1
2 =1 1
1=1
, 1 2=0
V
=C v=co
H
ELICES (0
°< a (9
0°)
Sma
ll L
arge
0
CO
C--
4
.X
no. 7
-1. P atterns o
fstraight conductor
, loop, a
nd hel
ix compa red. /2 and /2 rep
re-
s
ent current magn itude
s o f wave s t
rave
ling in oppos
ite direc
tion s o
n a ntennas
. I f
/2 = /
1t here i
s apure s
tanding w ave
. I f /2 = 0
,only apure tr
aveling wave ispre
sent.
(
v=v elocity ofw ave a
long antenna, c= v eloc
ity ofli
ght, C=c ircumference)
.
I
t isto be n
oted that t
he pat
terns o
f ashor
t li
near c
onduc
tor
, asmal
l
l
oop
, and as ma
ll h
elix a
re t
he s
ame.
7
-2. Hel
ix Dimensions
. T he f
ol
lowing s
ymbol
s wi
ll b
eused t
ode
scr
ibe
ahe
lix (
see F
ig. 7
-2
):
D = d
iame ter ofhelix (c
ente
rt oc enter
)
C = c
i
r cum ference ofhel
ix = 7D
S = s
pa c
ing b etween turns (
cent
er t ocen
ter
)
a = p
itch a ngle = arc
tan S/TD
SE
C
. 7
-
31 THE HELIC AL ANTE N N A 1
75
L = l
eng
th of 1t
urn
n = n
umber ofturns
A = a
xia
l l
ength = n S
d = d
iamet
ero fhel
ix conduc
tor
The d
iameter D a nd ci
rcum fer
ence C r e
fer t
o the imaginary c y
linder
who
se sur
face passe
s t h
rough t he cente
r li
ne of t
he hel
ix conduc tor
. A
s
ubscr
ipt Xs i
gnif
ies that the dimension ism ea
sured inf re
e-spa
c e w a
ve-
l
e
ngths
. F or example: Dx i
st he he
lix diamete
r infree
-space wavelengths.
'Su
rface ofi
mag
inary
he
lix c
y
linde
r
d
I _H
e
lix
__
-
1 a
x
is C .i D
1
-
s-
i
F
lo. 7-
2. H
elix a
nd a
.
s
soc
iated d
imen
- F
la. 7-3
. R elat
ion between c
ircum
fer-
s
i
ons. e
nce
,spacing
, turn l
e
ngth, a
nd p
i
tch a
ngle
o
f ahe
lix.
I
f 1t urn o f ac i
rcu la r h elix i su nro l
led o n af l
at p lane , t he rela t
ion b e-
t
ween t he s pa cing S , cir cum ference C , t urn l ength L , a nd p itch a ngle a ,
a
re asi lustrat ed b y t he t r
iang le i nF ig. 7 -3
.
The dimen sions o f ah elix a re c onven ien tly r epre sent ed b y ad iame te r-
s
pacing c har t o r, a s i n F ig . 7-4, b y ac ircum ference - spa c
ing c ha rt. O n
t
h
is c hartt he d imen sion so f ah elix may b ee xpressed e itheri nr ectangu la r
c
oordina tes b y t he s pa c
ing Sx a nd c i
rcum ference C y>,o
ri np olarc oo rdina te s
b
y t he length o f 1t urn 1 .),and t he p i
tch a ngle a . When t he s pac ing i s
z
ero, a= 0 ,a nd t he h elix b ecome s al oop. O n the o the r hand , w hen t he
d
iame ter isz ero, a = 9 0°, a nd t he h elix b ecome s al i
near c onduc to r
.
Thus, in F ig. 7 -4 t he o rdina te a xis r epresen ts l oop s w hile t he a bs c
is sa
a
xis represen t s l i
nea r c onduc to rs
. T he e ntire a rea b e twe en t he t wo a xes
r
epre s
en ts the g ene ra l ca se o ft he h elix.
S
uppo se t ha t w e h ave a 1 -
turn h elix wi th at urn l eng th o f 1w ave leng th
(
L),= 1 )
. When a = 0 ,t he helix i s al oop o f 1w ave leng th c i
r cum fe rence
o
r ofd iame te r e qua l t o 1/7rw ave leng th s
. A s the p itch a ngle a i ncrea se s
,
t
he c i
rcum fe r ence d ecr ea ses a nd t he d imen sion s o f t he h elix move a long
t
he 14,= 1c urve i nF ig. 7 -4, u nt
il, w hen a = 9 0°
, t he " hel
ix" i s as traigh t
c
onduc to r 1w aveleng th l ong.
7
-3. R adia tion a nd T ransm ission Modes o f Helices . I n d iscu ssing t he
h
elix, iti sn ece ssary t o d ist
ingu ish b e tween t r
an sm is s
ion a nd r ad iation
d
iode s
.
1
76 AN TE N N AS [
CHAP
. 7
The t
erm "
transm
ission mode" isused t
odescr
ibe t
he manne
r inw h
ich
a
n ele
ctromagnet
ic wave i
sp ropaga
ted along an i
nf
ini
te h
el
ix as t
hough
P
i
tch A
ngle
,a.
r
s
5° 30°
2
.8 a
1 .
A
xis of
2
.6 L oops CA=2
-
1 N-
F
2
.4
2
.2
e
< 45°
c
.
)2.0
.
2- 1
.
8 CA=
1
12- 1
r
3 1
._
1
.
6
'4
-lobed lx.
2.5
1
4 . mode
1
.
2 60°
B
oom
M
ode
2̀ 1
.
0 1
_
,=2
.
8
'
u. CA=
NIS
h 75°
L=
I
4
T
o LA. A
x f L
is o inea
r
N
ormal 2
mode C
onducto
rs
0°
00 .
2 4 .6 .8 1.0 1.
2 1.4 1
.
6 1
.
8 2
.0
S
pac
ing i
n Wave
lengths
, SA
F
lo. 7-4
. S pac
ing
-circum
ference c
har
t f
o
r h
el
ice
s s
how
ing r
eg
ions f
o
r d
ifer
ent mode
s
o
fo pe
ration
.
t
he h e
lix con st
ituted a ni nf
inite t r
ans-
(
a
) m
isTc
s
ion l i
ne o rw ave g u
ide. Av ariety
o
f d iferen t t ransm ission mode s i s
p
os s
ible.
(
1
)) T
he t erm " radiation mode" i sused
t
od escribe the gene ralf o
rm o ft he fa
r-
T2 + T3 f
i
eld p atte
rn o f afi
nite hel
ix. Al though
c
) a
n i nf
inite v ar
ie ty ofp atternsi sp o
s-
_ s
ible
, t wo k ind s are ofp articula r in
-
E
nd vi
ew ofhel
ices t
erest. O ne i sthe axialo rbeam mode
F
to. 7 -
5. A pproximate i n
stantaneou
s o
f r
a d
iation (R, mod e
), a
nd t
he other
c
harge dis
tribut
ions on hel
ices f
or d
ifer- i
st he n orma l mode o f radiation ( R0
e
nt tr
ansm iss
ion modes. mode ).
The lowestt ransm ission mode f ora
h
el
ica l conduc to r has a djacent re g
ion
s o f p os
itive a nd n egative c harge
.
SE
C
. 7
-
3] THE HELIC AL ANTE N N A 1
77
s
epa rated b y many t urn s. T h
i s mode i sd esigna ted a sthe To transm iss
ion
mode a nd t he in
s tantaneou sc ha rge d istribu tion i sa ssuggested byF ig . 7-5a.
The Tomode i si mpo rtan tw hen t he l eng th o f 1t urn issmallc ompa red t ot he
waveleng th ( L< <X )a nd i st he mode o c cur ring o nl ow -f
requency i nduc tance s
.
I
ti sa l
so thei mpor tan tt r an sm i ssion mode i nt he t r
ave l
ing-wave t ube.' S ince
t
he a djacen t region so fp ositive a nd n ega tive c ha rge
a
re s epa rated b y a n a pp re ciab le a xial d istance , a Po
lar
a
xis
s
ub stan t
ia l ax
ial c omponen t o f t he e lec tric f i
eld i s
p
re sent, a nd i n t he t rave l
ing -wave t ube t his f i
eld
i
ntera cts with t he e lectron s tream . I ft he c rite r
ion
LA < i
sarbitra r
ily s ele cted a s ab ounda ry f or t he
To transm ission mode , t he r e gion o ft he h elix d imen -
s
ion s fo
r w h
ich t his mode i si mpor tan t i ss hown b y
t
he s haded a rea i nF ig. 7 -4.
Ah el
ix e xcited i nt he To t ran sm is s
ion mode may
r
adia te
. L et us c onside r t he c ase w hen t he h elix
i
sv ery s ho r
t ( nL X
) a nd t he c ur ren t i sa ssumed
t
ob eo fu n
iform magn i tude a nd i np has e a long t he
e
ntire h el
ix. I ti st heo r etica l
ly p o ss
ib le t o a pp roxi-
mate t his c ondition o n as mall, e nd -loaded h e
lix.
A
lthough t he r adia t
ion r esistan ce o f s uch a s mal
h
elix w ou ld be v ery l ow , l et u s a ssume t hat a pp re- F ro. 7
-6
. As mal
l h e
-
c
iable r adiation c an b e o bta ined . T he max imum l i
x a nd it
s r adiation
f
i
eld f rom t he h el
ix i st hen n orma l t o t he h elix a xis p atte
rn.
f
ora ll helix dimen s
ion s p rov ided o nly t hat n L X
.
Thu s
, t h
i sc ondition i sc al
led a " no rma l r adia tion mode" ( R0).2 Any c om -
p
onen t oft he fi
eld h as as ine v ariation w ith 0a ss hown i nF ig. 7-6
. T he
s
pa ce p attern i s af igure o f r evolu tion o f t he p attern shown , around t he
p
ola ra x
is. T he f i
e
ld i s
,i ng ene ra l
,e lip tically p olarized butf orcertain h elix
d
imen s
ion s may b e c ircu la r
ly p olar ized a nd f or o ther dimens ions, l i
nea r
ly
p
ola r
ized . T he t r ansm i ssion mode a nd r adia tion mode a ppropria te f or
v
ery s mall hel
ice s c an b e d es cribed b y c omb in ing t he T. a nd R. d esigna -
IR. Kom fner

, The T rave
ling Wave T ube as Amplifi
er a t Microwave s, Proc
. I.R.E.
,
3
5, N o. 2
,1 24-127, February, 1 947.
J
.R . P
ierce and L.M .Field,T raveling Wave T ube s
,P ro
c.I .R
.E .,3 5
, No .2,1 08-111
,
Februa ry, 1947.
J
. R . Pierce, T heory of the B eam -
type T raveling Wave Tub e
, P roc
. I.R.E., $5
,
No. 2 , 11- 123
, F ebruary, 1947.
C
. C . Cutler
, E xperimentalD eterm ination ofH eli
cal Wave P rope rt
ie s
, Proc
. I.R.E.
,
3
6, N o. 2
,2 30-233, February, 1 948.
L
. J .C hu and J .D . J
ackson , Field Theo ry o
fT raveling Wave T ubes, Proc
. I.R.E.
,
3
6, N o. 7
,8 53-863, July
, 1948.
I Any radiat
ion mode , in g eneral, may b e arbitrar
ily d es
igna ted b y t he s
horthand
n
o tation R.„„ 8. where 0,
.ist he a ngle fr
om t he h
e l
ix axis to the direct
ion o f maximum
r
adia tion
. F or the normal mode 0 .
1 =9 0° so t
ha t t
he d es
igna t
ion i s Ro.
1
78 ANTE N N AS [CH
AP. 7
t
ion s a s ToRo. T h
i s d e signa t
ion i sa pplied i n F ig . 7 -4 t o t he r egion o f
h
elix d imen sions n ea rt he o rigin.
Af i
rst-o rde r t ransm is sion mode o n t he h elix , d esigna ted T „ b e come s
p
erm issible w hen t he h el ix circum ference Cx i nf re e-space w ave leng ths i s
o
f t he o rde r o f 1w ave leng th. F or s mall p itch a ngles, t his mode h as
r
egions o f a djacen t p o s
i tive a nd n ega tive c ha rge s epa ra ted b y a pp rox i-
ma tely t
urn o r n ea r t he o ppo site e nd s o f ad iame te r a s s hown i n F ig.
7
-5b a nd a l
so i n end v iew b y F ig. 7 -5c
. I ti sf ound t ha t r ad iation f rom
h
elice s w ith c ircum f erence s o ft he o rder o f 1w ave leng th ( C
y), 1 )a nd a
n
umbe r o ft urn s ( n > 1 )i su sua l
ly aw ell-defined b eam w ith amax imum
i
n t he d ire ction o f t he h el
ix a xis. H ence, t his t ype o fo pe ra tion i sc alled
t
he " axial o r b eam mode o fr ad iation" a nd s ince O . = 0t he d esigna tion
i
s R„ A h elix r ad ia t
ing i nt he a x
ia l mode may b e s poken o fa s a" helica l
b
eam a n tenna ." T he f ie
ld i n t he
a
xiald irec tion f r
om ah elix r adia ting
i
n t he a xial mode i s c ircu la r
ly
p
ola r
ized o rn ea r
ly s o.
Mea sured f i
eld p atte rns o f a7 -
t
urn 1 2 ° h elix w ith ac i
r cum fe rence
o
f 1w ave leng th a re s hown i n F ig.
I
6X 7
-7. T he re a re t wo p atte rn s
. R e-
f
err
ing t o t he h e
lix i n F ig. 7 -7, t he
o94x
E• patte rn s how st he v ar
ia tion w ith
o
t=i2° ,n=7 , C A=1
. 0
4
)o f the E . c omponen t ( pa rallel t o
t
he p age ) o ft he f i
eld . T he Et p at-
t
ern s how s t he v aria tion w i th 4 )o f
t
he Et c omponen t ( no rma l t o t he
p
age ). B oth p atte rnsa ref unc tion s
o
f4 )a nd a re m easu red i nt he p lane
o
ft he p age . B oth p at tern s i nF ig.
7
-7 a re a dju sted t o t he s ame max i-
F
la. 7 -7. F ield p atterns o f 12°, 7-turn mum . Howeve r
, t he a ctua l d ife r-
h
elix r ad
ia ting i n t he a xial mode . The
e
nce b etween t he max ima o fE .a nd
h
elix c i
rcum ference i s 1 w avelength .
Et iss mall, s ince t he f i
eld i sn ea r
ly
Both E a nd Ee p atterns a re shown a s a
f
unc t
ion o f 0 . E , i sin t he p lane of the c
ircul a
rl y pola r
i zed.
p
age , and Et,i sn orma l to the p age. The a xial mode o fr adia tion w ith
p
atte rns s imila rt ot ho se o fF ig. 7 -7
o
ccur so ve r ac on side rab le r ange o fh elix dimen sion s( C), a
nd Sxo r1 ,), a
nd c e
),
a
ss hown b y t he c rossha tched a rea i nF ig. 7 -4. B e
ing a ssoc ia ted w ith t he
T
, t ran sm is s
ion mode , t he c omb ined d esigna tion a pp ropr ia te t ot h
is r egion
o
fh elix dimen sion s is T, R,ass hown i nF ig. 7 -4.
S
till h ighe r o rde r t r an sm ission mode s
, T .
, T .
, a nd s o f orth, b ecome
p
erm issible f o
rl arge rv alues o fC . F ors ma l
lp itch a ng les, t he a pprox ima te
SE
C
. 7
.
4] THE HELI C A L AN TE N N A 1
79
c
ha rge d i
s tribution a round t he h e
lix for t
hese mode s i sas s uggested by
F
ig . 7-5c.
I
n F ig. 7 -4
, t he n orma l r adiation
mode r egion ( T010) i s shown a s a
s
haded a rea. T he axial orb eam mode
r
egion ( T IR1) i s shown a s ac ros
s-
h
a tched a r ea. I n g eneral, t he r adia-
t
ion mode a sso ciated w i
th h elix d i
-
men sion s o utside t hese a reas i s mult
i-
l
obed o r, i n some c ases, c on ical, as
i
lus trated b y the p atterns i nF ig. 7-
8.
Ano ther e xamp le i s t he f ou r-
lobed
mode ' t hat o ccur sw hen the s pa c
ing i s
1w aveleng th a nd t he l eng th o f one e
c-24*
, CA-
1.25
t
urn i s 2w aveleng th s (a = 3 0°), the F io.7-8. E xample
so f multi
lobed a
nd
r
adia tion b e
ing b oth n orma la nd a xia
l. c
onica
l pat
te rns
.
S
ee F ig. 7 -0.
7
-4. T he N orma l R adiation Mode . C onsider ah e
lix oriented w ith it
s
a
xis c oinciden t w ith t he p olar o r za x
is as in Fig
. 7 -10a. I ft he dimen-
R
adia t
ion
patterns
I 025X 0
.05X
l
.- 0
.
1X
"
p
b- 0
.
3
2
N
or ma
l mode
1
-*
-- 05
5X
A
xia
l mode
4- l
obed mode
Fm. 7
-9
. P a
tterns f
o
r thre
e hel
ix r
ad
iation mode
s, the r
e
lative si
ze o
f h
el
ice
s t
o p
ro-
d
uce t
he d
ife
rent modes a
t the s
ame w
avelength b
eing i
ndicated
.
il
. C
hire
ix, U
.S. P
atent 1
,
843
,445
, F
eb. 2
, 1
932
.
1
80 ANTE N N AS [CH
AP. 7
s
i
ons o
ft he h
el
ix a
re s
mall (
nL <
< X
)
, the maximum rad
iat
ion i
salwaysin
adi
rec
tion no
rmal t
o the h
el
ix a
x
is (s
ee p
attern i
n F
ig. 7
-6
). Hence, t
he
z Z Z
o
lo
r
a
x
is
S
I
x (
a)
: H
el
ix x (
b
): L
oop x (
c
): D
ipo
le
Fr
o
. 7
-
10(a
), (
b
), a
nd (
c
)
. D
imens
ions a
nd c
oord
ina
tes f
o
rhe
lix
, l
oop
, a
nd d
ipo
le.
max
imum fie
ld of asmall he
lix or
iented asinF ig
. 7-10a i sint he x-y p
lane,
w
ith z
ero f
i
eld inthe d
irect
ion o fthe zaxis
.
When t
he pi
tch ang
le isz ero, t
he he
lix become s alo op as inF ig. 7-
10b.
When the pi
tch a ngle is9 0
°, the he
lix
I4Df
r1
s
t
raightens out into a linear a n
tenna
a
sinF ig
. 7-10c
, t he loop and s t
raight
I
s
a
ntenna b e
ing l imiting c ases of the
hel
ix .
The f a
r f ie
ld o f t he hel
ix may b e
descr ibed b y t wo componen t s of the
e
le ctric field, E# a nd Eo,a ss hown i n
Fig. 7 -10a . Let u s now d evelop
exp re ss
ion s f o
r t he f a
r-f
ield p a
t terns
(
d
) (
e
) oft he se componen tsf or as mallh e
lix.
FIG
. 7-
10 (d) and (e). Mod ified h
elix f
or
T he d eve lopmen t i s faci
litated b y
n
orma l mode c alculat
ions.
assum ing t ha t the h el
ix consists ofa
n
umbe ro fs malll oopsa nd sho rtdipolesc onnec ted i nseriesa si nFig. 7-10d.
The diame te r D o f the l oops i sthe s ame a s t he h e
lix d iame ter
, a nd t he
l
ength o f t he d ipole s Si sthe s ame a s t he s pa c
ing b etween t urns o f the
h
elix. P rov ided t hat t he h e
lix i ss mall, t he mod if
ied f orm o f Fig. 7 -
10d
i
se quiva len t to t he t r
ue h e
lix o f Fig. 7 -10a. T he c urrent i sassumed t o
b
e u ni
fo rm i n magn itude a nd i n phase o ve r the e ntire length oft he h e
lix.
S
ince t he helix i ss mal
l, t he far-f
ield pa tte rn isi ndep enden t o
ft he numbe r
o
f turns. H ence, i ts ufi ces to calculate t he f ar
-fie
ld p a
t terns of as inglE
small loop a nd o ne short d ipole as ilust rated i nF ig. 7-10e.
The far f i
eld o ft he s mal
l lo op has o nly a n E‘ c omponen t
. I ts value is
g
iven i nT able 6 -1, as
E
. _ 1
207 2[
/
] s
i
n 0A
r x2
(
7
-1)
SE
C
. 7
-
41 THE HELI C AL AN TE N N A 1
81
wher
e the a
rea o
fthe l
oop A = rD 21
4
The fa
r f
i
eld oft
he sho
rt di
pole h
as only a
n Es c
omponen
t. I
t
s v
alue i
s
g
iven inthe s
ame t
ab
le as
E
s =j Mi f s
i
n 92
—
X (
7
-2)
where S has been subst

ituted for Last he length o
ft he d
ipo
le.
Compa r
ing ( 7-1
) a nd (7-2)
, the j o
pe rator in (
7-2
) and its absence in
(
7-1
) i n
dicates that E. and Es are i
np ha se quadra
ture. T he ra
tio oft he
magnitudeso f( 7
-1) and (7
-2) then g
ives t he a
xia
l rat
io ofthe po
la r
izat
ion
e
lipse oft he far f
ie
ld. H ence, d
iv
iding t he magnitude of (
7-2) by (7-1
)
we ob
tain f o
rt he ax
ial ra
tio AR ,
AR _11i 1 — SX _ 2SX
(
7
-3)
— IE
. I 2 rA 7
r2D2
Th
ree s pecial c
a s
es ofthe polar
iza tion elipse are o
finteres
t. ( 1
) When
= 0,t he axial rat
io isinf
in
ite a nd the p o
la r
izat
ion elipse is aver
tica
l
l
i
ne i ndica t
ing l i
nea r v
ertica
l p o
la r
iza t
ion. T he h
el
ix i n th
is case isa
v
ertical dipole. ( 2) When Es = 0 ,t he axial rat
io i
szero' and the po
lari
-
z
ation e l
ips e is ah or
izontal l
ine indicating linear h
or
izon ta
l polar
ization
.
The hel
ix i nt h
is case i
s ah or
izonta l loop
. ( 3
) The th
ird specia
l case of
i
nterest occur s when IE, I =I E . I. F o
r t h
is case t
he ax
ial rat
io isunity
,
a
nd t he p o
la r
ization elipse is ac ircle
, i nd
ica t
ing ci
rcular polar
ization
.
Thus, sett
ing ( 7-3
) e qua
l tou n
i ty yie
lds
rD = V2SX o
r Ck = " Vi
i K (
7
-4)
This r
e
la t
ion w as fi
rst ob tained b y Whee ler i na n equivalen t fo
rm .' T he
r
adiat
ion i sci
rcularly p o
la rized, n o
t o n
ly i na ll di
rec t
ions i nthe x-y p lane
o
fF ig
. 7 -10a but in al
l d irection s in space e xcept i n t
he d ire
c t
ion o ft he
p
olara xis where the fi
eld i szero.
We h ave considered t hree s pec
ial c ases of t he p o
larization e l
ip se i n
-
v
olving li
nea rand c i
rcularp olarization. I n the g eneral case, the r
ad iation
i
seliptically po
lar
ized . T herefore, the radiation f r
om ah e
lix ofc on stant
t
urn le
ng th changesp rog ressively t hrough t he fol
low ing form sa st he pitch
a
ngle isva r
ied
. When a = 0 ,w ehave al oop ( Fig. 7
-10b) a nd the p o
lariza-
t
ion isl i
near and h orizon tal. A s ai ncrease s
, l e
t u s consider the h el
ix
d
imen s
ions a sw e move al ong ac onstant Lx l i
ne i nFig. 7
- 4
. A s ai ncreases
The ax
ial ratio ish ere al
lowed to range f
rom 0 to i
nf
inity
, ins
tead of f
rom 1 to
i
nf
inity as cus
toma ri
ly ( Sec
. 15-
11), i
norder to d
i
stingu
ish between li
nea
r ver
tica
l and
l
i
nea r hor
izontal p o
larization.
2 H. A.Whee ler, AH e
lical Antenna f
o
rC ircu
larP o
lar
izat
ion, Proc
. I.R
.E.
, 35, 1
484-
1
488, D ecember, 1 947.
1
82 ANTE N N AS [
CHAP
. 7
f
r
om z e
ro, t
he po
lar
ization b ecome
s eliptica
l with t
he majo
r ax
is of t
he
p
olar
izat
ion el
ipse h orizontal
. When a r eache
s a v a
lue such that
Cx = V2S x t
he po
larization isci
rcu
la r
. W ith t
he a
id of F
ig
. 7-
3, t
his
v
alue o
f aisg
iven by
a= a
r
csin —
1 + VI+ (
7
-5)
A
s ai ncrea se s s t
ill f urthe r, t he p ola r
iza tion a gain b ecome s e lip t
ica l b ut
w
ith t he ma jo r a xis o f t he p o
la rization e lipse v e rtica l. F ina l
ly , w hen a
r
eache s 9 0°
, w e h ave a d ipole ( Fig. 7 -10c) a nd t he p ola riza tion i sl inea r
a
nd v er tical. Whee le r's r e
lation f or c i
r cular p ola r
iza tion f rom a h el
ix
r
adiating i nt he n orma l mode a s given b y ( 7-4) o r ( 7-5 ) i ss hown i n F ig.
7
-4 b y t he c urve ma rked Cx = V2Sx.
In t he p re ceding d iscus sion o n t he n orma l mode o f r adia tion , t he a s-
s
ump tion i s made t ha t t he c u
rren t isu nifo rm i n magn itude a nd i np hase
o
vert he e ntire l ength o ft he h e
lix . T hisc ondi t
ion c ou ld b ea pp rox ima ted
i
ft he h elix i sv ery s mal
l ( nL < X ) a nd i se nd -loaded . Howeve r
, t he
b
and w id th o fs uch as mall h e
lix w ould b e v ery n arrow , a nd t he r adia tion
ef
iciency w ou ld b e l ow. T he b and w idth a nd r adia tion e f
iciency c ould
Coaxial
be i
ncre ased by i
nc re a sin g t
he s
i
z e o
f
l
i
ne\ [ A— Ground p lane t
he h elix, bu tt oa pp rox ima te t heu ni-
n
om - m
a
. f
orm ,i n
-phas ec ur r en td ist r
ibu tion r e
-
(a
) quires t
h at s
o m e t
y pe o
f ph ase s
h
if ter
bep laced a ti nterva lsa long t he h elix.
.Ma
,,
.
— m
ax This may b ei nconven ient o ri mp rac -
t
ical
. H ence , t he p roduc t
ion o f t he
norma l mode o fr adia tion f rom ah elix
(
b)
has se r
ious p rac tica l l imita tions .
An a ntenna h aving f our s lan ting
M
ax d
ipo les t hat i ss ugge stive o f a mod i-
f
ied h el
ix r ad iating i n t he n orma l
(
c
) mode h as b e en b u
il t b y B rown a nd
F
lo. 7-11 . A rrangemen ts f or producing Woodwa rd ' ( see F ig. 1 4-39f ). T heir
t
he axial mode o f radiation , a
rrangemen t i sb ased o n ad esign d e-
s
cribed b y L indenb lad .2
7-5. A rrangemen ts f orP roduc ing t he A xial Mode o fR ad iation . When
t
he h elix c ir cum fe rence Cx i si ncrea sed t o t he orde r o f 1w aveleng th , t he
a
xial o r b eam mode o f rad iation i so b
ta ined . T h
is r adia t
ion mode i s
g
ene ra ted i n p ra ctice w i
th g rea t e ase. I n f act
, t he d imen sion s o f t he
G
. H. Brown and 0
. M . Woodward, C
ircu
larly Po
larized Omnid
irec
tiona
l Antenna,
RCA R e
v, 8
,2 59-269
, June, 1
947.
2 N
. E. L
indenblad, Ant
ennas and T
ransmiss
ion Linesatt he Emp
ire S
tate T
elev
ision
S
tut
ion, Commun icat
ions
, 21, 1
0-14, 2
4-26
, Apri
l, 1
941.
SE
C
. 7
-
61 THE HELIC AL AN TE N N A 1
83
h
elix are son oncritica l t
ha t ah e
lica
l b eam a ntenna i sone o ft he simplest
t
ype s ofa ntenna s i ti spos
sib le t
o make .
T
he a rrang emen t i lustrated i n F
ig. 7-11a a fords a s imple m ethod o f
g
ene rat
ing t he a x
ial mode o fr adiat
ion f rom a h e
lix. T he r ad
iation i sin
t
he f o
rm o f au n idirec t
ional b eam asi nF ig. 7 -
7.
T
he r adiation i s a max imum i n the direction o f the h e
lix a x
is a nd is
c
i
r cular
ly p o
la r
ized , o r nearly so. T he h el
ix i so perated i n conjunction
w
ith ag round p lane a nd i senerg
ized b y ac oaxial transmission l i
ne. T he
i
nner conduc tor o ft he li
ne c onnects tothe h elix, and the o uter conduc tor
t
ermina tes in t he g round p lane. T he ground p lane s hould b e at least
waveleng th i n diame ter
. A n ax
ial mode h elical antenna o f 7t urns a nd
p
itch a ngle of1 2.5° i sshown i nthe photog raph o fF ig. 7-
12.
no. 7
-
12. P o
le-mount
ed h
el
ica
l b
eam a
ntenna (
o
r a
x
ial mode h
el
ix) o
f 7t
urn
s w
ith
p
i
tch ang
le o
f 12
.5°
.
An arrangemen t f or energiz
ing a h el
ix i n the beam mode w ith a t wo-
w
ire transm ission l ine i sshown i n Fig. 7-
11b . T he a ntenna i n t
his case
p
roduce s ab id irectiona l pattern a s indicated. T he a bove h el
ices are of
u
niform c r
o s
ss e
ction . T he beam mode o fr adia
tion c an also begene rated
w
ith at apered h e
lix a s inF ig. 7-11c.
The diame te r, the s pacing, or bo th may b e t
ape red ( s
ee Sec. 7-
16). I f
t
he taper is mode ra te
, t he efec t iss mal
l, o wing to the n oncr
itical nature
o
ft he he
lix d imen s
ion s w hen r adiat
ing i nt he ax
ial mode .
The fo
llow ing d iscus sion wil
l b e restr
icted t ou n
iform h e
lices
.
7-. C
6 urren t D istribu t
ion o n Hel ices. When t he c i
rcum ference oft he
h
el
ix isl e
ss than a bou t 1w aveleng ths (C),< f )the curren t d
istr
ibu t
ion is
1
84 ANTE N N AS [
CHAP
. 7
n
ear
ly si
nusoidal as on along st
raight an
tenna. A s a
n examp
le,' the
a
bso
lute magnitude o
ft he m
easured cu
rrent d
is
tribu
tion o
n a12°
, 7-turn
h
e
lix w
ith acircumfer
ence o
fa bout0.6w ave
leng
th (CA 0
.6
) isp
resented
2 3
D
istance a
long h
el
ix i
n w
ave
leng
ths
e
Rlat u
ive crrent
D
istance a
long h
el
ix i
n w
ave
leng
ths
urrent
T
ota
l o
utgo
ing w
ave
tve C
lot
Re
F
eed D
istance O
pen F
eed D
.stance O
pen F
eed D
istance Open
end a
long h el
ix e
nd end a
long helix e
nd end a
long h e
lix end
(
c
) (
d) (
e
)
Fm. 7-
13 . ( a) Measured c u
rrent d i
stribution o nhel
ix of0 .6wavelength c
ircum f
erence.
(
b
) Mea sured cur
ren td istr
ibution o ns ame h e
lix a
th i
ghe rfr
equency ( CA w.1.
07)w ith
r
adiat
ion i nt he axia
l mode .
(
c
) R e
solut ion ofc urrent distribution w hen C),< i n
to two To tr
ansmi s
sion mode
waveso fn early constant amp litude 4 t r
aveling i noppositedi
rections
.
(
d) R esolution ofc urr ent di
stribution o n hel
ix radiat
ing int he ax
ial mode (1 <
< 1) into t wo outgoing w aves a nd t wo ref
lected waves.
(
e
) R esolution of c urrent distribution o n helix rad
ia t
ing in the ax
ial mode into a
t
otal outgoing a nd a t otal ref
lected w ave.
i
nFig
. 7-13a
. When the f
requency i
sra
ised s
o t
hat t
he c
ircumfe
rence o
f
t
h
is h
elix isabou
t o
ne waveleng
th (CA t1), t
he mea
sured cu
rrent i
sof
K
raus a
nd W
ill
iam
son
, l
o
c. c
i
t
.
SE
C
. 7
-
6] THE HELI C AL AN TE N N A 1
85
d
istinc t
ly d if
f eren tf orm a ss hown i nF ig. 7 -136 . T h
is t ype o fd is tribu tion
i
sc ha rac teristic o fh elice s r adia ting i nt he a xial mode .
T hu s
, ah elix w ith a c i
r cum f erence t oo s mall f or t he a xia l mode o f
r
ad ia tion ( C),< 1 ) h as a n ea rly s inuso ida l t ype o f c ur rent d is tribu tion ,
c
aused b y a lte rna te r ein for cemen t a nd c ance l
la tion o f t wo o ppo s
ite ly
d
irect ed t r ave ling w ave s o n t he h elix o f n ea rly e qua l a mp litude . 10 as
s
ugge st ed i nF ig. 7- 13 c. B oth t r ave ling w ave s ar e oft he T ot ran sm ission -
mode t yp e
.
When t he c i
r cum fer ence o ft he h el
ix i so ft he o rde ro f 1w ave leng th a nd
r
ad ia tion i si nt he a x
ia l mode ( I < Ck < f ), t he c ur rent d istribu tion i s
r
e
la tive ly u nifo rm o ve r t he c en tra l r egion o ft he h elix s ince t he o utgo ing
wave s a re l a
rge i n c ompa r
i son w ith t ho se r eturn ing . B y a ssum ing t wo
o
u tgo ing t r ave l
ing w ave s o f d if eren t p ha se v elo c
i ty , o ne ( To mode ) a t
-
t
e nua ted a nd t he o the r ( T, mode ) c on stan t, a nd t wo s maller r eturn ing
t
rave ling w ave s ofd ife ren t p ha se v e
lo c
ity , o ne ( To mode ) a tt enua ted a nd
t
he o the r (T1 mode ) c on stan t, Mar sh' h a s b een a ble t o a ccount i nd eta i
l
f
or t he c omp lex a pp ea rance o f am ea su red c urren t d istribu tion s uch a s i n
F
ig . 7 -13b. T he To mode w ave s a re r apid ly a tt enua ted w hile t he T ,
mode w ave sa r eo fr e
la tive ly c ons tan t amp litude a ss ugge s ted i nF ig. 7-13d ,
s
o t ha t i n the c ent ral r e gion o f t he h elix o nly t he r e
lative ly c on stan t T ,
mode w ave sa re o fi mpo r tance .
C on t
inu ing t he dis cu ssion o ft he c ur rentd is t
ribu tion o nh elice sr ad iating
i
nt he a xial mode ( -
1 < C),< - I)
, t he t wo o u tgo ing w ave s may b ec omb ined
i
nto as ingle t o
ta l o utgo ing w ave ( To T
, w ave s) a nd t he t wo r ef
lected
wave s i nto a s ingle t otal r ef
l ected w ave a s i n F ig. 7 -
13 e. T he t otal o u t
-
g
oing w ave a t tenua te s r apid ly n ea r t he i n pu t e nd b u t rea che s ar elative ly
c
ons tan tv alue a bou t 1w ave leng th f rom t he i nput t erm ina ls ( as m ea sured
a
long t he h el
ica l conducto r). T his v alue i s ma in tained t o t he o pen e nd
o
f t he h el
ix . A d ip i n t he t ota l o utgoing w ave o ccu r s w he re t he t wo
c
omponen t o u tgo ing w ave s ( To a nd Ti)o fd if eren t p hase v elo city a re i n
phase o ppo sit
ion a nd o fn early e qua l amp li tude . T he t otal r ef
le cted w ave
s
ta rts b ack f rom t he o pen e nd e xh ibiting as im ilar b ehav io r
. I td ecrea ses
r
ap id ly a tf i
rst h ut r eache s ar e
la tive ly c on s tan t v alue a bou t 1w aveleng th
a
long t he h e
lix f rom t he o pen e nd. T his amp litude i su sua l
ly v ery much
l
ess t han t hat o f t he t otal o utgo ing w ave ,' s o t ha t t he r e f
lected w ave
'JamesA . Marsh, Mea

sured C urrent Dis
tr ibutions onH el
icalAn
tenna s
,P roc I.
R.E.
,
3
9. f
irA-675
, June 1951
.
This may bededuced fr
om F ig
. 7-136 byn oting thatt he SWR o
fcurrent on t
he h
el
ix
a
pproachesu n
ity about 1w ave
leng th (o
r 1t urn int h
is case) f
r
om the open end
. Mo re
d
eta
iled data are g
iven b
y Ma rsh. Af ew earl
ier m easurements w
ere made b y Mi
lton
A
ronoff
, "Measured Pha
s e V
eloc
ity a
nd Current Distr
ibut
ion Cha
racter
ist
icsofH e
lica
l
A
ntennas R ad
iat
ing in the Beam Mode," mas ter
's the
sis
, Department of E
lect
rica
l
E
ngineering
, The Oh
io State Un
iver
sity
, 1948.
1
86 AN TE N N AS [CH
AP. 7
c
an usua
lly be neg
lected in c
a
lculat
ing hel
ix p
attern
s. F urthermore
, if
t
he he
lix islong
, the outgo
ing To w ave c
an a
lso be neg
lec
ted a nd the
p
att
ern calcu
lated en
tire
ly on the b
asis o
f asi
ngle ou
tgoing T, wave of
c
onstant amp
litude
.
7-7
. Ter mina
l Impedance o
f He
lices
.' When t
he h
e
lix c
i
rcum
ference
+
200
C,
°
.61
4
1
00
( 72
- -
-5
e
.65 '
70 \
X0 C
.64
e
l
=
12
\6
.
=
.63
=
-
100
• d=18°
-
200 n =5
1
00 200 300 400 0 1
00 200 3
00 400
(
a) (
b
)
ha. 7
-14
. Mea sured impedance s p
iral f
or 12°
, 8-turn hel
ix (a) and 1
8°, 5
-turn he
lix
(
b)
. The he
lices are o
ffi
xed p hysica
l si
ze. The i mpedance (res
istance R and reac
tance
X
, inohms) isshown as af unct
ion offrequency, the c
ircumference in w
avelengths a
ta
g
iven f
r
equency b eing i
ndicated at i
nterva
ls al
ong t he sp
ira
ls.
i
s less than a bou t 1w aveleng th ( C
Y), < 1 )
, t he term inal i mpedance i s
h
ighly s ensit
ive t o c hange s in f r
equency . Howeve r, w hen t he h e
lix c ir
-
c
um ference i so ft he o rder o f 1w aveleng th ( I <C <4 ) and the h elix i s
r
adiating i nt he a x
ial mode , t he t erminal i mpedance i sn early con s
tan t as
af unction o f frequency , p rovided t hat t he p itch a ngle a nd n umb e r of
t
urns a re n o
t t oo s mall
. T h
is i si l
ustra ted b y the i mpedance s pirals o f
F
ig. 7 -
14 w hich s how t he m easured t erm ina l i mpedance o f 12° a nd 1 8°
h
el
ice s as af unc t
ion o f the f requency , t he h e l
ix c i
rcum ference i n w ave-
l
ength sf o
r ag iven f requency b e
ing i ndicated a ti nte
rva ls along the s pirals.
When t he c i
rcum ference i st oo s mall f or t he axial mode o f radia t
ion ,
t
he i mpedance v ar
iation i ss im i
la r to tha t o n am isma tched t r
an sm ission
l
i
ne o fc onsiderab le l e
ng th
. O n the other h and , the i mpedance v ariation ,
o
r lack o fi t
, w hen t he h e
lix r adia tes int he a xia l mode , iss im
ilar t o t hat
o
n at ransm ission l i
ne t erm ina ted i n a pp roxima tely i t
s c haracte ristic
i
mpedance . T his r elatively c on stant t e
rm ina l i mpedance o f a h elix
r
adiating i nt he a x
ial mode may b e e
xplained b y t
he m arked a t
tenua tion
1
0. J. G
lass
er and J
.D . Krau
s, Measur
ed Impedance
s o
f H
elica
l B
eam A
ntenna
s,
J
. App
lied Phys
., 1
9, 1
93-197
, Februa
ry, 1
948
.
S
ec
. 7
-
81 THE HELIC AL AN TE N N A 1
87
o
fb o
th t
he tota
loutgo
ing and tota
lrefle
cted waves. T hus
,r e
lat
ive
ly l
i
tt
le
e
nergy r
ef
lected f
r
om t he open end of the h
e
lix r eaches the i
npu
t. The
SWR ofcurrentatthe i
nputt e
rm ina
ls
i
sgiven b
y G
round pl
ane
SWR — I
n+
/0 — /2
o
mi
H
e
l s
x
where /0 and 12 a
re as ind
icated in
F
ig. 7-13e
. S ince /2 is very s mal
l 7 S
u—r
face o
fimagina
ry
c
ompa red t
o /0,t
he SWR att he t
ermi- h
e
lix cy
l
inder
n
als isnearly u
nity
, like on at ran
s- F
la. 7
-
15. T
erm
ina
l a
rrangement o
f
m
ission li
ne terminated in app rox
i- h
el
ica
l b
eam a
ntenna
.
ma tely i t
sc ha rac te r
i st
ic i mpedance .
T he i mpedance s pirals o f Fig. 7 -14 a re m easu red o n h elice s h av
ing t he
t
erm ina l a rrangemen t shown i nF ig. 7 -15. B eyond p o
int Q , t he h e
lix l i
es
i
nt he s urface o ft he i mag ina ry h el
ix c y
linde r
. B etween p oin ts Pa nd Q ,
t
he h elix c onduc to r l i
es in ap lane t hrough t he h el
ix a xis a nd a t app roxi-
ma tely t he s ame p it ch a ngle a s f or t he h e
lix p rope r. T he h elix a xi
s c o-
i
ncide s w ith t he c en ter c onduc to r o ft he c oaxial l i
ne f eeding t he a ntenna .
A
ll t erm ina l i mpedance s are r efe rred t o the p o
in t P . V aria tions i n t he
a
rrangemen t o f the c onduc tor b e twe en P a nd Q p roduce c hange s in t he
d
eta ils o f the i mpedance s p
irals. T he n ature o f t he d ielec tric s tructure
s
uppo rting t he h elix a nd t he s i
ze a nd s hape o ft he g round p lane a l
so h ave
a
n e fect o n t he d etail b ut n ot o n t he gene ral f orm o f the i mpedance
s
pira ls, i tb eing a ssumed t ha tt he amoun t ofd i
ele ctr
ic i sn ote xce ss
ive a nd
t
ha tt he s i
ze o ft he g round p lane i sn o
tt oo s mall
. T he c onduc to rd iame ter
dh a s r e
la tive ly l i
ttle e fec t on t he h elix c harac teristics w hen t he helix is
r
adia t
ing i n t he a xia l mode .' Howeve r
, a t fr
equenc ies o utside t he a xial
mode t he e f ect o f dmay b e c on side rab le. I n genera l
, t h e term inal i mpe -
d
ance o f h e
lica l a ntenna s r adia t
ing i n the a x
ia l mode i sn ea r
ly a p ure
r
esis tance w i th a v a
lue b etween 1 00 a nd 2 00 o hm s. B ased o n al a
rge
n
umber o fi mpedance m easu remen ts, t he termina l impedance o fa na x
ia l
ly
f
ed h elix ( as i n F ig . 7 -15) i sg iven w ithin a bou t ±20 p e r c en t b y t he
emp irica l r ela tion, R = 1 40 C),o hm s. T h
is a pplies t o h e
lices w ith
1
2° < a< 1 5°, I < C),< 4 ,a nd n > 3 .
7
-8 . A xial Mode P atterns a nd t he P hase V elocity o f Wave P ropaga t
ion
o
n Hel ices .' A s af i
rst a pprox ima tion , ah e
lica l antenna r adia ting i nt he
a
xia l mode m ay b e a ssumed t o h ave a s ingle t raveling w ave o f uni
fo rm
amp litude a long i t
sc onduc tor. B y th e principle o fp atte rn mu l t
ip l
ica t
ion ,
T
. E
. Tice a
nd J.D. Kraus
, The Inf
luence of C
onductor S
ize o
n the P
roper
tie
s o
f
H
elical B
eam A n
tennas
, Proc
. I.R.E
., 37
, 1296, November, 1
949.
2 J
.D. Kraus
, The Hel
ica
l Antenna
, Proc
. I.R
.E., 3
7, 2
63-272
, Ma rch
, 1
949.
1
88 A N T E N N AS (CH
AP. 7
t
he f ar-field p at
te rn of ah e
lix, s uch as s hown i nF ig. 7-15, i st he produc t
o
ft he p at tern f or 1t urn a nd t he p attern f or a n a rray of ni sotrop ic p o
in t
s
our ce s a s i n F ig. 7 -16. T he n umbe r ne qua ls t he n umbe r o f tu rns.
The s pa c
ing S b etween s ource s is
To di
stant e
q ua
l t
o t
h e t
urn s
pa cin g
. W hen t
he
0"p
oint
h
elix i sl o ng ( say, n S),> 1 )
, t he
a
rray p a t
te rn i s much s ha rp e
r t han
1
-
.S.4 H
elix t
he s ingle- turn p attern a nd h ence
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 a
xis l
argely d ete rm ines t he s hap e oft he
F
ig. 7 -16. A rray o f i sotropic p o
int
t
otal far-field p at
te rn. H ence , t he
s
ource s
, e ach s ource representing 1 t urn a
p proxim at e fa
r-f
i e
l d p
a ttern o
f a
o
f the h el
ix. l
ong helix i sgiven b yt he a r
ray p at-
t
ern. A s
sum ing n ow t ha t the f ar-
f
i
eld v aria tion i sgiven b y the a rray p a
t tern o r f actor a nd t hat t he p ha se
d
ife rence b etwe en s ource s o ft he a rray i se qua l t o the p ha se s hi
ft o ve r 1
t
urn l e ngth L),f or as ingle t rave ling w ave, i tisp o ssible too btain as imp le,
a
pp rox ima te e xp ress
ion f or t he p hase v elocity r equ i
red t o produce a xial
mode r adia t
ion . T his v alue o f p has e v e
loci ty i st hen u sed i n p atte rn
c
alcu lation s.
The a rray p attern o r a rray f actor Ef o
r a n a r ray o f ni sotropic p o
in t
s
our ce sa r ranged a si nF ig. 7 -16 i sgiven b y ( 4
-51 ). T hus,
s
i
n (
n0/2)
E (
7
-6)
— s
in (
0/2
)
w
here n = n
umbe
rofs
our
cesa
nd
=S
, c
os (
/
'-I
- 4
3 (
7
-7)
w
here S
. =2 7S/X
I
n t
he p
resen
t c
ase
, (
7
-7) b
ecome
s
=2
T(S),c
o
s 0— (
7
-8)
P
w
here p = v /c = r e
lative phase ve
lo c
ity ofw ave p
ropagation a
long t
he
h
e
lical c
onduc tor
, vb eing the phase veloc
ity along t
he he
lical c
onduc
to r
a
nd cbeing the ve
locity ofl i
ght i
nfree space
.
I
fthe fi
elds from al
l s our
ces ar
e in p hase a
t ap o
int on the h
el
ix axis
) = 0
(
4 )
, t he rad
iat
ion w ill b
e in t
he a x
ial mode. F o
r the fi
e
lds t
o be in
p
hase (
ordinary end-f
ire condit
ion) require
st ha
t
= —22
-m (
7
-9)
w
he re m = 0
,1 ,2, 3...
T
he m inus s
i
gn in (
7-9
) results f
r
om the fa
ct t
hat t
he pha
se o
fsource 2i
s
r
e
ta rded by 27/4/
p with r e
spect to s
our
ce 1. Source 3 i
ssim
ila
rly r
e-
t
arded wi
th re
spect tosou
r ce 2,e
tc.
SE
C
. 7
-
89
Now p
utt
ing 4
) = 0a
nd e
qua
ting (
7
-
8) a
nd (
7
-
9)
, w
ehave
LA
(
7
-10
)
P
When m = 1a
nd p = 1
,we h
ave t
he r
e
lat
ion
L),— th
, = 1 o
r L— S= X (
7
-11
)
T
his isan a
pprox
imate re
lat
ion between t
he t
urn l
eng
th and s
pac
ing re
-
q
uired fo
r a hel
ix rad
iating in the ax
ial mode
. S ince f
or ah e
lix
1
2 = 1-2V + S2,(7
-
11)c an be r
ewr
itten f
iS
V
2S)
,+ 1
D),— o
r C),= V2
S),-
I1 (
7
-
12)
I
.
Equa tion (7-

1 2)i ss hown g raph ically b yt he c u
rve ma rked C),= V2 S) ,± 1
i
nF ig. 7 -
4. The c u rve d efines a pp roxima tely the u ppe r lim
i t o
ft he a x
ial
o
rb eam mode r eg
ion .
When m = 1 ,( 7
- 10) i sa pp ropria te f o r ah elix o perat
ing i n the f i
rs
t-
o
rde r ( TO t ran smis s
ion mode . When m = 2 ,( 7
-10 ) i sa pprop r
ia te f o
r
t
he T2 t ransm iss
ion mode , e tc
. Ac urve f or m = 2i sshown i n F ig. 7-4
b
yt he line ma rked C),= 2V S) ,+ 1 . H ence , mc o
r responds t o the o rder
o
ft he t r
ansm iss
ion mode o n ah elix r adia ting amax imum f i
eld i nt he a x
ial
d
irection. T he ca
se o fp articulari n
te resth e
re isw he re m = 1 .
T
he c as e w here m = 0d oe
s n ot r e present a r ea
lizab le condition, u n
less
pexceed s u nity, since w hen m - = 0a nd p = 1i n (7
-10) w e have L = S.
This i sthe c ondit
ion f or a n end-fire a rray o fi s
o t
rop ic source se xc
i ted b y
as t
ra ight w ire conne cting t hem ( a =9 0
°). However , the fie
ld i n the
a
xial d i
re ct
ion o f as traight w ire i sz ero s ot hatt herec an ben oa xial mode
o
fr adia t
ion i nthisc ase
.
R
e turning n ow t o ac on sidera t
ion o ft he c ase w here m = 1a nd s olving
(
7
-1 0)f or p,w eh ave
Lk
(
7
-13
)
P — 8),± 1
F
rom t
he t
r
iang
le o
fFig
. 7
-
3
, (
7
-
13) c
an a
l
so b
e e
xpre
ssed
1
P —s
i
n a± (
cosa
)/C
O
(
7
-
13a
)
E
quation (
7
-
1 3a
)g ive
st he r
equired va
riat
ion int he r
ela
tive phase v
eloc
i ty
pas afunc
tion of t
he ci
rcum ference C),f
or in-phase fi
elds in t
he axial
d
i
rect
ion. T he v
ar
iation f
or hel
ices o
fd ife
r en
t p i
tch angles isi
lustra
ted
i
nF . 7
ig -
17. These c u
rves ind
icate that when a hel
ix isradiat
ing int he
a
x
ial mode ( I< C),< it
) the v a
lue of p may b e c
onsiderably l
es
s than
1
90 ANTE N N AS [
CHAP
. 7
u
nity
. T h
is i
sb orne out by direct measurements of the p
hase veloc
ity.
I
nf a
ct, the o
bserved phase ve
loci ty i
sfound to b
es l
ightly l
e
sst han ca
lled
f
or by (7
-13) or (
7-13a
). C a
lcula t
ing the a
rray pat
t e
rn for a7-turn hel
ix
u
sing values o
f pf rom (7-13) a nd (7
-13a) yie
lds patterns much broader
t
han observed
. T he pvalue of(7-13)or( 7
-13a) co
rrespondstot he o
rdinary
,
d•
-.4
e
1
L
ight i
nfree s
pace -
,/
4
1
e
-4
)
o
f
.
)
co
:50
.
). .
. 7 •/ '
.
7 .
8 .
9 1
0 1
.
1 1
2 1
3 1
4 1
.
5
C
ircum
ference, C A
F
la. 7
-17. R elat
ive p
ha se ve
locity p f
o
r difer
ent pi
tch ang
les aas af
unc
tion o
f t
he
h
el
ix ci
rcumference i
nfree-space wave
lengths ek f
o
r the c
ondit
ion o
fin
-phase f
i
e
ldsin
t
he a
xial d
i
rection.
e
nd-f
ire c
ondi
tion dis
cuss
ed in Chap
. 4 . I
f the in
crea
sed d
ire
ctiv
ity
c
ondi
tion o
f Hansen a
nd Woodya
rd ispr
esumed t
oexist
, (
7-9
) b
ecomes
1
, = —(
2rm (
7
-14
)
Now e
qua
ting (
7
-14
) a
nd (
7
-8)
, p
utt
ing 4
)= 0
,and s
o
lving f
o
r pw
e h
ave
(
7
-15
)
P m (
1
/2n
)
F
ort
he c
ase o
fin
tere
st m = 1a
nd
P I
A
8), (
2n 1
)
/2n
) (
7-16
)
F
or l
arge v
alue
s o
f n
, (
7-16
) r
educes t
o (
7-
13). Equa
tion (
7
-16
) c
an al
so
b
e e
xpres
sed
'
1
(
7
-17)
P— si
na [
(2n 1
)
/2n][
(co
sa)/C).
]
I
tist
obe n
oted t
hat
, a
s nb
ecome
s l
a
rge
, (
7
-17
) r
educ
es t
o (
7
-13a
).
S
ze
. 7
-
91
Using p a s o b tained f rom ( 7-

16 ) or (
7
-17) to c
a
lculate t
he a
rray fa
c to
r
y
ields p atte rn s i n good a greemen t
w
ith m easu red p a
ttern s
. The p
v
alue f r
om ( 7-16 ) or (7-17) a lso i s
i
n c l
ose r ag reemen t with m easured
va
lue so fthe r e
la tive phase v elocity.
Hence, i ta ppea rst hatt he increa sed
d
irectivity c ond i t
ion i s a pproxi-
mated a s an a
tura l c ondition o n
h
elicesr adia ting i nt he axial mode .'
Another m e thod o f f i
nding t he
r
e
la tive p ha se v elo c
ity p o n h e
lical
a
ntenna s r adia ting i n t he a xial
mode i sb y m ea suring t he a ngle (6
0
a
t w hich t he f i
rst m inimum o r n u
ll
o
ccur si nt he f ar-fie
ld p attern. T h
is
c
orrespond s t o t he f i
rst n u
ll i n the
a
rray f ac
to r, w hich i s at 00 ( s
ee
F
ig. 4 -20)
. T hen i nthisc ase ( 7-9) x
b
ecome s F
la. 7
-
18. Hel
ix s
how
ing p
oint
s cand d
a
tconducto
rsur
face
.
= —(
2win ± 00) (
7
-18
)
Now e
qua
ting (
7
-18
) a
nd (
7
-8) a
nd p
utt
ing m = 1a
nd s
o
lving f
o
r p
,we
h
ave
L)
.
(
7
-19
)
P — SA COS 00 ± 1 + (
00/27
)
Three relat
ion s for t he r e
la tive p hase v e
lo c
ity p h ave been d i
scussed
f
or he
lices radiating i nt he a x
ia l mode w ith t ransmiss
ion i n the T , mode.
The
se a r
eg i
ven b y (7-13a ), (7-17 ), a
nd ( 7
- 19).
Af ourth relat
ion f or pa pp rop r
iate to t he Ti a nd higher orde r tr
ans-
m
ission mode so ni nf
inite h elicesh asb e
en o b
tained b yB agby 2 bya pplying
b
ounda ry c ondit
ion s a pp roxima t
ing a h e
lical conduc tor to as o
lution of
t
he general w ave e quation e xp ressed in an ew c oord
ina te sy
s tem , ca
lled
"
hel
icoida l cylindrica
l c oo rdina tes." B agby 's s o
lut
ion i s o btained b y
a
pplying b ounda ry cond ition s tot he two p oints ca nd di nFig. 7-18. H is
v
alue oft he re
lative p has e veloc ity isgiven b y
1The ax
ial mode region isshown b y the crosshatched area i
nFig. 7
-4. H elice
sw ith
d
imen s
ions inth
is reg
ion radiate i
nt he axia
l mode ,a nd (7
-13a)
,or more prop
e r
ly (7-
17),
a
pplie
s. O uts
ide th
is region the
se equa t
ions g eneral
ly don ot a
pply
.
2 C
. K. Bagby
, " AT heore
tical I
nves t
iga t
ion ofE lectro-magnet
ic Wave P ropagation
o
n the Hel
ical Beam A ntenna," master's thesis
, D epar
tment o f E
lect
ricalE ngineer
ing,
The Ohio S
tate University
, 1948.
1
92 ANTE N N AS [CH
AP. 7
Cy>
,
V mc
osa h
Rsi
n a(
7
-20
)
w
here
m4(kR
)
h
i
? =t
an a (
7
-21
)
J.
,
_
,(kR)J.
„
.
,(kR)
where m = o rde ro ft r
an sm ission mode ( =1 , 2, 3... )( m 0
)
R =r adiu s o
fh e
lix c ylinde r
kR = VC : —( hR)2
h = Constant
J i s aB essel function o fargumen t k R
T
he v aria t
ion o f pa s af unc t
ion o f Ck f o
r a1 3 ° h e
lix a s c alcu lated b y
(
7-20) a nd ( 7-21 ) fort he c a
se m = 1i si lustrated b y t he c urve A , i nF ig.
7
-19. Ac urve f or the T , t ransm iss
ion mode ( m = 1 ) a s c a
lcu la ted f or
t
he i n
-pha se c ond it
ion f rom ( 7-13a ) iss hown b y B ,
. Ac urve f or t he i n
-
c
reased d ire ctivity c ond i
tion o n a1 3°, 7-tu rn h elix, w ith m = 1i sp re-
s
ented b y CI .
C
urve s f or t he T , tran sm ission mode f or ea ch o f the t h ree c ases c on-
s
idered a bove a re a l
so p resen ted i n F ig. 7-19. I n a dd ition , ac urve o f
t
he m ea sured r elative p ha se v elocity o n a1 3°
, 7 -tu rn h elix i ss hown f or
c
ircum ference s b etween a bou t 0.4 a nd 1 .5 w ave leng ths. I ti st o b e n oted
t
ha t in the c ircum ference r ange w here t he h elix i sr adia ting i n the a x
ial
mode ( I < C < I t
), the i ncreased d irec t
ivi ty c urve , o f t he t hree c alcu-
l
ated c urve s
, l i
es c l
ose s
t t o t he m easured c urve .' T he m ea sured c urve
g
ives the v alue o ft he total o rr esultan t p hase v elo c
ity o wing t oa l
l mode s
p
resen t ( To,T „ e tc
.) a s a veraged o ve r the r egion o f t he h elix b e
tween
t
he t h
ird a nd s i
xth t urns f rom t he fe ed e nd. T he v ertica l l i
ne s i ndicate
t
he s pread, i fa ny, i n v a
lues o bserved a t o ne f r
equency . I n g enera l
,
e
ach t ransm is sion mode p ropaga tes wi th ad ife ren t velo city s o t hat w hen
wave so f mo re t han o ne tran sm ission mode a lep r esen tt he r esul tan tp hase
v
elocity b e come s af unc t
ion o f p os
ition a long t he h elix a nd may v ary
o
ve r ac onside rab le range o fv alue s
. ' When < C),< 4t he p has ev e
lo city
a
s m easured i nt he r eg
ion b etween t he t hird a nd s i
xth t u rn s c orrespond s
c
losely t o tha t oft he T , tran sm ission mode . T he T . mode i sa l
so p re sent
o
n t he h e
lix b ut i sonly i mpo r tant n ea r the e nd s ( see F ig. 7 -13d ). When
t
he c i
rcum fe rence C x < I ,t he T . mode may b e o bta ined a lmo st a lone
The increased directiv

ity curve ist he only c urve c
alculated for ahel
ix of 7t urns.
The in-phase f i
e
ld's curve and B agby's curve i mply an inf
inite hel
ix. T he re
ason t hat
t
he in
-pha se fi
eld curve can beconsidered asr eferr
ing toa ni nf
inite h
el
ix f
ollowsfrom t he
f
act t
ha t the increased direc
tiv
ity c ondition a pproaches the in-phase f
i
eld condit
ion a s
t
he number o ft urns becomesinfinite.
2J
. A. Ma rsh, Measured C u r
ren t Distribu t
ion s on Helical Antennas
, P roc
. I.R.E.,
39, 6
68-675 , June 1 951.
SE
C. 7
-
8] T H E H E LI C A L A NTE N N A 1
93
o
ver the ent
i re he
lix (s
ee Fig. 7-13
c) a nd the m easured phase v
eloc
ity
a
pproaches that fo
r apure To mode i nd
icated by curve D inFig. 7
-19
.
Theore
tica
l v a
lues of t
he p hase v
elocity f
or the To tran
sm iss
ion mode
h
ave been obtained by P
ier
ce ' and by C hu a
nd J ackson' a
nd af ew meas
-
1
.
2
A
x
i
alm
od
eofr
a
d
iat
ion
1
.
1
A ,/C 1
-
. C
hu a
nd J
ackson
.
.....
.......
1
0
/ V
e
loc
ity o
fli
ght 0
0
.
9
M
easu
red I
n
creased
d
i
rect
ivit
y
/
2
C2
0
.
6 -
ay'
01
/ ,
M=1 -I
n
-phase f
i
e
lds I
n
creased
0
.
5 d
i
rect
ivi
ty
-
0
.
4 M=2 I
n-phase f
i
e
lds
0
.
3 I II I I
03 0
.4 0
.
5 0
6 0
.
7 0
.8 0
.9 1
.
01
.1 1
.
2 1
.
3 1
.
4 1
.
5 1
6
H
e
l
ix c
i
r
cum
fer
enc
e =CA= 2,
'I .
FI. 7
G -19
. R elat
ive pha
se velo
city pas af un
ction o fthehel
ix ci
rcumfe
renceinfr
ee-
s
pace wavel
eng ths Cg f
o
r 1 3
° hel
ice
s. Th e so
lid c urve ismeasur
ed on a1 3
°, 7
-
turn
h
el
ix. C urve
s A 1and A g a
r
ea sca
lcula
ted b yB agby for Tiand T1tr
ansmis
sion m
odes
o
na ni n
f
init
e 1 3°hel
ix
. C urves Biand B 2 a
r
ec a
l culat
ed forin
-phasefi
e
ldsa nd c
u
rves
CIand CIfo
ri n
cre
ased d
irect
ivi
ty fo
r Tia nd Tg transmis
sion modes
. CurveDi sfr
om
d
ata b
yC hu and Jack
son asc a
lcu
lated f
o
rT ot r
an smiss
ion mode.
u
remen ts have been given b y C u
tler.
' C urve D i nFig. 7-
19 i sfor a13°
h
e
l ix and isbased on d a
ta g iven by C hu a nd Jackson
. T his curve ind
i-
c
ates t
ha t a
ts mall ci
rcum ferences the re
lative velo
city of ap u
re To mode
w
ave a tta
ins values cons
ide rably greater than that ofligh
t i n f
ree s
pace.
A
t Cx = I ,curve D h as decreased to av a
lue o f n
ear
ly u nity
, a nd i
fn o
h
ighero rdertransmission mode w ere permi ss
ible
, the phase ve
locity would
a
pp roa
ch t hat of l
ight for large ci
rcum ferences
. Howeve r
, highe r o
rder
1
J.R .Pi
erce
,T he
ory o ftheBeam-typeT rav
eli
ng W av eTube
, Proc
. I.R
.E .
, 35, N
o.
2
,1 1-123
, February
, 1947.
2L
.J .Chu a
nd J .D.J ackson
,F i
eld Theory o
fT rave
ling Wav
eT ubes, Proc. I
.R.E
.,
3
6, No
. 7,85
3-86 3
, Ju
ly, 1 9
48.
C. C
.Cut
ler
,E xpe
rim entalDetermina
tion o
fH eli
calW av
eP rop
erti
es, Proc. I
.R.E
.,
3
5, No
. 2,23
0-23 3
, February, 19
47.
1
94 ANTENNAS [
CHA
P. 7
mode sa re perm issible, and w hen Cx e x

ceed s a bou t1,t he resultan tv e
lo city
d
rop sa brup t
ly,a ss hown b y the m easured c urve i nFig. 7-
19 . T hisc hange
c
orresponds t o at ran s
ition f rom t he To t o the T , t r
an smis s
ion mode .
For ac ircum ference i nt he tr
an s
i t
ion r egion, s uch as 0.7 w aveleng th, b o
th
To and T , mode s are o fa bout equa l impo rtance .
When Ck i sa bou t Io r somewha t mo re
, t he m easured p ha se v e
lo ci
ty
a
pp roa ches av a
lue a sso ciated wi th the T , mode . A s C),i n
crease s furthe r
,
t
he r e
la t
ive p ha se v elocity i ncreases in a n a pproxima te
ly l inea r fa
sh ion,
a
greeing mo st cl o
sely w ith t he t heoretical c u
rve f or t he i n
c reased d i
-
r
ect
iv ity c ondition ( curve C1) . When C),r eache s about I t
, as ti
ll highe r
o
rde r t ransmis s
ion mode ( T2) a ppea r
s t o b ecome p art
ially e fective,
c
ausing f urther d ips i nt he m easured c urve. Howeve r, the radia tion may
no longer b e i
nt he axial mode .
7
-9. T able o f R ela t
ive P hase V elocit
ies . T he formula s given i n t he
p
reced ing s ec
tion f or h e
lical a n
tenna s o perating i n the f i
rst
-o rde r trans-
m
ission mode ( m = 1 )a re summa r
ized i nT ab le 7-1
.
TABLE 7
-
1
RELATIVE PHASE VELOC
ITIES FOR
F
IRST
-ORDER TRANSMISSION MODE ON HELICAL ANTENNAS
C
ond
ition R
ela
tiv
epha
sev
e
loc
ity
I
n
-pha
sef
i
e
lds
* (
o
rdina
ry e
nd-f
i
re) L
k 1
P— _
S),+ 1 si
n a+ [
(
cosa
)/ CA]
1
4
P — S2 ± [
(
2n + 1
)
/2n
]
I
n
cre
ased d
i
rec
tiv
ity
1
—
s
i
n a+ [
(
2n + 1
)
/2n] [
(
cosa
)/ Ck]
F
rom f
i
r
stn
u
llo
fmea
sur
ed f
i
e
ld p
a
tte
rn p _
1
4
,
A
S),C
O
84,
0 ± (00 / 27 ) ± 1
CA
H
el
ico
ida
lcy
lind
rica
l c
o
ord
ina
te P— c
o
s a-
I hRs
i
na
s
o
lut
ion
w
here h
R i
sas g
i
ven b
y (
7
-21
)
*
I
twi
llbes
hown inS
ec
. 7
-
13 t
h
att h
isc
o
ndi
tion i
sal
so t
h
eon
efo
rci
r
cula
rpo
lar
iza
-
t
i
on i
nth
edi
rec
tion o
fth
ehe
lixa
x
is.
7
-10
. A x
ial Mode A
rray F
acto
rP a
tterns a
nd E
fectof Number o
fTurns
.
A
s m ent
ioned in S
ec. 7-
8, t
he approx
imate f
ar
-fie
ld p
a t
tern o
f ahel
ix
S
ec. 7
-
10] THE HELI CA L AN TE N N A 1
95
r
adiat
ing in t
he ax
ial mode isg i
ven by t
he a
rray f
actor f
o
r niso
tropic
p
oint s
our
ces,each s
our
ce replac
ing as
ing
le t
urn o
fthe h
el
ix (
s
ee F
ig
. 7-
16).
The n
ormal
ized ar
ray fa
c toris
i
rsi
n (
ro
('/2
)
(
7
-22
)
E= s
i
n 2
n s
in (
0/2)
where =2 r(S),c
os4 ) — LA/
p)
T
he n o rmalizing factor iss i
n ( 7
/2n) ins
tead o f 1
/n s i
nce t he in
creased
d
i
rec t
ivity e nd-f
ire cond i
tion isassumed t o ex
ist (
see Sec. 4-6a
, C ase 3)
.
F
o r agiven h e
lix, )
3),and /4 a
rek nown and pc an b
ec alcu
la ted fr
om ( 7
-16)
o
r (7-
17 )
. 1 ,isthen obtained as afunc
tion of0. From ( 7
-22 )
, these va
lues
o
f1 kgive the fi
eld pattern.
As an ilustration, the ca
lculated ar
ray factor p
atterns for a7 -
turn 12°
h
e
lix w ith C),= 0 .95 are shown i nFig
. 7-20 fo
r pvalues corresponding to
p=1
.00
Measured
a
verage
o
f Ece
,
p=0 7
6 a
nd E
a )
(
i
ncreased
i
r
ect
ivity
c
ond
ition)
p
=0.90
p= 0
.802
(
i
n-phase
f
eIds p-0
.725
c
ond
,tion)
- 1
7
Fm. 7
-20
. A rray facto
r patterns f
o
r 12°, 7
-turn helix with C),= 0.95
. P atterns a
re
s
hown fo
r p 1
,0.9, 0
.802 (i
n-phase f
i
elds or ord
ina ry end-f
ire c
ondit
ion)
, 0.76 (i
n-
c
rea
sed d
irect
iv ity)
, and 0.
725. A mea sured curve isalso pre
sented
. A ll p
atterns a
re
a
djust
ed to t
he s ame maximum .
i
n
creased di
rectiv
ity and al
so in-phase fi
e
ldsand f o
r p= 1 ,0.
9, and 0.725.
Am easured curve (ave
rage of L '4,a
nd Ef)iss hown f or comparison
. I t
i
sapparent that t
he pat
tern calculated fo
rthe increa
sed d i
rect
ivi
ty c ondi-
t
i
on ( p = 0 .76
) agrees mo s
t c lose
ly with the m easured patte
rn . T he
m
easured pattern was taken o n ah el
ix moun ted on ag round plane 0.88
w
avelength in diameter
. T he calcula
ted pat
t erns neglect t
he efect of a
1
96 AN TE N N AS [
CHAP
. 7
g
round pl
ane. T h
is effect i
ssmall i
fthe back l
obe i
ss ma
ll c
ompa red t
o
t
he f
ront l
obe a
s i
tisf or p= 0.802 a
nd p = 0.76
.
I
n genera
l, an i
ncrease in t
he numbe r of t
urns c
auses adecrease i
n
t
he beam width
, a
s ilu s
trated b
y the pa
tterns i
nFig. 7
-21
. T his can b
e
F
in. 7-2
1. Mode ls show
ing e fect o
f numbe
r of t
urns o
n m easured f
i
eld p
atterns
.
He
lice
s h ave 1
2
.2° p
itch angle and 2
, 4
,6,8, 1
0 t
urns
. P at
terns shown a
re a
verage
o
fm easured 4 and 4 patterns
.
s
hown b y c alculating t he a rray factor pattern f o
rv ariou s v alues ofn . I n
e
f
fe ct thi
s h a s been d one i nF ig. 4-26 inw h
ich ac urve f ort he beam w idth
o
f e nd-f
ire a rray s with i ncrea sed direct
ivity i sp resen ted a s af unct
ion o f
n
d),. I n Fig. 4 -26, ni st he n umbe r of sources a nd ( 1),i
st he spacing. T o
a
pp ly Fig. 4 -26 to ah el
ix , ni st he numb ero ft urns a nd c l),= AS),= s pacing
b
e twe en turn s in w aveleng ths. T hus, nd),in Fig. 4-26 i st he axial length
o
f t he hel
ix i n w aveleng th s (ng
ik nSx = Ax) . F o r lo ng axial leng ths
,
t
he b eam w idth b etwe en f i
rst n ul
ls va r
ies in i nverse p ropor tion t o the
s
qua re root o ft he axial le ngth. T hus, doubling t he a x
ia l l e
ngth o f ah el
ix
r
educe sthe b eam w idth t o 1 / = 0.707 ofi t
s o r
igina l v a
lue.
Based o n al a
rge n umbe r ofp attern m easuremen ts t he b eam w id th b e
-
tween h al
f -powe r points a nd betwe en fi
rst n u
lls isg iven b y the folow ing
q
ua si-emp irical relations,
5
2
B
eam w
idth (
ha
lf-powe
r) — d
eg (
7
-23a
)
C),Vn
AS),
SE
C
. 7
-
97
B
eam w
idth (
f
i
rst n
ul
ls) — 15 d
eg (
7
-23b
)
VnS,
These app
ly tohel
ices w
ith 1
2° <a< 1 5 °,I < CA < 4
,and n > 3
.
The hal
f-power beam w
idth a
sgi
ven by (7
-23a) i
sshown g
raph
ical
ly in
F
ig. 7-22. D iv
iding t
he squar
e o
f (
7-23a) into t
he number o
f squa
re
1
00*
9
0*
8
0'
.
,_
7
0'
6
0'
5
0*
. .
.
..
..
. ,, ,,1
1
1
idth
eam w
40.
r b
3
0°
t-powe
c
c *
o.0
al
4
.' 09
H
c •
2
0°
#
.4e
1
0*
Q7 0
.8 10 I5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1
0
Ax
ia
l l
ength (
n SA )i
n f
ree s
pate w
ave
lengths
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1
0 1
2 1
4 1
6 1
8 2
0 2
5 3
0 3
5 4
0 4
5
Numbe
r o
f t
urns (
n
) f
or C
A.1
.0 a
nd a
.12
.5*
Fm. 7
-22
. Ha l
f-power beam width o
fa x
ial mode h
el
ica
l a
ntenna a
s af
unct
ion o
fthe
a
xia
l l
ength and c
ircumference i
nfree
-space wave
leng
ths a
nd al
so a
s af
unc
tion o
f t
he
n
umb erofturns f
or C),= 1.0 a
nd a = 12.5
°.
d
egree
s in asphe
re g
ive
s t
he a
pprox
ima
te e
xpr
ess
ion f
o
r t
he d
i
rec
tiv
ity
Dofa n a
xia
l mode h
e
lix
'
D = 1
5 C
ZnS), (
7
-24
)
7
-11. Ax
ial Mode Sing
le-tu
rn Patterns. In th
is sect
ion expre
ssions
w
il
l be deve
loped f
or t
he fa
r-f
ie
ld pattern
s f
rom a sing
le turn o
f ah e
lix
r
adia
ting in t
he a
xia
l mode. I t i
sa s
sumed tha
t t he si
ngle t
urn has a
I
tisa s
sumed t
hat t
he pat
ter n
so fb o
th fi
eld c
omponent
sa r
eo fthe s
ame s hape a
nd
a
refi
gure
so fr
evo
lut
ion about the h
el
ix ax
is. The approx
imatedi
rect
ivity i
sthen simp
ly
o
bta
ined as i
n(7
-24
) (s
ee A ppendix Sec
. 20)
.
1
98 ANTEN N AS [
CHAP
. 7
u
nifo
rm t rave
ling wave a
long it
senti
re le
ngth
. T he productofthe s i
ngle
-
t
urn pattern a
nd the a
rray f
actor t
hen g
ives t
he t
ota
l h e
lix p
atte
rn .
Ac i
rcular he
lix may be t
reated app
roximate
ly by a s
suming t hat itis
- —-;
.1
r
S x
Z Xr He
lix
Ic
onducto
r
i
I
(
---
[
.
..-- - - 9 --
)
.1 T
opo
int P
T
o p
oint P
(
a
) (
b
)
F
lo. 7
-23
. S
qua
re h
el
ix u
sed i
nca
lcu
lat
ing s
i
ngl
e-turn p
attern
.
o
f s
qua re cross se
ction
. T he total fie
ld f rom a s ingle t ur n ist hen the
r
e
sul
tan t o
ft he f
i
eldsoffour short, li
near antenna sa ss hown i nF ig. 7
-23a.
Ahe
lix o fs quare c
ross s
ect
ion c an, of course, be treated e xac t
ly b y th
is
method. Mea suremen ts i ndicate t hat the
d
iference b etween h elice s of c ir
cular a nd
s
quare cross sect
ion i ss mall
.
Referr
ing t o F ig. 7 -24, t he f ar elec
tric
f
i
eld c omponen t
s, Eo r a nd Eel , i
. n the x-z
I
-
turn
h
elix p
lane wi
ll be c
a
lc u
l a
te d a
s a f
unction o
f (
1
)
f
or as i
ngle-turn helix
.
E
l
ea L
et t
he a
rea o
ft he s
quare h
el
ix be e
qua
l
t
o t
hat o
fthe c
i
rcularhel
ix so t
hat
2 E
at \A;
D
9— 2 (
7
-25a
)
Fm. 7-24. Field component
s
w
ith r
e
lation t
osing
le-
turn h
e
l w
ix
,here gisasshown inFig. 7
-23a.
The f
ar magnet
ic fi
e
ld f
or ali
neare l
ement
w
ith aun
ifo
rm travel
ing wave i
sgiven i
nC hap
. 5b y(5
-128)
. Mu l
tiply
ing
(
5
-128) b
y the i
n
trins
ic i
mpedance Z offree s
pace
, put
ting 7 = (37/2) ±
a± 1(
)
, t= 0,and b = g/cos a
,w e obta
in the e
xpres
sion fo
r the 0 c
orn
-
S
Ec
. 7
-
99
p
onen
t Ec ofthe f
a
rfi
e
ld i
nthe x
-
z p
lane d
ue t
oel
emen
t 1o
fthe s
qua
re
h
e
lix a
sfo
llow
s,
=k
A
11
9 s
i
n B
A
/ (-
‘-1 -
B
A
) (
7
-25h
)
w
her
e k=
2
rri
B
A = 1- p c
o
s7
- c
o
g
2
pc cosa
The expressionsf r Eo ,E
o .,e t
c., due toel
emen ts2,3,and 4ofthe square
t
urn ar eobtained in asimilarw ay (see P
rob. 7
-2a)
. Since t
he e
lement sare
a
l
ld i
ssimilarsources,the t o
tal 0componen t, Eon f
rom asi
ngle s
quare tu
rn
i
so btained b yadding the fie
lds fr
om t he f
ourelementsateach angle 0for
which the tota
lf i
e
ld iscalculated (s
eeS ec
.4 -5
). T he s
um o
ft he f
i
elds f
rom
t
he fou relemen t
si sthen,
Eo •= k i
n
Ay s
i
n B
AA-B
A
▪ k
A
"
(1B
s
iA
"
n7"s
i
n
-s
i
n2 a c
o
s2i
t
)1
s
i
n as
i
n
A-
B
A
" _4
L
(1:
.
c+ (
S %
c
o
s0
▪ k B
A
' s
i
n
/
-BA
' -
1
.
2.
4
1
p
c ±w
e (
S c
2o
s0
▪ gs
i
n - ri)
1
• k
A
"
(1B
A
s"
in "
Y" s
i
n
-s
i
n 2a c
o
s2 4
,
)1
s
i
n as
i
n4)
/[-
B
A
"- 3
L
4
p
c
o
c c\
PSc
o
s0
4 r)1
(
7
-26
)
3
7
A
=1 A
'=
1-pA
"=1
-p
w
her
e-y= —
2 + a q
t
.
, =-
2 - a-
I
-4.
,7" =a
r
cco
s (
s
in a c
o
s0)
- pcos7, c
o
s7'
, c
os7"
When a h
el
ix ofci
rcu
la r c
ro
ss sect
ion isb
e
ing calculated L = TD/co
s a
i
n(7-26
) whi
le f
or ahe
lix o
fs quar
e cr
ossse
ction L = 4 b
.
I
fthe c
ontr
ibut
ions ofel
emen ts 2and 4 a
re n
eglected
. wh
ich i
s agood
2
00 AN TE N N AS [
CHAP
. 7
a
pp rox
ima t
ion when both a a
nd 4
)ar
e s mal
, t
he exp
ress
ion f
o
r Eor i
s
c
onsiderab
ly simp
lif
ied
. Mak ing t
h
is app
roxima
tion
, le
tt
ing k = 1and
ri = c
onstant
, we o
bta
in
E T= s
in 7 s
i
n BA (
— BA)
A
+ n/
s
i s
i
n BA '
/[— BA '— 2
1/7r
B± r
- (Si os 4
. c ,± V I
r
Ds
- i
n0)
] (
7
-27
)
E
quat
ion (
7
-27
) a pp
lie
s spe
cif
ical
ly
0.0 t
o h
el
ice
s o
f c
ircu
lar cro
ss se
ction
,
s
otha
t Bin(7
-27) i
s
B— D'
i
r
(
7
-28
)
2
p c
o
sa
Equat
ion ( 7
-27) g i
ves the ap-
p
roximate patte
rn o f the 4
)c om
-
p
onent of the fa
r fie
ld in the x
-
z
p
lane from a single
-turn hel
ix of
Er
c
i
rcularcro
sss ec
tion.
o
c.12., n
-I I
n the c
ase of the 0 componen
t
F
ig. 7
-25
. C
alcu
lated s
i
ng o
ft
le the f
a
urn p
arf
t
,-ie
ld i
nthe x-
zplane, o
n
ly
t
e
rns f
o
r 1
2° h
el
ix
. e
lement
s 2a nd 4 of the square
t
urn c
ontr
ibute
. P u
tting k= 1,the
magn
itude o
f the a
pproximate 0p
attern o
f the f
ar f
i
eld o
f asingle
-turn
h
el
ix ofci
rcu
lar c
ros
ss e
ction c
an b
e shown t
ob e
s
i
n-y" s
i
n BA " c
o
sa
IE a r I= 2
A"
(1 —s
i
n' ac
o
s'0
)4
•s
i
n E
i
r(Sx c
o
s4) — V;D ks
i
n4) — 2Vc
r
•B] (
7
-29
)
where B isa sg i
ven b y (7-28) and •y
" and A"a re asi n( 7-26)
.
A
sa ne xamp le, the E07 and E . patternsf or as i
ngle tu rn 12°h e
lix w i
th
Cx = 1 .
07 h ave b e
en calculated and ar
e p resented inF ig. 7-25. A lthough
t
he t wo patternsa reofd iferentf o
rm, b oth areb road int he axialdi rect
ion
(
4
) =0 ).
T
he individual E ,
, patterns of el
emen t s 1a nd 3 o f the single tu rn are
a
s suggested i nF ig. 7
-26. O ne l
obe ofe ach p at
tern i sn ear
ly i nt he axial
d
irection
, t he ti
lt a ng
le r b e
ing nearly e qual to the pitch a ngle a . T he
i
ndividual p atterns add t o give the E or p at
te
irn f or the s ingle t urn as
s
hown ( see also Fig. 7
-25).
SE
C
. 7
-
01
7
-12. Complete Ax
ial Mode P attern. B yt he pr
inciple o
fp at
tern mult
i-
p
l
ication
, the t
otal f
ar-f
ield pa
ttern o f ahe
lix radiat
ing int he ax
ial mode
i
sthe produc
t oft he si
ngle-
turn p atte
rn and t he ar
ray fac
to r
. T hus t
he
t
o
tal cocomponen t E. of the di
stant e l
ectr
ic f i
e
ld o f ahel
ix o f ci
rcu
lar
c
ro
sss ect
ion isthe p
roduc t o
f( 7
-27) and (7-22) or
E# = E
. TE (
7
-30a
)
T
he t
o
tal 0c
omponen
tE, i
sthe p
roduc
t o
f(7
-29
) a
nd (
7
-22
) o
r
E
, =E
, TE (
7
-30b
)
As e xamp le s
, t he a pp roxima te E . a nd E , p attern s, a s c alcu la ted b y
t
he a bove p ro cedur e, for a1 2°, 7 -turn u nifo rm h elix o fc ir
cu la r c ross s ec-
t
ion w ith Ck = 1 .
07 a re p resen ted
g
i
n F ig. 7 -27 a t ( a) a nd ( e
)
. W ith T
o
tal p attern
o
fo ne turn
r
eference t o t he h elix s hown a t ( e
), E.
4,T
E
. i si n t he p lane o f t he p age a nd
E
, i sn orma l t o t he p age . T he a r- c
b-0
4
r
ay f acto r i s s hown a t ( b). T he
s
ingle -turn p a tte rn sa rea sp res en ted
i
nF ig. 7- 25. T he v alue o f pu sed i n
t
he se c alcu la tions i sa pp roxima tely
t
ha t f o
r t he i ncreased d i
re ctiv ity
c
ond i
tion . The p roduc t o f t he
s
ingle -turn p atte rn s ( Fig. 7- 25) a nd
t
he a rray f acto rp att ern a t( b) y ield s
t
he t otal p a tte rns a t ( a
) a nd ( c
).
The a greemen t w i th t he m ea su red d
i
Wave
rection
p
a tterns s hown a t ( d
) a nd ( f
) i s
s
atisfac to ry.
Compa ring t he p attern s o f F ig s.
7
-25 a nd 7 - 27, i ti st ob en oted t ha t Fm . 7 -26. I ndividual E , p a ttern s ofe le
-
t
he a rray f a cto r i s much s ha rpe r ments 1a nd 3 and t ota
l p a tte rn o f si
ngle
t
han t he s ingle t urn p att erns. T hu s, t urn, Eo r . T he single t urn i ss hown i n
p
lan v iew ( inz-z plane ofF ig . 7 -23 )
. T he
t
he t otalE .a nd E ,p atte rns ( a
) a nd
s
ingle t urn and c oordinate a xe sh ave b een
(
c
), F ig. 7 -27 , a re n early t he s ame , r otated a round t he y a xis s o t hat the z -
i
n s p
i te o f t he d ifference i n t he d irection ( 4
, =0 ) ist oward t he t op oft he
s
ingle -tu rn p att ern s. F urthe rmo re, page.
t
he ma in l o be s o f t he E . a nd E ,
p
a ttern s a r e v ery s imila r t o t he a rray f acto r p attern. F or l o ng h el
ice s
(
say , n S),> 1 ) i ti s
, t herefo re, a pparent t ha t ac alcu lation o f o nly t he
a
rray f acto rs uf ice sf or a n app rox ima te p att e rn o fa ny f i
eld c omponen t of
t
he h elix. O rd ina rily t he s ingle -tu rn pattern n eed n otb ec alcu la ted e xcep t
f
or s ho rt h elice s. Howeve r
, t o b e ab
le t o n eg lect t he s ingle -tu rn p attern
2
02 ANT E N N AS [CH
AP. 7
o
n l
o
ng he
lice
s, i
tisneces
sary tha
t t
he di
rect
ion o
f maximum r
ad
iat
ion
f
r
om as
ingle t
urn b
e a
pproxima
tely i
nthe a
xia
l d
ire
ction
.
A
r
ray
f
ac
tor
C
a
lcula
ted
E0
(
a
) (
b
) (
c
)
H
el
ix
o
r
.12*
M
easu
red
n=7
C7,
007
(
d
) (
7 71
1— i
f
)
F
ro. 7
-27. C ompar
ison o
f ca
lcu
lated and measu
red fi
e
ld pa
tterns f
o
r a1
2°
, 7
-
turn
h
el
ix, 1
.07 w
aveleng
ths i
nci
rcumference
, r
ad
iating i
n t
he a
x
ial mode
.
T
he f a
r -f
ield p attern s o
f ah e
lix r adiating in t he ax
ial mode c an , thu s
,
b
ec alcula ted t o ag ood a pproxima t
ion f rom ak now ledge oft he d
imen sions
o
ft he helix a nd t he w aveleng th. T he v a
lue o ft he re
lative p ha
se v elocity
u
sed i n t he c a
lcu la t
ion s may b e c ompu ted for t he in
creased d irectivity
c
ondi t
ion f r om t he h e
lix dimen sionsa nd n umbe ro fturns.
T
he e fe ct of t he g round p lane o n t he a x
ial mode p atterns iss mall if
t
here a r
e a t l e
as t af ew t urns, since t he returning w ave o n the h el
ix a nd
a
lso the b ack l obe o ft he outgoing w ave a r
e both s ma
ll
. H ence, t he efect
o
f t he ground p lane may b e n eglected u n
less t he h e
lix i s ve
ry s hort
(
nt h
, <i ).
T
he a pp roxima te p atte
rn o fa n a x
ia l mode h el
ix c an be calcu
la ted v ery
s
imp ly
, w hile includ ing the a pproxima te e fec
t oft he si
ngle-turn p attern,
b
y a ssum ing t ha t the s i
ngle-turn p attern i sgiven b y c os 0. T hen t he
n
o rmalized t o
tal r adiation p a
t t
e rn ise xpressed b y
E
=( s
i
n 9
°°
n
)s
i
n (
si
n°/2
n (
)
0/2 )
c
os0 (
7
-31a
)
w
her
e n= n
umbe
roft
urn
sand
=3
60°
[S),
(
1 — c
os0
) -
I
-(1
/2n
)] (
7
-31 b
)
T
he va
lue of4
,in (
7
-31b
) isfor t
he i
nc
reased d
irec
tiv
ity c
ondi
tion and
i
sobta
ined b
ysub
sti
tut
ing (7
-16
) in(7
-8) and s
imp
lify
ing
. T he f
i
rstf
actor
S
ec. 7
-
13] THE HELI C AL AN TE N N A 2
03
i
n ( 7-31a ) is an orma lizing f acto r
, t hat i
s
, make s t h
e max imum value of
Eu ni ty.
7
-13 . A x
ialR atio a nd C ondi t
ions f o
r C
ircularP ola
rization f
r
om Helices
Radia ting i nt he A xial Mode .' I n this s
ec
tion t he a x
ial rat
io i
nthe d
irec-
t
ion o ft he h e
lix a xis w il
l b e d eter-
m
ined , a nd a l
so t he c ondition s
n
ece ssa ry f o
rc ircula rp olarization i n
t
hisd irec t
ion w ill bea nalyz ed
.
Con sider t he helix s hown i n F ig. Wave
7
-28. L e t us c a
lcu la te t he e l
ec tric
f
i
eld c omponen ts E , a nd E ., a s
s
hown , a t al arge d istance f rom t he
h
elix i nt he zd irection . T he helix is
a
ssumed t o h ave a s ingle u nifo rm He
lix
a
xis
t
ravel ing w ave a s i ndica ted. T he
r
e
la tive p ha se v e
lo city i sp . T he
d
iame te r oft he h el
ix i sD , a nd t he
s
pacing b etween t urns i s S. U n-
r
o
lling t he h el
ix i n t he x -
z p lane , YE.
t
he relat
ions a r
e a s s
hown i n F ig. Fi
a.7-28
. F ield c
omponent sinthe d
irec
-
7
-29. T he he
lix a s viewed from a t i
on of the h
el
ix ax
is.
pint o
o n t
he za xis isas ind
ica ted
i
nF ig
. 7-30
. T he a ng
le E i
sm easu red from t he x-zplane. T he coo
rd inates
o
f ap oint Qo n t he he
lix c
an b e s pec
ified a s r,E,z . T he p o
int Qi sat a
d
istance 1from t he termina
l p o
in t Ta s m easu red along t he he
lix
. F rom
t
he geome t
ric re
la tionsofFigs. 7 -29 and 7 -
30 , we can w r
i te
h= /
s
in a
;z„ — h= z
.— /
sin «
a= a
r
ctan 7
r
—D =a
r
cco
s—1 (
7
-32
)
r
t = 1c
osa
w
herez,i
sthe d
is
tance f
rom the o
r
igin t
othe d
i
stantpo
int Pont
he za
xis
.
A
t t
he p
oin
t Pt he 4
,component E. o
fthe e
l
ect
ric f
i
e
ld f
or ah
e
lix o
fan
i
n
tegra
l n
umbe rofturn
s nis
2 n
E
. =E
. J s
i
n ei"
(s
- 7+
1 •I
n 1'
1
7) d
t (
7
-33
)
i
f
)
w
here E
.is acon
stant i
nvolv
ing t
he c
urr
ent magn
itude o
n t
he h
e
lix
.
F
rom (7
-32
) the la
st two t
erm
s of t
he e
xponent i
n (7
-33
) may be r
e
-
w
rit
ten
. T hus
,
/s
i
na 1 r t r
i
_
q
— (
t
an 1 (
7
-34
)
c p
c c p COS a/ C
'
For ag
enera
ldi
scus
sion o
fel
lip
tica
land c
i
rcu
larp
olar
iza
tion s
eeS
ecs
. 1
5-10 t
o 1
5
-17
2
04 ANTEN N AS [
CHAP
. 7
w
here
q= t
an a 1 (
7
-35
)
pc
o
sa
When a = 0
, t
he h
e
lix b
ecome
s al
o
op a
nd q = -
1/p
. T
he r
e
lat
ion
r§
H
elix c
onduc
tor
- P
T
o z
,
I
F
lo. 7
-29
. G eome
trica
l re
lat
ions f
o
r c
a
l- Fm. 7-
30. H el
ix of Fig
. 7
-28 a
s
c
ula
ting f
i
eld
si n zd
irec
tion
, v
iewed fr
om t he di
rec
tion o
f t
he
p
osi
tive zax
is.
b
e
ing ob
tained i
s
, thus
, ag ene
ral o
ne, a
pplying n
ot o
nly to h
el
ice
s b
ut
a
l
so t
oloops a
s aspec
ial c
ase
. E qua
tion (
7-33) n
ow r
educe
s to
2
rw
E. = Eo e
'''' I s
i
n ei"d
E (
7
-36
)
0
w
her
e q uan
tit
ies i
ndependen
t o
f E h
ave b
een t
aken o
uts
ide t
he i
n
teg
ral
a
nd whe
re
c
o 2
r
-= —
c X
a
nd
k= f
i
rq = L),
(
sin a - (
7
-37
)
O
n i
n
teg
rat
ion (
7
-36
) b
ecome
s
E
, ( erne 1
)
E
, - k
2 1 (
7
-38
)
w
here El = E
.e"* "" )
I
n asimi
lar w
ay we have f
o
r t
he 0c
omponen
t Eo o
f t
he e
l
ectr
ic f
i
e
ld
a
tthe p
oint P
2
.
.
E
. = E0 j co
s ei"
(8
- 7+
1e " a a M dt (
7
-39
)
0
Mak
ing t
he s
ame s
ubs
titu
tion
s a
sin(
7
-33
), w
e o
bta
in f
r
om (
7
-39
)
Sa
c
. 7
-
13] THE HELICAL ANTE N N A 2
05
j
E,k (
e
i
2k _1
)
(
7
-40
)
E
e =(
l
e — 1
)
T
he c
ond
ition f
o
rci
rcu
larp
o
lar
iza
tion i
nthe d
i
rec
tion o
fthe za
x
is i
s
(
7
-41
)
T
he r
a
tio o
f(7
-38
) t
o (
7
-40
) g
ive
s
(
7
-42
)
E
, —j
k — k
A
ccordingly
, for c
ircu
lar pola
riza
tion in the a
xia
l di
rec
tion of ahel
ix o
f
a
n i
ntegraln umbero ftu
rns, kmu stequal ±1.
E
qua t
ion (7-
42) ind
icate
s that E0 a
nd E, are i
ntime pha
se quad
rature
.
T
herefore
, the a
xia
lr a
tio AR isgiven b
yt he magn
itude o
f( 7
-42
) or
AR I
_
_.Eii 1 _ 1
(
7
-43
)
-1, I
E - j
k — k
T
he axial r
atio w
i
ll be r
es
tricted he
r e t
o value
s between 1 a
nd i
nf
in
ity
.
H
ence, if(
7-43) i
sle
ssthan 1,its r
e
ciproca
l istaken
.
S
ubsti
tuting t
he v
alue o
f kf r
om (7-37
) into (
7-43
) yi
elds
1
(
7
-44
)
AR — ina — (VP
L
a
x
[
s )
] 1
o
r
AR = (
7
-45
)
P
E
ither (
7-44) o
r ( 7
-45) i
su sed s
ot hat 1 < AR < c o
.
F
rom ( 7
-44) and ( 7
-45
), itappearst hatt he ax
ial r
at
io can b ec a
lculated
f
rom the turn length Lk and pi
tch a ngle a of the h
el
ix, and t he re
lative
p
hase ve
locity p. I fw e i
ntroduce the value of pfor the condition ofi n
-
p
hase fi
e
ld s (
see T able 7
-1), i
ti sfound t hat AR = 1 . In o ther w o
rds,
t
he in
-phase fi
eld condit
ion isa l
so the cond i
tion fo
r circu
la r polar
ization
i
nthe ax
ial di
rection.
Th
is may a l
so b e shown b y not
ing t hat ( 7
-42) s
atisf
ies the condition
f
orci
rcularp o
la r
ization when k = — 1, o
r
in a -1)= -1
Lx(
s (
7
-46
)
P
S
o
lving (
7
-46
) f
o
rp,w
e o
bta
in
T
A
(
7
-47
)
P — Sx + 1
2
06 AN TE N N AS [CH
AP. 7
which i sident
ical wi
th t he re
lation fo
r i n
-phase fi
elds (o
rdinary e
nd-f
ire
c
ond ition)
.
Our previous di
scussion o n phase veloci
ty indicated that pfolowed
more c l
osely t
he re
lation fo
r increased di
rectiv
ity than the r
ela
tion f
or in
-
p
ha se fi
elds. T hus
, introducing p in (
7-45) fo
r the cond
i t
ion ofin
creased
d
irec t
ivity
, w e o
btain
AR — 2
n + 1
(
7
-48
)
2
n
w
here ni st he n umber oft u
rn s oft he helix
. I f nislarge t he ax
ial ra
tio
a
pproaches u n
ity and t he p
olarization isn early ci
rcular
.
A
s an e xamp le, l
et us conside r the axial rat
io i n t
he d irect
ion of the
h
e
lix axi
s f o
r a1 3°
, 7-turn helix. T he axial ra
tio isu ni
ty i fthe re
lative
v
e
locity for the condit
ion o f in-phas e fi
e
ld s isused. B y (7-48) the ax
ial
r
a
tio for the c ondit
ion o f in
crea sed d i
rec t
ivity is 15/14 = 1 .
07. T h
is
a
x
ial rat
io isi ndependen t oft he f r
equency o r ci
rcum ference Ck a s s
hown
b
y the dashed l i
ne i
nF ig. 7
-31. I n thi
sf igure, t
he axia
l ra t
io ispresented
a
s afunction oft he he
lix ci
rcum ference C),inf r
ee-space w avelengths
.
3
0
2
.5-
2
.0 —
o A
xia
l m
ode
0 o
f r
adia
tion
LS—
.
5 .
6 .
7 .
8 .
9 1
.
0 1
.
1 12 I3 1
4 I
5
H
el
ix c
i
rcum
ference
, Cx
Fm. 7
-31
. A x
ial r
at
io as af
unct
ion o
f h
el
ix c
i
rcum
ference i
n f
r
ee-
space w
ave
leng
ths
f
or a1
3°, 7
-
turn h
el
ical b
eam a
ntenna
.
I
fthe ax
ial ra
tio i
sca
lculated f
rom (7-44) o
r (7
-45)
, us
ing the m
ea sured
v
alue o
f ps hown inFig
. 7-19
, an ax
ial rat
io va
riat
ion isobta
ined as ind
i-
c
ated by the so
lid c
urve in Fig
. 7-31
. T hi
s type of ax
ial r
at
io vs. ci
r-
c
um f
erence curve i
stypica
l of one
s m easured on he
lica
l beam antennas.
SE
C
. 7
.
13
1 THE HELICAL ANTENNA 2
07
Usual
ly, h oweve r
, t he m easured a xia
l r at
io i ncrease s mo re sha rply as C),
d
ecreas es t o v a
lue s l e
ss t han a bou t I( s
ee F ig. 7 -34). T h
is d iference
r
esult
s f rom t he f act that t he c
a
lcu lation ofa xial r at
io b y ( 7
-44 ) or (7
-45)
n
eglects t he e fect o f the b ack w ave o n the h el
ix . T hi
s i su sually s mal
l
when t he h e
lix i sr adiat
ing i nt he a x
ial mode b u t at lowe r frequencies or
smal
le r ci
r cum ference s ( C ),< I)t he b ack w ave i si mpor tan t
. T he back
wave o nt he h elix p roduce s aw ave r ef
lected from t he ground p lane having
t
he o pposite d irection o f fi
eld rotation t o t
ha t p roduced b y t he outgoing
t
ravel
ing w ave o n t he hel
ix. T his causes the a xial ratio to increas e more
r
apidly t han i ndicated i nF ig. 7
-31.
The f orego ing d iscussion a pplies t o hel
ices o f a n i n
teg ral n umbe r of
t
urns. L e t us n ow c onside r along h el
ix w here t he n umb er oft urns may
a
ssume n onint eg ral v a
lue s
. H ence , the l ength o f t he h e
lical c onductor
w
illb es pe c
ified a s i nstead of2 r
n. I ti sfurthe ra ssumed t hat ki snearly
u
nity. T hus, ( 7-36) b ecome s
E
, 1`r
eic
k
+m _ 4
. =—
E 7 1
2 .,
)
(
7
-49
)
S
ince k —
1, k 1- 0
,and i
tfo
llow
stha
t
C
%
-
' 1 + j
(
k 1
)
E, (
7
-50
)
Now i
n
teg
rat
ing (7
-49
) and i
n
troduc
ing t
he c
ond
ition t
hat ki
snea
rly
e
qua
l t
o —1 a
nd t
he a
pprox
ima
tion o
f(7
-50
), w
e h
ave
E. . [ .
.1 ei
(k-1)E
.
(
7
-51
)
2 k— 1 j
S
imi
lar
ly t
he 0c
omponen
tE, o
fthe e
l
ectr
ic f
i
e
ld i
s
E
, [
. ei
(" )
1 '— 1
1
E
. = 3
E
1 (
7
-52
)
k— 1 ]
When t
he h
e
lix i
svery l
ong
E
1>> 1
a
nd (
7
-51
) a
nd (
7
-52
) r
educe t
o
= —
j E2
,
E
, a
nd Et = -
F
, 2 (
7
-53
)
T
aking t
he r
a
tio o
f E• t
o Et,
(
7
-54
)
Et
w
hich f
u
lf
il
lsthe c
ondit
ion f
orcir
cularp o
lar
iza
tion.
S
t
illa
nothe
rcondit
ion r
esu
lting i
ncir
cularpola
rizat
ion i
sob
tained w
hen
2
08 ANTEN N AS [CH
AP. 7
(
k± 1 ), = 2 irm , w he re m i sa n i ntege r
. T hisc ond it
ion i ss atisfied w hen
e
i
the rt he p o s
i tive o rn ega tive s i
gn i n k± 1i sc ho sen b utn otf o rb oth.
The i mpor tan t c ond itions f or c ircu la r p o
la riza tion a r e s umma rized a s
f
ol
low s:
1
.T he r adia tion i n t he a xial d irec tion f r
om a h el
ica l a ntenna o f a ny
p
itch a ng le a nd o fa n i nteg ra l n umbe ro f 1o r mo re turn sw ill b ec ircula r
ly
p
ola rized i fk = —1 ( in-phase f i
elds o ro rd ina ry e nd -f
ire c ond ition ).
2
. T he r adia tion i n t he a xial d irec tion f rom a h el
ica l a ntenna o f a ny
p
itch a ngle a nd a l a
rge n umbe r o f t urn s, w hich a re n ot n ece ssa r
ily a n
i
nteg ral n umbe r, i sn ea r
ly c i
rcu la rly p ola rized i f ki snearly — 1.
7
-14 . W ide -band C ha rac ter istics o f He li cal A ntennas R ad iat ing i nt he
Axial Mode . T he h elica l b eam a n tenna h as i nhe ren t broad -band p rope r-
t
i
e s, p osse ss
ing d es
i rab le p a tte rn, i mpedance , a nd p o
la riza tion c har -
a
cte ristics o ve r ar e
la t
ive ly w ide f r
equency r ange . T he n a tura l a d
ju st-
men t o f t he p ha se v elocity s o t ha t t he f i
eld s f r
om e ach t urn a dd n ea r
ly
i
n p hase i n the a xial d ire ction a ccount s f o
r t he p ersistence o f t he a xial
mode o fr adia t
ion o ve r an ea rly 2 t o 1r ange i nf requency . I ft he p has e
v
elo city w ere c on stan ta s af un ction o ff requency , t he a xial mode p att ern s
wou ld b e o btained o nly o ver an a rrow f requency r ange . T he t e
rm ina l
i
mpedance i sr elative ly c on stan t o ve r t he s ame f requency r ange b ecau se
o
f t he l a
rge a ttenua tion o f t he w ave r eflec ted f rom t he o pen e nd o f t he
h
elix. T he p ola r
iza tion i sn ea rly c i
r cula r o ve r t he s ame r ange i n f re-
q
uency b ecause t he c ond ition o f f i
elds i n p hase i sa lso t he c ond it
ion f or
c
i
r cu lar p olariza tion .
As s hown i n F ig. 7 -32a , t he d imen sions o f ah e
lix i n f ree- space w ave -
l
eng th s move a long ac on stan t p itch -ang le l i
ne a s af unction o ff requency .
I
fF , i st he l owe r frequency l imit o f t he a xial mode o f rad ia tion a nd F2
t
he u ppe r f r
equency l imi t o ft his mode , t hen t he r ange i nd imen s
ion s f or
a1 0 ° h elix w ou ld b e a s s ugge sted b y t h e h eavy l i
ne o n t he d iame te r-
s
pac ing c ha rt o fF ig. 7 -32a . T he c en te rf requency F0 i sa rbi tra rily d efined
a
s F0 = ( F, F
2)/2 .
The p rope rties o f ah elica l b eam a ntenna a re af unc tion o f t he p itch
a
ng le. T he a ngle r esult ing i n a max imum f r
equency r ange F , — F , o f
t
he a x
ia l mode o fr adia tion i ss aid t o b e a n " op timum" p itch a ngle. T o
d
ete rm ine a n o p t
imum a ng le, t he p at tern , i mpedance , a nd p ola r
iza tion
c
ha rac te r
is ticso fh e
lica la ntenna s may b ec ompa red o n ad iamet er-spa cing
c
ha rt a s i n F ig. 7 -32b . T he t hre e c on tour s i n d
ica te t he r egion o f s atis-
f
acto ry p atte rn, i mpedance , a nd p o
lar iza t
ion v a
lue s a s d eterm ined b y
mea suremen ts o n h elice s o fv a riou s p itch a ngle a s af unction o ff r
equency .
The a xial l eng th o f t he h e l
ices t ested i sa bou t 1 .6 w ave leng ths a t t he
c
ent e r f r
equency . T he p atte rn c on tour i n F ig . 7 -32b i ndica t es t he a p -
p
rox ima te r egion o fs atis fac to ry p att erns . As atisfa ctory p att ern i sc on -
SE
C
. 7
.
09
s
i
dered tobeone with amajo
rl obe inthe a
xialdire
ction and wi
th re
lat
ively
s
mall minor l
obe
s. I ns
ide the pattern contour, the pa
tterns a
re of th
is
f
o
rm a nd have ha
lf-power beam w idths of l
es
s than 6 0
° and as smal
l as
3
0°
. I nside t
he impedance con
tour i n F
ig
. 7-32h t he t
e
rminal impedance
0
6
S
pacmg
, SA (
a)
0
.
4
0
.
3
DA te,
r
0
.
2
iame
D
0
.
1
0
.
1 0
.
2 0
.
3
S
pac
ing
, SA
F
ro. 7
-32
. D iamete
r-spac
ing char
ts f
o
r h
e
lice
s w
ith m
easured p
erformance c
ontou
rs
f
o
r ax
ial mode o
frad
iation (
b
).
i
sr e
lat
ively c
ons
tan t a
nd isnearly a pu
re r e
sis
tance o
f 1 00 t
o 150 o
hms.
I
nside the a
x
ial r
atio c
ontour
, the ax
ial rat
io inthe di
rection ofthe h
el
ix
a
xis isle
ss t
han 1.
25. No te t
hat al
l contours l
ie b
elow the l
ine f
or wh
ich
D= VI SA 1/7 . This l i
ne may be regarded a
sa n upperl im
it f
or t
he
2
10 ANTEN N AS [CH
AP. 7
b
eam mode . I ti sa ppa ren t t hat t he f requency r ange F2 — F , i ss mall if
t
he p i
tch a ng le i se i
the r t oo s ma ll o r too l arge . Ap i
tch a ngle o f a bou t
1
2° o r 14 ° w ou ld a ppear t o b e " op timum" f or h elices a bou t 1 .6 w ave -
l
eng th s lo ng a t t he c ent er f requency . S ince t he p rop er t
ie s o f t he h el
ix
c
hange s low ly i n t he v icinity o f t he o ptimum a ngle, t here i sn oth ing
c
r
itica l a bou t t his v alue . T he c on tou r
s a re a rb itra ry b u t a re s uitab le f or
agene ra
l-pu rpo se b eam a ntenna o f mode rate d irec tiv i ty. T he e xac tv alue s
o
f t he f requency l im it s, F , a nd F 2, a lso a r e a rbi tra ry b ut a re r elative ly
we
ll d ef
ined b y t he c lo se b unch ing o f t he c on tour s n ea r t he f requency
l
imit s.
Based o n t he a bove c onc lusion s, a1 4°
, 6 -turn h elix w asc on s
truc ted a nd
i
t
s p rope rtie s m easu red . T he h elix h as ad iame te r o f0. 31 w ave leng th a t
t
he c enter f r
equency ( 400 Mc ). T he d iame te r o ft he c onduc to r i sa bou t
0
.02 X . C onduc to r d iame ter s o f0 .006 X t o 0 . 05 X c an b e u sed w ith l i
ttle
d
ife rence i n t he p rop e rties o f t his h e
lix i n t he f requency r ange o f t he
b
eam mode .
The m ea sured p atte rns b etwe en 2 75 a nd 5 60 Mc a re p resen ted i n F ig.
7
-33. I ti sa ppa r en t t ha t t he p a tte rns a re s atis fa cto ry o ver af requency
r
ange f rom 3 00 Mc ( C),= 0 .73 ) t o5 00 Mc ( C),= 1 .22 )
.
As umma ry o ft he c ha racte ristics o ft his a ntenna a re g iven i nF ig. 7 -34
i
nw hich t he h alf-powe r b eam w id th, a xial r atio , a nd s tand ing -wave r atio
a
res hown a s af unc tion o ft he h elix c ircum ference . T he h a
lf-powe r b eam
w
id th i s t aken b etween h alf-powe r p oin ts r e ga rd le ss o f w he the r t hese
o
ccu r o n t he ma jo r l o be o r o n m ino r lobe s. T his d ef
in ition i sa rbi tra ry
but i sc onven ien t t o t ake i nto a c coun t as pli tting u p o ft he p a ttern i nto
many l o
be s o f l a
rge a mp litude . B eam w id th s o f 1 80 ° o r mo re a re a rbi-
t
rarily p lot ted a s 1 80 °. T he a x
ia l r atio i st he v alue m easu red i n t he
d
ire ction o ft he h el
ix a xi s. T he s t and ing -wave r atio i st he v alue m easured
o
n a5 3-ohm c oax ial l ine. At rans fo rme rs e ction w aveleng th l ong a t t he
c
en te rf r
equency i sl ocat ed a tt he h e
l ix term ina ls t ot ransfo rm t he t erm ina l
r
esistance o fa pp rox ima te ly 1 30 t o5 3 ohm s. C on side red a l
toge the r
, t hese
pattern , p ola r
iza tion , a nd i mpedance c hara ct eri sti cs r epre sen t r ema rkab ly
g
ood p erfo rmance o ve r aw ide f r
equency r ange f or ac ir cula r
ly p o
la rized
b
eam a ntenna .
A
l though t he d ife rence i nc ha ra cte r
istics b e tween h elice s o f 1 2° t o 1 4°
p
itch a ng le i sn ot l arge , t he 1 4° t ype t e nd s t o h ave s ligh t
ly b ette r i m-
p
edance c ha ra cte ristics w hile t he 1 2 ° type t end s t o h ave s l
igh t
ly b etter
pa
t te rns. T he c ho ice o f ap articu la r p i
tch a ng le a s t he o pt
imum v alue i s
a
rb itrary b ut may v e ry a pprop ria tely l ie int he r ange o f 1 2° t o 1 4°
. '
'D
esign d
ata f
o
r a12
.5°hel
ix a
re g
iven b
yJ.D.K rau
s,H
elica
lBeam A
ntenna D
esign
T
echn
iques, Commun
icat
ion
s, 29
, S
eptember, 1
949
.
C
,
m
2
•
-
.1
IP
t
—a
VN NaI N V IVDI13 H 3H I
a
.=14°
n
=6
,
CA =.
66 C CA =
.73 CA =.
85 C,=
.97 CA=
1
.09 Cx=1.2 2
2
75 3
00 3
50 4
00 4
50 S
OO
FIG
. 7-33
. Measured fi
eld p
atterns of 1
4°
, 6 -
turn he
lix
. Patternsare c
haracter
ist
ic of the ax
ial mode of r
ad
ia t
ion o ver a r
ange of c
ir
-
c
um ferences f
rom a
bout 0
.73 to 1.22 wavelengths
. B oth t
he ci
rcumference and the f
requency (i
n Mc ) a
re indicated. The s o
lid pa
t-
t
erns are fo
r t
he h
or
izonta
lly po
larized fi
e
ld c omponent (4) and t
he dashed for t
he vertica
lly polar
ized (4). B oth a
re adjusted t
o
t
he same max imum
.
A N T EN N A S [CHAP
. 7
2
12
1
80* -
th
Eqy
id
1
50*
eam-w
lt-power b
1
00°
--
5
0*
a
H
0
°
5
a
l rio
t
4
x
Aia
7
io
6
at
ove r
5
ing w
4
d\ ,
tand
3
S
.
5 .
6 .
7 .
8 .
9 10 I 12 13 14 5 16
Cir
cumfe
rence, Cx
F
xo. 7
-34. S ummary of measured p
erformance o
f 1
4°
, 6-turn h
elix
. T he c
urvess how
t
he hal
f-power beam width for b
oth f
ie
ld c
omponents
, the axia
l ratio i
n t
he direct
ion
o
fthe hel
ix ax
is, a
nd the SWR o n a53-ohm li
ne a
s afun
c t
ion of the c
ircumference i
n
f
r
ee-space wave
lengths (C k)
.
7
-15. T able ofP a
ttern, Beam W idth, D
irect
ivity
, T e
rm ina l Resistance,
a
nd Axial-
ra tio F
ormu la
s. E xp re
ssion sdeveloped inthe preceding sections
f
o
r calculating the pattern
, b eam w idth, d
irect
ivity
, t e
rm inal r e
sistance,
a
nd axial ratio f
or axia
l mode h el
ical a n
tennas are summa rized i n Table
7
-2
. T hes e re
lations apply s pec
ifically to he
lices f
or 1 2° < a < 1 5°,
<C )
, <I ,a nd n > 3.
SE
C
. 7
-
13
TABLE 7
-
2
FORMULAS FOR AX
IAL MODE HEL
ICAL ANTENNAS
9
0°) s
i
n (
n
tk/2
)
E = (
s
in c
os4
)
n s
in (
4
//2
)
P
atte
rn
where 1
,
/= 3 1 — c
60 0 [8 ),
( os c
i
) ± ;Id
2—
5
B
eam w
idth (
ha
lf-pow
er) B — d
eg
C),
Vn t
h
,
15
B
eam w
idth (
f
i
rstn
ul
ls) B — ,— deg
kN
C in t
h
,
D
ire
ctiv
ity D = 1
5 C
I nt
h
,
T
erm
ina
l r
e
sis
tance R = 1
40 C),o
hms
2
n ± 1
A
xia
l r
at
io AR — (
i
ncrea
sed d
i
rec
tiv
ity
)
2
n
A
xia
l r
a
tio AR = /)(
s
in a — —
1) (
p u
nre
str
icted
)
P
n =n
umber o
fturns o
fhe
lix LA t
urn leng
th i
nfr
ee-
space w
ave
-
Ck = c
i
rcum ference i
nf r
ee-space wave
- l
e
ngths
l
engths a p
itch ang
le
Sk = s
pac
ing b etween turns i
nfree
- p =r
e
lat
ive p
has
e v
elo
city
s
pace w ave
lengths • =a
ng
le w
ith r
e
spe
ct tohe
lix a
x
is
7
-16. T ape red a nd O ther F orms o fA x
ia l Mode He l
icalA ntennas. T he
p
reced ing s ection s have d ealt w ith the u niform h el
ix moun ted o n af lat
g
round p lane a nd f e
d from t he g round -p
lane e nd. T his type isi lustrated
i
n F ig. 7-35a. S everal o ther f eed a r
rangemen ts are al
so s hown i n F ig.
7
-35. A t (b) t he ground p lane i sconical i nstead of fl
at. T he t ypes a t
(
c) a nd ( ) h
d ave a c onduc tor c o
incident w i th the hel
ix a xi
s. T he e f
fec t
o
ft his conduc tor isn ot large s ince the longitud ina
l fi
eld att he ax
iso ft he
h
elix i ss mall
. T he b a
lanced h elix at (e
) p roduce s oppo s
ite t ypes of c i
r-
c
ula r polarization f rom t he t wo e nds while t hat a
t (f) produce s the same
t
ype f rom b oth e nds
. T he p o
lar iza t
ionsi ndicated inthe fi
gu re areacco rding
t
ot he I RE d efinit
ion ( see S ec. 1 5-12)
. F orm s (g
), (h
), and ( 0 a re othe r
mod if
ication s in vo
lving mu lt
ip le h el
ices oft he s ame or diferen t diame ter.
2
14 ANTEN N AS [CH
AP. 7
A w ide v ar
ie ty o f nonun iform o r tape red h el
ices are also p o
ssible
.
These may b e g rouped i n
to t he fol
low ing t ype s
: (1) ac onstant b ut S
a
nd D v ar
iable, ( 2
) Dc onstan t but aa nd S v ariable
, and (3
) Sc onstant
b
ut aa nd D v ariable. T he t aper may b e ofs everal k
inds. F or examp le
,
i
t may b e oft he i n
creasing, d ec
reasing, o r envelope t ype
. T hese comb i
-
n
ations are sugge sted by t he hel
ices inF ig. 7 -36. S everal o
ther kind s o
f
t
apered helicesa re shown i nF ig. 7
-37. T he o ne at (a
) h a
sb oth at apered
a
nd a u n
iform s ect
ion. T he hel
ix a t (b) invo lves st
ill ano
the r kind of
t
aper, that ofc onduc tor si
ze. I n this c
a se the c onductor is afl
at str
ip of
t
apering w idth n ear the fe ed end a nd c onstan t w id
th a t t
he o pen end.
T
hin d
ielect
ric
s
leeve
R
ight- L
ett-c
ircu
lar
c
ircu
lar
(
e
)
L
eft- L
eft
-ci
rcu
lar
C
i
rcu
lar
(
f
)
(
c) (
9
)
(
d
) (
h
)
FI
G 7
-35
. A
xia
l mode h
el
ice
sshow
ing v
ar
iou
s c
ons
truc
tiona
l a
nd f
e
ed a
r
rangem
ents
.
I
ncreas
ing D
ecreas
ing E
nve
lope
C
onstant
-
(-
6nn
s- -
rr6-6
o
-- -
r
o m-r
e
-1 -1
C
onstant
_
J
C
onstant 7
FI
G
. 7
-
36. T
ypes o
ftap
ered a
x
ial mode h
e
lica
l a
ntenna
s.
Sz
c
. 7
-
15
A
t t he open end th
is cons
truction a pp
roaches that o
f ahelical sl
ot ina
c
onduc t
ing c y
linder
. At apered str
ip conductor in c
ombina t
ion with an
i
ncreas
ing D t aper i
sshown a t (
c)
. T apered conduc
tors o
fc ircu
lar cro
ss
s
ection can al
so be us
ed as in (d
) a nd (e
). T he one a
t (d
) i stapered in
b
oth c onductor and hel
ix di
amet er w hi
le tha
t a t (
e s t
) i ap ered only in
-1-1
T
66
060-0
70
(
a)
T
hin di
electr
ic
s
leeve
(
d
)
%
Slo
tted meta
l
G
round c
yl
inder
p
lane
(
b
)
(
e)
FI
G
. 7
-
37. A
ddit
iona
l t
apered t
ype
s.
c
onducto r di
ame ter
. S ince the charact
erist
ics o
fa n axia
l mode h e
lix are
r
e
lative
ly i n
sensi
tive t o mode rate changes in dimensions, the efect of
moderate departuresoft he above typesf r
om au nifo
rm h e
lix i
s
,i ngenera
l,
n
otl a
rge.
An interes
ting a pp
lica t
ion o f ax
ial mode h e
lices isto produce l i
near
p
olar
ization. Two h elices, one w ound lef
t-handed a nd the other ri
ght-
h
anded b ut otherwise ident
ical, are mounted asinF ig
. 7-38a
. T he ri
ght-
A
xis A
xis jA
xis
R
igh
t-handed
h
el
ix
L
ett R
ight
h
anded h
anded
L
eft-handed
h
e
lix h
el
ix
h
e
lix
i
r
(
a
) (
b
)
FI
G
. 7
-38
. H
elica
l a
ntenna a
r
rangement
s f
o
rproduc
ing l
i
near p
olar
iza
tion
.
2
16 ANTENNAS [
Ois
e. 7
a
nd l
ef
t-c
ircu
lar p olar
iza
tion combine on the ax
is t
o g
ive l
inear p
olar
iza-
t
i
on. Ifthe resu
lting fi
e
ld isvert
ical
ly polar
ized, t
hen r
otat
ing one hel
ix
1
80° o
n it
s axis turns the p
lane of po
lar
ization t
o hor
izontal
. Ano ther
me
thod o
f o
bta
ining l
i
nea
rly p
olar
ized r
adia
tion i
n t
he a
x
ial d
i
rect
ion i
s
b
y c
onnect
ing a l
e
ft- a
nd a r
i
ght
-handed h
el
ix i
n s
er
ies a
s i
n F
ig
. 7
-38b
.
PROBLE MS
7
-1
. a
. What i
sth
eapprox
imate r
e
lation r
e
quired b
etween t
hediame
t e
r Dand
h
eigh
tHo fa
na nt
enna h
aving t
he c
onf
igura
tion s
hown, i
nordert
oob-
t
ain ac i
rcula rly p olarized f arf i
eld ata l poin t
s a tw hich t he fi
eld i sn o
t
z
ero. T he loop i sc i
rcu lar a nd i shorizon tal
, a nd t he l i
near c onduc tor
o
fl eng th H i sv e r
tical. A ssume D a nd H s mall c ompa red t ot he w ave-
l
eng th , and a ssume t h ec urren to fu n
ifo rm m agn itude a nd inp has eo ver
t
h es y stem .
b
. Wha ti sthep att e
rn o ft he farc i
rcularly p olarized f ie
ld?
7
-2
. a. P rove t hat7 " - =a rccos ( s
in a c os4 ) inE q. (7-26 ).
b
.C onf irm ( 7
-29 ).
7
-3
. Ah e
l ical b eam a ntenna h a s a= 1 2 °
, n= 8 ,D = 2 .5 c m.
a
. Wha t i sthe v alue o f pa t4 00 Mc f or ( 1
) i n
-pha se fi
eld s? (2) i n
crea sed
d
ir ectivity?
b
. C alcu late a nd p lott hef i
eld p atte rns
, a ssum ing e a ch turn i sa n isotropic
p
oin ts ourcef or p= 1 ,0 .
9,a nd 0 .5
,a nd a lso fo r pe qualt ot hev alue f o
r
i
n-pha se fi
eldsa nd f o
ri ncreased d i
rectiv i
ty.
c
. R ep ea t (b)
, a ssum ing e ach t urn h a
s ac os
ine f i
eld p at
te rn.
7
-4
. Ah elix o fu n
iform c ro sss ection c on sist
s o f 6t urn s
. T he d iame teri s2 3.1
c
m, a
nd t h
et urn s pacing i s1 8
.1 c m. N eglectt h ee fecto ft heg round p lane. A s-
s
ume aphasev eloc i
ty a l
ong t heh elicalc onduct ors a
tisfying t h eincrea sed di
r ect
iv ity
c
ond
ition
. C a
lcu lat ea nd p lott h ef ol
low ing p atternsa s af unc t
ion o f4 )(0
°t o3 60°)
i
nthe 0= 9 0° p lane a t4 00 Mc . U se t hes qua re helix a pp roxima tion .
a
. E. f o
r as ingle t urn a nd E ,f ort hee nt
i re hel
ix .
b
. R ep ea t ( a
) n eglecting t he c ontribution o f e lemen ts 2a nd 4 o f t he
s
qua r e t u
rn.
C
. E. f
or as ingle t urn a nd Et f ore ntireh e
lix.
CHAPTER 8
THE B
ICON
ICAL ANTENNA AND I
TS IMPEDANCE
8
-1. I ntroduc t
ion . I n t he p reced ing c hap ters i ti sa ssumed t ha t t he
a
ntenna c onduc tor i st hin , i n f act, i nf
in itesima lly t hin . F rom k nown o r
a
ssumed c urren t dis tr
ibu tions , t he f ar-field p a t
te rn s a re c alcu la ted. T he
e
fect o f t he c onduc tor t h
ickne ss o n t he p at tern i sn eg ligible p rov ided
t
hat the d iame ter o f the c onduc tor i s as mall f rac tion o f aw ave leng th .
Thus
, t he p attern s calcu la ted o n the b asis ofa n i nfin itesima l
ly t hin c on -
d
uctor a re a pplicab le t o c onduc to rs o f mode ra te t hickne ss, s ay f or
d< 0 .05 Xw he re di sthe c onducto rd iame ter
.
The r adiation r esistance o ft hin l inea rc onduc to rsa nd l oop si sc alcu lat ed
i
nC hap s
. 5a nd 6 . T his c al
cu lation i sb ased o n ak now ledge o ft he p at-
t
ern and a k nown o r a s sumed c ur ren t d istr
ibu tion . T he v alue s s o o b-
t
a
ined a pply s tr
ict ly t o a n i nf
init esima lly t hin c onduc to r
. T he c on -
d
uctort hickne s
s, u p t o mode rat ed iame ter s
, h as o nly as ma lle fe ct o n t he
r
es
istance a t o r n ea r ac u rren t l oop b u t may h ave a l arge e f ect o n t he
r
es
istance a to rn ea r ac ur ren tm inimum . '
I
n t his c hapte r
, w e s hall c onsider t he p rob lem o f f ind ing t he i nput
t
ermina l r es
istance a nd a lso t he r eac tance , t aking i nto a ccoun t t he e fect
o
f conduc to r t h
ickne ss. T his p rob lem i s mo st s imp ly a pp roa ched b y
S
chelkunof 's t r
ea tmen t o f t he b i
con ica l a n tenna ' w hich w ill b e o ut-
l
i
ned i n t he f ol
low ing s ections . B eg inn ing w ith t he i nfinite b icon ica l
a
ntenna , t he a naly sis pro ceed s t o t erm inat ed b icon ica l a n tenna s
, t hat i s
,
o
neso ff i
nite l e
ng th. Th is m ethod o ft rea tment b ea rs as trik ing s imila rity
t
o that u sua l
ly e mployed w i th t ran sm i s
sion l ines i n wh ich t he i nf
in ite
t
ransmi ssion l i
ne i sd iscu s
sed f i
rst, f o
llowed b y t he t e rm ina ted l ine o f
f
i
nitel eng th.
8
-2. T he C harac teristic I mpedance o f t he I nfinite B icon ica l A ntenna .
The i
n f
inite b iconica la nt enna i sa nalogous t oa ni n f
in ite u ni form t ran sm is -
s
i
on line. T he bicon icala ntenna a ctsa s ag u
ide f or as phe rica lw ave i nt he
s
ame w ay t hat au niform t ran sm ission l ine a ct
sa s ag uide f or ap l ane w ave .
The two s itua t
ion sa re compa red i nF ig. 8 -1.
1T
hi
si sdi
scus
sed i
nmoredet
ailinChap
.9 .
S
.A
2 .S c
helkunof
, "E
lec
tromagn
eti
c W av
es," D
. V
an N
ost
rand C
ompany
, I
n
c.
,
N
ew York
, 1943
, Chap
. 1
, p.41.
2
17
2
18 AN TE N N AS (CH
AP. 8
The characteris
tic i mpedance of abiconica
la ntenna w i
lln ow be der
ived
a
nd w i
ll be shown t o b e uni
form. L et a genera tor be connected to the
t
erminals ofa n infinite bi
conical a
n tenna as in F ig. 8-2
. T he generator
c
ausesw avesw i
th s pherica
lp hase f
rontstot ravelr adia
lly outward from the
t
erminals as sugge sted. T he wave
s p roduce cu rrents on the cones and a
v
oltage betwe en them . L et Vb e t
he v o
ltage be tween p o
in t
s ont he upper
a
nd lowe r cones ad i
stance rf rom the te
rm inals a s i
nF ig. 8-
2. L et /b e
\ s
i
\ e
P
lane
Wave (
b
)
i
i
i
Fm. 8
-1
. A n i
nf
in
ite b
iconical a
ntenna FI
G. 8-2. I nf
in
ite biconica
l antenna
(
a) i
s ana
logous t
o an inf
init
e uniform s
howing v
oltage V a
nd c
urrent Ia
t adi
s-
t
r
ansm
iss
ion l
i
ne (
b
). t
ance rf
r
om t
he t
e
rmina
ls.
t
he total c urren t on t he sur
face o fo ne o f the cone s a t ad istance rf rom
t
he t ermina ls
. A s o n an ord inary t ransm iss
ion l ine, the r atio V // is
t
he c haracte r
istic i mpedance o f the a ntenna. F or t he charac ter
istic im-
p
edance t o be u nifo rm, itisn ecessary t hat the r at
io V // b e independen t
o
fr.
Before V a nd / c an be calculated, w e mus t d ete rmine t he n ature of
t
he e l
ectric a nd magne tic fi
eld s exis
ting i n the s pa ce b etween t he c on-
d
ucting c one s
. A l though t he b iconical transm ission l i
ne can s uppo rt an
i
nf
inite n umbe r oft ransmiss
ion mode s
, l e
t us assume t hat only the TE M
o
r principa l tran sm i s
sion mode i sp re sent
. F or t he TEM mode , b oth
Eand H a r e entirely t ran
sve rse, that i s
, t
hey h ave n o r
adial c omponen t.
The E linesa rea l
ong g r
eat ci
r c
le s pass
ing t hrough t he p o
lara xis ass hown
i
nF ig. 8 -
3. T his s at
isf
ies the b ounda ry c onditions s i
nce E i sn orma l to
t
hes urface o ft he c ones. T he H l inesa re ci
rcles lying i np lanesn orma l to
t
he p o
lara xis
.
SE
C
. 8
-
21 BICO NICAL ANTE N N A 2
19
Maxwe
ll
's e
qua
tion f
r
om F
araday
's l
aw f
o
r h
armon
ica
lly v
ary
ing f
i
e
lds
i
s
V XE= —
jco
p
.
11 (
8
-1)
T
he b
i
con
ica
l a
ntenna i
s mo
st r
ead
ily h
and
led i
n s
phe
rica
l c
oord
inat
es.
P
o
lar A
x
is
FI
G. 8
-3
. Eand H l
i
nesofoutgo
ing TEM no. 8-4
. B
iconical antenna w i
th
w
ave on b
i
con
ica
lantenna
. r
e
lation to spherica
l c oo
rdinates
r
,0,0.
L
et t
he spher
ica
l c
oord
inates r
,0,(I
)be r
e
lated to t
he antenna a
s i
nFig.
8
4. E xpanding t
he l
e
ft s
ide o
f (
8
-1) i
nspherica
l coo
rdinates
, we h
ave
a
, [
a(rs
i
n 0E
,
)
V XE—
r
2si
n e a
e
+ a
, [
aE a
(
rsi
n 0E
,
)]
rs
i
n e o
r
[a
(
rE,
) a
E
,1
(
8
-2)
r O
r a
e
S
ince E h
as o
n
ly a 0component
, which by s
ymmetry i
sin
dependen
t o
f4)
,
o
nly t
he f
ith t
erm o
f(8-2
) doe
sn o
t v an
ish. Thu
s,
_
V XE= a(
7 (
8
-3)
r ar
2
20 ANTENNAS [
CHA
P. 8
E
xpand
ing t
he r
i
ght s
i
de o
f (
8
-1) i
nsphe
rica
l c
oord
ina
tes
,
—
jovii = —
jco(a
,H, ± ael
, ± a
,1
10) (
8
-4)
S
ince H h
as o
nly a(
1
)componen
t, (
8
-4) r
educe
s t
o
—
j0
.1AH = —asj
c
oAH‘ (
8
-5)
Now e
qua
ting (
8
-3) a
nd (
8
-5) w
e h
ave
1a(
rE e)
— j
o
n
.iHo (
8
-6)
r a
r
T
his is Maxwel
l's equa
tion (
8-1
) r educed t
o asp
ecial f
orm appropr
iate
t
o aspher
ical wave
.
Maxwel
l's e
quation f
rom Ampe re
's law f
or h
armonica
lly v
arying f
i
elds
i
n anonconduct
ing medium is
V X H =j
o
JeE (
8
-7)
H ha
s o
n
ly a9 c
omponen
t a
nd E o
nly a 0c
omponen
t. S
ince E
, = 0i
t
f
o
llowst
hat
a
(
sin 0Ho) 0
a
e — (
8-8)
Hence
, (
8-7
) c
an b
e r
educed b
y as
imi
lar p
rocedu
re a
s u
sed f
o
r (
8
-1) t
o
t
he fo
rm
a
(
rHo)
— j
c
u
e(rEe) (
8
-9)
a
r
Now dif
eren
tiat
ing (8-9
) w ith r
e
spect t
o ra
nd i
n
troduc
ing (
8
-6)
, w
e
o
btain awave e
quation i
n (r
14 )
. T hu
s,
a2(
rH,
)
ar 2 — (
41e
(rHo) (
8
-10
)
T
he c
ond
ition o
f (
8
-8) r
equ
ire
s t
hat Ho v
ary i
nve
rse
ly a
s t
he s
i
ne o
f 0
.
T
hat i
s
,
1
Ho c . (
8
-11
)
sm 0
H
ence
, as
o
lut
ion o
f (
8
-10
) w
hich a
l
so f
u
lf
il
ls (
8
-11
) i
s
1
H
, rs
i
n 0 Hoe-
i
° ' (
8
-12
)
w
here 0 = c
oV A
i = 2
- r/X
S
e
c. 8
-
21 B
ICONICAL ANTENNA 2
21
T
his s
o
lu tion r
epre
sen
ts an o utgoing t r
aveling w ave o n the antenna.
S
ince the biconica
l a ntenna isassumed t o be i
n-
P
o
a
lar
x
is
f
i
nitely lo
n g
, o
nly t
he outgo
in g wave n
eed be c
on-
s
idered
.
The e l
ectric and magne tic f
ie
lds o f a TE M
wave are related b y the in
t r
ins
ic i mpedance Zo
o
ft he medium . T hus, we have
E
'
, = Zo — ° Ho e-'
'
rs
m 0
Equa t
ions ( 8
-12) a nd (8-13) give t
he v ar
iat
ion
o
ft he magne tic and elect
ric fi
elds of aTE M o ut-
g
oing w ave i n t
he s pace b etween the cones of a
b
iconical antenna a s af unction of 0a nd r. T he
f
i
elds are independen t of6 .
The v o
ltage V( r
) b etween p oints 1a nd 2 o n
t
he cones a t adistance rf r
om t he te
rm inals (
see
F
ig. 8-5) can now b e obtained b y tak
ing t he l
ine
i
ntegral of E, a l
ong a g reat ci
r c
le between t he
t
wo p o
in ts
. T hus,
F
ro. 8
-5
. E0 a
nd 14fi
eld V
(r
) E
, rd
e (
8
-14
)
c
omponent
s a
t ad
istance
rfr
om t he t
erm
inal
s o
f a w
her
e Ok k i
s t
he h
al
f a
ngle o
f t
he c
one
. S
ub-
b
iconica
l ant
enna
.
s
t
itu
ting (
8
-13
) i
n (
8
-14
) w
e h
ave
a
'
0 c (0
,
,/2 )
1
r - Oh.
V
(r
) = ZoHo f e i
n ot , (
8
-15
)
s
i
n ° t
an (
O hd2
)
O
r
V
(r
) = 2
Z0Ho I
n c
o
t t (
8
-16
)
T
he to
tal c
urren
t I(r
) on t
he c
one at ad
is
tance rf
r
om t
he t
e
rmina
ls
c
an be o
bta
ined byapp
lying Ampe
re's l
aw. Thu
s,
2r
l
(
r) =f 1
,rs
i
n 0d =2
1
-rH
,si
n 0
Now s
ubs
titu
ting 1
4fr
om (
8
-12
) i
n (
8
-17
) y
ie
lds
I
(r
) = 2
1
-H0 a-
t '
i ?
T
he chara
cter
ist
ic i
mpedance Z k o
ft he b
i
con
ica
l a
ntenna i
sthe r
a
tio o
f
V
(r) t
o1 (
r) asgiv
en b
y (8
-16) a
nd ( 8-18) o
r
z ELI = Zo i
n c
o
tAi (
8
-19
)
k I
(r
) T 2
2
22 AN TE N N AS [
CHAp
. 8
F
or am
edium o
ffr
ee s
pace b
etwe
en t
he c
one
s, Zo = 1
20r s
o t
hat (
8
-18
)
b
ecome
s
B
k
.
Zk = 1
20 l
nco
t —
2 o
hms (
8
-20
)
When O
he i
ssma
ll (
O
h. <2
0°
), c
ot (
O
h/2
) 2
/0k,s
o t
hat
Zh = 1
20 I
n1 - o
hms (
8
-21
)
Ok
c
Equa t
ion s ( 8
-20) a nd ( 8
-21) a r
e S che lkunof 's r elat
ion s f o
r t he c har
-
a
cte r
ist
ic i mpedance o f ab icon ical a n tenna. S ince t hese e qua t
ion s a re
i
ndependen t of r , the bicon ica l an tenna h as au niform c ha rac terist
ic
i
mpedance .
8
-3. Inpu t Impedan ce o f t he I nf
in ite B iconical A ntenna . T he i nput
i
mp edance o f ab iconical antenna w ith TE M w aves i sgi ven b y t he r at
io
V(r)II(r) as ra pproaches z ero . F o r a n inf
inite b i
con ical a ntenna t h
is
r
atio isi ndependen t of r,so t hat the i nput impedance o f t he infinite b i
-
c
onica l a n
tenna e quals the c haracteris tic impedance . T he i npu t i m-
p
edance d epends o n
ly o n t he TE M w ave and i su naf ected b y h igher
o
rde rw ave s
. T hus
Ze = Zh (
8-22)
1
200 I
i
1
00
I 1
Oh
s 0
1 I
1
4
0 I
900
nOn
hi
I I I
B
icon
ico
l — 1- -
8
00
a
ntenna
e i
S
i
ngle c
one
7
00 w
ith
B
iconica
l g
r
ound p
l
ane
c
n
GOO a
ntenna
Ct
sI
o
—
s
e
c r
5
00 ..
..
--
. S le c
ing one w
ith
I
400 --f
t
. g
round pi
ons
i
f
,
s
i
r
e
i
30 , -
.
...
..
.
0 -
.-.-
-
0
-
200
.
c
) -S.
--
1
00
.
.
..
„,
--
0
0
.01° 0
.02° 0
.04° 0
.
1° 0
.2° 0
,4° L
e 2 e i
d
' 2
e 4
e 9
11
H
al
f-cone a
ng
le, Oh,
Fm. 8
-6
. C haracter
ist
ic r
es
istance ofbiconicalantenna a
nd ofs i
ngle c
one w
ith g
round
p
lane a
s afunction of t
he h
alf-cone a
ngle ind eg
rees. Ifthe antenna i
sinf
in
itely l
ong
,
t
he t
ermina
l i mpedance isequal to t
he characte
rist
ic r
es
istance as g
iven i
n the f
i
gure
.
S
ec
. 8
-
41 BICO NICAL ANTE N N A 2
23
where Zi isthe input impedance of t

he biconica
l antenna and Zk isthe
c
haracter
istic impedance as gi
ven b y (8
-20) or for sma
ll cone angle
s by
(
8-21)
. T he character
istic a
nd input impedances ar
e p ure r
es
istances s
o
t
hat they may b e refe
rred to a
s the characte
rist
ic re
sis
tance R a nd t
he
i
nput re
sistance R,
. T hey a
re gi
ven by
0
Rk Ri = 1
20 l
nco
t—L
e o
hms (
8
-23
)
2
The v ar
iation of this res
is tance as af unction o f t he h a
lf-cone a ngle
Oh.i
sp re sented byt he so
lid curve inF ig.8 -
6. A ni nf
inite biconica la ntenna
o
f2 ° to tal cone angle (Oh,= 1 °
) has ar esis
tance o f5 68 o hm s
, w hi
le o ne
w
ith a t otal cone angle o f 100° (Oh,= 5 0
°) h as ar esistance o f9 1 o hms.
I
fthe l owe rc one isrep
laced b y ala
rge ground p lane ( s
ee i n
se r
ti nF ig. 8-6
),
t
he res
is tance i sone-halft he value gi
ven b y (8-23) a sshown b yt he d a
shed
l
i
ne inF ig. 8-6
.
8
-4. I npu t Impedan ce oft he Fini
te B iconical A ntenna . I n t his section
w
e w i
ll c ons
ide rthe fi
nite biconical antenna. T h
is isa nalogous t o af in
ite
o
rt e
rm ina ted transmission line.
A TE M mode w ave c an e xist a
long t he b i
con ical c onduc tor s
, b ut in
t
he s pa ce b eyond t he c ones t ran
sm iss
ion c an b e o n
ly i n h i
ghe r order
modes. S chelkunof h a
s d ef
ined t he sphe re coinciding w i th t he e nds of
t
he cones t he boundary s phere is i
ndicated i nF ig
. 8 -7
. T he rad ius oft he
Region of
h
igher order ,, I
n
fin
it• p
ermeab
ility
modes
\ S he
ll of magne
tic
T
ransition E
nergy N
o- ma
teria
l
r
egion r
eflected
P
r
inc
ipa
l
m
ode r
egion E
nergy
- -
e
scapes
/ U
nity r
e
lative
B
oundary Sn
permeabi
lity
s
phere
•
F
io. 8-7
. S che
lkunof's f
in
ite b
i
con
ica
l Fm. 8
-8. F in
ite bicon
ica
l a
ntenna wi
th
a
ntenna and b
oundary s
phe
re. b
oundary sphere repla
ced b
y as he
ll of
magne
tic mater
ial
.
s
phere is1,be
ing e qual to the length o f the cones (
r=1 )
. I n
side t h
is
s
phere TE M w avescan ex
ist
,a nd a
lso h
i ghero rder modes may be pre sen
t,
b
ut outside o
n
ly t he h
ighero rder modes c an ex
ist.
When a noutgoing TE M reachest he bounda ry sphe
re, pa
rtofi t
se nergy
i
sref
lected a
s aTE M w ave. I fthe ref
lection att he s
phere w
ere uni form,
t
here would b
e o n
ly th
is ref
lected TE M w ave. Howeve r, t
he ref
le
ct ion at
2
24 ANTEN N AS [
CHAP
. 8
t
he sphe rei snotuniform,a nd some o ft he ene rgy i sr ef
l ected i nh ighe ro rder
waves w h
ile some energy continues i n
to s pace a s h ighe r o rde r w ave s
. I t
i
sa st hough t he b ounda ry s phe re c ons
ists
o
f as hell o f magne tic ma terial w h
ich i s
i
nfinite ly p ermeab le n ear t he c one s and
h
a s ar e
la tive p ermeab ili
ty o fu nity a tthe
r=
1. e
qua to r
.' A t the c one s mo st o ft he o u
t-
g
oing TE M w ave s i sr ef
lected , b ut near
t
he e qua tor mo sto ft he ene rgy e scape s,as
s
ugge sted i nF ig. 8 -8. I ti sb ut as t
ep t o
i
mag ine t hat, f rom t he i mpedance v iew-
p
oin t,t he magne tic s hella ctsl i
ke at erm i
-
n
a ting o r l oad i mpedance ZL c onne cted
a
c ros s t he o pen e nd o ft he c one s a s s
ug-
(
a) g
e sted i nF ig. 8- 9a. N egle cting t he efect
o
ft he e nd c ap so ft he c one s, the f i
nite bi
-
c
on ica l a ntenna c an n ow b e t r
ea ted as a
t
ran sm ission l ine o f c ha racte r
is t
ic
z
, i
m-
Z k pedance Z k t e rm ina ted i n the l o
ad i m
-
(
b) L pedance ZL ( see F ig. 8 -9b). I
f the
impedance ZL c an b e f ound , t he i m-
Fm. 8-9. F in
ite o
r t
erminated b
i
-
c
onical a ntenna and e qu
ivalent pedance Z . a t the i npu t t erm inals o fthe
t
ransm is
sion li
ne
. b
icon ical a ntenna i s c alcu lable a s the
impedance ZL r ef
le cted b ack o ve r al i
ne
o
fc ha racteri
stic i
mpedance Z ,a nd leng th 1 . T hus ( s
ee A pp end ix Sec.3 )
,
ZL j
Z kt
an /
3
/
Z,= L
ek (
8
-24
)
Zk j Zz
, t
an P
I
Thus, the p rob lem r e

solves itse
lf into o ne o f finding ZL. R educed t o
s
imple t erm s, S che lkuno f
f's m ethod o f finding ZL c onsist
s f i
rs
t o f ca
l-
c
ulating Z . a t ac urrent m aximum o n av e ry thin biconical antenna , a
s
inusoidal c u r
rent d i s
tribution b e
ing a s
sumed . I n Fig. 8-10a a t hin
b
iconicala nt enna o fl e
ngth 1i sshown. Z .i st he impedance w hich a ppears
b
etween t he c urren t max imum o no ne cone a nd the corresponding p ointo n
t
he otherc one. S ince this impedance occurs w avelength from the open e nd
o
fthe a ntenna , ZL i sthen equalt oZ .t ransformed o ver ali
ne w aveleng th
l
ong as inF ig. 8 -10b. F inally
, the input i mp edance Zi i s ZL tr
an s
fo rmed
o
ver al ine ofc ha racteris
tic impedance Z k a nd leng th las inFig. 8-9b.
The i mpedance ZL i sobtained fr
om Z .b y the transmission-
line relation
(
see A ppend ix S ec. 3)
1The s
he
ll isas
sumed t
ohave z
e
ro e
l
ect
rica
l c
onduc
tiv
ity a
nd ar
e
lat
ive d
i
ele
ctr
ic
c
onstant o
fu n
ity.
SE
C
. 8
-
4] BICO NIC AL AN TE N N A 2
25
ZL = j
Z,t
an t
3
x
Zk (
8
-25
)
Zk i
Z. t
an f
i
x
But t
he l
i
ne i
s Iwave
length long s
o
t
hatI3x =7/2 a
nd (8
-25
) reducesto
(
8
-26
)
(
a)
Wherea
s Zk ise n
tirely r
ea
l, Z. i
n
(
8-26
) may h ave b oth rea
l and z
L
i
maginary p
art
s. T hus
,
f
-A/
4
Z
. =R
. + jX. (
6
)
F
la. 8
-10
. T h
in f
i
nite b
iconica
lantenna
The r
eal p
art R„,ist
he same as t
he a
nd tr
ansmi
ssion l
i
ne equ
ivalent f
o
r fi
nd-
r
adiat
ion res
istance at a c ur
rent ng ZL
i .
maximum of av ery t
h
in linear a
n-
t
enna. It has b e
en ca
lculated by S
che
lkunof a
si
R
. = 6
0Cin 2
0/ 3
0(0
.577 -
I
- I
n — 2C
i 2
01 C
i 4
1
30 c
os 2
01
+ 3
0(S
i 01 — 2S
i 21
) s
i
n 2/
3/ o
hms (
8
-27
)
Prov
ided only t
hat the antenna isthin
, the r
adia
tion res
istance R. i
s
i
ndependent of t
he shape of t
he antenna (t
hat is
, whethe
r c y
lindr
ical o
r
c
onical
). Howeve r
, the rad
iation r
eactance d
epends on t
he shape and h
as
b
een calcu
lated b
yS chelkunofffor ath
in cone a
s
X. = 6
0Si 2
j
31 3
0(C
i 4
0/ — l
n/3
/ — 0
.577
) s
i
n 2
1
3/
—3
0(S
i 4
f
1/
) c
os2
,
51 o
hms (
8
-28
)
Now s
ubs
titu
ting (
8
-26
) f
o
r ZL i
n
to (
8
-24
), t
he i
npu
t i
mpedance i
s
, — Zk Z
Z , j
Z. t
an I
V (
8
-29
)
Z
. jZ
,
,tan 1
.
1
/
whe
r e 1= length o
fo ne c one
Zk = va
lue g
iven b y (8
-21)
Z. = R.± jX. , w here R, ,
.= value g
iven by (
8
-27) and X„
, =v alue
g
iven by (8-28).
The value of Z. b ecome s independent of cone ang
le for t
hin c
ones.
Thus
, the real a
nd i magina ry part
s ofZ..
, as gi
ven by (8
-27) a
nd (8
-28),
a
re independent o
ft he c one ang
le, be
ing funct
ions o
nly ofthe c
one l
ength
1
. However , the chara cter
i s
tic impedance Z, is afunct
ion of t
he cone
1equa
ls h
a
lfthe t
ota
llength o
fthe a
ntenna
. InChap
. 5
, Li
stw
ice t
h
isv
alue b
e
ing
e
qua
l t
othe t
ota
l a
ntenna l
ength (
tha
t i
s, L=2 1
).
2
26 AN TE N N AS [
CHAp
. 8
a
ng le. H ence ,t he i npu ti mpedance Z .a sc a
lcu la ted b y( 8-29 ),i saf unc tion
o
fb oth t he c one a ng le a nd t he c one l eng th . T he l imita tion i nc alcu lating
Z
. t hat t he c one a ng le b e s mall a lso l imit s t he u se o f ( 8
-29 ) t os ma ll cone
a
ng les, s ay, h alf-cone a ngle s o fl es s t han a bou t 3d eg ree s
.'
The r adiation i mpedance Z . a t
300 t
he c u rren t max imum o f S che l -
kunof 's b i
con ica l a ntenna a s g iven
by ( 8-27 ) a nd ( 8
-28 ) isp res en ted i n
1
.3
2
00 3 .
F
ig . 8 -11 . T he i mpedance i sg iven
, 4 ,i
14
o
hms a
s af unc tion o f c one l eng th n
.
4 . 9
1
00 .
2 .
7
j wave leng th s, w he re 4 ,= / X. T his
'
.2
) impedance a pplie s t o s mall c one
.
1 .
5 0
1
1
.
5 ang le s
.
0 1
00 2
0 0 3
00 400 I
n troduc ing Z .i n
to ( 8
-29 ),t he i n-
R o hms pu t i mpedance c an b e o bta ined f or
Fm. 8 -
11. R esist anc e R , a
„ n d r ea
ctan ce c
one s o f d ife ren t c haract e r
is t
ic
X
„, o fradia t
ion i mpedan ceZ „
,o f ab icon - impedance . A si lu stration s, t he i n
-
i
c
al a n
tenna a s af unc tion o ft h
e c o ne pu t i mpedance o f ab icon ica l a n-
l
e
ng th i nw av eleng ths ( 4
) .
tenna o f 1 ,000 o hms c haract e r
is tic
impedance ( half-cone a ng le, O h. =
0
.027 °
) a nd f or o ne o f4 50 o hm sc ha racter i stic i mpedance ( half-cone a ng le,
Oh.= 2 .7 °) a r eg iven i nF ig. 8 -12, 2a sf unc tion so ft he c one l eng th i nw ave -
l
eng ths ( Q. I ft he l owe r c one i sr epla ced b y al arge g round p lane ( see
i
nse rt inF ig. 8 - 6)
, t he i npu t i mpedance i sh a
lved .
It iss ignifi can t t ha t t he t erm ina l i mpedance o f t he t h
icke r b icon ica l
a
ntenna ( l
owe r c ha ra cter istic i mpedance ) i s mo re c on stan t a s af unc tion
o
fc one l eng th t han t he i mpedance o ft he t hinne ra n tenna . T hisd ife rence
i
n i mpedance b ehav io r o f t hick a nd t h
in a nt enna s i st ypical n o t o n
ly o f
c
on ical a ntenna s b u t a l
so o fa nt enna s ofo the r shape s
, s uch a s c y
l indr ica l
a
n tenna s. We , t hu s
, c onc lude t hat t he i mpedance c ha racter i
s tics o f a
t
hick a ntenna a r e
,i ng ene ral, mo re s uitab le f orw ide -band a ppl
ica tion st han
t
ho se o f at hin a ntenna .
The c urve i n F ig . 8 -12 f or t he 2 .7° h a
l f-ang le b icon ica l a ntenna s p
ira ls
i
nwa rd a nd w ou ld e ven tua l
ly e nd a tt he p oin t R=4 50, X =0 ,w hen t he
l
eng th 1 ),be come s i n f
ini te. L ikew is e
, t he c urve f or t he 0 .
027 ° a ntenna
s
pira ls i n
to R = 1 000 , X =0 ,w hen l = CO. T he e fec to ft he c one a ng le
1Approx
im ate so
lut
ionsforwidec oneang
lesa r
ed i
scus
sed b
y
C.T.T ai
, A ppl
icat
ion of aVa
riationa
lPrinc
ipletoB i
con
ical Ant
ennas
,J . Appl
ied
P
hys., 2
0, 1
076-1084, Nov
emb er
, 1949.
P. D . S
. P mi
th, The Con
ical Dipole o
fW ide Ang
le, J
. Appl
ied Phys
., 1
9, 1-23,
J
anuary
, 1948.
1The cu
rv e
s i nFigs
. 8-
11 and 8-12 ar
e plo
tted fr
om dat
a given by Sc
helkunof,
l
o
c. c
i
t
.
SE
C
. 8
-
41 BI C O NI C A L AN TE N N A 2
27
i
sgr eatest nea r the second, fourth, or e ven , re
sonance s ( /
)
, 1
,e t
c.)
a
nd l e
a s
t n ear the fi
rst
, third, oro dd, resonance s (/
), I
,etc.)
.
We n o
te i n F ig
. 8 -
12 t hat the g eome tr ic mean r esitance R1
s 2 of the
r
e
sistance a t the fi
rst and s e
cond r e
sonance s i
sa bout o ne-half the c har-
a
cteris
tic r es
istance o f the biconical a n
tenna . We t ake R12= VR IR29
w
he re Ri i st he res
istance a t the f i
rs
t r esonance ( /
)
, i
) a nd R2 i st he
r
e
sistance a t the se
cond r esonance ( 1), I )
. T hus, f
o r the a n
tenna w ith
2
.
7 ° half-cone a ng , R1
le 2 = 2 24 w hich isa bout half the c haracterist
ic r e
-
s
i
stance ( RA = 4 50)
. F or the a ntenna w i th t
he 0 .
027 ° h a
lf-cone a ngle,
RI2= 5 00 o r half the characterist
ic r e
sis tance ( RA = 1 ,
000 )
. T he geo-
+
3000
+
2000
, ,̀ Z .1000
,K
Bi
n .
.
0.02 r
,
/ \
+
1000 -
-
- n
i ‘
'
1
40
1 21
(.450 \
3 \
0
h
e.2
.7° 1
o
hms 2
000 3
000 R 4
000 5
000
1
o
hms
% !
-
1000 1 .
5
-
I
.
1‘i
' t6 /
/
• /
• /
-
2000 .% ‘
/
, .
..
.. _ __.
.
..
.
.
-
3000
P
ia. 8-
12. C a
lcula
ted input impedance ofb
iconical antennas w
ith 2.7°half-cone ang
le
(
sol
id curve
) and with 0.027° ha
lf-
cone ang
le ( dashed curve
). The r es
istance R a nd
r
eactance X o
f t
he input impedance Z
, are r
epresented as afunction o
f t
he l ength 1o
f
o
ne cone inwave
lengths, the l
ength b
eing i
ndicated in0.1-wavelength i
ntervals.
metric m ean resi

s tance R2 3 ofthe r esi
stance a t the second a nd th
ird reso-
n
ance s iscl
oser t o t
he c hara cteristic resi
s tance. We t ake R2 3 = N/R2R 3
1
where R3 i sthe r es
istance a t t he t h
ird r esonance ( ix I
)
. T hus, for
t
he a ntenna with t he 2.7° h alf-cone a ngle, R23 =3 17 (R, =4 50) while
f
or t he antenna w ith the 0 .027 ° h al
f-cone a ng , R2
le 3 = 7 10 (R, = 1 000).
The g eometr
ic m ean o f succe ssive h ighe r r e
sonan t r e
sis
tance s would b e
e
xpe c ted to app roach c loser y et t o the c haracteris
tic r e
sistance around
which t he impedance s piral c onve rges.
The i mpedance s pira
ls i n Fig. 8 -12 a r
e f or ab iconical antenna. I ft he
l
owe r c one isreplaced b y al arge g round p l ane, the impedance v alues are
h
alved . Mea sured i mpedance s o f si
ngle c ones w i
th g round p l
ane a re
2
28 AN TE N N AS [CH
AP. 8
p
resented i n F
ig
. 8-13 for cones with ha
lf-angles o
f 5 °
, 10°
, 20°
, and 30°
a
nd c haracter
ist
ic res
istances (R k = Zk)o f 188, 146, 104
, and 80 ohm s
,
r
espective
ly.' T he c
one sm easured had at op ha
tc on s
ist
ing ofaninverted
c
one of9 0° to
tal i
nc
luded a ngle (s
ee in
sert inFig. 8
- 13)
. I tistoben oted
t
hat the trend toward reduced i mpedance var
ia t
ion w ith in
crea
sing cone
a
ngle
, as p
red
icted b
y t
he c
a
lcu
lated c
urve
s o
fFig
. 8
-
12, i
scon
tinued f
o
r
t
he l
arge
rcone ang
les
.
+
150
0 =
5°
-
188
+
100
=
10
Z=1
4
z .
3
+50
a•=2
06
.
34 cZ
h g=
104
.
5
.
8
X
5
0 2
00
o
hms eh
s=30° 6 R
o
hms •
Z°80 7
5
0
.
°
h
F
-e
—
100 1 1
'
- 1
—
150
F
lo. 8-
13. Measured i
nput imp
edance o
fsing
le c
oneswith g
round plane a
s afunc
tion
o
f cone l
eng
th i
n w ave
lengths (
4). Impedance c
urves a
re p
resented fo
r cones w
ith
h
al
f-angle
sof5°
, be, 20°, a
nd 3
0°.
8
-5. P a
ttern ofBiconicalA ntenna. T he far-f
ie
ld p a
tte rn of abiconical
a
ntenna willb enear
ly the same a sfora ni n
finites
ima l
ly thin l i
nearantenna
p
rovided t hat t
he c one angle i ss mal
l. I t i sassumed t hat the current
d
ist
ribution issi
nusoidal
. T hus,E q
s. (5
-80)a nd ( 5
-81) can b eused fo
rt hin
b
iconica
la ntennas,t he s
ubstitution being made t hatL= 2 /
, where 1isthe
l
ength ofo ne c
one.
8
-6. Inpu tImpedan ce ofA ntennas o fArbitrary Shape. S chelkunof h as
e
xtended h is a
nalys
is f o
r thin b iconical antenna s
, as outlined a bove, to
'T
he curves i
nFig. 8
-13 a
replo
tted f
rom d
ata p
resented i
nC hap
. 4by A
. Do me
, i
n
"
Very High Frequency Techn
iques
," by Rad
io Research L
aboratory S
taf
, McGraw-
H
il Book Company , I
nc
., New York, 1
947
.
SE
C
. 8
-
6] BI C O NI C A L A N T E N N A 2
29
t
hin antenna s of o the r s hapes b y c ons
ider
ing t he ave
rage charac te
ris
tic
i
mpedance o f the a ntenna . Whe rea s t
he characte
rist
ic impedance o f a
b
icon
ica l antenna i su n
ifo rm, t he impedance of antennas of s
hape o ther
t
han conicali snonun ifo rm . T hus , asa n
a
pproxima t
ion t he i npu t i mpedance o f
t
he cylindrical a ntenna i n Fig . 8-14a
c
an be c alculated a s t hough i tw ere a
ZOove
)
b
icon
ica l a ntenna o f c hara cte
ri st
ic i m- •
z.
p
edance e qual to t he a verage c haracter- 1 ,1
i
s
tic i mpedance o f t he c y
lindrical a n-
t
enna
. The c yl
ind rical a ntenna i s L (
b
)
r
eplaced b yt he e quivalentb iconicala n-
t
enna a s sugge sted i n Fig
. 8 -14a. T he
Fm. 8-. C
1
4 y
lindrica
l antenna and
t
ransm ission-line c i
rcuit
, e quivalen t to
e
quiva
lent b
iconica
l a ntenna a nd
t
he a ntenna , iss hown i n F
ig. 8-14b, it t ransm
iss
ion l
i
ne.
b
eing a ssumed t hat the l i
ne o flength /
h
as a u ni
fo rm c haracteris
tic i mpedance e qual to the a verage c har-
a
cter
is t
ic i mpedance o f the c yl
indrical an
tenna . T hi
s t opic isd is
cus s
ed
f
urtheri nS ec
. 9-11.
PROBLE MS
8
-1. Conf
irm Sche
lkunof
'sresu
ltthatthe c
haracte
ris
tic i
mpedance o
fanu
nsym
-
m
etrica
l bi
conica
l an
tenna (
wi
th unequa
l cone ang
les) i
s
e K
t)
Zk = 6
0 I
n (c
o K c
t— o
t
2 2
w
her
e t
g
, = h
a
lf t
he u
ppe
r c
one a
ngle
= ha
lf the lowe
r cone ang
le
8
-2. Prove t
hat the charac
ter
istic impedanc
e Zk f o
r asing
le cone a
nd ground
p
lane isha
lf Zk f
o
r ab i
conical a
ntenna.
8
-3. Calcu
late the t
erminal impedance of ac on
ical a
ntenna of 2° t
o
tal angle
o
perat
ing aga
inst av e
ry large g
round plane. T he le
ngth 1ofthe c
one i
sjw ave-
l
e
ng th
.
CHAPTER 9
THE CYL
INDRICAL ANTENNA:
I
TS CURRENT DISTR
IBUTION AND IMPEDANCE
9
-1 . In troduc tion.' I n p revious c hap ters
, the a s
sump tion i s made t ha t
t
he c ur
rent d i
stribu t
ion o n af i
ni te a n
tenna i ss inu soidal
. T his assump -
t
i
on i s ag ood o ne p rovided t hatt he a ntenna i sv ery t hin. I n t h
isc hap te r,
am ethod f o
r c alcula t
ing t he cur r ent d istr
ibu tion o f ac ylind r
ical c ent er-
f
ed a ntenna w ill b e d iscu ssed, t ak ing i n
to a ccoun t t he thickne ss o f t he
a
nt enna c onduc to r
.
This i s ab ounda ry-va lue p rob lem . T he a ntenna a s ab ounda ry-va lue
p
rob lem w ast r
ea ted many y ea rsa go b yA braham ,' w ho o btained a ne xa ct
s
o
lu tion f or af reely o sci
llating e longa ted e lipsoid o fr evolu t
ion. Howeve r,
t
he e ar
l ies t t r
ea tment s o f the c ylindr ical c ent er-driven a ntenna a s a
b
ounda ry -value p roblem a re t ho se o f Hallett
" a nd L . V. K ing. ' Mo re
r
ecen tly t he prob lem h as b een d is cus sed b y S ynge a nd A lbert.' H allen 's
method l e ads t o a n i nteg ra
l e qua tion , a pprox ima te solutions o f w hich
y
ield t he c urren t distribu tion. Know ing t he c urren t distr
ibu tion a nd t he
v
oltage a pplied a t t he i npu t t e rmina ls, t he i nput i mpedance i s t hen
o
bta ined a st he ratio o ft he v o
ltage t o t he curren ta t the term inals.
Halien 's integra l
-equa tion m ethod w illn otb ep r esented i nd etail, but t he
i
mpor tan t steps a nd r esultsw i
ll b e d iscussed i nt he f o
llow ing s ec
tions .
1I
no the rc hap terss ufi cient s tepsa re given i n mo sta nalyse st hatt he readers hould b e
a
ble t os upply t he intermed iate o ne
sw ithou t undue d ificulty. Howeve r, t
his i snot t he
c
ase i nt his c hapte r since i n mo st i
nstance s al arge numbe r ofs tep s is omitted b etween
t
hose g iven i no rde r to reduce t he leng th o f the developmen t.
M. Ab raham , D ie e lectrischen S chw ingungen um e inen s tabform ingen L eiter,
b
ehande lt n ach d er Maxwe llschen T heo rie, Ann . P hysik, 6 6
, 4 35-472 , 1898.
3Erik Ha ller'
, Theore tica l Inve st
ig ations i nto the Transm itting a nd R eceiving Qua li-
t
ieso fA ntennae , Nova Ada R egiae Soc. S ci. Up sali
ensi s
, S er
. I V, 1 , No . 4
,1 -44, 1 938.
L
.V . K ing , O n t
he Rad iation Field o f aP er fec
tly C onduc ting B ase-
insu lat ed C ylin-
d
rical A ntenna Over a P erfect ly C onduc ting P lane E arth , and t he C alculation o f t he
Radiation R esistance a nd R eactance , P h
il. T rans. R oy. S oc. ( London ), 236 , 3 81-422 ,
1
937 .
6 G
. E . Alber ta nd J.L .S ynge , The G ene ral Problem o fA ntenna R adiation. I ,Q ua r
t.
Applied Ma th ., 6, 17-131 , J uly, 1948 .
J
. L . S ynge , The G ene ra
l P roblem o f A ntenna R ad iation a nd t he F undamenta l
I
nteg ral E qua t
ion , W ith App l
ica tion t o a n Antenna o fR evolution . I , Q ua r
t. App lied
Math., 6 ,1 33- 156 , July, 1 948.
2
30
SE
C
. 9
.
2] THE CYLI N D RI CAL ANTE N N A 2
31
9
-2. Outl
ine ofthe In
tegral
-equation Me
thod. Si
nce t
h
is method i
sa
l
ong one
, an out
line o
fthe importan
ts t
eps i
sgi
ven i
nth
is s
ec
tion
.
The o
bje
ctiv
e ofthe method istwo
fold
:
1
.Toobtain t
he c
urrent d
i
str
ibution o
f ac
y
lindr
ica
lcent
er-
fed a
ntenna
i
nte
rm s o
fit
s le
ng th a
nd d
iameter
2
. T
o obta
in t
he i
nput impedance
A
n ou
tline o
fth
e pro
cedu
re isgiven by the f
ol
low
ing s
t
eps
. T
hese a
re
t
r
eated more f
u
lly i
nthe s
ect
ions which f
o
llow.
1
.T he fi
e
ld E ins
ide the c
onductorisexpressed inte
rm softhe c
urrent
and sk
in efe
ct res
istance
.
2
. The fi
eld E o
uts
ide the c
onductorisexpressed i
nt e
rm softhe v
ector
poten
tial
.
3
. The tangent
ial componen ts of E a
re e quated
, o b
tain
ing a w ave
equat
ion inthe vector p
otent
ial A
.
S
teps 1through 3ared is
cussed i
nS e
c. 9
-3
.
4
. The w ave equation i n Ai ss o
lved a s t
he sum of acomplementary
f
unction a nd ap ar
ticular integra
l.
5
. The constant C, int he solution isevaluat
ed int e
rm s o
ft he c
ondi
-
t
ions atthe input term inals
.
6
. The vecto r p
oten t
ial Ai se xpre
ssed i n t
e
rm s of t
he antenna cur
-
r
ent I
.
7
. The value ofC, f r
om 5a nd o f Af r
om 6a re i
nse
rted inthe so
lut
ion
4
,o bta
ining Ha l
len's integrale quation. This i
san in
tegra
le quat
ion
i
nt he current I
.
S
teps 4through 7a red iscussed i nSec. 9-
4.
8
. Ap artial s o
lu t
ion f o
r the current / i st hen o bta
ined b y eva
luating
o
ne o ft he i ntegra
ls so that the c urren t ise xpre
ssed a s the sum of
s
everal t erm s
, s ome ofw hich also involve I .
9
. Neglecting c ertain terms in/ ,a n app roxima te (zero order) so
lution
i
so btained f o rI.
1
0
. T hi
sv alue o f /issub s
tituted back i nt he curren tequation o b
taining
afi
rs t
-o rde r approxima t
ion f o
r t he cur rent. T h
is pro cess o
f ite
ra-
t
i
on c an b e c ontinued, y i
elding s econd -order a nd h igher order
s
o
lu tion s
.
1
. T he con stan t C, i
se valuated and a n asymp totic expansion obtained
f
ort he c urren t
. T hat is
,
/ . in
6
00 [
s
in 1
3(
/ — 1Y i
)-I
-(big) ± (
b
2/n2)± •••
]
' c
osft
/-I
-(d
1/0 ) -
I
-(d
2/92)+ •••
w
here 0 = 2i
n(2
1/a
), w
her
e 1i
sthe h
al
f-leng
th o
fthe a
ntenna a
nd
2
32 AN TE N N AS [Qu
i>
. 9
athe rad
ius
. T he f
ir
st-orde
r approx
ima t
ion i
nvolve
s te
rms o
nly a
s
h
igh as b,/
11 a
nd d1/ l
. A s econd-order a
pproximat
ion i
nvolve
s
b2/
Se a
nd 4/0'
, etc
.
S
tep
s 8t h
rough 1 are d
iscussed i
nSec. 9
-5.
1
2
. T
he input impedance i
st hen obta
ined a
s the r
atio o
f the input
t
erm
ina l v
o
ltage VTt othe cur
rentatthe i
nput t
e
rm ina
ls Jr. T h
is
i
sdi
scu s
sed inSec
. 9-
9.
9
-3. The Wave E quat
ion in t
he Vector P
oten
tial A.
' C ons
ider the
c
enter
-fed cy
lindrica
l an
tenna o
ftota
l le
ngth 2
/and diameter 2a a
sshown
i
n Fig
. 9-1
. L e
t u s f
i
rst s
ta
te t
he boundary c
ond
itions
. S ince the t
an-
E
nd f
ace \ E
p
a=
1
(
p
,q
5,Z)
C
yIiodr
ico
I
s
urface o
f
a
ntenna
1
-
*-2a
FI
G. 9-1. Symmetrica
l center
-fed cy- no. 9-2
. The t angen
tia
l components o
f
l
i
ndrica
l an
tenna w
ith re
lat
ion to c
oord
i- t
he e
lectr
ic fi
e
ld a t t
he s
urface o
f t
he a
n-
n
ate& t
enna are e
qual.
g
ent
ial c
omponent
s o
fthe e
l
ect
ric f
i
e
ld a
ree
qua
l a
t ab
ounda
ry,
E;= E, (
9
-1)
a
l
ong the c
y
lind
rica
l sur
face
. In (
9-
1), E:i
sthe f
i
eld j
us
t i
ns
ide t
he c
on-
d
ucto
r (p = a— d a)
, and E.i
sthe fi
e
ld j
u
st ou
tside t
he s
ur
face o
f t
he
1The developmentinth
is s
ect
ion and i
nS ec. 9
-4
,leading upt o Halen
's i
ntegra
le qua-
t
i
on, fo
llows the p
res
enta
tion o
fR onold King and C
. W . Harr
ison, J
r.
, The Dis
tribution
o
f Current Along a Symmetr
ical Cente
r-Dr iven Antenna, Proc
. I. R.E.
,31, 548-567,
O
ctober, 1943.
S
im. 9
4] THE CYLI N D RIC AL ANTEN N A 2
33
c
onducto
r (p = a+ d
a) a
s i
nd
ica
ted i
nFig
. 9
-2
. A
tthe e
nd f
a
ces o
fthe
a
ntenna we h
ave
E
; =E, (
9
-2)
whe
re E
; =t he radia
l fi
eld jus
t ins
ide the face (
z = 1— dl
)
E
, =t he radial fi
eld just out
side ( z = 1+ d l
) as s
ugges
ted in
F
ig
. 9 -
2
To s
impl
ify the p roblem, i tisa ssumed t hat 1is much la
rger than
a(/>> a
) and that the radius isvery s mal
l compared to t
he wave
length
Oa < 1
). T he efect ofthe end fa
ce can then beneg
lected a
nd t
he cur
rent
I
,taken e
qual toz ero a
t z= ± 1. T hen,
E
; =Z
I. (
9
-3)
w
he re Z = the conduc
tori mpedance i
no hms p
erm et
e rle
ng th o
fthe c
on-
duc
to rdue t
os k
in efec
t
I
, =t he tota
l c
urrent
The e
lectr
ic fi
eld E o
uts
ide the c
onductor i
sde
rivable e
ntire
ly fr
om the
v
ectorpo t
entialA . That is
,
e 2
E= —
j; V (
V •A
) —j
c
oA (
9
-4)
Neg
lect
ing t
he e
nd fa
ces
, the tangentia
l Eo ut
side the conductor wi
ll
h
ave o
nly a
nE.component
. Since the cu
rrentisen
tire
ly inthe zdi
rection,
Aha
s only azc
omponent
. H ence
,a tt he c
onductorsurface (
9-4
) become s
E
, = —j (o
z4e -
I
-ef
ts) (
9
-5)
Now equa
ting (
9-3
) a
nd (9
-5) i
nacco
rdance w
ith t
he b
ounda
ry c
ond
ition
o
f( 9
-1)
, we ob
tain awave e
quat
ion,
a
2
A s+ #2A
. =
ig zr (
9
-6)
a
z2 0
, s
This comple tes the fi
rst t
hree st
eps inthe outl
ine ofS ec. 9
-2.
9
-4. Halien 's In
teg ra
l Equation
. We n ext proceed too btain a s
o
lu t
ion
o
f( 9-6), which i s aone-dimensional wave equation int he v
ector p
otentia
l
A
.. T he e qua t
ion iso fthe se
cond ordera nd fi
rst degree. Ift he a
ntenna
c
onduc tivity i sinf
inite, Z = 0a nd the equation become s homogeneous.
Howeve r, w hen Z i sn ot zero
, the equat
ion i sn o
t h omog eneous and it
s
s
olution isg iven ast he sum of acomplemen tary funct
ion A . and ap ar
tic
-
u
la rintegral A . That is
A
. =A
. ± A
, (
9
-7)
'J
. W. Melo
r, "Higher Mathematics f
or S
tudents o
f C
hem
ist
ry a
nd P
hys
ics
,"
L
ongman
s, G
reen & C
o.
, Inc
., N
ew Y ork, p
p. 4
13-414
.
2
34 ANTE N N AS [
CHAP
. 9
I
ntroduc
ing t
he v
alue
s o
fA. a
nd A
, (
9
-7) b
ecome
s
A
. = (
C
, c
ost
i
z + C2 s
i
n13
z
) + f I
(
s) s
i
nti
(
z —s
)ds (
9
-8)
As
sume t
hat the a
ntenna i
sex
cited s
ymme
trica
lly b
y ap
air o
f c
l
ose
ly
s
paced t
e
rmina
ls. T hen
i
z a
nd A,
(
z
/
,
(z) = I,
) = A,
(— z
)
(— z
)
(
9
-9)
T
he constant C2 i
n(9
-8) may b
e eval
-
u
ated a
se qual t
o one
-half t
he a
ppl
ied
(
p
,
th
,z) t
e
rm ina
l vol
tage VT. T hus
,
= I
V,. (
9
-10
)
d
z
, Let us now exp
re ss the vec
tor po-
t
entialA,intermsoft he curr
ento nthe
a
ntenna. F o
r ac onduc tor of l
eng
th
z= — 1 t
o z= + 1, as s hown in F
ig.
9
-3
, t he vector potent
ial A . at a
ny
p
oin t o
uts
ide the conduc tor o
r at it
s
s
urface i
s
z
=-
1—
A =
4
r
f
+
' r
d
z
Fm. 9-
3. C onstruct
ion f
o
r o
bta
ining
e
" f+
1 „
v
ector p
oten
tia
l A .
. r d
z
, (
9
-11
)
w
he re r = [ p2 —
zi = ap oin
t on the conductor (—1 < z
,< + 1)
I
n se
rting the v a
lues of C2 and A, f
r
om (9-10
) a
nd (
9
-11) i
n(9
-8) a
nd r
e
-
a
rranging y i
elds Ha l
len
's integra
l equat
ion,
'
-
r u c
os 9
z-I
- LTs
i
n i
z
4
7 .
1
_
, 2
Z f o I ( 8) s
i
n (
z—s
)ds (
9
-12
)
Anintegralequa tion isane qua t

ion in which anunknown f unction appea r
su nderthe
i
n
tegralsign. I nt h
is case, t
he u nknown f unct
ion isthe antenna current/.,.
I
n the integra
l-equa t
ion a pproach t o ab oundary-value problem , th
e i ndependen t
v
ar
iable rangeso ver the bounda ry surface (i
n th
is case
, the antenna) sot hatt he boun-
d
ary condit
ions a re incorporated in the integra
l equation. T h
is isin con tra
st to the
s
i
tuat
ion w ith the dif erent
ial equa t
ion a pproach, in which the independent v a
riable
r
ange
s t hroughout s pace, w i
th a s olution being sought t ha
t s at
isfi
es t he bounda ry
c
ondit
ions.
SE
C
. 9
.
51 THE CYLI N D RI C AL AN TE N N A 2
35
The absolute value si

gn o n zint he second t erm oft he right side of (9
-12)
h
as been i n
troduced b ecause ofthe s ymme t ry condi
tion o f( 9-9). Ha l
len's
e
quation ( 9-12
) i sa n equation i n the current I „ o n the c onduc tor
. I f
(
9-12) could be solved for I„, the c urrent distr
ibution c ould b e obtained
a
s af unction ofthe antenna d imen s
ion sa nd t he c
onduc to ri mpedance .
The term w ith Z h as an egl
igible e fect provided that t he antenna i sa
g
ood c onduc to
r. T hus, as
sum ing t hat Z = 0( conductiv i
ty i nf
inite)
, w e
c
an pu t H a
lien
's integral e
qua t
ion i n as implif
ied fo
rm a sf ol
low s,
+1 / d
z Vr .
3
0j i= CIc
osO
z + —2 si
nPi
zi (
9
-13
)
r
I
n (9
-13) we h ave pu
t ei" = 1a nd w ritten cm/47 = 3 0
. T h
is c
omple
tes
s
t
eps 4t h
rough 7o fthe ou
tline ofS ec. 9-2.
9
-5
. First
-o rderS o
lution of Hal
len's E qua t
ion.' T he prob
lem now i
sto
o
bta
in as o
lu t
ion of( 9
-13) for t
he an tenna c urrent I
,w hich c
an b
e eva
lu-
a
ted
. A s af i
rststep inthe so
lution, lett he in
tegral i
n(9-13) bee
xpanded
b
y adding and subtract
ing I„ T hat i s
,
+
1I 5-
or 1
:` I
, — I
d
zi = d
z
, (
9
-14
)
f +
1
r
+
.
r — I
,dz
, (
945
)
I
n
teg
rat
ing t
he f
i
rs
tte
rm i
n(9
-15
) a
nd p
utt
ing p = aw
e h
ave
d2r
j = ± 1
11 [ 1 — 2 ± 8 (
9-16
)
w
here
= 2l
n 2
—/= 2i
n t
o
tal a
ntenna l
eng
th (
9
-17
)
a c
onductorrad
ius
f
i
r/
a
nd
a )2 11 (
9
-18
)
a = i
n 1
4 0
1 1 + ± 1 \
11 4
. (
1
S
ubs
titu
ting (
9
-16
) i
n
to (
9
-15
), a
nd t
h
is i
ntu
rn i
n
to (
9
-13
), y
ie
lds
,
/
. =3
-4 2 (CI c
osf
t
z-I VT s
i
n i
l
i
z1)
_r
i +
r, _ T
L W ± ± L
i d
z
,} (
9
-19
)
1The deve
lopmen t in th
is a nd fo
llowing sections issimilar to that given by E rik
Hal
len, Theoretical Invest
iga t
ions into the T ransmitt
ing a nd R eceiving Qua l
ities of
Antennae, No
va A c
ta Reg
iacS oc. Sc
i. Upsali
en s
i s
,S er
. IV, 1, No . 4
,1 -44
, 1 938
;a lso by
Ronold King and C. IV
. Harrison,Jr.
, The D is
tribution of Current Along aS ymme tr
ical
Center-dr
iven A ntenna, Proc
. I .R
.E., 31
, 548-567 , October, 1943.
2
36 A NT E N N AS [CH
AP. 9
A
t t
he end o
ftbe antenna t
he c
urren
t i
sze
ro. T
hus
, w
hen z = 1
,I, = 0
s
o t
hat (
9-
19) r
educes to
1
0=
3
00
(
C, c
o
s Si
2
T s
i
nt3
/
) -
I
- 1 f I'e
r
,
d
z
i (
9
-20
)
w
here r
, = V(
/ —z
,
)2± a
'
N
ow s
ubt
rac
ting (
9
-20
) f
r
om (
9
-19
) a
sdone b
y Ha
llen
, w
ehave
/
,= [
C,(co
s — c
o
st3
0 + V
T(s
in I
z
I —s
i
n00]
1
1[1 — (
z)1 + 1
,6 f+̀ I'
s
e '
s'—
d
z
i
f
+1 d
z
i }
(
9
-21
)
J
-1 r
i
P
roceed
ing w
ith Hallen's so
lution
, the quant
ity i
nthe bra
ces i
n (9
-21)
i
staken a
s z
ero s
ot ha
tt he currentI., g
iven bythe t
e
rm sinthe b
racket
s,
b
ecomes aze
ro-orde
ra pproxima tion
, des
ignated Lo. Thu
s,
0 =
1
. (
CIF
°, 1V
. (
7
o) (
9
-22
)
w
here t
he f
o
llow
ing s
ymbo
lsh
ave b
een i
n
troduced
Fo,= c
osl
i
z — c
os1
3
1
(
9
-23
)
Go,= s
i
n zI—sin)
3
1
S
ubst
itut
ing 1
, 0,a
s g
iven b
y (9
-22)
, for I
,on t
he r
ight s
ide o
f (
9-21
), a
f
i
rs
t-orderapp
roximation I
. can b
e obta
ined f
o
r the c
urren
t. T ha
t is
,
/
.
, = [
Ci(F
o. -
F Fo"
— ) -
1
- V
T(G
o. -F % 1)] (
9
-24
)
w
her
eF 1(z
F1).=
=Fl
—
(F
z)o,—
I
nF1
[
1
( )
— (
) 2 1.0
.
3 — 1
+
` —P
. d
z
i
1 J-
1
F
i(
i) = f
+
i -
1 r
i d
z
i
Gi
s = Gi(
z
) — Gi(
1
)
G1(z
) i
sthe s
ame a s F1(z
) wi th G subst
ituted f
or Fand G
1(
1) ist
he same
a
s F1(1
) w
ith G subst
i tuted fo
rF .
I
f( 9
-24
) i snow sub s
tituted for I,o n t
he ri
ght s
ide o
f (
9
-21)
, as e
cond-
o
rder approximat
ion f or the c urrent can be ob
tained
. C ont
inuing th
is
p
rocess y
i e
lds third-order a nd h igher order approx
imat
ions
, a nd the
s
o
lu t
ion f
o rthe an
tenna c urren t I.takesthe f
orm
S
ec
. 9
-
6] THE CYLINDRICAL ANTENNA 2
37
= [
c(F + E2
1 + ••.
)
3
01
2 °
' f
t S
e
1
2 '
G„
1
2
G2
1
2 D
l
(
9
-25
)
S
ubs
titu
ting I
.asg
iven b
y (
9
-25
) i
n
to (
9
-20
) y
ie
lds
1T, [
o(i
) (
1/0 )
G
1(/
) + •']
(
9
-26
)
= F0(1) + (1 / O) F 1
(1) ± • ••
I
nse
rting C
, fr
om (9-26
) i n (9
-25
) a
nd r
ear
rang
ing
, t
he c
urren
t i
sgiven
b
y the a
symptot
ic e
xpansion,
= [
s
in 0
(
/ — IzI
) +(b
1/l) (b
2/n2)± •••
1
(
9
-27
)
' 60
12 L c
ost
i
r
t+ (ado) + (d
2/a2)+ •••
where b
, = F1(z
)sin0 / — F
,(1
) s
in/3
1
zi G
,(1
) c
osf i
z — G1(
z
) co
s01
di = F
,(
1)
Neg
lect
ing b2,d2,a nd h
ighe
r orde
r te
rms
, the f
i
rst
-order s
olu
tion f
o
r t
he
a
ntenna curr
ent is
= LV1 [
s
in 0
(
/ — zi) (
b1/ 0)
] (
9
-28
)
" sou L c
os0
/ + (
di/
1
2)
The quantit
ies b,a nd d, have b
een calcu
lated interms ofrea
l and imag
i-
n
ary functions' by K ing and Harrison fo
r seve
ral va
lues of 1and c
urves
g
iven
.' T his c
omp letessteps 8through 1 o fthe ou
tline o
fSec. 9
-2
.
9
-6. Length-Th ickness P a
ramete r 1
2. T he a
bove deve
lopmen t i
sbased
o
n the assump tions that 1> > aand O a /. The cond
ition t
hat />> a
w
i
l l b
e arbitra
rily taken t
o m ean that
-> 6
0 (
9
-29
)
a—
T
he r
at
io /aequa
ls t
he r
a
tio o
fthe t
o
tal l
e
ngth o
fthe c
y
lind
rica
lan
tenna
t
o t
he d
iame
ter
. T hu
s,
T
otal l
e
ngth 2
/ 1
Diame
ter — 2
a — a
When 1
/
a = 6
0
, t
he v
alue o
fftf
r
om (
9
-17
) i
s
= 2l
n = 2l
n 1
20 9
.6
a
b
, M 11 + / M
al a
nd d
1 ±jA
IR
onold King and C
.W . Har
rison, J
r
., T
he D
ist
ribut
ion o
fCurren
tA long aS
ym-
m
etr
ica
lC enter-d
riven A
ntenna
, P ro
c. I
.R
.E, 3
. 1
, 548-567
, O
ctob
er, 19
43.
2
38 AN TE N N AS [CH
AP. 9
Agraph o
f 0as afunct
ion o
f t
he r
at
io o
f t
he t
o
tal l
e
ngth t
o t
he c
on-
d
ucto
r d
iamete
r i
spresen
ted i
nFig
. 9
-4
.
2
0
1
8
1
6
1
4
1
2
1
0
8
6
4
2
01
0 2
0 4
0 6
0 1
00 2
00 4
00 6
001000 2
000 4
000 6
000 1
0
000
Fm. 9
-4. The c oef
f
ic
ient f
2as af
unction o
f t
he to
tal l
e
ngth t
o d
iame
ter r
a
tio (
2
1/2a
)
o
r l
ength-to
-rad
ius r
atio (
f
/a) o
f acyl
indr
ica
l antenna
.
Anothe r fa
c tor wh ich res
tric ts 1/a t
o l
arge values ( 1/a > 6 0
) i sthat for
a
symp tot
ic conve rgence of ( 9
-27 ) 0 must exceed a c erta
in v alue. I f 0i s
t
oo s mal
l, the s e
ries may d iverge.
9
-7. E quiva lent R adius of A ntennas w i
th N oncircular C ross S ect
ion.
The a bove dis cussion i n t
his a nd preceding sections d eals with u ni
fo rm
c
ylindr icala ntenna s,t hatis
,a ntennaso fci
rcularc rosss ec
tion ( r
adius =a )
.
Acco rding t o Ha llen,1 u n
ifo rm a ntennas w ith n oncircular c ros
s s e
ction
c
an also b e treated b y taking a n
e
quivalent radiu s
. F o
rs quarec ros
s
s
ec
tions of side l e
ng th g ( F
ig. 9-5)
,
0 t
he equivalent radius i s
' a= 0
.
59g
F
l
at
s
t
r
ip wh
ile f
orth
in f
la
t st
rip
s of w
idth w
S
q
uar
e t
he equ
iva
lent r
adiu
s is
c
onduc
tor
Fm. 9
-5. C onducto
rs of s
quare a
nd fl
at a= 0
.
25w
c
ros
s s ec
tion with e qu
ivalent c
ircu
lar
c
onductors o
f r
ad
ius a. F
or any s
hape ofc
ross s
ect
ion there
e
x
ist
sa nequiva
lentradiusand hence
ava
lue o
fa I n a
l
l c
ases i
tisas
sumed t
hat t
he cro
ss s
ection i
suniform
o
ver t
he e
nt
ire l
eng
th o
fthe an
tenna
.
1Er
ik Halen
, Theore
tica
l I
nvestigat
ions i
n
to the Transmi
tting a
nd Rece
iving Qual
-
i
tes o
fAntennae
, Nova Ada R
egia
eS o
c. S
ci
. Upsa
lien
sis, S
er
. I V
, 1, No
. 4,1-44
, 1938
.
S
Ec
. 9
-
81 THE CYLI N D RI CAL ANTE N N A 2
39
9
-8
. C u
rrent Distribu
tions
. T he ampli
tude a
nd pha
se of t
he cu
rrent
a
l
ong cyl
indrical antennas o
f three l
engths a
nd two v
alue
s of t
he to
tal
l
e
ngth-d
iamete r ra
tio ( /
/a) ar
e p re
sented in F
igs
. 9-6
, 9-7
, and 9-8.
1
.0
id
tude l
1 7
5
li
.
5-
urrent amp
0
C
.
25 .
20 .
15
1 .
1
0 .
05 I .
05 .
1
0 .
1
5 .
20 .
25
D
istance i
nwave
leng
ths f
rom c
enter o
f a
ntenna
90*
60°
1
p =75
Q23000
1 •)
Fm. 9 -6
. R ela
tive current ampli
tude and phase al
ong a center
-fed 4
-wav e
length
c
ylindrica
la ntenna (2
/ x
/2)fortota
llength
-to-d
iameterra
tio
s (//a
)o f7
5a nd inf
ini
ty
(
a
f ter King and Ha rr
ison). Distance f
r
om t he c
ent
er of t
he an
tenna isexpre
ss ed in
wavelengths
.
F
igu re 9 -6 isf o r a4 -wave leng th a ntenna ( 2
/ = X /2), Fig. 9-7 for af ul
l-
waveleng th a ntenna ( 21 = X ), a nd F ig. 9-8 f or a1 -wave leng th a ntenna
(
2
/ = 1 X ). F or e ach le ng th t he r e
lative a mplitude a nd p hase o f the
c
urren t ar e presen ted f orf2= 1 0a nd 1 2 = C° corresponding t ot otall ength-
t
o-diame ter r at
io s (1/a) of7 5 a nd c o . T he amp l i
tude c urvesa re adjus ted
t
o t he s ame max imum v a
lue , a nd a ll phase c urves are a djusted t o the
s
ame v alue a tt he e nd s oft he a ntenna .
Itisg ene rally a ssumed t ha tt he currentd istribu t
ion ofa ni nf
initesima lly
t
hin a ntenna ( 1/a = 0 3) iss inu soidal, a nd t
ha tt he p hase iscon stant o ve ra
4
-wave leng th i nterva l, chang ing a brup tly by 1 80°b etween i ntervals. T h
is
b
ehav io ri sil ust rated b yt he s olid curve sinF igs. 9-6, 9
-7, and 9 -8.
The d ashed c urve s i lust
ra te t he current amp litude and p hase v ar
ia tion
f
or l a = 7 5 ( S2 = 1 0)
. T he d iference b e tween t he
se c urve s a nd t he
s
o
lid c urve s ( 1
/a = 0 3) i snot l a
rge b ut isa pp reciable. T he dashed c urves
(
1
/a = 7 5) a re f rom t he d istribu t
ion s given b y King a nd Ha rrison ' as
c
a
lcu la ted f r
om ( 9
-28 ), the c ur rent b eing expr essed i nterm s o fi t
s amp l
i-
t
ude a nd t he p ha se a ngle rela tive to ar e
ference p oint
. T hus
,
/
, = 1/
, 1 (
9
-30
)
1Rono
ld King and C
. W . Har
rison
, J
r
., The Dis
tribut
ion o
fC urren long aS
t A ym-
m
etr
ical Cent
er-dr
iven An
tenna, Proc
. I
.R
.E., 3
1, 548-567
, Octob
er, 1
943.
2
40 AN TE N N AS [CH
AP. 9
The ef
ect o
fthe l
eng
th-th
icknes
s r
atio o
n t
he cur
ren
t amp
litude iswe
ll
i
lus
t ra
ted by F
ig
. 9-
7 for afu
ll
-wave
length a
ntenna. When the a
ntenna
urren
C l
t ampi zI
tude II
.
5 .
4 .
3 .
2 . .
1 .
2 .
3 .
4 .
D
is
tance i
nwave
leng
ths f
r
om c
ente
r of a
ntenna
1
80'
1
50'
'
a
z
. 1
20 °
9
0°
0
t
c 6
0'
•
3
0°
0°
o
c ,
F
la. 9-7
. R e
lative cur
rent amplitude and p hase along a c
ent
er-fed fu
ll-wavelength
c
y
lindrical a
ntenna (2
/ = X ) f
o
r t o
tal l
e
ng th
-to -diameter r
at
ios (
//a) o
f75 a nd inf
in
ity
(
a
fter King and Ha r
rison)
. D istance f
rom t he c ent
er of t
he a
ntenna ise xpre
ssed in
w
avelengths
.
1
.
0
l
urrent amp
C li I
itude I
.
625 . .
4 .
3 .
2 .
1 .
1 . 2 .
3 .
4 . .
625
D
istance i
nwave
lengths f
rom c
ente
r ofa
ntenna
1
80'
1
50' •
s .,
c
t
. 1
20"
,
?
, 90°
a
. 6
0° 1
0 0
3
0° - =
_
o
°
F
lo. 9-8
. R e
lative cur
rent ampl
itude and phase along a c
enter-fed 1-wavelength
c
y
lindrica
l antenna (
2/ = 1X) f
ortota
l l
ength
-to-diameterra
tio
s ( /
/a) o
f75a nd i
nfin
ity
(
a
fter King and Ha r
rison)
. Distance f
r
om t he cent
er of t
he antenna isexpres
sed in
w
avelengths
.
i
sinf
ini
tes
imally t
h
in, the cur
rent i
sze
ro a
t t
he c
ente
r. As t
he a
ntenna
b
ecomes th
icker
, t
he current min
imum inc
rea
ses a
nd at t
he s
ame time
Se
c
. 9
-
41
s
h
ifts s l
igh t
ly t owa rd the e nd o ft he a ntenna
. F or stil thicke r antenna s
(
1
/a < 7 5), E q. ( 9
-28) i sno l onge r ag ood approx ima tion f o
r t he current,
b
ut i tm igh t bee xpected tha t the a bove t r
end w ould con t
inue .
The e fe c
t o f the length -
th ickne ss r a
tio on t he p hase v ar
ia tion isw e
ll
i
lustrated b y Fig. 9-8 for a1 I-wave length antenna . When t he antenna
i
sin f
inite sima l
ly t hin
, t he p hase v aries as astep f unction, b eing con stant
o
ver 4 w aveleng th a nd c hang ing b y 1 80° at e nd o f the 4 -waveleng th
i
nt
e rval ( solid line, F
ig. 9-8)
. T his type o fphase v ariation iso bserved i na
p
ure st and ing w ave . A sthe a ntenna b ecome sthicke r
,t he phase shif
ta tthe
e
nd o ft he 4 -wave length interva lt end st obecome l essa brup t (dashed c urve
f
or/ a =7 5
). F ors t
il thicke ra ntenna s (1
/a < 7 5)
, i tmigh t b eexp ected
t
hatt his t rend w ould cont
inue a nd f or very th
ick a ntenna s w ould t e
nd t o
a
pproach t hato f ap ure traveling w ave a sind
ica ted b yt he straightd a shed
l
i
nes i nF ig. 9-8
.
9
-9. I npu t I mpedance . T he inpu t i mpedance Zr o f ac ente r-
fed c yl
in-
d
r
ica la ntenna i sfound b yt aking t he r a
tio ofthe i nputo rt erm inalv oltage
VT and t he c u
rren t I. att he i npu t terminals
. T hat is
,
ZT = = RT jX T (
9
-31
)
w
here Ir = /
,(0)
RT = t
erminal r
es
istance
Xr = t
erminal r
eactance
T
here
fore
, s
ett
ing z = 0 i n (9
-28) and i
nse
rting this va
lue o
f c
urren
t i
n
(
9
-31) y
ie
lds Hal
len's r
e
lat
ion f o
rt he i
npu
t i mpedance,
z
r = — ,
;
6
00[ c
os'
9
/ (
d
,/0)1
(
9
-32
)
s
i
n f
i
/ (
bi/
1
2)
Th
isis afi
r
st-o
rde
ra pprox
imat
ion f
orthe inputimpedance
. I ft
he se
cond-
o
rder t
e
rm s ar
e i
ncluded [
s
ee (
9
-27
)], Ha
llen's i
npu
t-impedance e
xpress
ion
h
as t
he fo
rm
Z rco
s/3
1 (
d
,/0
) (
d
2/ 0
2 )
1
r = — i6"Lsin +(
b
1/0
) (
b
2/ 0
(
9
-33
)
T
his relat
ion has b
een eva
lua ted by Hallen t w
ho has a
lso p
r e
sented t
he
r
e
su l
ts i n c
hart f
orm.
' I mpedance spirals based on Hal
len's data a
re
p
resented in F
ig. 9
-9 for center
-fed cy
lind r
ical an
tennas with rat
ios o
f
t
o
ta l leng
th to d
iameter (
/
/a ) of 60 a
nd 2 ,
000. T he ha
lf-
length 1of t
he
'Er
ik Halet
t,OnA nt
enna I mpedances
, T
rans
.R oy
. In
st. T
echno
l.
, Stockho
lm, No. 1
3
,
1
947.
2Erik Hale
tt
, "Admittance Diagrams f
o
r Antennas and t
he Rela
tion Between An
-
t
enna Theor
ies
," C
ruft Laboratory Tech
. R
ep. No
. 46, Harva
rd Universi
ty, 1
948.
2
42 ANTE N N AS [
CHAP
. 9
a
n tenna isg i
ven a l
ong the spira
ls i n f
ree-space w ave
lengths
. T he im-
p
edance v aria
tion isthat which w ould be o btained as afunct
ion o f fr
e-
q
uency f or an antenna of fi
xed p hysica
l d imen s
ions. T he diference in
t
he i mpedance behavior o
ft he th
inne r antenna ( 1
/a = 2,000) and o fthe
t
hicker antenna (//a = 60) iss t
riking, the variat
ion in impedance w ith
f
r
equency o ft he t
hicke
ra ntenna b e
ing much l e
ss than t
hat ofthe thinner
a
nt enna.
G\ A AJ
1
2
0
*
1
500
2 .„
,.. .
.
..
. ------
*
1
000
.
9
+
500
.
3
.
.
"- '
v..
,
.e.
-
8--, ,
- . --
---
-..
.
...
.
.
..
.
..
.
.
0 7 \1
.9 N \‘
1
00 1
5
0
0 2
0
0 2
5
0
0 3
0
0
/ i R
•.
k
. 11. 0,
/
/
\s-- -
I
s .
./ 1=60
-
500
1 5 n=9.6
.
1
Z
,
(a
ve)
=454
.
6
-
1
000
1
.
0
•
1
500 - =2
000
.
5 n=16
.6
4
(ave
.
)=873
2
000 I
F
lo. 9
-9
. C a
lcu
lated i mpedance (
nput i R p
r) in o
hms f
o
r c
yl
indrica
l cen
ter-f
ed
a
ntenna
s w
ith r
a
tiosoftota
lle
ngth todiamete
r (2
//2a) o
f60a
nd 2
,000 (
af
ter Hal
len).
The i mpedance, given b y ( 9

-32) or (9
-33 )
, app
lies to center-
fed c yl
in-
d
r
ical a ntennas of total leng th 2/ a
nd diamet er 2a
. T o o bta
in t he i m
-
p
edance o f acy
lindricals tub a n
tenna oflength 1and diamet er2ao perating
a
gains t avery la
rge p er
fec t
ly c onduct
ing g round p
lane, (9-32) and ( 9
-33)
a
re d iv
ided b y 2. T he i mpedance curve b ased on Hal
len 's ca
lculations
f
o
r ac yl
indrica
l stub a ntenna w ith an 1
/a ratio o
f60 isgiven b y the so
lid
s
p
iral i n Fig
. 9-10. T he l ength 1of the s tub i
si nd
icated i n f
ree-space
w
ave lengths al
ong t he s p
iral
. T he mea
su red impedance v ar
iation oft he
S
ec
. 9
-
9] TH E CYLI N D RI C AL AN TE N N A 2
43
s
a met
ype ofantenna ( 1
/a = 60) a
sg iven by Dome' i
sal
so s
hown i
nFig
.
9
-10 b
y the dashed spira
l. T he ag
reemen t isgood c
ons
ide
ring t
he f
ac
t
t
hat t
he measured curve in
cludes the efe
ct of t
he s
hunt c
apac
itan
ce at
t
he g
ap a
nd the s ma
ll but f
i
nite a
ntenna termina
ls.
+
200
.
.
-
+1
00 •
, --- \
. 9 \
• \
\•
\ \
X 0 V L
0 2
00 I300 400
R I
7 I
I i I
/ I
1•6
-
100 i i
i
1 /
•
•
200 1
- . I
•
-
.
. .
.
..
..
.-.
.
.
-
.
5
T
1
no. 9-
10. C omparison o
fca
lcula
ted (so
lid curve
) and measured (dashed c
urve) i
npu
t
i
mpedance (
I? jX
) inohms fo
rcylindr
icalstub antenna w
ith ground plane f
o
rl e
ngth-
t
o
-radius r
at
io (
//a
) o f60
.
The measured input impedance of ac y

lind
rical st
ub antenna w ith an
1
/a ra
tio of 20 i
ss hown i n Fig
. 9-11. C ompa r
ing t h
is cu
rve w ith the
d
ashed curve ofFig. 9
-10
, iti sapparent t
hat the t
rend toward decreased
i
mpedance v ar
iat
ion w ith s mal
ler 1/a rat
io ( i
ncrea
sed thickness) sug-
g
ested by Fig
. 9-9 iscontinued t o sma
ller 1
/a rat
ios. Am ea
su red im-
p
edance curve f
or 1/a =4 72 i
sa l
so in
cluded i
nF ig. 9
-11.2
'Chap. 4b yA. Dome , " Very High Frequency Techniques
," b y Rad
io R esearch Lab-
o
ratory Staf, McGraw -H ill Book C ompany , I
nc.
, New Y ork, 1947
.
S
eea l
so G . H
. Brown a nd 0. M . Woodwa rd, Exper
imentally Determined I mpedance
Character
istics o
f Cyl
indr ical Antennas, Proc
. I.R.E
., 33
, 257-262, A pr
il
, 1 945.
D
. D . King, The Measured I mpedance ofC y
lindr
ical Dipole
s, J. Appli
ed P hy s
., 1
7
,
8
44-852 , October
, 1946.
The curves i
n F
ig. 9-11 are based on data p
resented by Do me.'
2
44 ANTE N N AS [CH
AP. 9
A n antenna issaid to b e resonant w hen the input impedance i s apure

r
esistance. O n the i mpedance d iagram s of F igs
. 9 -9
, 9 -10, and 9-11
r
esonance o ccur
sw heret he spira
lsc ros
st he X = 0a x
is. A tz ero f
requency
a
l
l t he impedance spiral
ss tar
ta t R = 0a nd X = — . A st he f
requency
i
ncreases,the reac
tance d ecrea se
sa nd the re
sistance also i
ncreasesalthough
more slowly. T he f i
r
st resonance o ccursw hen the length 1o fthe antenna
i
sa bout w ave
leng th. T he res
istance atthe fir
s t r
esonance i sde
signated
2
a
+500
+
400
+300
.
9
+200
.
3
8
+
100
-
e
?
.
.
2 '
X 0 "
I
t
'
.3 2
0
0\ 3 0
0 4
0
0 5
0
0 6
0
0 7
0
0 4
0
0 9
0
0
19 I
1
.0 )
.̀4 R
-
100
=2
0
-200
1r
t
.
ZK 7
.
4
-
300 (
ave)-
161
'
-
400 p 472
-
500 _
ZK(
o
ve )
=350
FI
G. 9
-11
. Mea sured i
nput *
napedance R jX) i
no hms o
f c
yl
ind
rica
l s
tub a
ntenna
w
ith g
round p
lane f
or l
eng
th-to-
radius r
a
tio (
1/a)o
f2 0 a
nd 4
72.
R
,. A s t he frequency i si ncreased, t he leng th of the antenna b ecomes
g
reater a nd t he second r esonance o ccur s w hen t he le
ngth 1i sa bout
wavelength . T he res
istance a t the s econd r e
sonance i s des
ignated R2.
A
t t he third r esonance (resistance =RD , the a ntenna length 1isa bout
Iw aveleng th a nd at the four th resonance ( res
istance =R4)1i sa bout 1
wavelength . A s the frequency i si ncreased i ndef
inite
ly, an inf
ini
te n um-
b
er ofs uch resonance s can be o btained .
S
ince i ti scommon p ra
ctice t o o perate antenna s at or near r
esonance,
t
he v a
lue s of the resonant r e
sistance s are of i n
terest
. C urves based on
SE
C
. 9
-
9] THE CYLI N D RI C AL AN TE N N A 2
45
Halien
's calcu
lated g raphs
' are p
resented in Fig
. 9-12 f o
r the fi
rs
t four
r
esonance s of acylind r
ica
l stub antenna with la
rge g round plane as a
f
unc t
ion o f t
he length-rad
ius rat
io ( 1
/a). T he lowes
t v alue of 1/a f
or
which H aHen gi
ves d ata is60
, si
nce t he a
ccuracy of (9
-33) te
nd s to d
e-
t
er
io rate for smal
le r / a va
lues
. T hus
, the sol
id p art of the curves
2
000
1
500 ¶ 2a
1
÷ / R3
X
1
000 -
- R4
00 _
8 R2
6
00
j•
••#
. r
.
e
5
00
4
00
R4
.
.".
..•
3
00 .
0
. .. 1
0.
I o
e
I
I 0
,
2
00
I
I I
1
50 I
I 0
1
00
8
0
6
0
R3
5
0 - . -.
. ., - -. - — 0
6
4
0 V
- — — -1 -1- - 0
R
,
3
0
2
0
1
0 2
0 3
0 4
0 5
0 6
0 8
0 1
0
%30
4 1
50 2
00 3
00 400 5
00600 8
00 1
000
F
ro
. 9-
12
. R esonant re
s
istance o
fcy
lindr
ica
l stub a
ntenna wi
th ground p
lane asa
f
u
nct
ion o
ft h
el e
ngth-
to-rad
iusr a
t
io (/a
). Curves ar
es h
own forthef i
r
st f
our r
eso
-
n
an
ces
. F o
r cyl
indr
ical cen
ter
-fed a
n
tennas (t
ota
l l
ength 2/
) mul
tip
ly the r
es
ista
nce
b
y2.
(
1
/a > 60) are a
ccording t
o Hal
len's ca
lcu
la ted v
alues
. T he d
a shed pa
rt
o
fthe c
urve
sa reextrapola
tions t
os ma
llervaluesof1/a
. T he e
xtrapola
tion
i
swithout t
heoret
ical bas
is but isprobably not much i n e
rror. Af ew
m
easured va
lues of r
esonant r
es
istance fr
om Dome 's da
ta ' a
re shown as
l
Erik Halen
,"AdmittanceDiag
ramsf o
rA n
tenna
sa nd t
heRelat
ion Be
tween An
tenna
T
heor
ies," C
ruftLabo
ra t
ory Tech
. Rep
. No. 46
, Harvard Un
iv e
rsi
ty, 1
948
.
2Chap. 4byA.Dome," Very H
igh F
requency T
echnique
s," byR adio R
ese
arch L
ab-
o
r
atory Staf
, McGraw-Hil
lB ook Company
, Inc
.,N ew York. 19
47.
2
46 ANTE N N AS Muer
. 9
p
ointsi nFig. 9-12
, the do
tted li
nesi ndicat
ing tow h
ich resonan tresistance
t
he p o
ints corre
spond.
F
igure 9-12 i lu
strates the d
iference i n t
he efec
t o fan tenna thickness
o
n t he re
sistance at o dd and even r e
sonances
. T he re
sistance a t odd
r
esonances ( R„ R., etc
.) isnear
ly i ndependent of the antenna thickne ss
.
The fi
rst r
esonan t r
esis
tance R, isabou t 35 ohms, and the third resonant
2
1= 2
1=27
t
2
T
,=450
w
=50
F
ro. 9
-13
. F ie
ld pa
tterns of c
ylindr
ica
l c
ente
r-fed l
i
nea
r antennas o
f t
ota
l le
ngth 2
1
a
s afunc
tion o
f t
he total l
e
ngth-to-d
iamet
er r
atio (
1
/a) and a
lso a
s afunc
tion o
f t
he
t
o
tal l
ength (
2
1) i
nw aveleng
ths
.
r
esis
tance R. isabout 50 ohm s over al arge range of /a r
atio
s. O n the
o
ther hand, the a
ntenna thickness has al a
rge efect o
n the re
sistance at
e
ven resonances (R
., Ro etc
.). T he t
hicke r t
he antenna
, the s mal
ler the
r
esis
tance. F or e
xample, the se
cond r esonan t re
sis
tance R 2 i
sa bout 200
o
hms w hen 1
/a = 1 0 a
nd i n
creases t
o a bou t 1,
500 ohms at 1/
a = 1 ,
000.
The fourth r
esonant re
sis
tan ce behaves i n as imi
lar fa
shion, the values
b
eing somewha t l
es
s.
SE
C
. 9
41] THE CYLI N D RIC AL AN TE N N A 2
47
The d ife rence i nt he resi

stance b ehav ior a t odd a nd e ven r e
sonance s is
r
e
la ted t o t he c ur rent d i
stribu t
ion . T hu s
, a t o dd r esonance s t he a ntenna
l
eng th 1i sa n o dd n umbe r of iw ave leng th s l ong ( app roxima tely ), a nd a
c
ur ren t max imum a ppea rs at o r n ea r t he i npu t t erm ina ls. A t e ven r e
so-
n
ance s t he a ntenna l ength 1i sa n e ven n umbe r o f Iw aveleng ths l ong
(
app roxima tely ), a nd a c urr en t m inimum a pp ea rs a t o r n ea r t he i nput
t
erm ina l s
. A s i ndica ted b y t he c urren t dist r
ibu t
ion c urve s o f F ig s
. 9 -7
a
nd 9 -8, o ne o ft he mo st n o
ticeab le e fect s ofa n incr ease i na ntenna t hick-
n
es s i st he i ncrea se o f t he c urren t a t c urren t m in ima . T hu s
, w hen a
c
ur ren t m in imum i sa t or n ear t he i nput t erm ina ls a n i n
c rea se i n the
a
nt enna t h
ickne ss r a
ise s the i npu t c urren t I . for ac ons tan t inpu t v o
l tage
Vr s o t hat t he r esonan t res
is tance g iven b y t he r a
tio V7/ /r i sr educed .
9
-10 . P atterns o f C ylindrica l A ntennas . F ormu la s f o
r c alcu la ting t he
f
ar-field p a ttern s o f t h
in l inear a ntenna s w ere d eve loped i n C hap . 5.
A
lthough t hes e r e
la t
ion s a pply s tric t
ly t o infinite s
ima lly t h
in c onduc to rs
,
t
hey p rov ide a f i
rst a pproxima tion t o t he p attern o f e ven a r e
la tively
t
hick c ylindr ica l a ntenna . T h
is i si lust rated b y t he p a tterns i nF ig. 9 -13
f
or c ente r-fed l inea r c yl
indr ica l a n tenna s o f t otal l e
ng th 2 / e qua l t o 4,
1
,1 4, a nd 2w ave leng th s
. T he c alcu la ted p attern s f or i nf
inite s
ima lly t hin
a
nt enna s a r e s hown i n the t op r ow. T hree o ft he se p attern s w e re g iven
p
rev iou sly i n F ig. 5 - 9
. I n t he n ex t t hree r ow s p a
t terns m ea sured b y
Dome ' a re g i ven f o
r 1 /a ratio s o f 4 50 , 5 0, a nd 8 .7. The p r
inc ipa l efect
o
f i nc reased a n
tenna t hickne ss a ppea r s t o b e t ha t s ome o f t he p attern
n
ul l
s a re f i
l
led i n a nd t hat s ome m ino r l obe s a re o blit erated ( note t he
p
a ttern s i nt he t hird c olumn f or 2 / = 1 4 X )
.
9
-11 . T he T hin C ylind r
ica l A ntenna . I ft he a ssump tion i s made t hat
t
he c ylindr ica l a ntenna i si n f
inite sima l
ly t hin ( 0 — *co) , t he c u rren t d i
s-
t
r
ibu tion g iven b y ( 9
-27 ) or ( 9-28) r educe s t o
I _ Ln:s
i
n0(
/ — izi
)
(
9
-34
)
' 60S
/ c
os0
/
A
lthough 2 approache
s i nf
in
ity, the ra
tio V7/f
l may b
e ma
intained c
on-
s
tant b
ya l
so le
tt
ing 1 77 a
pproach inf
in
ity. Accord
ing t
o (
9
-34)
, the s
hape
o
fthe cu
rrent di
str
ibution issinu
so ida
l. Thatis,
I
, = ks
i
n 0
(
1 — IzD (
9
-35
)
w
here k = ac
on s
tant
T
he i
nput impedance Zr i
sthe r
a
tio V./I 7 w
her
e I
. i
sthe c
urren
t a
t
t
he t
erm
inals (
z=0 )
. T hus f
rom (
9-34
)
1Chap
. 4byA
. Dome, "Ve
ry High F
requency T
echn
iques
," byRad
io R
esea
rch L
ab-
o
ratory S
taf
, McGraw
-H i
ll Book Company, I
nc
., New Y
ork, 1
947
.
2
48 ANTEN N AS [
CHAp
. 9
VT
ZT = —
j60
11 c
o
t41 (
9
-36
)
T
I
n ( 9
-36) w e may regard S2a s la
rge b u
t fi
nite
. T he terminal i mpedance
Z
.a cco rding to( 9
-36) is apure reactance X. E qua tion (9-36
) isidentical
t
ot he relation fo
r the input impedance o fan open -ci
r cu
ited loss
lesst rans-
m
ission l ine of l
ength 131 (
see A ppend ix Sect
ion 3 ) provided that 6 0S
/ is
t
aken e qua l to t
he characteris
tic i mpedance o ft he l i
ne. I f
, by a na
logy ,
6
011i staken e qual t
othe a verage cha racte
rist
ic imp edance Zk ( ave.
) oft he
c
enter-fed c y
lindr
ical antenna t hen, from the value o f 12given i
nS ec
. 9-6,
Zk (
ave
.) =6
00 = 1
20 i
n (
9
-37
)
T
his r
ela
tion isoft
he same f
orm asSchelkunof
f's e
xpre
ssion fo
rthe c
har
-
a
c
teris
tic impedance Zk o
f at
h
in bi
conica
la ntenna g
iven by (
8-21)si
nce f
o
r
s
mal
lc one ang
lesO . =a /1sotha
t (8
-21) becomes
2
/
Zk = 1
20 l
n—a (
9
-38
)
w
here a = e
nd r
ad
ius o
fthe c
one a
sshown i
nFig
. 9
-
14.
I
I
I
\i
tt
P. 9-
ia 1
4. B
icon
ica
l a
ntenna o
fend r
ad
ius aa
nd l
e
ngth /
.
T
he ave
rage c
harac
ter
ist
ic i
mpedance o
f ac
ente
r-fed c
y
lind
rica
lan
tenna
a
sgiven bySche
lkunof is
Zk (
ave
.) = 1
20(
ln — 1
) (
9
-39
)
a
SE
C
. 9
-
49
The a ve rage i mpedance o f ac y

lind rical s t ub a ntenna w ith al a
rge g round
p
lane i so ne -ha lf t he v alue o f( 9-39 ).
As 1 /a " ,(
- 0 9-39 ) r educe s t o t he f orm g iven i n ( 9-37 ). Howeve r
, f or
f
i
nite v alue s o f / a t he a ve rage c ha ra cteri stic i mpedance o f ac ylindr ica l
a
ntenna i st he s ame a s f or ab icon ica l a n tenna o f t he s ame l ength 1b ut
w
ith a n e nd r ad iu s aw hich i sl arge r t han t he r ad ius o f t he c ylind r
ica l
c
onduc to r. T his i ss ugge sted i n F ig. 8 -14a . F or e xamp le , ac ylindr ica l
a
ntenna w ith a n / a r atio o f5 00 h a s a n a ve rage c ha racte ris tic i mpedance
e
qua lt ot ha t o f ab i
con ica la n tenna o ft he s ame l eng th w ith a ne nd r adius
2
.8 t ime s l arge rt han t he r adiu s o ft he c yl
ind rica l c onduc to r.
In F ig. 9 -9 t he c a
lcu la ted i npu t i mpedance i sp re sented f o
r c ylind r
ica l
c
ente r-fed a ntenna s w i th t ota l l e ng th -to -diame ter r atio s ( 2//2a = 1/a)o f
6
0 a nd 2 ,000 . T he a ve rage c ha ra cte ris t
ic i mpedance o f t he se a ntenna s
b
y ( 9
-39 ) i s4 54 a nd 8 73 o hm s, r espe ctive ly . T he c urve f or t he 1 /a r at
io
o
f6 0[ Zh ( ave.) =4 54 ] h asa pp rox ima te ly t he s ame f o
rm a st he c alcu lated
i
mpedance s pira l i n F ig. 8 - 12 f or a2 .
7 ° h alf-ang le b icon ica l a ntenna
(
Zh = 4 50 ).
In F ig. 9 -11 t he m ea su red i npu ti mpedance i ss hown f o rc ylindr ica ls tub
a
ntennas w i th / a r atio s o f 2 0 a nd 4 72. T he a ve rage c ha ra cteris t
ic i m-
p
edance o f t hes e a ntennas a s g i ven b y o ne -ha l
f o f ( 9-39 ) i s1 61 a nd 3 50
o
hms , r e
spe c t
ive ly . T he c urve f or 1 /a = 2 0 [ Zh ( ave. ) = 1 61] i so f t he
s
ame g ene ralf orm ( al though d isp laced d ownwa rd) a sw ou ld b ea nt
ic ipa ted
f
rom F ig. 8 -13 s ince as pira l f or Zh ( ave .) = 1 61 s hou ld l ie b etween t hos e
s
hown i nF ig. 8 -13 f or Zh = 1 46 a nd Zh = 1 88.
9-12 . C ylind ricalA ntennas w ith C on ica lI npu t S ec tion s. I ti sc ommon
p
rac tice t o c ons truc t c y
lind rica l a nt enna s w i th s hor t c onica l s ections a t
t
hei npu tt erm ina l sa si ndica ted a tt he b ottom o fF ig.9 - 13. I ft he c yl
inde rs
a
re o f l arge c ro ss s ec tion , t he c on ica l s e
c tion s a r e p articu la rly d esirab le
i
no rde r t o r educe t he s hun t c apa citance a t t he g ap. S ince t he m ea sured
i
mpedance o f a n a ntenna i nclude s t he e fe c t o f the g ap c apa c
itance a nd
t
he s mall b ut f in
ite t erm ina l s, t he m easured i mpedance s w ill dife r mo re
o
r l ess f rom t he t heo r etica l v a
lue s. I t i st o b e e xpec ted t ha t m ea sured
v
alue s w ill a gree b e tt er w i th c a
lcu la ted o ne s w hen e nd c one s a re u s ed
r
athe r t han w hen t he e nd s o ft he c yl
inde r s a r e b utt ed c lo
se t ogethe r.
9
-13 . A ntennas o fO ther S hapes :t he S phero ida lA ntenna . T he s olu t
ion
o
f ab ounda ry -va lue p rob lem m ay b e f a
c i
li ta ted i ft he b ounda ry c an b e
s
pec if
ied b y o ne c oo rd ina te o f a n a pp rop ria te c oo rd ina te s ystem . A
s
phe rica l a ntenna o r o ne i nt he s hape o fa n e longa ted e lip soid o fr evolu-
t
ion ( pro la te s phe roid ) a si nF ig. 9 -15, i s amenab le t os uch t rea tmen ts ince
t
he s urfa ce o f t he s phe roid c o rre spond s t o ap articu la r v a lue o f o ne c o
-
o
rdina te o f as phe roida l c oo rd ina te s y stem . B y v ary ing t he e ccen tricity
o
f t h e e lip so id, o ne may s t udy t he p rope rtie s o f t he s phe re a t t he o ne
2
50 A NTE N N A S [
CRAP
. 9
e
xt
reme ofe
ccentric
ity and of along th
in conduc tora t the o
the re xtreme.
T
his p
rob
lem h as been tr
eated a t l
ength b y S
t ra
tton a nd C hu' a nd by
P
age and A
dam s
.2 S tra
tton a nd C hu give adm ittance a nd i mpedance
curvesfor variou
s l e
ng th-to-d
iame t
er ( LID)
L. r
a t
ios (se
e Fig. 9-15)
. F or l
ong, t h
in e l
ip-
L T h s
oid sthe impedance c haracter
istics are simi
-
l
art othose deduced b yo therm ethod s
. T he
curren
t d i
stribut
ion f or thin 4-wave length
s
phe ro
ids isa l
so found t o be nearly sinusoi
-
Fm. 9-
15. l
'
rola
te s
phe
roida
l da
l.
a
ntenna
. Ap oin
t o fin
teresti st hat f
or sphe roidsof
t
he order of 4-waveleng th long
, t he i mped-
a
nce va
riat
ion with f
r
equency decreaseswith decreasing L ID ra
tios( th
icker
s
phero
ids)
. T ha
t istosay
, r
esonance w ith th
ick s pheroidsi sbroade rt han
w
ith th
in ones
. T his i
sinagreemen t with the w e
ll-known f act tha t th
ick
a
ntennash ave b
roaderband impedance c harac
te r
istics than t
hin o nes.
PROBLE MS
9
-1
. What i sthe i
n
itia
l r
e
lat
ion u
sed in d
evelop
ing HaBen
's integ
ral e
quation?
9
-2. I
ndicate t
he p
rinc
ipa
l s
tep
s requ
ired to a
rr
ive a
t the c
urrent d
ist
ribution
a
nd te
rmina
l i
mpedance o
f ac
y
lindr
ica
l a
ntenna b
y means o
f Ha
lien
's i
nteg
ral
e
qua
tion.
J.A. S
tra
tton and L
.J.Chu
, Steady State SolutionsofE
lect
romagnetic F
ield P
rob
-
l
ems
, J. Appl
ied Phys
., 1
2
, 2
30-248
, Ma rch, 1941.
2 L
. Page a
nd N. I.Adam
s, The E
lectrica
l O sci
llation
sof aPro
late S
pheroid, P
hys
.
R
ev.
, 53
, 819-831
, 1938
.
CHAPTER 1
0
S
ELF AND MUTUAL IMPEDANCES
1
0 -1. I ntrodu ction . T he i mpedance p resen ted b y a n a n tenna t o a
t
ran sm i ss
ion l i
ne c an b e r e pres ented b y at wo -t erminal ne two rk. T his
i
si lu strated i nF ig . 1 0
-1 i nw h
ich t he a ntenna i sr e
-
p
laced b y a n e qu iva lent i mpedance Z c onne cted t o
t
het erm ina ls o ft he t ran smis sion l ine.
' I nd esign ing
at r
an sm it
te r a nd i ts as
so cia ted t ran smi ssion l i
ne , i t A
nte nna
i
sc onven ien t t oc on s
ide r tha t t he a ntenna i ss imp ly
at wo -term ina l i mpedance . T his i mpedance i nto
which t he t ran sm ission l i
ne o pe ra tes i sc a
lled t he
t
erm ina l ord riving -po int i mp edanc e. I ft he a nt enna
i
si so
la ted , t hat i s
, r emo te f rom t he g round o ro the r
o
bje ct s
, a nd i sl ossless
,2 i t
s t erm ina l i mpedance i s T
ransm issior
l
ine
t
he s ame a st he self-imp edanc eo ft he a ntenna . T his
i
mpedance h a s ar e a
l p art c a
lled t he s e
lf- r
esi stan ce
(
radia tion r esistance ) and a n i mag ina ry p art c alled
t
he s e
lf-reac tanc e
. T he s elf-
imp edance i st he s ame
f
or re cep t
ion a sf or t r
an sm ission .
I
n c ase t here a r e n earby o bjec ts
, s ay, s eve ral
o
the r a ntenna s
, t he t erm inal i mpedance c an s t
ill b e E
quiva lent -2(
i
mpedanc e
r
epla ced b y at wo -term ina l n etwo rk. Howeve r, i t
s
Fm. 10-1 . T ransm is-
v
alue i sd ete rm ined n ot only b y t he s e
lf-impedance s i
on line w ith a ntenna
o
f the a ntenna b u t a l
so b y t he mu tual i mpedance s a nd w ith e quiva lent
b
etwe en i ta nd t he o the r a ntenna s a nd t he c ur ren ts i mpedance .
f
l
ow ing i nt hem .
1B ecauseo fthe e fect oft he g ap si
ze a tthe c entero ft he antenna a nd oft he t
ermina l
a
r rangement ,there may b es ome i ndef
ini tene ssa stot he v alue oft he antenna impedance .
Suppo se,forexamp le, tha tt he antenna i mpedance Z i sdefined ast hati mpedance w h
ich
p
laced a tthe a
ntenna t e
rm ina ls ofthe transm iss
ion l ine results int he same impedance a t
t
he l eft-hand end o f the line ( F
ig . 10-1
) a s isa c
tualy m easured. I n general
, th
is i m-
p
edance i s afunction o f t he c haracteristics of t he t ran smiss
ion l i
ne. A lthough t his
efect mu st s
ome t
imes b e cons idered, iti su sually n egligible provided t hat the antenna
g
ap o r terminal s
pa cing i ss mall compa red t o the w ave length ( gap o f t
he order of0.01
wave leng th orle
ss). S ee R. K ing a nd T. W . W int ernitz, T he C ylindrical Antenna with
Gap, Q uart
. Applied 2 1
fath.
, 5 ,403-416 , J anua ry, 1948 .
3 By loss
less ism eant t ha t there i sn o Joule h ea ting a ssociated w ith the antenna .
There may , of c
our se, be r adiation. I ft he a ntenna i sn ot lo
ssless, an equivalent loss
r
esistance a ppears a t t he t erm inals i n series w ith t he s e
lf-resistance or r ad
ia t
ion
r
esistance .
2
51
2
52 ANTE N N AS [
CitAP
. 1
0
I
n C hap . 5a n e xp ression w a s d eve loped f o r the r ad iation r e
sis tance
(
or s e
lf- res istance ) o f t h
in l inea r a ntenna s. I n t he f o
llow ing s ections
t
his a na ly s is i se xtended t o y ield e xp res sions f or b oth t he s e
l f-resis tance
a
nd t he s elf
- rea ctance . I n a ddition , e xp re ssion s a re d eve loped f or t he
mutua lr esi s
tanc ea nd mu tual r eactanc eo ft wo t hin l inea ra nt enna s
. T hese
e
xpr es sion s w ill b e u sed i n C hap . 1 t o f ind t he d riv ing -po in t i mpedance
i
na na r ray o fl inea ra ntenna s. E ven t hough t he i mpedance sa pp ly s trictly
t
oi nfinit esima lly t hin a ntenna s
,t hey a reu se fuli nc onnec tion w i th p rac tical
t
ypes o fc ylindr ica l a ntenna s, p rov ided t ha t the a ntenna sa re t hin .
I
nd eve lop ing t he s ub jec to fa ntenna i mpedance ,a ni mpo rtan ta nd much -
u
sed t heo rem i st ha t o f r ecip roc i
ty. A cco rding ly, t his t op ic i sd iscu ssed
f
i
rst a nd t hen a pplied t ot he i mpedance p rob lem .
1
0 -2. R ecip roc ity T heo rem f orA ntennas . T he R ay leigh -He lmho ltz r ec
i-
p
roc ity t heo r em ' h as b een g enera lized b y C arson ' t o i nclude c on tinuou s
med ia. T his t heo rem a s a pp lied t o a ntenna s may b e s t a
ted a s follow s
:
I
fa ne mf i sa pp lied t ot h
et e
rm ina lso fa na nt enna A a nd t hec u rren tm ea su red
a
tt h
e t e
rm ina ls o fa nothe r a ntenna B , t hen a n e qual c ur ren t ( in b oth a mpli
-
t
ude a nd p has e) w ill b e o b
ta ined a tt he t erm ina l s o fa ntenna A i ft he s ame
emfi sa pp lied t ot he t e
rm ina ls o fa ntenna B . I ti sa s sumed t ha t t he e m
fs
a
reo ft he s ame f r
equen cy a nd t hatt he m ed ium i slinea r, p as sive , a nd a l
so
i
sotrop ic . A ni mpo rtan tc on sequence o ft h
is t heo rem i st he f ac tt hatu nder
t
he se c ond i tion st he t ransm it t
ing a nd r ece iv ing p atte rn s o fa n a ntenna a re
t
he s ame .
As a n i lust ra tion o ft he r ecip ro city t heo rem f or a ntenna s, c on s
ide r the
f
ol
low ing t wo c ases.
Case 1 . L et a n e mf V . b ea pp l
ied t ot he t erm ina l s ofa n tenna A a s in
F
ig. 1 0-2a. T his a n
tenna a c tsa s at r ansm i tting a ntenna , a nd e nergy f l
ows
f
rom i tt o a n tenna B , w hich may b e c on side red a s ar eceiv ing a n tenna ,
p
roduc ing ac ur ren t Ia t it
s t erm ina ls.3 I ti sa ssumed t hat t he g ene rator
s
upp ly ing t he e mf a nd t he amme ter f o
r m ea su ring t he c urren t h ave z e
ro
impedance , ori fn o tz ero, t ha t t he g ene ra to ra nd amme te r i mpedance s a r
e
e
qua l.
ILord Rayleigh , "The Theory o fS ound," The Macm ilan C ompany , N ew Yo rk

,V ol
. 1
(
1877, 1937), p p
. 9 8a nd 150- 157, and Vol. 2( 1878, 1
929), p. 1
45.
IJ.R . Ca r
son , AG eneraliza t
ion ofthe R eciprocal Theorem, B ell Sy
stem T ech
. .1
., 3
,
3
93-399 , July, 1924.
J. R. C arson, R eciprocal Theorem s in Rad io C ommun ication , Proc. I.R.E., 1 7
,
9
52-956 , June, 1 929.
Stua r
t B allantine, R ec
iproc ity in Electromagne t
ic, Mechan ical
, A coustical
, a nd
I
nterconne cted S ystems , Proc
. I .R
.E .
, 17
, 9 29-951 , J
une, 1929.
' A
lthough t he em f V.a nd t he c
urrent It,a
re scalarspace quantities
,t hey ar
e comp lex
o
rv ectorq uan t
ities with respect totime phase. The t e- " phaso r" issome t
ime su s
ed to
d
ist
ingu ish such aq uantity from at rue s
pace v ector
SE
C
. 1
0
.2] SELF AN D MUT UAL IMPED A NCES 2
53
C
a se 2
. I fa n e m
f Vb i sapplied t o the term ina
ls ofa n tenna B, t hen it
a
ct
s a s atransm it
ting a ntenna a nd e nergy f l
ow s f
rom i tt o antenna A a s
i
nFig . 1
0-2b, producing ac urren t I
.a t i
t
s t e
rm inals
.
Now i f Vb = V., then b y t
he r e
cipro c
ity t heorem 1„ = Ib.
The rat
io ofa n e mf to acurren t isa n i mpedance. I n C as
e 1t he rat
io
o
f V. to lbm ay be c a
lled the t r
ansfer i mpedan ce Z. b,and in C ase 2 the
r
a
tio Vb t o I. may b e cal
led t he transfer i mpedance Zb. T hen b y the
r
e
cip roc
ity theorem i tfol
lows t hat the se impedance s a
r ee qual. T hus,
V 7 7 Vb
= z
.
db = = (
10
-1)
lb ° I
.
I
n orde
r top
rove the r
ec
ipro
city t
heorem f
o
rantennas
, l
et the a
ntenna
s
a
nd the spa
ce b
etween them be r
ep
laced b
y ane
two rk o
flinear
, pass
ive
,
E
nergy
f
l
ow
A
ntenna B
A
ntenna A
(
a)
(
a)
E
nergy
f
l
ow
A
ntenna A
(
b
) (
b
)
FI
G. 10-2
. I
l
lustrat
ions f
or r
ec
iproc
ity FI
C. 1
0-3
. E quiva
len t ci
rcui
ts u
sed i
n
t
heorem
, p
roofo
fre
ciproc
ity theorem.
b
i
latera
l imp
edances. Since any f
our-
terminal n
etwork c
an b
e r
educed t
o
a
n equiva
lent Tse c
tion
,' the ant
enna arrangement o
f Case 1 (
s
ee Fig
.
1
0-2a
) can b
e r
eplaced by t
he network o
fF ig
. 10
-3a
.
I
T
hisi
str
ue i
nsof
a
rast
he amp
litude a
nd p
hase o
fthe i
npu
tvo
ltage a
nd o
utput c
ur-
r
ent a
re c
oncerned
.
2
54 AN TE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
0
T
he c
urren
t t
hrough t
he m
ete
ris
Z3
(
10
-2)
= Z
2-
1- Z
2
w
here
V
.
1,- Z
, [
Z
,Z 8/
(Z 2 ± Z3)
]—Z
iZ2
V
.(Z
,
Z2Z
3
Z
,
)
Z
3z, (
10
-3)
I
ntroduc
ing (10
-3) i
n
to (
10
-2) y
ie
lds t
he cur
rent t
hrough t
he m
ete
r i
n
t
e
rm s ofthe e
mf V.a
nd t
he n
etwo
rk i
mpedances
. Thu s
,
V2 3
1
.6— (
10
-4)
Z
,Z 2 Z2
Z
3 Z
3Zi
I
fthe loca
tion
s of t
he e
mf a
nd c
urren
t m
ete
r a
re i
n
ter
changed
, a
s i
n
F
ig
. 10-3b
, we ob
tain
VbZ2
(
10
-5)
Z
,Z 2 Z
2Z3 Z
3Zi
Compa r
ing ( 10-4) a nd ( 10-5), itfol
low s that ifV . = V6 t hen I. = /b,
p
roving th e theor em .
1
0-3. S elf-
impedan ce o f aT h
in L inear A ntenna. I n t h
is s e
ction a n
i
nduced e mf m e
thod ' as u sed b y C ar
ter i sappl
ied t o t
he d eterm ina t
ion o f
t
he se
lf-
impedance o f at h
in l inear antenna.' T he antenna i scen ter
-fed
w
ith the l owe r e nd l ocated a t the o r
igin of the coordinate s as shown i n
F
ig. 10
-4. T he a ntenna i ssituated ina ir or vacuum a nd i sr emo te from
o
ther objects. S ince t he a ntenna i sthin, asinusoidal current d i
stribu t
ion
w
il
l b e assumed w ith t he max imum c urrent /, at the t e
rm inal
s. O nly
l
engths Lw h
ich a re an o dd mu lt
iple of w avelength will b e considered
s
o that the c urren t dis t
ribu tion iss ymme trical
, w i
th a c urren t max imum
a
t the term inals. T he c urren t di
stribution shown i n Fig. 1 0-4 isf or the
c
ase whe re L=X /2. T he c urrent at ad i
stance zf rom the o r
igin i sdesig-
n
ated /,
. T hen ,
I
. =/
,si
nft
z (
10
-6)
'The re
la tion oft his method t ot he o
ne u sed inC hap.5,forthe calculat
ion ofr
adia t
ion
r
e
sistance, isd iscussed i nS ec. 1 0
-10 .
2P
. S. Ca rter, Circuit R elations i n Radia ting Sys
tems a nd A pplicat
ions to Antenna
P
roblem s, P roc. I.R.E .
, 2 0
, 1 004- 1041, J une, 1932.
J
.A haron i, " Antennae ," O xford Un iver s
ity Press
. N ew Y ork, 1946, pp
. 174
, 1 85
.
A
. A . P istolko rs
, The Rad ia t
ion R esistance of B eam A ntennas , Proc
. I.R.E., 17
,
5
62-579, Ma rch, 1929.
R
. B echmann , C alculation o f Electr
ic a nd Magne tic Fie
ld S t
reng ths o
fA ny Oscil
lat
-
i
ng Straight C onductor s, Pro c
. I.R .E., 19, 461-466, Ma rch, 1931.
R. Bechmann , O n the C alculation of Rad ia t
ion R e
sistance ofA ntennas and Antenna
Combina tions , Proc. I.R.E .
, 1 9, 1471-1180 . A u -
li
st 1 031
S
ec. 1
0
.3] SELF AN D M U T U AL IMPE D A N CES 2
55
S
uppose t
hat an emf V1
1 appl
ied t
o the te
rmina
ls of the a
ntenna o
f
F
ig
. 10-4 p
roduce
s acurrent I
,at adi
stance zfr
om the lower e
nd. The
r
at
io o
fV . toI. may b
ed e
signa
ted a
st he t
r
ansfe
r impedance Z
,.
. T hu
s,
Z
, = (
10
-7)
Nex
tl e
tt he a
pplied fi
eld att he a
ntenna and parallel t
oitb e E
,. T his
i
sthe fi
e
ld produced b y the antenna'
s o wn c
urrent
. T hi
s f
ie
ld induces a
f
i
e
ld E„ a tthe c
ondu ctors uch that t
he boundary cond it
ions a
re sa
tisf
ied.
F
or ap er
fect c
onduc tor these are t
hat the t
otal fi
e
ld E „ i
sz e
ro or that
E
., = E , E„ = 0 a nd t here
fore E„ = —E .. T he emf d V, pro-
d
uced by the i
nduced f i
e
ld o ver al eng
th dz
i
s —E, dzor EzI
dV
. = d
z (
10
-8) d
z
I
fthe an
tenna isshort
-ci
rcui
ted th
is emf w
i
ll
p
roduce ac
urrentd I
, atthe t
ermina
ls. Then
t
he t
rans
fer impedance Z.
, i
sgiven by
dV
(
1
0-9
)
."
Z = dI
, 0
F
t°. 1
0 . C
-4 enter
-fed l
i
nea
r
S
ince t
he re
ciproci
ty t heorem (Se
c. 10-2) I
-wave
length a
ntenna
.
h
olds n
ot on
ly fo
rt wo separate a
ntennas but
a
l
so for t
wo points o n t
he s ame antenna, itfo
llows t
hat t
he t
ran
sfe
r
i
mpedancesof(10-7) and (10
-9) a
ree qua
l. T here
fore
,
V dV —E dz
—ji
4.
= ZI
' = Z —
d
I,
—
d
I,
( )
a
nd
V„ d
I
, = —I
.E,d
z (
10
-11
)
T
he t
erm
inal i
mpedance Z„ o
fthe a
ntenna i
sgi
ven b
y t
he r
a
tio o
f VI,
t
othe t
o
tal t
e
rminal c
urren
tI . Thus
,
V
Z
, = (
10
-12
)
/1
The impedance Zu i
s acon
s tant and isi
ndependen t o
fthe cur
rent ampl
i-
t
ude. T his fo
l
lows from the fact tha
t the s
ys tem isli
near
. T he
refo
re,
Z1,can al
so be e
xpres
sed as the ra
tio ofan in
finite
simal e
mf di'1 at t
he
t
erminals t
oa n i
nf
in
itesima
l c ur
rentd I
, atthe t e
rmina
ls, o
r
= V dV
(
10
-13
)
I I
, d
I
,
2
56 ANTE N N AS I
CHAP
. 1
0
f
r
om w
hich
V1 d
1 1 = I dV
ir (
10
-14
)
S
ubs
titu
ting (
10
-14
) i
n
to (
10
-11
),
dV = -E d
z (
10
-15
)
I
nteg
rat
ing (
10
-15
) o
vert
he l
e
ngth o
fthe a
ntenna
, w
e o
bta
in
Vi = —T f I.E
.dz (
10
-16
)
Li 0
whe
re V,, i
sthe em
f which mus
t be a
ppl
ied at t
he term
inals t
o produce
t
he cur
rent I
,at t
he t
e
rm ina
ls. The t
e
rm ina
l impedance Zi,i
sthen
1
Zi,= = f I.E
. d
z (
10
-17
)
0
S
ince the an
tenna i sis
olated
, t h
is impedance iscaled t
he se
lfimpedance
.
I
n (10-17) E
. isthe zcomponen t ofthe el
ectr
ic fi
eld a
tthe an
tenna cau
sed
b
y it
s o wn current
. I tw i
ll be conven
ient to ind
icate e
xpl
icit
ly t
his t
ype
o
ff i
e
ld b y the symbol E1,in p l
ace ofE.. I ntroduc
ing al
so the va
lue I
.
f
rom ( 10
-6) in
to (10-
17), we obtain f
orthe se
lf-
impedance
1
Z u = El,s
i
nft
zdz (
10
-18
)
L
I 0
To evaluate ( 1
0 -18)
, itisf i
r
s t neces
sary to der
ive a n expre
ssion for the
f
i
e
ld E1,a l
ong t he a ntenna produced b y it
s o wn current. S ubstitut
ing
t
h
i s into ( 10-18) a nd i n
tegrat
ing, i ti sposs
ible to o bta
in a n express
ion
w
h ich c an b e evaluated n umerically. T he st
ep s i
nt his deve
lopmen t are
g
iven i nt he folow ing paragraph s
.
I
fe xpressions c an b e wr
itten f or the r
etarded scalar potentia
l Vd ue
t
o c ha
rge s on t he antenna a nd for the r
etarded vec
to r potent
ial Ad ue to
c
ur ren
t s o n the a ntenna, then t he el
ectr
ic fie
ld everywhe re isd er
ivab le
f
r
om t he r e
lation
E = —V V — j
c
0A (
10
-19
)
Mo
re p
art
icu
lar
ly t
he zc
omponen
t o
f Ei
sgi
ven b
y
a
v .
E
. = -a
- —)
z 44, (
10
-20
)
R
efe
rring to F
ig. 1
0-5
, le
t the ant
enna b
e c
oinc
iden
t wi
th the z a
x
is.
Ap
oin
t on the an
tenna isdes
ignated z
,
. Ap o
int Pinspace i
sgi
ven in
SE
C
. 1
0
-3] SELF AN D M U T U A L IMPE D A NCES 2
57
c
y
lindrica
l c
oord
inate
s by p
,4, z
. Othe
r d
i
stances a
re a
s s
hown
. O nly
l
e
ngths L wh
ich ar
e an o
dd mul
tip
le o
f wavelength w
i
ll b
e c
ons
ide
red.
T
hus,
w
here n= 1
,3, 5 •••
T
he s
ca
larpot
ent
ial Va
tany p
o
int i
sgi
ven b
y
1
V= (
10
-21
)
4
7e0
w
he re pi
sthe vo
lume charge d
ensi
ty,
rthe di
stance from the cha
rge ele
-
m
en ttot he p
oint
,a nd d
ri savo
lume
e
l
emen t. F rom F ig
. 10-5
r VP
2 z
1
)2
I
n t
he c
ase o
f athin w
ire o
fle
ngth
L
, (
10
-21
) reduce
s to
v 4
,
-
€
0 0
=
6
r
1
2
, (
10
-22
)
w
here pi,= the l
i
nearcharge d
ens
ity
o
n the w
ire
T
he v ecto
r p ot
entia
l A a t any
p
oin
t isgiven by
A= Ur/ (
10
-23
) 1
0-5
. R
ela
tion o
f c
oord
ina
tes t
o
4
7 J
JJ r
a
n
tenna
.
w
here J = t
he c
urren
t dens
ity
I
n t
he c
ase o
f ath
in wire (
10-23
) r
educe
s t
o
A =-
A
.
1
4
2
1
4
7
L
r
a
z (
1
0-24
)
w
here /
,
, = t
he c
urrent o
n t
he w
ire
B
y t
he c
ont
inu
ity re
lat
ion b
etween c
urren
tand l
i
nea
rcha
rge d
ens
ity
A
y
, = — r
Ja
z
,
d
i (
10
-25
)
T
he cur
rent on t
he a
ntenna isa
s
sumed toh ave as
inusoidal d
i
str
ibu
tion
a
s gi
ven b y (
10-6
). Introduc
ing the r
e
tarded time f
actor, we h
ave fo
r
t
he r
eta
rded cur
rent
I„ = I
,si
n 0
z
, e
"(' -i
,
) (
1
0-26
)
2
58 ANTE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
0
S
ubst
ituting (
10
-26) i
nto (
10
-25) a
nd p
erfo
rming t
he i
nd
ica
ted o
pera
tion
s,
t
he r
eta
rded li
near c
harge d
ens
ity i
s
PL = c
osf
i
z
, e
"(`-
1) (
10
-27
)
I
ntroduc
ing (10
-27) i
n
to (
10
-22
) a
nd n
oting t
hatf
t
/
co = 1
/c
, t
he r
e
tarded
s
ca
lar poten
tia
l is
g st*
i f L cos s
z
, e-
or
4
re
oc Jo c
l
zi (
10
-28
)
L
ikewis
e, in
troducing (1
0-26
) i
n
to (
10
-24
), t
he z c
omponen
t o
f t
he r
e
-
t
arded v
ecto
r potentia
l i
s
A
. p
or
ie"" fL s
i
n f
i
z
, e
-
is r
d
zi (
10
-29
)
4
r
B
yde Mo
ivre
's t
heo
rem
c
ost
i
t
z
, = i
(
e e
-0 "
i ) (
10
-30
1
a
nd
1 - (
10
-31
,
s
i
n (
e
'0" —
Mak
ing t
hese s
ubs
titu
tion
s i
n (
10
-28
) a
nd (
10
-29
)
v rt
. eo
(
"_
.)
8
re oc J 0 r
d
z
i (
10
-32
)
a
nd
A
. e "'
d
z
, (
1
0-33
)
S
r .
0
Equat
ions ( 10
-32) and (10-33
) give t he re
tarded sca
lar and v ecto
r
p
otentia
ls caused by c
urren
t o n t
he an
tenna w i
th the a
ssumed sinusoida
l
d
is
tribut
ion. S ubs
titu
ting these equations into (1
0-20
) y i
elds an e x
-
p
ress
ion fo
rt he zcomponent ofthe e
lectric f
i
e
ld everywhere
. T hus,
E
. = — 7
,e
l" r a[e-
3
8( "
+') e
ic"-
')] d
z
,
8
reoc J
. a
s
j .4 rL [ e -18(•.+,) _
w
i
zei
d
zi (
10
-34
)
8
r
E
, — j
I
,e'" ( e-'
s" e-
° "
i ) (
10
-35
)
4re oc r
2
w
here
= v p2 z5 (
10
-36
)
S
ec
. 1
0
-3] SELF AN D MUT U AL IMPE D A NCES 2
59
a
nd
= V p2 (
L —z
)2 (
10
-37
)
T
he f
ac
tor 1
/4
ireoc 120w/47 = 3
0
. Also p
utt
ing t
he t
ime f
a
cto
requa
lto
i
t
sabso
lute v
alue e
'" = 1
,and Eq
. (
10
-35
) become
s
e-
ø "
i )
E
. = (
10
-38
)
r
, Ta
A
tthe a
ntenna (
10
-36
) a
nd (
10
-37
) b
ecome
T
i = z (
10
-39
)
a
nd
r
2= L— z (
10
-40
)
S
ubst
itu
ting t
hese i
n
to (
10-38
) yi
eld
s the v
a
lue o
ft he zc
omponen
t o
fthe
e
'
ect
ric f
i
eld El a
tthe a
ntenna d
ue toit
s o
wn c
urrent
. T hu
s,
e-
o(L-
.)
E„ = —
j301
,[ — (
10
-41
)
L—z
I
ntroducing (
10-41
) i
nto (
10
-18
) we ob
tain the s
e
lf-
impedance Zi,o
f a
t
h
in linearant
enna an o
dd n
umber o
f w ave
length
s long
. Hence
,
L e-
i
e. e-
,
s(L
--
.)
Zu = j
30 f —z -I
- s
i
n (
3
zdz (
10
-42
)
0
A
pply
ing d
e Mo
ivre
's t
heo
rem t
osi
n O
z
Z
„ = —15
i
Lre
-2
0
. —1 e
-o
L
(e
ns
• —1
)1 dz
(
10
-43
)
L z j
F
or L= n X/2 whe
re n = 1
,3,5
,. e-
1 " = e1 = —1
, s
o t
hat E
q.
(
10-43
) b
ecomes
e_
t ;
2
0
. _1 e i
2Os 1\
—15 (
10
-44
)
J
o z —z dz
Zil = fL
or
e 120s d
- z ± 1
5 z
._e,
r 2
0
.
Z
„ = 1
5 d
z (
10
-45
)
Jo z j0 L—z
I
n t
he f
i
rs
t i
n
teg
ral l
e
t
u 2
f
lz o
r d
u =2
t1d
z
T
he upper l
im
it z= L b
ecomes u= 2f
3L = 2
rn, w
hile t
he l
owe
rlim
it i
s
u
nchanged
. T he f
i
rs
t i
n
tegra
l t
hen t
r
ansfo
rms t
o
2
wr.
1
5 .1
: e-" d
u (
1046
)
2
60 AN TE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
0
I
n t
he s
e
cond i
n
teg
ral l
e
t
v= 2
1
3(L — z
) o
r d
v = —20 d
z
T
he upper lim
it be
comes ze
ro whi
le t
he l
owe
r l
im
it b
ecome
s 2
rn. T
he
s
e
cond in
tegral t
hen t
r
ansfo
rms to
—
15 1 0 1 _e
i
(2.
.-.
) d
v — 1
5 fo 2rs 1 d
v
(
10
-47
)
2r. V
Equat
ions (
10-46
) a nd (1
0-47) are d
ef
ini
te in
tegrals of i
d
en t
ical f
orm
.
S
ince t
he
ir l
im
itsa r
et he s
ame, t
hey a
reequal
. T herefo
re (
10-45) b
ecome
s
Z1 = 3
0 f 1 u d
u (
10
-48
)
0
I
fwen
ow p
ut w =j
u
, (
10
-48
) t
r
ans
form
s t
o
r1
i
2rn
= 3
0 d
w (
10
-49
)
J
o
The in
teg
ral i
n (
10-
49) i
san exponen
tia
l in
teg
ral w
ith i
mag
ina
ry a
rgu
-
ment
. I tisd
es
igna
ted by E
in (
iv
). Thus
,
E
in (
j
y) = f 1
- d
w (
10
-50
)
I
n o
ur ca
se y = 2rn
. This i
n
tegral c
an b
e e
xpres
sed i
nte
rms o
fthe s
i
ne
a
nd c
os
ine i
nteg
rals d
is
cus
sed i
nS ec
. 5
-6. Thus
,
Em (
iv
) = Cm (
y
) jS
i (
y
) (
10
-51
)
o
r
E
in (
jy
) = 0
.
577 i
n y— C
i (
y
) jS
i (
y
) (
10
-52
)
Hence
, t
he s
e
lf-
impedance i
s
= R 1,+ j
2Ci = 3
0 [
CM (
2
7rn
) jS
i (
27n
)] (
10
-53
)
o
r
=3
0[0
.577 l
n (
2rn
) — C
i (
2rn
) jS
i (
2rn
)] o
hms (
10-5
4
)
The s
e
lf-
res
istance i
s
R„ = 3
0Cin (
27n
) =3
0[0
.577 i
n(2rn
) —C
i (
2r0
] o
hms (
10
-55
)
a
nd t
he s
e
lf-
rea
ctance i
s
X1 = 3
0 S
i (
27n
) o
hms (
10
-56
)
ISee f
o
rexample, S
.A. S
che
lkunof
, "Appl
ied Mathemat
ics f
or E
ngine
ers a
nd S
c
ien
-
t
i
sts
," D. Van Nost
rand Company
, I
nc.
, New York
, 1948
, p.377
.
SE
C
. 1
0
-3] SELF AN D M U T U AL IMPE D A N CES 2
61
These equations g
ive the impedance va
lue s f
or at h
in li
near c
enter-
fed
a
ntenna t hat isan o
dd n umbe r (n
) of Iw avelengths lo
ng. T he cur
ren t
d
i
stribu t
ion isassumed to be si
nusoida
l (F
ig. 10-6)
. T he v
aluesare t
ho se
a
ppearing a t t
he t
erminals a
t the c
enter o
ft he antenna
.
I
n t he case o
f a4-waveleng
th antenna a
s s hown in Fig
. 10-6a
, n = 1 ,
a
nd w eh ave for t
he s
el
f-res
istance and s
e
lf-reactance
R
., =3
0 Cm (
27
) (
10
-57
)
a
nd
X1 = 3
0Si (
27
) (
10
-58
)
The va
lue o
f( 1
0-57 ) isident
icalwith
t
hat given f
or the r ad
iation re
sis
t-
a
nce of a4-wave leng th antenna
, in
S
ec. 5-6
, E q
. ( 5
- 109). E valua
ting (
a
) (
b
)
(
10-57) and (10-58 )
, s ee Appendix FIG
. 1 0-6. One-ha
lf a
nd t
hree
-ha
lve
s
S
ection 19
, w e o btain for the s
el
f- wavelength a
ntenna
s.
i
mpedance
Z
„ = R
,, ± jX
,, = 7
3 +j
42
.5 o
hms (
10
-59
)
S
ince X I i
sno
tz ero
,a nantenna a
ne xact iw ave
leng th l
ong i
snotr e
sonan t
.
Toobta
in ar e
sonan tantenna
, i
tiscommon p ract
ice toshorten the a
ntenna
afew p
er cent to make X,i = 0
. I n thi
s case the se
lf-
res
istance issome -
whatle
ss than 73 ohms
.
Fo
r aI -wave
length a
ntenna a
s shown i nFig. 10-6b
, n= 3 ,a nd the se
lf-
i
mpedance is
,1 = 3
Z 0 [
Cm n(67) -I
- jSi (67)
]
o
r
Z„ = 105
.5 + j 45
.5 o hms (
10-60
)
I
ti sinterest
ing t hat the se
lf-reac tance ofcenter-fed a n
tenna s, an e xact
o
dd numbe ro f iw ave
leng thsl o
ng, i salway spos
itive since the sine integral
S
i (
27n) i salway sp os
itive. F orl arge nt he s
ine int
eg ral converge sa round
avalue of 7 /2 ( s
ee Fig. 5-11) w hich c or
responds t o ar eactance o f 47.1
o
hm s
. I t should b e n oted that f or a n
tenna l engths n ot a n exa ct o dd
n
umbe r o f iw avelengths the re a
c tance may b e p o
sitive o r negative a s
i
lus
trated f or examp le b y Fig
. 9 -9. Howeve r
, the f oregoing a nalysis of
t
h
is s e
ction i sl im
ited t o antenna s t hat are an exa ct o dd n umbe r o f i
w
aveleng thsl ong.
F
o r la
rge n ,t he se
lf-
resis
tance e xpress
ion (10-55) a pproa ches the v alue
R
,
, -
=30
[0.577 + l
n (
2rn
)] (
10
-61
)
s
i
nce Ci (
27n) app
roache
s z ero
. T hus
, the s
e
lf-
resis
tance cont
inue
s t
o
i
n
crea
se i
ndef
ini
tely w
ith i
ncreas
ing n b
ut a
t al
ogari
thm ic r
a
te.
2
62 AN TEN N AS [
CHAP
. 1
0
The more gene

ral si
tua tion
, w he
re the a
ntenna l
e
ngth L isnotrestr
icted
t
o an odd numbe r of 4w avelengths
, has a
lso b
een t
rea
ted.
' T he antenna
i
scente
r -
fed
, a nd the current di
str
ibution isa
ssumed to b
e si
nusoidal (s
ee
F
ig
. 5-7
). T he s
elf
- re
sistance for t
his c
ase i
s
=3
0[(1 — c
ot
' f
t-) C
hi 2
/
3L 4c
oe C
in
-
I
- 2c
ot —
2 (
S
i 2L — 2S
iOL
)] o
hms (
10
-62
)
When t
he l
e
ngth L i
ssma
ll
, (
10
-62
) r
educe
s v
ery n
ear
ly t
o
R
,, = 5
(
13L
)1 o
hms (
10
-63
)
F
orthe s pe
cia
l ca
se ofL= n X/2
, whe re n = 1,3, 5...,(10
-62) reduces
t
o t
he r
elation g
iven prev
ious
ly by (
10-55 )
.
T
he a bove discu
ssion of t
hi
s sec
tion a pp
lies to ba
lanced c enter-
fed
7 a
n
t
i
nf
tenna
enna o
in i
te
s
. F
fh
,pe
e
rf
o
igh
e
c
r at
t 1p
t
e
h
in l
rp
ly c
inea
end
onduc
rs
icu
t
la
tub a
rt
ing g
oa
n
n
round
-
p
lane a s in Fig
. 1 0
-7a, t he s e
lf-
G
round 1 i
mpedance i sone-hal
f that for the
p
lane \ c
orre
sponding b a
lanced t ype ( F
ig.
1
0-7b
). T he gene
ralf o
rmu la (
10-62)
(
a
) f
or s
elf
-re
sistance can be converted
f
or astub antenna above a ground
p
lane bychanging the f
ac
to r30to1 5
(
6
)± a
nd mak
The f
o
ing t
rmula
he s
s (
ub
10
st
-55
i
tu
) a
t
ion L = 2
nd (10
-56
/
.
)
F
in. 1
0-7
. S
tub a
ntenna o
fle
ngth 1a
t(a
) c
an b
e conver
ted fo
r as tub a
ntenna
a
nd c
enter
-fed a
ntenna o
fle
ngth L a
t (
b
). w
ith ground pl
ane w he
re the an-
t
enna i
sano dd number nof w ave-
l
eng
ths l
ong b
y c
hang
ing t
he f
ac
tor30 to 15
. T hus
,f o
r aI-wave
length an-
t
enna p
erpend
icu
lar t
o a
n in
fin
ite p
erf
ectly c
onducting g
round p
lane, the
s
e
lf-
impedance i
s
= 3
6
.5 + j
21 o
hms
1
0-4. Mutua
lI mpedance o
f Two P a
ra l
lelLinearA n
tennas. T he mutual
i
mpedance of two coupled cir
cui
ts i s def
ined in ci
rcu
it-theo
ry a s the
n
egat
ive of t
he ra
tio of t
he emf 1 1 i
72 nduced inci
rcu
it 2t o t
he current II
f
l
owing i
nc i
rcui
t 1w ith ci
rcu
it 2open. C on
side
rf o
re xample the coup
led
1G
. H. B rown a nd R . King, High Frequency Mode
ls in A n
tenna Inves
tigat
ions
,
P
roc
. 1.R.E.
, 22, 457-480, Apri
l, 1
934.
J
.t abus, Recherische Ermitt
lung der Impedanz v
on Antennen, Ho
chf
requenz
techn
ik
a
nd El
ectrookuxt
ik. 1 7
, January
, 1933.
S
ec
. 1
04] SELF AN D MUT U AL IMPE D A N CES 2
63
c
i
rcu
it of F
ig
. 10
-8 con
sis
ting of the p
rimary and s
e
conda
ry c
o
ils o
f a
t
r
ansfo
rmer
. T he mu
tual impedance Z2,i
sthen
V2
1
Z2
1 (
10
-64
)
/1
whe re V2 1 ist he e mf i nduced a cross the terminal
s o f the o pen -circuited
s
econda ry b y t he curren t /,i n the prima ry
. T he mu tua l i mpedance , so
d
efined ,i sn ott he same a s atransferi mpedance
s
uch a s discussed i n conne ction w i
th t he rec
i-
p
ro city t heorem i n S ec. 10-2. I n gene ra
l, a
t
ran sfer imp edanc e ist he ra t
io of a n e mf i m
-
p
ress ed ino ne circuitt ot he resu
lting c urrentin
a
no the r with all circuits closed. F or example, Pri
. S
ec.
i
ft he g enerator i n Fig. 8i sr emoved f rom t he F la. 10-8. C oupled circuit
p
rima ry a nd i s connect ed t o the s econda ry o r tr
ansform e
r.
t
erm inals,t he ratio oft he emf Va ppli
ed b yt h
is
g
ene rato r to the cur rent Ii nt he closed prima ry c
ir
cu it i s at rans f
e r im-
p
edance Zr. T hus
(
10
-65
)
T
his impedance i
sno he s
t t ame a s the mutual i mpedance Z2 1 g
i ven in
(
10
-64
) .
I
nstead ofthe c oupled ci
rcuit of F
ig. 10-8
,
l
e
tu sc ons
idern ow t he c
ase o
ft wo coupled an-
l
z t
enna
acur
s 1a
ren
nd 2a
t II i
na
sshown i
nt
nF
enna 1i
ig. 1
nduce
0
-9. S
s an e
uppo
m
s
f V2
e
I
t
EzmEe a
t t
he open t
ermi nal
s o
f an
t enna 2
. Then t
he
r
at
io o f — V21 to IIisthe mu tua
l i mpedance
Z21
. T hus,
Z2 — (
10
-66
)
I
fthe gene rator is moved to t
he terminals
o
fantenna 2 ,t hen by reciproc
ity the mutual
i
mpedance Z1 2 or r
atio of — V12 to /
2 i
st he
s
ame as before, w he
re V1 2 i
sthe emf i
nduced
Fm. 10-9
. P
ara
lle
l c
oup
led
a
ntennas
. a
ttheo pen term inalsofa ntenna 1b yt
he cur-
r
ent /2 i
na n
tenna 2 . T hus,
— V2
1 z
2
1 z — V1
2
(
10
-67
)
i
a
1
,
T
o calcu
late t
he mu
tual i
mpedance
, w e n
eed t
o k
now V2
1 a
nd /1. L
et
t
he ant
ennas be i
nthe zd
ire
ction a
s shown inF
ig
. 10-9
. The e
mf —V,,
2
64 ANTEN NAS [
CHAP
. 1
0
i
nduced in an a
ntenna b y i
t
s own curren
t isind
icat
ed by (1
0-16)
. T o
o
btain the emf V21 i
nduced a
t t
he o pen t
erm
inals o
f a
ntenna 2 by the
c
urrent i
nantenna 1,wesetE. = E2
1 ,V1 = V21,a
nd 1 = 12 i
n(10-16
).
Then,
V2 =
,
r E2
1Cig (
10
-68
)
1 /
2 JO
where 12 i
sthe maximum c ur
ren t and I
. t
he value at adi
stance zfr
om
t
he lower end of a
ntenna 2 with it
s te
rminal
s c l
osed, and where E2
1 i
s
t
he elec
tric f
i
eld a
long ant
enna 2 produced by the cur
rent in a
ntenna 1
.
As
sum ing tha
t th
is c
urrent d
istr
ibution i
ssi
nusoidal asgi
ven by
I
. =I
,si
n13
z (
10
-69
)
s
otha
t (
1
0-68
) b
ecome
s
V2
1 = f E2 Si n I
3
Zdz (
10
-70
)
0
t
hen
7
2
4 —II
V
21 f E
21 s
i
nPz (
10-71
)
/
1 o
Th
is ist he g eneral exp ress
ion f o
r the mu tual impedance o f two t hin
l
i
near
, p aral
lel, center-fed a ntenna s w i
th s inusoidal cur
ren t di
str
ibu t
ion .
We wil
l c onsider fir
st t he s i
tuation w here b o
th a ntenna s are t
he same
l
eng
th L,w here L i sa n o dd numbe r o f w avelengths long (L = n X/2;
n= 1 ,3,5 , ... )
. Ac ase o f particular interest isw here both antenna s
a
re waveleng th long ( n = 1 )
. T he r e
lat
ive p os
itions of the antenna s
may be d
ivided i nto th
ree s i
tuat
ion s
: side by side
, col
linear ore nd toe nd,
a
nd staggered o r in eche lon. T hese arrangemen ts ar
e i l
ustrated in Fig.
T
I L
T
I
L 1
I ,
1 17
-
1
._
d
_
,
..I
I /
T
ri
L
f.—
h L
i
d
---
.1
S,c
l
e-by-s
ide I I
I 1 I
C
ol
linear S
tagge
red o
r i
n e
che
lon
'
e
l) (
1
0
)
Fm
. 1
0
-10
. T
hree a
r
rang
ement
soft
wo p
ara
lle
l a
ntenna
s.
Sr
.
c
. 1
0
-5] SELF AN D M UT U AL IMPE D A NCES 2
65
1
0-10. Mu tual-
impedance e xp
ress
ion sfo
rt he t
hree a
rrangementsa
reg iven
i
nt he fo
llowing section s
.
1
0 -5
. Mu tualI mpedan ce ofParal
lelA ntennas Side by S
ide: L e
t db e
s
eparation of the an tenna s
. R efe
rring to the a
rrangement ofFig
. 10-10a
a
nd F ig
. 10-11, the f i
eld E2,along antenna 2
p
roduced b y the c ur rent I i n a
ntenna 1 i s
g
iven b y (
10-38) w he re
r
,= s
,
/d 2 z2 (
10
-72
)
a
nd
r
2 = Vd 2 (
L —z
)2 (
10
-73
)
S
ubst
itut
ing th
is in
to (
10
-71
), t
he mu
tua
l
i
mpedance b
ecome
s
L [ e-
10•47
.7
47
Z21 = .
10 v c - r-
v z-
-i
c
l
=p - -
s1\
A
ntenna I A
ntenna 2
e i r Vd•+(L- 0. FI
G. 10
-11
. P ara
lle
l coupled
d2 (
L —
z
)
2 s
i
nfi
zdz (
10-74
) a
ntennas wi
th d
imensions
.
C
arte
rha
sshown t
hatu
pon i
n
teg
rat
ion o
f(1
0-74
)
Z2,= 3
0{2 E
i (
—ji
3d) —E
i [
—0(
. 0
12 -
I
- L2 + L
J
—E -
i [0( 0
2+ L 2 — L
)
]} o
hms (
10
-75
)
w
here t
he e
xponen
tia
l i
n
teg
ral
E
i (
±jy
) =C
i (
y
) ± jS
i(y
) (
1
0-76
)
T
hus
, t
he mu
tua
l r
e
sis
tance i
s
,
R2,= 3
0{2 C
i (
$M
) —C
i b
9
( Vd2 ± L2 ±
—C
i [
$
( Vd 2 1
.2 — L
)
]} o
hms (
10
-77
)
a
nd t
he mu
tua
l r
ea
ctance i
s
X2,= —30
{2 S
i(f
l
M) —S
i [
1
3
( 0 2 ± L2 ±
—S
i D
3
( ± L2 — L
)
]} o
hms (
10
-78
)
w
here
R 2I i X21 = Z2I = ZI
2= RI2 (
10
-79
)
A number of mutua
l-
impedance chart
s a
re p
res
ented by F
. E
. Terman, "Rad
io
E
ngineer
s' Handbook," McG
raw-H i
ll Book C
ompany
, Inc
., New Y
ork
, 1943
, S
ec
. 1 .
2
66 AN TE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
0
T
he mu
tual r
es
istance a
nd r
e
actance c
a
lcu
lated b
y (1
0-77) a
nd (
1
0-78)
f
o
r the c
ase o
f i
-waveleng
th a
ntennas (
L = X/2) a
re pre
sent
ed b
y the
8
0
7
0
TI IT D
60 \ . - L=
--- b ip
oo
A
41 .
.
.--ID-=73
2
5
0
_
L
F.d
1
_
4
0 .
.
1 •
3
0 A
2
0
.
...
.
,
. .
•'
I ' 2
1
1
0
g X2
I 4
0
8 _
,
.
.
.•
•••'4 1
1
0
R2
1
-20 . .
• •
.
.. •
4
-30 .
\
-40 •
••
••7
.
5
0
02 X 04 X 06 X 08X 1O
X 12X 14X I6X 18X 2O
X
Di
s
tance d b
etween a
ntennas
Fm. 10
-12
. C urveso f mutualres
istance (R21 )a
nd reactance (X21 )o
ft wo pa
ral
lelside-
b
y-side l
i
near i-wavelength antennas as af unction of d
istance between them. S olid
c
urves ar
e for i nf
in
itesimal
ly t h
in a ntennas as c a
lculated fr
om C arter
's formu
la s
.
Dashed a
nd dotted curves b
etween 0a nd 1.
0 Xs pacing a
re fr
om T ai's d
ata f
ora n
tenna s
w
ith LID rat
ioso f 1,000 and 73 re
spec t
ively.
s
o
lid curves inF ig. 10-12 as af unction o ft he s pacing d . T he mu tua l re
-
s
i
stance R2 1 i
sa lso li
sted i nT able 10-1
.
An integral-equa t
ion m ethod f or the c alcula tion o f t he mu tual i m-
p
edance o f li
nea r a ntenna s h as been p resented b y K ing a nd Ha rrison'
a
nd b y T a
i.' T he m ethod i sr e
lated t o tha t d i
s cussed i n C hap. 9 . I n
t
h
i s method t he d iame ter oft he antenna c onduc to r is afa ctor
. B y w ay
o
f compa ri
son, c urves f o
r the mu tua l res
istance a nd r ea
ctance g iven b y
T
aia realso shown i nF ig. 1
0-12. T he dashed c u rve saref or at otall ength-
t
o-diameter ra tio ( LID ) of 1 ,000 ( very t hin a ntenna ) a nd t he d otted
c
urve sfo
r ar atio o f7 3
.
I
n T able 1 0-1 t he q uantity Ri, — R ., w hich i si mportan t in a rray
c
a
lcu la
tions, isa lso tabulated. When d i ss mall
, i th as b een s hown b y
B
rown ' thatt hisq uantity isgiven a pproxima tely b y the simp le re
la t
ion
R
.K ing a
nd C.W. Ha r
rison,Jr
., "Mutualand S
el
fI mpedance f
orCoupled A
ntenna
s,"
J
. Appl
ied Phys
., 1
5, 48
1-495 , J
une, 1944
.
'
C. T. Ta
i, Coup
led A n
tennas, Proc
. I.R.E
., 3
6, 487-500, Apr
il
, 1948
.
3G
. H. Brown, p
rivate commun icat
ion tothe a
uthor, June 16
, 1938
.
SE
C
. 1
0
-5] SELF AN D M U T U AL IMPE D A N CES 2
67
- R2,= 6
0
1r2(0 2 = 5
92.2( 0 2 o
hms (
10
-80
)
w
here X = t
he f
r
ee-space w
ave
length
T
his r
e
lat
ion isaccurate t
o w
ith
in 1per c
ent w
hen d < 0
.
05 X a
nd t
o
w
ith
in a
bout 5perc en
t when d < 0
.
1 X
.
TABLE 1
0-1
M UTUAL RESISTANCE VS
. SPACING FOR THIN CENTER
-FED S
IDE
-BY
-
S
IDE i
- WAVELENGTH ANTENNAS (
f
iL = 1
80°
), WITH S
I NUSOIDAL
CURRENT DISTRIBUTION
Mutual Se
l
f m
inus
Sp
acing d r
es
istance mutua
l r
e
sistance
R2
1 ,o
hm s (
Ri
i - R2
1), ohms
0
.00 7
3.13 0
.00
0
.01 7
3.07 0
.06
0
.05 7
1.65 1
.48
0
.10 6
7.5 5
.63
0
.125 6
4.4 8
.7
0
.15 6
0.6 1
2.5
0
.20 5
1.6 2
1.5
0
.25 4
0.9 3
2.2
0
.3 2
9.4 4
3.7
0
.4 + 6
.3 6
6.8
0
.5 -12
.7 8
5.8
0
.6 -23
.4 9
6.5
0
.7 -24
.8 9
7.9
0
.8 -18
.6 9
1.7
0
.9 - 7.2 8
0.3
1
.0 + 3
.8 6
9.3
1
.1 +12
.1 6
1.0
1
.2 +15
.8 5
7.3
1
.3 +12
.4 6
0.7
1
.4 + 5.8 6
7.3
1
.5 - 2
.4 7
5.5
1
.6 - 8
.3 8
1.4
1
.7 -10
.7 8
3.8
1
.8 - 9
.4 8
2.5
1
.9 - 4
.8 7
7.9
2
.0 + 1.1 7
2.0
I
n the mo
re gene
ral s
i
tua
tion whe
re the a
ntenna l
eng
th L isno
t re
-
s
t
ricted t
o an o
dd number o
f w
aveleng
ths
, the mu
tual r
e
sis
tance a
nd
2
68 AN TE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
0
r
e
actance a
re g
iven b
y B
rown a
nd K
ing
' a
s
1
R2
1 = 3
0si
n 2
•(L/2
) {
2(2 + c
osi
3
L) C
i f
i
c
l
— 4c
os2 /
122 [
1 Ci (
v
4
d
2+L
2_ +c
i(v
4
d
2+L
.+L
)]
+ c
os/
3
L[C
i/3
(
. 02 -
I
- L2 — L
) C
i0(
- 02 L2 +
+s
i
n(3
L[S
i0(
. 02 L2 L
) —S
i)3
( Vd2 —
— 2S
i g(V4d2 L2 + + 2S
i (V4d2 + L2 — L
)]} o
hms (
10
-81
)
a
nd
X2
1 = 3
0 •2 /
3
L/2
) 2
(2 /
3
L)S
i
co
sa
s
m (
1
-
I
- 4c
os2 g
t
_[
s
i V4
c/2 — + S
ig( V4d2 + L2 ± L
)]
— 2c
ost
i
t
L[S
i)9
( Vd2 L2 — L
) + S
i$(
. 02 ± L2 ± L
)]
+s
i
n#L[C
i/3
( Vd2 e+ —C
iO( Vd2 ± L2 —
— 2C
i (V4d2 -
I
- L2 L
) + 2C
i (-
V4d2 L2 — L
) 3o
hms (
10
-82
)
I
n t he s pecial c ase of L = n X/2,
2
whe
re n i s o dd, ( 10-81) and ( 10
-82)
r
educe tot he relation sgiven prev
iou s
ly
• d 1 b
y (10-77) a nd ( 10-78).
The a bove r e
lations o f t
his sec
tion
a
pply t obalanced c ent e
r-fed ant
enna s.
G
round p
lane The mu tuali mpedance o ftwo stub an-
Fm. 1
0-13
. Two c oup
led l
i
nea
rpa
r- t
ennas o fh eight 1= L /2 above an in-
a
idlstub an
tenna
s. f
in
ite
, p erf
ectly conduct
ing g round
p
lane as i
n Fig
. 10
-13 isone-hal
f that
g
iven by (
10
-77) and (1
0-78) o
r (10
-81) and (10
-82). These r
elat
ion s a
re
c
onverted t
o t
he ground-p
lane ca
se b y c
hanging the f
ac
tor 30 to 15 and
making t
he s
ubs
titut
ion L = 21
.
'G. H
. Brown and R. K
ing, H
igh F
requency Mode
ls i
n A
ntenna I
nve
stiga
tions
,
Pr
oc
. I.
R E.,2
2
, 457-480
, Apr
il
, 1
934
.
S
ec
. 1
0
-7] SELF AN D M U T U A L IMPE D A NCES 2
69
1
0-6
. Mu tua
l I mpedance of Para
lle
l C ol
linear Antennas L et each
a
ntenna be an odd numbe r o
f Iw avelengths long and ar
ranged as i
n
F
ig
. 10-10b
. F or the c
ase whe
re h isgreater than L
, C a
rter' g
ive
s the
mutua
l re
sis
tance a
nd reac
tance a
s
R2
1 = —15 c
ost
3
h[ —2 C
i C
i 2
0(h — L
)
+ C
i 2
1
3(h + L
) — l
n
(h2 I
1
2 )
]
+ 1
5si
n 0[2 S
i —S
i2/
3(h — L
) —S
i21
3(h + LA o
hms (
10
-83
)
a
nd
X2
1 = —15 c
os#
h[2 S
i 20 — S
i20
(h — L
) —S
i2)
9(h 4
- L
)]
+15 s
i
n i
3
h[2 C
i —C
i 2
)
3(h — L
)
—C
i 2
1
3(h + L
) — 14 1
2 T
,
I I
1
2 )
] o
hms (
10
-84
)
C
urves f
or R21 and X21 of p
aral
lel c
o
llinear i
-wave
length antennas
(
L =X /2) a
re p
resen
ted inFig
. 1
0-14 a
s afunct
ion o
fthe s
pacing swhere
8= h — L (
see F
ig. 10
-10b
).
3
0
R2
1
2
0 /
2
1 i
s-
1'Y
2-
I
1
0
R2
1
0
R7
1 x2
1 R2
1
1
0 0 02
X 04
X 06
X 08
X 1
0X I
.
2X 14
X 1
6)
, 18
)
, 2
DX
S
pac
ing S
F
la. 10
-14
. C urve
s of mutua
l res
istance (R2
1 )a
nd reac
tance (X21 )o
f two para
lle
l
c
o
llinea
r inf
in
ites
ima l
ly t
hin I-wavelength a
ntennas a
s af unc
tion of t
he spac
ing s
b
etween a
djacent e
nds.
1
0-7
. Mu tual Impedance of P
ara
lle
l A n
tennas i
n E
chelon
. F o
r th
is
c
ase t
he a
ntennas a
re stagge
red o
r in eche
lon a n F
s i ig
. 10-10
c. Each
1P. S
.C a
rter
, Circu
it Re
lations i
n Radia
ting Sy
stems a
nd A
ppl
ica
tion
s t
o A
ntenna
P
roblems, P
roc. I
.R.E.
, 20
, 1004-1041
, June
, 1932
.
2
70 AN TE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
0
a
ntenna i
sa n o
dd n
umber o
f 4w ave
lengths l
ong
. T he mu
tua
l r
e
sis
tance
a
nd rea
ctance o
ftwo s
uch a
ntennasare g
iven by C
arte
r' a
s
R 21 = —15 c
o
s13
h
( —2 C
i A — 2C
i A
'
+C
iB+ C
iB' +C
i C+ C
i C
'
)
+15 s
i
n‘9
1(2 S
i A — 2S
i A
'
—S
iB+S
iB' —S
i C+ S
iC'
) o
hms (
10
-85
)
a
nd
X 21 = —
15 c
osS
h(2 S
i A + 2S
i A
'
—S
iB—S
iB' —S
i C— S
iC'
)
+15 s
i
n13
h
(2 C
i A — 2C
i A
'
—C
iB+C
iB' —C
i C+ C
i C
'
) o
hms (
10
-86
)
w
here A = p
( v d2▪ h2
B =f
t
[ Vd 2 + (
h —L
)2 + (
h —
B
' =f
t
[ Vd2 + (
h — L) 2 (
h —
C =1
3
[ 02 + (
h+ L
)2+ (
h+ L
)
]
▪ (
h L
)2 — (
h+
V
alues o
ft he mutua
l res
istance i
no hms a
s
c
a
lculated f
r
om (10-85)ar
el i
sted i
nTable 1
0
-2 2
L
-
I I a
s afunc
tion o
f dand hf o
rthe c
ase w
here t
he
a
ntennas a
re 4wavelength l
ong (L =X/2
) as
i
ndica
ted inF
ig
. 10-15.
Fm. 1
0-15
. Two pa
ral
lel
l
i
near i
-wavelength a
ntennas The staggered o r eche lon a rrangemen t is
i
neche
lon
, t
he more gene ral si
tuation o fw hich the side
-
b
y-s
ide p os
ition ( Sec
. 1 0-5) a nd t he co
ll
inear
p
osit
ion ( Sec
. 1 0-6) are specia
l eases
.
1
0-8
. Mu tual I mpedan ce o f Other C onfigurations. T here a re many
o
ther antenna c onf
igu rat
ion s for which the mu tua l i mpedance may b e o
f
i
nteres
t. T he v ar
ie ty ise normou s
, b ut two w i
ll be m entioned a nd refer
-
e
nces given w hich t he r
eade r may con su
ltf o
rf urthe ri n
forma tion.
1
.P aral
lel An tenna s o
fU nequalH e
ight
. T his case h a
s b een t r
eated by
Cox.3 H is d a
ta a pp ly specif
ical
ly t o st
ub a n
tenna s perpend icular to an
i
nf
inite
, p erfectly c onducting ground , but c an be u sed w ith s ymme trica
l
ICar
ter, op
. c
it
.
Al but afew va
lues a
re f
rom atab
le by A
. A
. Pisto
lkor s
, The Rad
iat
ion Res
istance
o
fB eam A n
tennas, Pro
c. I
.R.E
., 1
7
,56 2-579
, March, 1929
.
C. R
. C ox, Mu tua
l Impedance Between V
ertica
l A ntennas o
f Unequa
l He ight
s,
P
roc
. I
.R
.E.
, 3
5
, 1
367-
1370
, November
, 1
947
.
S
ec. 1
0
.9] SELF AN D M U T U AL IMPE D A N CES 2
71
TABLE 1
0
-2
MUTUAL RES
ISTANCE AS A FUNCT
ION O
F d AND h (
FIG
. 1
0
-15
) FOR
THIN I
-WAVELENGTH ANTENNAS IN ECHELON
S
pac
ing h
S
pac
ing d
0
.0X 0
.5 X 1
.0X 1
.5X 2
.0X 2
.5 X 3
.0X
0
.0 X +73.1 +26
.4 -4
.1 +1
.8 -1
.0 +0.6 -0
.4
0
.5 X -12.7 -11
.8 -0
.8 +0
.8 -1
.0 +0.5 -0
.3
1
.0 X +3
.8 +8
.8 +3
.6 -2
.9 +1
.1 -0
.4 +0
.1
1
.5 X -2.4 -5
.8 -6
.3 +2
.0 +0
.6 -1
.0 +0
.9
2
.0 X +1
.1 +3
.8 +6
.1 +0
.2 -2
.6 +1
.6 -0
.5
2
.5 X -0
.8 -2
.8 -5
.7 -2
.4 +2
.7 -0
.3 -0
.1
3
.0 X +0
.4 +1
.9 +4
.5 +3
.2 -2
.1 -1
.6 +1
.7
3
.5 X -0
.3 -1
.5 -3
.9 -3
.8 +0
.7 +2
.7 -1
.0
4
.0 X +0
.2 +1
.1 +3
.1 +3
.7 +0
.5 -2
.5 -0
.1
4
.5 X -0
.2 -0
.9 -2
.5 -3
.4 -1
.3 +2
.0 +1
.1
5
.0 X +0
.2 +0
.7 +2
.1 +3
.1 +1
.8 -1
.4 -1
.9
5
.5 X -0
.1 -0
.6 -1
.8 -2
.9 -2
.2 +0
.5 +1
.8
6
.0 X +0
.1 +0
.5 +1
.6 +2
.6 +2
.3 -0
.1 -2
.0
6
.5 X -0
.1 -0
.5 -1
.2 -2
.3 -2
.3 -0
.5 +1
.7
7
.0 X +0
.1 +0
.4 +1
.1 +2
.1 +2.3 +0
.9 -1
.3
7
.5 X 0
.0 -0
.3 -
1.0 -1
.9 -2
.1 -
1.0 +0
.7
c
enter-fed antennas o
f tw
ice the le
ngth by mu ltiplying t
he res
istance a nd
r
eactance values by t
wo.
2
. Vo rsk
ew a nt
ennas
. S ome antenna sy
s tems involve nonparal
lellinear
r
adiators. The mutua l i mpedance of such i n
clined a n
tenna s h a
s b een
d
iscussed b y an umber of wri
ters,' but v ery few n umerical d ata are
a
vailable.
10-9
. C ompa r
ison of Self
-impedance F ormu las. I t is i
nterest
ing t o
c
ompare t
he f
o
rmu
las f
o
r s
e
lf-
res
istance a
nd r
eac
tance o
f t
h
in l
i
nea
r
c
enter-fed antennas derived i
n th
is chapter wi
th tho
se for t
h
in center-f
ed
b
iconical antennas di
scus sed i
n Chap. 8f or t
he c
ase where the a
ntennas
a
re a n odd number n o f wave leng
ths l ong
. This isdone i
n Table 10
-3.
Ac ase of part
icular in
terest i
sfor antennas w
avelength l
ong (n = 1 )
,
P
. S
.C ar
ter, Ci
rcuit Relat
ions i
n Radiat
ing Systems and Appl
icat
ions t
o A ntenna
P
roblems
, P roc
. I.R.E.
, 2 0
, 1004-
1041, June
, 1932.
F
. H. Mur ray, Mu tual Impedance of Two Skew A n
tenna Wires
, Proc
. I
.R .E., 2
1,
1
54-158
, Janua ry, 1
933.
F
. B. Pidduck, " Currents i
n Aer
ials and H
igh-frequency N
etwork s
," Oxford Uni-
v
ers
ity Pres
s, N ew York, 1946
, p.21.
2
72 ANTENNAS [
CHA
P. 1
0
T
ABLE 1
0
-3
C
ase S
e
lf-
res
istan
ce Ri, S
e
lf-
rea
ctan
ce X1,
T
hin A
ntenna o
dd n
o
. n 3
0 C
in (
2
/rn
) 3
0Si(
2
7rn
)
l
in
ea
r iwave
leng
thsl
ong
a
n
tenna
(
Car " t
-wave
leng
th a
n-
t
e
r) t
,
enna (
n= 1) 7
3
.13 4
2
.5
1 6
0 C
in (
n T
) — 3
0
[0.577 6
0 S
i(n
w) + 3
0Si(
2
ror
)
Ant
enna o
dd n
o
. n
T
hin
iwave
leng
thsl
ong ± i
n1. — 2Ci (
nm)
b
i
con- 1
2
i
c
al an
-
t
enna +C
i (
2
n7r
)]
(
Sche
l-
k
unof) 1
-wave
leng
th a
n-
7
3
.3 1
53
.6
t
enna (
n= 1)
a
nd t he v a
lue sf ort his c ase a re a l
so t abu la ted. T he s e
lf
-resistance s are i n
c
lose a greemen t f o
r t he t wo a n tenna s
, b ut t he s elf-reac tance o f the t hin
b
icon ica la ntenna i sn early f our t ime sa s much a sf o
rt he thin li
nea ra ntenna .
1
0 -10 . AD iscuss ion o ft he Me thods U sed f o
r C alcu lat
ing A ntenna I m-
p
edan ces . I n this a nd p reced ing c hap te rs an umbe ro fm ethod s forc alcu -
l
ating t he i mp edance o fa ntenna s o ff i
ni te l ength h ave b een d iscussed. I n
t
his s e ction, ab rief s ummary a nd c ompa rison o f t hese m ethod s isp re-
s
ented . '
The m ethod s m ay b e c l
a ssified i n
to t hree p r
inc ipal t ypes: ( 1
) t he
b
ounda ry -value p rob lem a pp roa ch , (2) t he t ransm is sion-line m ethod , a nd
(
3) t he P oyn ting v e cto rm e thod .
1
. T he B oundary -va lue P roblem App roa ch . T his m ethod m igh t be c on -
s
idered a s the mo st b as
ic a pp roa ch . T he f undamen ta l fi
eld e qua t
ions a re
e
xp res sed i nt erm so f ac oo rdina te s y s
tem mo sta pp rop riatet ot he a ntenna
s
hap e. As olu t
ion o f t his e qua tion i st hen o btained w h
ich s atisf
ie s t he
b
ounda ry c ond ition , u sua lly t ha t t he t angen tial componen t oft he elec tric
f
i
eld v an ishesa tt he c onduc tors ur face. F rom t h
i st he c urrentd i
stribu tion
i
sd e term ined a nd t he i npu t i mpedance t hen o b tained a s the r at
io o ft he
a
pp lied t erm inal e mf t o t he c ur rent a t t he t e
rm ina ls. N o assump tion i s
made a st ot he c urren t dist r
ibu tion ; iti sd eterm ined b y the solution.
The p rincipa l d isadvan tage o f t he m ethod i st ha t a ntenna s hape s t o
1A d
i
scu
ssion i
sgi
ven b
y R
.E.B
urge
ss
, A
er
ial C
har
act
eri
sti
cs, W
ire
les
s E
ngr
.
, 2
1
,
1
5
4-160
,A pr
il, 1
9
44.
SE
C
. M a] SELF AN D M UT U AL IMPE D A N CES 2
73
which i tc an b e a pp l
ied e xac tly a re l imited . I n f ac t
, t he s phe roida l
a
nt enna i st he o n
ly s hape w h
ich y ields t oa n e xa ct a na ly sis. I n t h
is c a se,
s
phe roida l c oo rdina te s are u sed a nd t he a ntenna s ur fa ce made t o c or re-
s
pond t o af ixed v alue o fo ne c oo rdinat e. T he f reeo sc i
lla tion so f ap rola te
s
phe roid ( foo tba ll s hape, s ee F ig. 9 -15) h ave b een s t ud ied b y A braham .'
Forced o scilla tions , a s produced b y at ran sm is s
ion l ine c onne cted a t t he
c
en te r
, h ave b e en t rea ted b yS tra tton a nd C hu'a nd b y P age a nd A dams .'
Ag ood d iscus s
ion o ft he gene ral s ubjec ti sg iven b y A ha ron i.'
An tenna s a re r arely made s phe ro ida l i n s hap e s o t ha t t he r esult s a re
n
o td ire c
tly a pplicab le t o mo stp ra ctical t ype s o fa ntenna s. A ne xcep tion
t
o t his i st he l imiting c ase o f al ong , t hin s phe roida l a ntenna w hich may
b
ec on side red a sa pp rox ima ting al ong , t hin c ylindr ica l c onducto r
.
Ad irec ta t ta ck o n t he cylind rical a nt enna a s ab ounda ry -va lue p rob lem
has b een f o
rmu la ted b y Hall& w ho o b tained a n i nteg ral e qua tion i nt he
a
nt enna c urren t I . T h
is m ethod i sd is cu ssed i n C hap . 9 . T he s olut ion
o
f t his e qua tion i s af orm idab le p rob lem . A pp rox ima te s olu tion s h ave
b
een o bta ined y ielding t he c ur r
en td istribu tion . T he t erm ina l i mpedance
i
sf ound b y t aking t he ratio o ft he e mf a pplied a t t he a nt enna t erm ina ls
t
o t he t erm ina l c u rren t. R esul ts a r e mo s t r el
iab le f or t hin a ntenna s
.
Bo th t he r esis t
ive a nd r eac tive c omponen t s o f t he s e
l f-
impedance a re
obta ined . R ecen t
ly t hism ethod h as b een e x tended t of inding t he mu tua l
impedance b e tween a ntenna s.
I
n Ha lien 's t reatmen t the e fect o ft he e nd c ap o n t he c ylindr ica l c on-
duc tor i sn eg le cted b y assum ing t ha t t he a ntenna l eng th i s much g rea ter
t
han t he d iame ter. P rov ided t hat t he i nside d iame te r o f t he h o
llow
cylindr ica l c onduc to ri ssuficien tly s mall t ha ti tc anno tt r an sm it ag u
ided
w ave ,
' t he d iffe rence i neffect o fa n o pen o r c losed e nd i sn o t l arge s ince
the c u rren tf l
ow ing a round a n o pen e nd a nd i nto t he i nterio ro ft he h o
llow
conduc tor v an ishe s i n as ho rt d i
stance . T he e ffec t o fn egle c t
ing t he e nd
cap si sce rtain ly n ol a
rgert han t ha to fc hang ing t he l eng th o ft he a ntenna
bya n a moun te qua l tot he c onduc to rd iame te r
.
2
. T he T ransm iss ion-l
in e Me thod . I n t his m ethod , t he a ntenna i s
trea ted a s at e rm ina ted t ran sm ission l i
ne. T h
is a pp roach l end s i t
se l
f
mo sta pp rop ria t e
ly t ot he bicon ica la ntenna w ith i t
su nifo rm c ha ra cte r
is tic
1M. A braham , D ie electr

ischen S chw ingungen u rn o men s tabform ingen L ei
ter,
b
ehand elt nach der Maxwel schen T heorie, A nn
. P hysik
, 6 6
, 435-472, 1 898.
'J
.A . Stratton a nd L.J .C hu, Steady S tate Oscil
lations of Electromagne tic Field
P
rob lems, J. App li
ed P hys., 12
, 2 30-248 , Ma rch, 1941.
3L
. Page a nd N. L .A dams,T he Electrical Osci
llations of aP rola
te S phe roid, Phy s
.
R
e v
., 53
, 819-831 , 1938.
4J
.A haroni, " Antenna e
," O xford Un iversity Press, New Y ork
, 1946, p p
. 6 2-86.
3The in
side diame ter w ou
ld n eed to b e a
tl e
ast0 .
58 Xi no rder to tr
an smi t ag u
ided
wave (TE n mode ) inside the a
ntenna c onduc toreven i fth
is mode w eret ob ee xcited.
2
74 AN TE N N AS [
CHAP
.
i
mpedance . T his m ethod h as b een u sed b y S che lkuno ffl a nd isd i
scu ssed
i
nC hap. 8 . T he e quiva len tt e
rm inating i mpedance o f abicon ical antenna
h
a s been c a
lcu la ted b y him f ort h
in c one sw ith a n a ssumed s inusoidalc ur-
r
ent dist r
ibu tion . T he c las s
ifi
ca t
ion o ft h
i s a pp roa ch a s a" transm ission -
l
i
ne m ethod" i sa rb
i trary . I t may a lso b ec al
led ab ounda ry -value m e thod
s
ince the s o
lu tion i ss ubje ctt ot he b ounda ry c ond ition st hat t he tangen tial
Ea long t he c one s i szero a nd t ha t the f i
elds a t t he b ounda ry sphe re a re
c
on t
inuou s.
3
. Th e P oyn t
ing V ec
to r Me thod . T he g enera l a pp roach i n th
is m ethod
i
st oi n
teg rate t he P oynt ing v e
c to ro ver as urface e nclosing t he antenna o r
t
o pe r
fo rm a n e quiva len t c alcula tion. Two l im i
t ing c ases o ft h
is m ethod
h
ave b een d iscu ssed: ( a
) w heret he surfa ce ofi nteg ra t
ion c oincide swith t he
s
urface o ft he a ntenna a nd ( b
) w here t he surface o fi ntegra tion is as phe re
a
t al arge d istance f rom t he a ntenna .
a
. Integration o v
e r a ntenna s urface. T his i st he s o
-called e mf m ethod
employed b y C arter, P is tolko rs
, B eclunann , a nd o the rs and d i
scussed i n
p
reviou s s e
c t
ions o f t his c hapte r. T he t erm ina l v o
ltage V r equired t o
p
roduce a t erm ina l c urren t I ,i na n i nf
initesima l
ly t hin a ntenna i ss hown
t
ob e
.
a',
T = E
.s inI 3
zd ,
z (
10-87a )
T
he t
e
rmina
l i
mpedance i
sthen
Y .
Z1 = — u = 1 f̀E s
mf t
zdz (
1
0-87b
)
I II 0
a
sin(
10
-18
). T
he c
omp
lex p
owe
rsupp
lied t
othe a
ntenna i
s
W = 4 Vat (
10
-88a
)
where VI i
sgiven b
y (
10-87a) and i
sthe c
ompI
r
lex c
onjugate o
fI,
.
The power W in (
10
-88a) should al
so be gi
ven by t
he in
tegra
l of the
n
orma l c
omponent o
fthe to
tal c
omp lex Poyn
ting v
ecto
r over t
he an
tenna
s
urface
. T hus
,
1
W =— 2 if (E X H*) •ds (
10-88b)
A
ssuming tha
t the an
tenna isinthe zd
irect
ion, t
he e
lemen
t ofsurfa
ce
d
s =d ldz
, whered li
s asegmentofarcon aci
rcle e
nc
los
ing t
he a
ntenna as
i
nFig. 1
0-16
. H ence
, (
10-88b
) can b
eexpre
s s
ed
W = f E
„H: d
ldz (
1
0-89a
)
I
S
. A
. Sche
lkunof
, "
Elec
tromagne
tic Wave
s," D
. V
an N
ost
rand C
ompany
, I
nc
.,
N
ew Yo
rk, 1
943.
S
ec
. 1
0
-10
] SELF AN D MU T U AL IMPE D A N CES 2
75
S
ince E„isn
ot afunc
tion o
fct
i
,and r
e
cal
ling t
hatthe l
ine i
nteg
ral f d
l
e
quals t
he c
urren
t I: i
nthe w
ire (
Ampere'
s law
), (
10-89a) become
s
1
W =-
2 f d
z w
att
s (
10
-89b
)
Bo
th E „ a
nd I
farefunc
tionso
fz. Le
titbea
ssumed tha
tI:i
sasinuso
ida
l
f
unction o
fz,t
hatis
, = s
inft
z
,w he
re I
t i
sthe max
imum o
rt e
rmina
l
c
urrent. Then
f L
W = I I E' s
i
nt3
zdz (
10
-90
)
2
Ac
tually t
he perfec
tly c
onduct
ing meta
lp a
rtso fana n
tenna c an ne
ither
a
bsorb nor r
adiate power but o
nly g
uide i
tso that t
he on
ly c ontr
ibution
t
o (10
-88b) would come f
rom the g
ap atthe c
enter o
fthe antenna. T hu s
,
i
fthe te
rminalsa r
e at acur
rent max
imum , (1
0-90) r
educes to
W = II* f E' d
z (
10-91a
)
2
w
here the gap o
rt e
rminal v
oltage i
sequal t
othe li
ne i
nteg
ral o
fthe t
ota
l
f
i
e
ld across the g
ap. N ow W i sa
lso g
iven by t
he i
nteg
ral oft
he comp
lex
P
oynt
ing v ectorofthe i
nduced fi
e
ld over t
he a
ntenna o
r
1
W = — -I* E s
in1
3
zdz
2 '
H
ence
,
1
.
f E
.
, d
z = — f E
,si
ni3
zdz = V
,
, (
1
0-9
1b)
g p 0
a
nd t he term inal vol
tage V1,i sthe s
ame w hether
c
alculated b y the e m
f m ethod, by the in
tegration
o
ft he tota
lP oynting vecto roverthe a
ntenna (con-
t
r
ibu tion only f r
om t he gap) or by t
he in
tegrat
ion
o
f t he P oyn t
ing v ector of t
he induced fi
eld over
t
he a ntenna ( contr
ibu t
ion f r
om t he an
tenna c on-
d
uctor )
. T he terminal i mpedance Zu ist he r
atio
o
fW t o t he square of t he ab
solute v
alue of the
t
erm inal current 1,
, or FI
G. 10
-16
. Antenna
c
onduc
tor and s
ur
face
2W V
I
II? e
l
ement.
Zn — VII
11 2 — 1
7
—— (
1
0-9
1c)
b
.I n
tegra
tion o
ver l
ar
ge s
pher
e. I n t
h
is method the n
orma
l component
o
f t
he P oynting ve
cto
r isin
tegrated o
ver t
he surface o
f ala
rge s
phere
e
nc
losing the antenna
. T he p ower f
l
owing through th
is s
phere i
sa l
l
2
76 AN TE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
0
r
ad iated p owe r
, t he react
ive p ower b eing c
onfined to region s near the
a
n tenna . H ence, this method y ie
lds o nly t
he rea
l or r
es
istive c omponen t
o
ft he antenna i mpedance.
Examp les oft his m e
thod a re given i nChap. 5i nthe c
alcu lat
ion o fthe
r
ad iation res
istance o f athin li
nea ra ntenna and al
so inC hap. 6i nf i
nding
t
he r adiation r e
sistance oft h
in l o
op s
. I n t
h
is m ethod a current distr
ibu-
t
ion i sassumed , a nd t he r ad
iated f i
e
ld pattern of th
is d istr
ibu t
ion is
c
alcu lated. T he average P oynting vecto rP.ata ny po
into ft he fa
rf i
eld i
s
g
iven b y
P
. =I % w
att
s/me
te? (
10
-92
)
w
here H i
sthe rms magnetic
-fie
ld intensity and Z . isthe in
trins
ic im-
p
edance o
f t
he medium ( = 377 ohm s for fr
ee spa ce
). I nt
egrating P.
o
ver al a
rge sphere yields the powe r W r ad
iated. T he
t
e
rm ina
l radiat
ion re
sistance R ist hen given by t
he ra
tio
o
fthe p
owerWt othe rmst e
rminalcur rent Is
quared. Thus,
0
R W Z
. ffH 2 d
s
— I. -
12
(
10
-93
)
L
The accuracy o ft hism ethod dep end so nh ow c losely the
assumed c urrent d istribu t
ion c orrespond s t o the a ctual
distr
ibu tion. I n t he ca se ofl i
near a ntenna s as i
nu soidal
distr
ibu tion i sassumed . T h
is is ag ood a pp roxima tion if
the a ntenna i sth in a nd y ie
ld s quite a ccura te value s of
FI
G. 10
-17
. C y
- res
istance p rovided t ha t the termina ls a r
e a t or n ear a
l
i
ndrica
l cen
ter
- current max imum .
f
ed ant
enna. 10-1
.1. S imp le Emp irical Me thod. Av ery s imp le e m-
p
ir
ical m e
thod f o
rc alculating thea pprox ima te self
-imped -
a
nce o fcyl
indrica
l c enter-fed a ntenna si so u
tlined int hiss ection.
The te
rm inal r
esistance a t f i
rs
t a nd t h
ird r e
sonance s i srela t
ively i nde-
p
enden t of the ratio L ID o f a ntenna l ength to d iame ter ( F
ig. 1 0-17).
Hence, l
etu sarbi
t rari
ly t ake the f olow ing v a
lue s (s
eeF ig
. 9-12 ):
R
esonance R
esis
tance
, o
hms An
tenna l
eng
th, L
F
irst
, RI 6
7 L=0.
48 AA
Th
ird, li, 9
5 L= 1
.
44 AX
w
her
e
L
ID
A — (
10
-94
)
(
LID
) ± 1
S
zc
. 1
0
-11] SELF AN D M UT U A L IMPE D A N CES 2
77
L
et t
he geome t
ric mean ofthe re
sistances ata n o
dd resonance a
nd at the
n
exthighereven re
sonan ce b
ecal
led t he natu
ralres
istan
c eR.t odi
stingu
ish
i
tfr
om t he chara
cter
istic r
es
istance. T hen assuming R. to be c
onstant,
t
he r
es
istance atthe s
econd and fourth resonance
s isgiven by
R2
R2 = -2
R2
1 (
L =0
.96AX
) (
10
-95
)
Ri 6
7
a
nd
R = = (
L = 1
.
92AX
) (
10
-96
)
w
here t
he n
atu
ral r
e
sis
tance i
sgi
ven b
ythe e
mpir
ica
l r
e
lat
ion
R
,
, = 1
50 l
o
g. —
D o
hms (
1
0-97
)
w
here Li st
he to
tal l
ength a
nd D the d
iameterofthe a
ntenna
.
T
his gi
ves f
our va
lues wh
ich can be e
nte
red on an i
mpedance d
iag
ram .
A
n a pp
roximate impedance s
pi
ral fo
r the an
tenna can t
hen be s
ketched
2
00
L
=0.7X
=0 E
L I
X
A
t R
, , L =0
.435X
1
00
1
.
6
A
t R2 , L =0
.87X
Ri
,,
x R3
A
e
" R4 4( R 2 A
t R3 , L = 1
.3
1 X
1
.
3
.
4
I 1
.
2
A
t R4 , L = 1
.75X
I L
=0.9X
I 1
I
-
100 I
1
*-----
- L- 0 1
I 1
.
0 I
,
I 1 D
0
-
200 0 1
00 200 300 400
Ri
n O
hms
1
0-18
. I mpedance s
pira
l f
or cyl
indr
ical a
ntenna w
ith l
eng
th-
to-d
iame
ter r
at
io
(
LID)o
f 10 a
s c
onstruc
ted f
rom emp
irica
l fo
rmula
.
a
nd le
ng ths between r
esonances es
timated as in
dicated inthe e
xample o
f
F
ig
. 10-18. T his e
xample isfo
rt he c
ase ofL ID = 1 0
.
F
or cylindri
cal st
ub antennas mounted o n large ground pl
anes as i
n
F
ig
. 10-19, the f
i
rst a
nd th
i rd r
esonan
t res
istancesarea sfol
lows:
R
esonance R
esistanc
e, o
hms A
ntenna l
eng
th, 1
F
irst
, RI 3
4 1= 0
.24 A'
X
Th
ird, R2 4
8 1= 0
.72 Aq
t
2
78 ANTEN NAS [
Cum
.
. 1
0
where
A
' 1
/
r (
10-98
)
— 1 (U
r
)
where 1i
sthe l
eng
th o
f t
he s
tub a
ntenna a
nd ri
sthe r
adius
. The s
econd
a
nd f
our
th r
esonan
t r
es
istance
s a
re t
hen
(
R ,
.
)2= (
R)2
R 2 = R1 3
4 (
1= 0
.48A
'X) (
10-99
)
2
f
a
nd
( H:.)
2 ( H 02
R 4 = = (
1= 0
.96A'X
) (
10-100
)
R
. 4
8
where t
he n
atura
l r
es
istance f
or s
tub a
ntennas
i
sgiven b
y
Fm
. 10-
19. C
yl
ind
rica
lst
ub 1
R
„
' = 7
5 l
og 1
0 — o
hms (
10-101
)
a
ntenna
.
PROBLEMS
1
0-1. C alculate t he s
elf
-resistance a nd s e
lf-r
ea c tance o f at h
in, s ymme tr
ical
c
enter-fed linear antenna I w aveleng ths lo
ng.
1
0-2. C alculate t he mutual r e
sistance a nd mu tua l reactanc e fo
r t wo paralle
l
s
i
de-by -side t h
in li
nea r4-wave a ntennas with as epa rat
ion o f0 .
15 w avelength.
10-3. C a
lcu late the mutual resistance and r ea
c tance o ft wo parallel t
hin li
near
4
-wave length a ntenna s i
ne chelon f o
r the case w he re d= 0 .25 X and h = 1 .
25 X
(
see Fig. 10-15).
1
0-4. P rove B rown 's r
e
lation R 1
1 — R 21 = 6 01
- 2( d/X
) 2g i
ven i n( 1
0-8 0
).
1
0-5. T h ree an
tenna sarea rranged ass hown . T he cur
ren tsa reoft he s
ame mag -
n
itude ina l
la ntennas. T he current sarei np hase in( a
) and ( c)
,b utt he curr
en tin
(
b
) isina nt
iphase. The se
lf
-re
sis
tance ofeach a
ntenna is100 o
hms, w
hile t
he mu-
t
ual re
sis
tances are
: R„b = R4 = 440 ohms and R„
, = —10 o hms. Wha t isthe
r
adia
tion res
istance o
feach ofthe antenna
s? T he re
sis
tances a
re r
e
ferred t
o the
t
erminals
, which ar
e i
nt he s
ame lo
ca t
ion i
nal
l antennas
.
CHAPTER 1
ARRAYS OF L
INEAR ANTENNAS
1-1. Int rodu ct

ion . I nd iscus sing a rray so fl i
nea ra ntenna s an umbe rof
t
opic s t
reated i np rev iou s c hap ters f orm a n e ssential ba ckg round . T hese
t
opic s are
: a r ray s o f p oin t s ou rces ( Chap . 4 )
, l i
near a nt enna s ( Chap . 5 )
,
a
nd i mpedance s o f l inear a ntenna s ( Chap . 1 0)
. I t isa ssumed t ha t the
r
eade r isalready f am ilia rw ith t heses ubjec t s
.
I
nt h
isc hapt era rray so ft hin l i
neara ntenna sa rea nalyzed i ns ome d etail
.
The f ar
- o r r adiation -field p attern, t he d r
iv ing-po int i mp edanc e
, a nd t he
g
ain i nf i
eld i ntensity a re d eterm ined i n t ha t o rder f or s eve ral d i
fferent
t
ype s ofa rray s
. T he m ethod o fa naly s
is i sg ene ral and c an b e a ppl
ied t o
o
the ra r
ray s, t he s pe cifict ype sd iscussed s erving m erely a se xamp les. T he
s
imp lest type o f array w i
ll b e c onside red f i
rst. T his i sa n a rray o f t wo
d
riven 4 -wave leng th e lemen ts. T he t erm " elemen t" i staken t om ean t he
b
asic u n
i ta ntenna o fw h
ich t he a rray i sc on structed . I ti sa ssumed i nt h
is
c
hap tert ha t t he elemen ts a re t hin a nd l inea r.
11- 2
. A rray o f Two Dr iven 4- wave leng t h E le men ts. B roads ide Case .
Consider t wo c ente r-fed 4 -wave leng th e l
emen tsa rranged s i de b ys i
de w ith
aspa c
ing da si nF ig. 1 -1. Two s pecialc asesw i
llb econ side red: t he broad-
s
ide case' t r
ea ted i n t h
is s ection i n w hich t he t wo e lemen t s are f ed w ith
e
qua li n
-pha sec urren ts, a nd t he e nd-firec a
s e2 (S ec. 1 -3) i nw hich t he t wo
e
lement s ar e f ed w ith e qua l c urren ts i no ppos ite p hase
. T he mo re g eneral
c
ase w here t he c urren tsa r ee qua li n magn itude b uti na ny p hase r e
lation i s
t
reated i nS ec . 1 -4.
1-2a. F ield P a
tt erns . T he f i
rstp arto ft he ana lys
i sw i
llb et od eterm ine
t
he a bsolute f ar-f
ie ld p atte rn s
. I t isc onven ient t o o bta in t wo p attern
e
xpr ess
ion s
, o ne f or t he h orizon tal p lane a nd o ne f or the v ert
ica l p lane.
O
rdina ri
ly, t he r e
la tive p atte rn s w ould b e s uf ic
ien t. Howeve r
, t he a bso-
l
ute p attern s w ill b e n eeded i n g a
in c alcula tion s
. L et t he e l
emen ts b e
I
n the so
-caled " broadside case" there isalway s amajor lobe ofradiation broads
ide
t
othe array,a lthough a tlarge spacingst here may b eane nd-fi
re lobe o
fe qual magnitude
(
as fo
r examp le w hen t he spacing is 1w aveleng th)
.
2 I
n t h
e s o
- ca
lled " end-fire case" the p attern always h as ze
ro radiation broadside.
The maximum r ad
iation isa lways e nd fi
rei fthe spac
ing i s w avelength orl e
ss
. H ow -
e
ver
, f o
r g r
ea ter spacings t he max imum r adiation is
, in genera
l, not e nd fi
re
. S in ce
s
pac
ing so f w avelength orl e
ssa reo fprinc
ipa li n
terest
, the ar
ray may b er ef
err ed t
oa s
a
n end-f
i re t
ype .
2
79
2
80 ANTEN N AS [
CHAP
. 1
v
ert
ica
lass
hown inFig
. 1-2a. I tisas
sumed t
hatthe a
rray i
sinf
ree s
pace,
t
hat i
s
,atan i
nf
in
ite d
is
tan ce f
rom the g
round o
rothero b
jec
ts. The fi
eld
i
nt
ensi
ty E1(
4
) from a si
ngle el
emen t a
s afunct
ion of a
nd at alarge
d
istance D (D>>d)in ahor
izonta
l p
lane (
0=9 0°
o
rx -y p
lane inFig
. 1-2a
) is
E,
(
0) =k
I
, (
1
1-1
)
w
he re kisacon s
tan ti nvolving t
he distance D,a nd
I
,i sthe t
ermina l current. E quation ( 1
1-1) i sthe
a
bsolute fi
e
ld p attern int he hor
izon tal plane. I t
i
sindependen to f4,sot hatt he r
e
la t
ive p attern isa
c
i
rcle asindicated i nFig. 1 -2b
.
Next le
t the elemen t
s b e r
eplaced b y isotropic
p
oint sources of e qual amp li
tude. T he p attern
E,.
.(16)as af unction of i nthe h o
rizon tal plane
2 f
o
r t wo such i so
t ropic in-phase p o
in t sources is
g
iven by (4-6) as
FI
G. 1-1
. B roads
ide ar-
r
ay o
f t wo in
-phase 4-
w
avelength e
l
emen t
s. =2
E0 c
os (
d, c
os(
1
) (
1
1-2
)
2
w
here d
, =t
he d
i
stance b
etwe
en s
our
cese xp
res
sed i
nrad
ians
T
hat i
s
,
2
rd
d =— (
1
1-3
)
X
A
pplying t
he pr
incip
le ofp
attern mu
ltip
lica
tion
, w e may c
ons
idertha
t E0
i
sthe f
i
eld i
nt
ensity fr
om asing
le e
lement a
t adistance D. Thu
s,
= EI
(
9) = /
i
l
l (
1
1-4
)
I
ntroduc
ing (11-4
) in
to (1
1-2
)yi
eld
sthe f
ie
ld i
ntensi
ty E
(0) as af
unc
tion o
f
4
,inthe ho
rizontal p
lane a
t al
a
rge d
i
stance D fr
om the a
rray, o
r
E(
4
,
) = E1(
0
) 2c
os (
d
. c'
s4)) — 2
k1 1 c
os(
d
. c
o
s 4'
) (
1
1-5
)
k 2 2
T
his e xpre s
sion may b e ca
lled the a bso lute fi
eld p a
tte rn inthe hor
izon
tal
p
lane. T he electr
ic fi
eld a
t p o
in ts in t h
is p lane ise verywhere vert
ica
lly
p
olarized. T he s hape ofth
i s pa
t tern i si lust
ra ted inF ig. 1-2c
, and a
lso
p
artial
ly i nFig. 1 -2a, f
or the case w here d = X /2
. T he maximum fi
eld
i
n
tens ity i sat4 ,= 9 0
° orb roads
ide t ot he array .
The f i
eld intensity E1(0
) as af unction o f 0f rom as i
ngle i-wave
length
e
l
emen t a t ad is
tance D i nt he vertical pl ane ( y
-z pl
ane i n F
ig. 1-2a) i
s
f
r
om ( 5-81) given b y
c
o
s [
(
w/2) c
os 0
1
E1(
0
) =k
.
11 (
11-6
)
s
in
S
ec
. 14
] AR R A YS OF L
81
T
he shape o
fth
isp a
ttern i
sshown i
nFig. 1-2d
. Itisi
ndependentofth
e
a
ng
le 0. The p
att
ern E 0.(
0
) inthe v
er
tica
lp l
ane f
o
rtwo i
so
tropicsou
rce
s
i
npla
ce ofthetwo el
ements i
s
(
0
) =2
E0 (
1
1-7a
)
A
pply
ing t
h
e p
r
inc
iple o
fpa
tte
rn mu
ltip
lica
tion
, w
epu
t
E0 = E
1(0
) (
1
1-7b
)
s
otha
t t
he f
i
eld i
n
ten
sity E
(0) i
nth
e v
er
tica
l p
l
ane a
t ad
i
stance D f
r
om
t
hear
ray i
s
E
(0) =2
1d
, c
o
s [
(
T/2) c
o
s 0
1 (
1
1-8
)
s
in 0
(
a
)
1e
l
emen
t\
F
lo. 1-2
. Patterns f
o
r b roads
ide a
r
ray o
ftwo l
i
nea
r i
n
-phase 4
-wave
leng
th e
l
emen
ts
w
ith s
pac
ing dof 4wavelength.
2
82 ANTE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
This may b e c al
led t he a bsolu te f i
eld pa t
te rn i nt he v ertical p lane. T his
p
a t
tern h ast he same s hape a st he p attern for as ingle elemen ti nt he v ert
ica l
1
p
lane a nd i sindependen to ft he s pa c-
i
ng. T he r elative p a
t tern i sp re-
C
i inFig . 1-2 ea nd a l
so p ar t
ially
i
n F ig. 1 -2a. T he r ela t
ive t hre e-
--
-r d
imens iona l fi
eld v ariation f o r t he
II 12
V2 c
ase w he re d= X /2 i ss ugge s ted i n
F
ig. 1 -2a. T hisp atte rn i sa ctually
b
i-dire ctiona l, o nly o ne -half b eing
D
riv
ing
p
oint f
or s
hown .
a
rray
1-2b. D ri
ving -po int I mpedan ce.
S
uppo se t ha t the a rray i se ne rgized
b
y t he t ransm ission -l
ine a r range -
To t
ransmitter
men t s hown i n F ig. 1 -3. Two
Pm. 1 -3
. B roadside ar
ray oft wo li
near
t
ran sm ission l ine s o f equa l l ength 1
i
-waveleng th e l
emen ts w ith a rrange- j
o
i n at P t
o a t
hir d l
ine e
xt en din gt o
ment f o
r d riving e l
emen ts w ith e qual atransm i
t ter. L etu sf ind t he d r
iv -
i
n-phase currents. i
ng-po in t i mpedance p re sen ted t o
t
he t hird l i
ne att he p o
in t P.' T his
w
ill be c al
led t he d riving p ointf ort he array .
L
et V , b e the e mfa pp
lied a t t he te
rm ina ls o fe lemen t 1 . T hen,
V1 = /1 Zii /
2Z1
2 (
1
1-9
)
w
here I
,isthe c
urrentinel
ement 1
,1 2t
he cur
rent i
nelement 2
, Z1 i
sthe
s
e
lf-
impedance o
fe l
ement 1
,and Z1
2 ist
he mutua
l impedance b
etween t
he
t
wo el
ements
. L ikewise
, if V
, i
st he em
f a pp
lied a
t the te
rminal
s of
e
l
ement 2
V2 = /
2Z2 /
1Z1
2
w
here Z22 = t
he s
e
lf-
impedance ofel
emen
t2
T
he cur
rentsare e
qual a
nd i
np haseso
/1 = 12
T
here
fore
, (
1
1-9
) a
nd (
1
1-10
) b
ecome
=I
,
(ZI
, + Z1
2
)
a
nd
V2 = /2(
Z2 Z1
2
)
T
he t
e
rmina
l i
mpedance Z1 o
fel
emen
t 1i
s
VI 7
Z1 71
= " "
12
II
1G. H. Brown, AC rit
ical S
tudy of t
he Character
ist
ics of Broadcast Antenna
s a
s
Afected b
y A n
tenna Current D
istr
ibut
ion, P
roc
. I .R
.E., 24
, 48-81, Janua
ry, 1936
.
G
. H . B
rown, Direc
tional An
tennas, P
roc
. I
.R.E., 25
, 78-145, Janua
ry , 1
937.
Se
c
. 1
-2] AR R A YS OF L
I NEA R ANTE N N A S 2
83
a
nd t
he t
e
rmina
l i
mpedance Z2 f
o
rel
emen
t 2i
s
V2
Z2 = 12 = Z2 Z1
2
S
ince t
he e
l
emen
tsa
re i
d
ent
ica
l
Z2 = Zi
T
here
fore
, the t
e
rmina
l i
mpedan
ces g
iven b
y (
1
1-14
) a
nd (
1
1-15
) a
re
e
qua
l. T ha
t i
s
,
= Z2 = ZI
1 Z
12 (
11-17
)
S
ince Z1 = Z
, and I = /2 i
tisnecessa
ry that t
he emf V1 a
ppl
ied at t
he
t
erminal
s ofel
ement 1be equa
l and inp ha
se with r
espe
ct to the em
f V,
a
pplied a
tthe t
erm
inals ofe
lement 2.
For t
he ca
se where the s
pac
ing d i s 4
-wave
length, the t
ermina
l im-
p
edance Zi o
feach e
lement i
s
Zi = Z„ Z1, = R
„ +R
i
2 +J
(Xu + 1
2)
= 7
3 — 1
3 -
I
-j(
43 — 2
9
)
= 6
0 +j
14 o
hms (
1
1-18
)
S
uppo se t hat t he reactance o f 14 ohm s i st uned o ut a t t he t erm inals b y a
s
er
ies c apa citance .
' T he t erminal i mpedance t hen b ecome s ap u re r e
-
s
i
stance o f6 0o hm s
. I ft he l e
ngth 1o fe ach transm ission l i
ne b etwe en t he
a
ntenna t erm inals a nd P i s 4w aveleng th , the driving -po int i mpedance o f
t
he array a t Pi s apu re res
i stance of3 0 o hm s
. T h
i s v alue i si ndependen t
o
f the c ha racteristic i mpedance o f t he 4 -wave leng th l ine s
. Howeve r, a
r
es
istance o f 30 o hms i st oo l ow to b e ma tched r e adily b y a n o pen -wire
t
ransm iss
ion l i
ne . T herefo re, a mo re p rac t
ical a rrangemen t w ould b e to
make 1e qua l t o w aveleng th. S uppo se tha t we w ish t o have a d riv ing-
p
oint r e
sistance o f 6 00 o hm s
. T o d o t his
, w e l et t he c haracte r
is tic i m-
p
edance o fe ach 1 -wave leng th l i
ne be V1 ,200 X 6 0 = 2 69 °lun e E ach
l
i
ne tran sfo rm s the 6 0 o hm s t o 1,
200 o hm s, and s ince t wo s uch l ine s are
c
onnec ted i np a ral
lel a t P, t he dr
iving -po int i mpedance f or the ar ray i sa
p
urer esistance o f600 o hm s. T hisist he i mpedance p resen ted tot he l i
ne to
t
he transm itter
. F or a n i mpedance ma tch this l i
ne s hou ld h ave a c har-
a
cter
istic i mpedance o f6 00 o hm s
.
1-2c. G ain i n Field I ntens i
ty. A s t he last pa rt o f t he a naly s
is o f the
1Itisoften simpler t
oresona
te the elemen ts b
yshortening them sl
igh t
ly. T h
i s mod
i-
f
i
esthe res
istive component oftheimpedance a nd a
l
so al
terst he E
(0)fi
eld patte
rn ,butto
afi
rs
t a pproxima t
ion thes
e efects can u sua
lly be n
eglected
.
IFor the special c
ase of aI-waveleng th li
ne, t
he general t
ransmission-l
ine formula
(
s
ee A ppendix) reduces t
oZ,o Z20/Z i,where Z
,„isthe input impedanc e
, Zo the cha
r-
a
cter
ist
ic i mpedance, and Zy t
he load i mpedance. Thu s
, Zo •
VT , —Z
L
.
2
84 ANTE N N AS [CH
AP. 1
a
rray
, l e
t us de
termine t
he g a
in in f
ie
ld intens
i ty f
o
r the a
rray. T h
is
c
ould be done by p
a t
tern in
tegrat
ion as i
n C hap. 2,bu
t with se
lf- a
nd
mutual
-impedance va
lues ava
ilable as
horte
rm ethod i
sasfo
llows.
Le
tt he t
otalpowe
ri nput (
rea
lp ower
) tothe array b
eW.* A ssuming n
o
h
eatl o
sses
, the p
ower W, inelement 1is
W
, =/
?
(Fe l, R
12
) (
1
1-19
)
t
he p
owe
r W
, i
nel
emen
t 2i
s
W2 = I
:
(R2
2 R
12
) (
1
1-20
)
w
he re I
,and 12 a
re r
mscurren
t s
.
B
ut R22 = RH a nd /
, = /1. Mak ing t
hese s
ubst
itut
ion
s a
nd a
dding
(
11-19) a
nd (
11
-20) toobta
in the t
o
tal p
ower W, w
e have
W = W
, -
I
- W
2 =2
n(R
11 (
1
1-21
)
a
nd
I
, — 2
(R 1 W
R
ia) (
11-22
)
S
uppo
s e t
hat w
e expres
s the ga
in with r
espect t
o asing
le 1
-waveleng
th
e
l
ement as t
he r
ef
erence a
ntenna. Let t
he same power W b
e suppl
ied to
t
h
is a
ntenna
. T hen a
ssuming nohea
tl o
sse
s, the c
urr
entI,atit
st e
rminals
i
s
(
1
1-23
)
w
he re Fe
,0isthe sel
f-res
istance o fthe r e
ference antenna.
I
ng eneral
,t he ga
in inf i
e
ld i ntensi
tyt o fana rray over aref
erence antenna
i
sg iven by the r a
tio of t he f i
eld intensity f r
om t he array to the fi
eld
i
n
ten sity fr
om t he r e
ference a ntenna w hen b oth are supplied with t he
s
ame p ower W. T he compa rison is
,o fc our se
, made i nthe same dire
ction
f
r
om b o
th the array and t he r e
ference a ntenna. I n the presen
t c ase it
w
i
ll b e conven
ien t to obtain t wo g a
in e xpre s
sions
, o ne f
or the hor
izon tal
p
lane a nd t
he otherf o
rt he v ertical plane.
•It isi mportant t hat the antenna p ower W b e considered c onst

an t
. Mo st trans-
m
itters aree .
asentialy c onstant power device s wh
ich c an be coupled to aw ide r ange of
a
ntenna i mpedanc e. Un t
il the a n
tenna p ower w as c ons
ide red con s
tan t b y G . H .
B
rown ( Proc. I.R.E., J anuary, 1937) the a dvantages of closely spaced e l
emen ts w ere
n
ot a pparent. P rior t o th
is time the a ntenna c urrent h ad usually b een conside red
c
onstant.
tThe pow erg ain d i
scussed inC hap. 2ise qual t
ot he squa reoft he ga
in i nfie
ld inten-
s
i
ty. T he powe rg a
in i sthe ra
tio ofthe radiation in
ten s
ities( powe rperu nits o
lid angle)
f
or the ar
ray a nd r eference antennas, t
he r adiat
ion i n
tensity b e
ing propo rtional to the
s
quare o fthe fie
ld i ntensi
ty.
S
ac
. 1
.2] ARR A YS OF L
85
I
n the h
orizon
tal p
lane t
he f
ie
ld intens
ity EH.w.(
C
O, as afunc
tion of4,
a
t ad is
tance D fr
om a si
ngle ver
tical c
ente
r-fed 4
-waveleng
th re
ference
a
ntenna isofthe f
orm of(1
1-1
). T hus
,
Eg.
w.(
4
)) =I
c
I0 (
1
1-24
)
w
here Io i
sthe t
ermina
l c
urr
en t a
nd "H
.W ." i
ndica
tes "Ha
lf- Wave
leng
th
a
ntenna
." S ubs
titu
ting t
he va
lue o
f /0 f
r
om ( 1
1-23)
, we ob
tain
ITV
E
0..
(4,
) =k — (
1
1-25
)
R0
T
he fi
e
ld i
nten
sity E(0
) inthe horizon
tal p
lane a
t ad
is
tance D fr
om the
a
r
ray isg
iven by (1
1-5). Introducing t
he va
lue o
f t
he t
ermina
l cur
rent
I
,fr
om (1
1-22) in
to (1
1-5) y
i
elds
E
(0) =k N
IR,
12+WR
IZ c
os (d
' r 4)
C (
1
1-26
)
The rat
io of (11-26) to (11
-25) g i
ves t he gain in fi
e
ld i n
tensi
ty o f the
a
rray (as afunc
tion of4,int he ho
rizontal plane) with r
espectto av e
rtical
4
-wavelength re
ference antenna with the same p owerinput
. T h
is ga
in will
b
e designated by the symbol Gf(4)
)[A./H.W .] w here t
he expre
ssion int he
b
rackets isb y way ofexplanation that the gain isthat o
ft he Array (A.)
w
ith r e
spect to a Hal
f- Wavele
ngth refer
en ce ant
enna ( H
.W .)1in the same
d
irec
tion from both array and re
ference a n
tenna . T hus
,
A
. E
(0) I 2 R0 s (
c
o d
, c
o
s0)
(
1
1-27
)
Gf
(
d
))[ W
I
.] E
f.w.(
4)
) )R 1,+ R
' .. I \ 2 /
T
he a b
solute value bars Iar e i
nt
roduced s o tha
t the ga
in w il
l be conf
ined
t
oposit
ive v a
lues (orzero) regard
lessoft he va
lueso fd,a nd 4)
. An egat
ive
g
a
in w ou
ld m erely indicate a phase diference between t he fi
elds of the
a
r
ray a nd the re
ference antenna.
I
fthe gain isthe r
at
io o fthe maximum f i
e
ld ofthe a
rray tot he maximum
f
i
e
ld o fthe re
ference antenna i ti
sd e
signa ted by (
s
ee S ec
. 2
G f -15)
.
T
he s e
lf
-resi
stancesR 0
0 =R ,, =7 3o hms . F o
rt he c
ase w here t
he spac-
i
ngis4 w avelength, d, =7 a nd R
,, = —13 o hm so that ( 1
1-27) become s
— 1
.
56 c
o
s (1
2co
s4,
) (
1
1-28
)
1Both t
he array and the i-wavelength reference antenna a
re as
sumed t o b
e inf ree
s
pace. T hus, t o be mo re exp
lic
it t he expression Gi( 0
)1A.F
.S./H.W .F
.S.1
, m eaning
t
he ga
in infi
eld i n
tens
ity oft he Array in Free Space ( A
.F.S
.) with re
spect to aHa lf-
Wavel
ength r
ef
e rence a
ntenna in Fre
e S pace ( H.W.F.S.), might be u
sed. H owever
, t o
s
impli
fy the notat
ion, the le
tter
s "F.S." will be omit
ted w hen bo
th an
tennas are i
nf ree
s
pace.
2
86 ANTE N N AS [
CHAp
. 1
I
n the broad
side direct
ion (0 = 7/2
), the pat
tern fa
ctor be
come s un
ity.
The g
ain ist
hen 1.56. T hi
s ist
he ra
tio ofthe max
imum f i
eld ofthe a
rray
t
o the maximum f i
eld of t
he r
e
ference antenna (
see Fig
. 1 -4)
. H ence,
GI = 1.
56.
I
t isalso o
f in
tere s
t to fi
nd t
he ang
le 00 for wh
ich the gain isun
ity.
F
o r t
h
is condi
tion (11-28) b
ecomes
7
C
OS (
-2 c
os 00) = 0
.64 (
1
1-29
)
or
(
f
r
o = ±56
° o
r ± 1
24°
T
he se a
nglesa
re s
hown i
nF ig
. 1-4
. T he a
rray ha
s ag
a
in o
fgrea
tert
han
u
nity in bo
th b
road
side d
i
rect
ion
s o ve
r an angle o
f
0
=180
'
H
alf-wave re
ference
a
ntenna
Ø=-
124 0=124
°
A
rray
0
= —90° 0=90 °
0 =56 °
0-0
°
FIG
. 1-4. Hor izontal plane p
attern o
f broadside array of t
wo ver
tical in
-phase 4-
w
ave leng
th e l
ement s spaced 4 w
aveleng
th. T he pattern of as
ing
le vertica
l 4-wave
-
l
ength re
ference antenna with t
he same p
ower i nput i
ss hown f
or c
ompa r
ison.
T
he g
a
in a
s ad
ecibe
l r
a
tio i
sgiven b
y t
he r
e
lat
ion
G
ain = 2
0 l
og
,. Gf d
b
w
he re Gf = the ga
in inf i
eld i
ntens
ity
T
hu s, afi
eld
-intensi
ty g a
in of 1.
56 isequal t
o 3.86 db.
Turning our at
tention n ow to t
he gain in t
he v er
tica
l plane (y-
z plane
o
f Fig
. 1 -2a
), the f
i
eld intens
ity E. ,(0 ) a
s afunction of 0inthi
sv ert
ical
p
lane at adi
stance D from as i
ngle v
ert
ical 1
-wave length re
ference ant
enna
w
ith the same power input isofthe fo
rm o f (
11-6). T hus,
c
os [
(
7/2) c
os 0
1
EH .
w ( = k
I0 (
1
1-30
)
s
in 0
w
here /0 = t
he t
e
rmina
l c
urrent
SE
C
. 1
-21 AR R A YS OF L
87
S
ubs
titu
ting i
t
sva
lue f
r
om (
1
1-23
), w
e g
et
E 0 r c
o
s K
r/2
) c
o
s 0
1
H.
w. () kA R
oo s
i
n 0 (
1
1-31
)
The f
i
eld i
nt
en s
ity E(0) a
s af
unct
ion o
f 0inthe v
ert
ica
lp lane a
t ad
istance
Dfrom the a
rray i
sg i
ven by (
1
1-8)
. Introducing t
he v
alue o
fthe t
e
rm inal
c
urren
t If rom (11
-22 ) i
n
to (1
1-8)
, w
eh ave
2W c
os [
(
7/2) c
os 0
1
E
(0) = + R1
2 s
in 0 (
1
1-32
)
The r at
io of (1
1-32) to (11-31
) g ives the ga
in i n fi
eld inten
sity,
Gf(
0)
[A ./H.W.
], o
ft he a
r
ray a s afunction o
f 0inthe v
ert
ical p
lane over
avertical 4
-wave
length re
ference antenna with t
he same power input.
Thus
,
i
m A
. E
(0) 2
Ro
(
1
1-33
)
GA / H
.W . E
l.w.(0
) RI
2
T
he ga
in is acon
stan
t, be
ing indep
endent o
f t
he ang
le 0
. F
or t
he c
ase
w
here t
he s
pac
ing is4 w
aveleng
th, (11
-33
) b
ecomes
A
Gf(
0
)[rul ] — 1
.
56 (
o
r3.
86 d
b) (
1
1-34
)
T
he shape o
fthe p
attern f
o
r the ar
ray and f
orthe 4
-wave
leng
th re
ference
a
ntenna i
sthe s
ame asshown inFig
. 1 -5
, bu
tt he r
at
io o
fthe r
ad
ius vec-
t
o
r sinthe s
ame di
rect
ion is ac
onstan
te qua
l to 1
.56
.
Zb
H
alf-wove re
ference
a
ntenna
A
rray
A
ntenna
e
l
emen ts
F
in. 1- 5
. V er
tical-plane patt
ern o
f b
roads
ide array o
f two ve
rtical in
-pha
se 4
-wave-
l
ength el
ement s spaced 4 w ave
leng
th. T he p
attern o
f as i
ngle vertica
l 4
-wave
leng
th
r
e
f erence a
ntenna w ith the s
ame power i
nput i
sshown for c
ompar ison.
I
fthe r
e
feren
ce an
tenna isa n i
s
otropic s
our
ce i n
stead o
f a4 -waveleng
th
a
ntenna
, the g
ain i
nthe ve
rtical p
lane is afunct
ion oft he a
ngle 0. T he
max
imum g a
in infi
e
ld i
ntensity o
f the a
rray ove
ra n i
s
otropic s
ource wi
th
2
88 ANTE N N AS (
CHAP
. 1
t
he s
ame p ower i
nput is VF .
T4-t
imes g
reate
r t han t
he v
oltage ga
in o
ver
a4-wave
length ref
erence an
tenna. T hus
, w hen the s
pac
ing i s 4wave-
l
e
ngth, t
he maximum g ain i
nfi
e
ld in
tensi
ty oft he a
rray w
ith re
spectt
oa n
i
s
otrop
ic source i
s
A.
56 X V1
= 1
. .64 = 2
.0 (
o
r6.
0 d
b)
T
hisv a
lue i
sinthe b
roadside d irection ( 4
, = 0= 9 0°).
1-3
. Array of Two Driven 4 -wave leng th Elemen ts. E nd-f
ire C ase.
C
onsideran a
rray o
ftwo c ente r
-fed v ert
ica l 4-wave length e l
emen ts infree
s
pace a rranged s ide b y s i
de w ith a spacing d and
e
qua l c urren t
s i n o pposite p hase as in Fig. 1 -6.
The o nly d iference b e
twe en t his c
a s
e and t he one
d
iscu ssed i nS ec
. 1 -2 isthatt he currentsint he e
le-
men tsa ret aken t ob eint he o ppos
itep hase ins
tead
o
fi nt he same p ha se. A si nS ec
. 1 -2, t
he a na
lysis
w
ill b e divided i nto 3s ubs ections on the fi
eld pat-
2 t
ern s
, d riving -point i mp edance , and g a
in i n fi
e
ld
i
ntensi ty.
1-3a . Field P atterns. T he f i
e
ld intensi
ty E 101
))
a
s af unc t
ion o fc sa t adistance D i n ah orizontal
p
lane ( x-y or4 ,p lane i n Fig. 1 -7a) fr
om a s ingle
e
lemen t is
Fm. 1 -6. E nd-f
ire ar
- E IN
S)
r
ay oft wo i-wavelength
e
lements w ith c urren
ts
w
here k = ac
ons
tan
t i
nvo
lving t
he d
i
stance D
o
f equal magn itude but
o
ppositep hase. =t he t
e
rm ina
l cur
rent
R
epla
cing t
he e
l
emen tsb yis
otrop
ic p
ointsour
ces
o
fequa
l ampl
itude
,t he p
attern El.
.() i
nt he hor
izonta
lp lane f
o
rt wo s
uch
i
s
otrop
ic o
ut-of
-phase s
ources i
sgi
ven by (4-10) a
s
=2
E„s
i
n (
d•c
2°1 )
84 (
1
1-35
)
A
pply
ing the p
r
inc
iple o
f p
atte
rn mult
ipl
icat
ion
, we may cons
ider t
hat
E
. i
sthe f
i
e
ld in
ten
sity f
r
om asing
le e
l
emen tat al
a
rge d
is
tance D. Thus
=E
1(0
) =/
i
l
l (
1
1-36
)
a
nd the f
i
eld i
nt
ens
ity E
(0) a
s afun
ction o
f(t
.int
he h
or
izon
tal p
lane a
t
al
arge d
i
stance D f
r
om the a
r
ray i
s
MO
)= 2
k1, s
i
n (
d
. c
°
8 / (
1
147
)
\ 2
Se
c
. 1
.3] AR R A YS OF L
89
T
his i
sthe absolute fi
eld patte
rn i n t
he horizontal plane. T he elec
tric
f
i
e
ld a t p
oints in thi
s p lane is everywhere v e
rtica
lly p ola
rized
. The
r
e
lat
ive pa
ttern fo
r the ca
se w here the s
pac
ing di s w avelength i
ss hown
i
n F
ig. 1-76 and also partia
lly in Fig
. 1 -7a. T he max imum f i
eld in-
E
(6
)
E
(
Ø)
(
a)
(
6) (
c)
FI
G. 1
-7. Pat
terns f
orend-f
ire a
rray o
ftwo l
i
nea
rout
-of
-pha
se 4
-wave
leng
th e
l
ements
w
ith s ing do
pac f 4wave
length.
t
ens
ity i
sa t =0 °a nd c
k= 180
°. H ence
, the a
rray i
scommon ly r
efe
rred
t
oasa n "end
-fire" type
.
The f
i
eld in
ten s
ity E1(0
) as afunction of 0f
rom a si
ngle I-wave
length
e
l
emen t at adistance D in t
he ver
tical p
lane (x
-z p
lane in F
ig. 1-7a) i
s
f
r
om ( 5
-81) g
iven b y
c
os [
(
7/2) c
os 0
]
E
,(0
) = k
11 (
1
1-38
)
s
in 0
The p
atte
rn E, (0
) a
s afunc
tion o
f 0i
nthe v
ert
ical p
l
ane f
o
r t
wo i
s
otrop
ic
s
ource
s inpl
ace o
fthe t
wo el
ements i
sfrom (
4-10)
(
d
. s
i
n 0
)
= 2
E 0s
i
n (
1
1-39
)
2 I
2
90 ANTENNAS [
CHA
P. 1
No
te that 0i sc
omplementary t
o (t
.in (
4
-10)
, so c
os 4
)= si
n 0 . Put
ting
E0 = E,(0
) the f
i
e
ld in
ten
sity E(0) a
s afunc
tion o
f 0i
nthe ver
tica
l p
lane
a
t ala
rge dis
tance D f
rom the a
rray i
s
c
os [
(
T/2
) cos 0
1 . (d
,si
n 0
\
E
(0) = 2
kI, s
i
n (
1
1-40
)
s
in 0 2 /
Th
is is the a bsolute f i
e
ld p attern i n the ve r
tical plane
. T he r
elative
p
attern i
si lustrated inF ig. 1 -7c
, a nd al
so p art
ially i
nF ig. 1 -7a, f
or the
c
ase where t he spacing i s w avelength. T he relat
ive t hree-d
imen sional
f
i
eld var
ia t
ion f or thi
s c ase (d = X /2
) i ssugge sted in Fig. 1 -7a
. T h
is
p
attern i
sa ctually bidirectiona
l, o n
ly one-half being shown .
1-3b
. D r
iving-point I mpedance
. L e
t V , b e t he e mf a ppl
ied t o the
t
erminals ofe l
emen t 1. T hen
V,= I1
Z11 I2
Z12
L
ikew
ise
, i
f V2 i
sthe e
mfa
ppl
ied t
othe t
e
rmina
ls o
fel
emen
t 2
V2 = /
2Z2 /
1Z1
2
T
he c
urren
tsa
re e
qua
l i
n magn
itude b
ut o
ppo
site i
nphase s
o
/2 =
T
her
efo
re, (
1
1-41
) a
nd (
1
1-42
) b
ecome
= /
1
(Z, — ZI
2
)
a
nd
V2 = /
2
(Z2 ZI
2
)
T
he t
e
rmina
l i
mpedance Z
, o
fel
emen
t 1i
s
7 VI 7 7
= = L
iu - A
i n (
1
1-46
)
II
a
nd t
he t
e
rmina
l i
mpedance Z
, o
fel
emen
t 2i
s
e
a2 = —V2
7 7 - "1
72
/2
T
her
efo
re,
Z1 = Z2 = Z1
1 Z
12
o
r
V1 V2
I, /2
S
ince /
2 = /1 i
tfo
llowsfr
om (11-
19) t
hat V2 VI. T
hismeans tha
t
t
he two e
l
emen
ts mu st b
e e
nerg
ized w
ith emf
s wh
ich a
re e
qual i
nm agni
-
Se
c
. 1
-3] AR R A YS OF L
91
t
ude and opposite in p
ha se
. T hi
s may be done b
y means o
f acros
sover
i
nthe tran
sm is
sion li
ne from t he d
riv
ing p
oint Ptoone o
fthe e
lementsas
s
hown inF ig
. 1 -8
. T he length 1ofeach l
i
ne ist
he s
ame.
F
or the ca
se w here the spacing be
tween el
ements i
s4 wave
length
, the
t
ermina
li mpedance ofe ach el
emen tis
Z1 = R 11 - H1
2 ± X1
2
)
=8
6 -
I
-j72 o
hms (
1
1-50
)
Consider t hat t he r eactance o f 7 2

o
hms i st uned o u
t b y as er
ie s capaci-
t
anc eatt he termina lso fe ach elemen t
.
The t erm inal i mpedance i s then a D
riving
p
ointfor
p
u re res
is tance o f 8 6 ohm s. T o ob- a
rray
t
a
in ad riv ing-poin t re
s i
stance o f6 00
o
hm s, le
tt he length 1o ft he line from
P to each e l
emen t b e Iw aveleng th
T
otr
ansmitter
a
nd l et t he l ine i mpedance b e
V1 ,200 X 8 6 = 3 22 ohm s
. F o
r a n FI
G. 1-8
. E nd-f
ire a
rray o
f two li
nea r
i
mpedance ma tch, t he line from t he i
-wave
leng th e lement
s w ith a r
rang e-
d
riving p oint P t o t he t ransm itter ment f o
r driving el
ement s w
ith currents
o
fequal magn itude b
uto ppos
ite phase.
s
hould h ave a c ha racte r
i s
tic i mped -
a
nce o f6 00 o hm s
.
1-3c
. G ain inF i
eld I ntensity. U sing t
he same m e thod as inSec. 1 -2 c,
t
he c ur
ren t Ii ne ach e l
emen tf or ap owerinput W t ot he array isgiven b y
i
V
(
1
1-51
)
2
(R 1 — R.
)
I
ti sassumed that there are no h eat lo
sses
. T he cur
rent I in asingle
4
-waveleng
th r e
ference a n
tenna i sg iven by (11-23)
. T he ga
in in fi
eld
i
n
tensi
ty Gf( 0
)[A./H.W .] as af unction of i
n the hor
izontal p
lane with
r
e
spect to a4 -wavelength reference a n
tenna iso bta
ined b y s
ubst
itu
ting
(
11
-51) in(11
-37) and taking the rat
io ofthis r
e
sultt o (
11-25
). T h
isyields
2
/
100 s
i
n (
d
, c
os(
k
) I
G M[H
.w.] — RI
2 \ 2 / (
1
1-52
)
F
or as
pac
ing o
f 4 w
ave
leng
th (
1
1-52
) r
educe
s t
o
G
,(0
)[H
.AW
'. — 1
.
3 Is
i
n [
(
r/2
) c
os0
] I (
1
1-53
)
I
n the e
nd-f
ire d
irec
tions (4
) = 0
° and 180
°) the pa
tt ern fa
ctor b
ecome s
u
nity, a
nd t
he ga
in is1 .
3 or 2
.
3 db
. T hi
s isthe g
ain G f (
see F
ig
. 1 -9
)
The g
ain in f
i
eld intens
ity Gf(
0
)[A./H.W.1 as af unct
ion of 0i n the
2
92 ANTE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
v
ert
ical p
lane (x-
z plane o
f F
ig
. 1 -7a) w
ith resp
ect t
o aI-wave
length
r
e
ference a
ntenna isf
ound bys
ubst
itut
ing (
11-51
) in(1
1-40
) a
nd t
aking t
he
r
a
tio ofth
is re
sult t
o (11
-31
) o
bta
ining
2
Ro .(
d
, s
i
n 0
)
s
m (
1
1-54
)
G
I(v i lAN
T. .
1- R — RI
2 2 /
wh
ich iso ft
he same form a
s t
he g
ain e
xp re
ssion (11-52
) forthe h
orizontal
p
lane (note t
hat maximum rad
iat
ion isin ad i
rection 0 = 90°
, = 0
°)
.
The ga
in infi
eld in
tens
ity o
ft he a
G f r
ray o ve
r a n i
sot
ropic s
ource w
i th
t
he same poweri npu
t is1.3 X V1 .
671= 1
. .66 (o
r4 .4 db
).
H
alf-wave H
alf-wave
r
efe
rence r
e
ference
a
ntenna a
ntenna
A
rray
E
lemen
ts
(
a) (
b
)
F
la. 1 -9. Horizonta
l plane patt
ern ( a
) and vertica
l p lane pattern (
b) o
f end-f
ire
a
rray o
ft wo v
ert
ica
l i-wave
length el
ement swith i-waveleng th s
pa c
ing
. T he pa
tterns
o
f avertical i
-wave
length r
efe
rence antenna with t
he same p owerinput a
re s
hown for
c
omparison .
1 -4. Array of Two D r

iven I-wave leng th Elemen ts. G eneral C ase wi th
Equal C u
r rents of A ny P hase R e
lation .' I n the preceding section s t wo
s
pecial cases of an array of two 1-wave length d r
iven element s have b een
t
reated. I n one case t he currents i n the elemen ts are in phase ( pha se
d
iference = 0 °),and i nt he o
the rthe cur rentsar eino ppos
ite phase ( phas e
d
iference = 1 80°). I n t h
is sect
ion t he mo re general case iscons idered
where the p hase dife rence may h ave a ny v a
lue. A s in the p receding
c
ases the t wo i -waveleng th elemen ts a re arranged s i
de b y si
de w ith a
s
pacing da nd ar
e d r
iven w ith currents o fequa l magnitude.
For the general phas e case the radiation-f
ield p a
ttern int he horizon tal
p
lane (x-y plane ofF ig. 1 -7a) isfrom ( 4
-20) given by
MO
)= 2
k1, c
os 1
2 (
1
1-55
)
IF
or amore d
etai
led di
scuss
ion o
fth
is c
ase a
nd a
l
so oft
he mos
tg enera
lcasewhe
rethe
c
urrent ampl
itudes a
re unequal
, s
ee G
. H
. Brown, Dir
ect
iona
l A n
tennas, P
roc
. I
.R.E
.,
2
5, 78-145
, January
, 1937.
Sm
. 1
-41 AR RA YS OF L
93
w
her
e4,ist
he t
o
tal p
hase d
ife
rence b
etween t
he f
i
eld
sf r
om el
emen
t 1a nd
e
l
ement 2a
t al
arge d
i
stance i
nthe d
i
rect
ion 4)(
see F
ig
. 1-10)
. T hu
s,
1
,= d
,co
s4)+ (
1
1-56
)
where 5= the phase d
iference oft he
c
urrentsint he el
emen ts
Ap os
itive s
ign in (11
-56 ) indica
te s
t
hatt he c
urrenti nel
emen t 2o fFig.
1-10 i sadvanced in p hase b y a n
a
ngle 5with re
spectt othe currenti n
e
l
emen t 1
. T hat is
/2 = I
l L
IS Fm. 1-10
. Array o
f two side-by
-side
e
l
ement
s norma
l t
o p
lane o
fpage.
o
r I
,=I
2 /— (
1
1-57
)
T
he v
o
ltage
sapp
lied a
tea
ch e
l
emen
tar
e
V1 = /
iZi
i / 2 = i
2 Z1 (Zi
l ± Z1
2 ZP.) (
1
1-58
)
a
nd
V2 = 12Z2 1 Z1
2 = 1
2(Z
2 2/ -5
2 + Z1 ) (
1
1-59
)
T
he d
r
iving
-po
int i
mpedance
s o
fthe e
l
emen
ts a
re t
hen
= "
71 ± Z 1
2 rj
4 (
1
1-60
)
/1
a
nd
Z2= —
v
,
/
2 = Z2
2 Z1
2/ — 8 (
1
1-6
1)
T
he r
ea
l p
art o
fthe d
r
iving
-po
int r
e
sis
tance
sar
e
RI = R1 + Z3
2 1C
OS (
r 8
) (
1
1-62
)
a
nd
R 2 = R2
2 + I
ZI2 Ic
os (
T — (1
-63
)
w
here 7 = t
he pha
se angle o
ft he mutua
l impedance Z1
2 (
t
hat i
s
,
= a
rctan X ,
2/R, where Z12 = RIT iX 1
2
)
T
here
fore
, the p
ower W 1ine lemen
t 1i s
T
V
1 = 1II1
2 R1= 1 2 [
II 1 R
ii ± 1Z
,
2 1c
os (
7 E
A (
1
1-64
)
a
nd t
he p
owe
r W2i
nel
emen
t 2i
s
W 2 = 11
2 1
2 [
R22 ± 1Z1
2 1c 7 — 4
os ( 5
)
] (
1
1-65
)
S
ince RI,= R223 t
he t
o
tal p
owe
r W i
s
W = W I ± w 2 = I/ 2 1
I 1 2R1
1 ± IZ1
2 I[
COS C
r + a
)+ c
o
s(r— a
)
]
)
= 2 1/1 1
2(R
11 -1
- 1Z
12 1c os 8
os T c )
= 2 1/1 1
2(Ri
i Ri
2 C
OS (
1
1-66
)
2
94 ANTE N N AS [CH
AP. 1
I
t fo
l
lows t
hat t
he g
ain i
n f
i
eld i
ntens
ity as af
unc
tion o
f4)in t
he h
ori
-
z
ontalp
lane
' o
fthe a
r
ray o
ver as
ingle I
-wave
leng
th e
lemen
twith t
he s
ame
p
owerinput i
s
V
R
,
1R1
2
G
f
(0) [H
.w
A
.
. 2R
,, C
o
s (
d
,
. c
o
s: .
3
) (
1
1-67
)
± c
os 3
Apolarpl
oto f(1
1-67
) with r
espe
cttothe a
zimuth a
ngle (
1
)gi
vesthe r
ad
ia-
t
i
on-fie
ld pa
ttern o
f the a
rray in t
he h
or
izonta
l pl
ane, the r
at
io of t
he
8
45
* 90
* 1
35"
d•
d•iX
d- I
)
E
lemen
ts'
0
•
1
-
4 —d —H 1
,L
A
Fm. 1-11. Hor izontal-p
lane fie
ld pa
tterns of two ver
tica
l e l
ements as afunction
o
fthe phase d
iference öa nd spa
cing d
. ( Af
ter G. H
. Brown.
) B oth e
lements a
re the
s
ame le
ng th a
nd h ave curren
ts ofequa
l magn itude
. T he ci
rcles i
nd
icate t
he fi
e
ld i n
-
t
ens
ity of as
ingle re
ference e
lement o
ft he s
ame length w
ith the s
ame powerinput.
1T
his i
sthe p
lane o
fthe p
age i
nFig
. 1
-10
.
S
ec
. 1
-51 AR R A YS OF L
I NE A R AN TE N N AS 2
95
magnitude o
ft he radiusv ectorto aunit rad
ius indicating t
he g
ain over a
r
efe
rence 4-waveleng th antenna
. B rown' hasc a
lculated such p
atte
rns asa
f
unction of phas e dif
ference (5and spacing d,
. E xamples o
f these ar
e
s
hown i nFig
. 1 -11.
The rad
iat
ion -fie
ld pattern i
nthe vert
ical pl
ane c ontain
ing t
he el
emen t
s
(
in the p
lane o
ft he page ofFig. 1-12
) is
E
(0) =2
kI c
o
s (
d
, s
i
n 0+ (
3
) c
o
s [
(
7
r/2) c
os 0
]
(
1
1-68
)
2 s
in 0
Thus
, the pa
ttern in the ver
tica
l plane has t
he shape of t
he pat
tern s o
f
F
ig. 1-11 mul
tiplied b
yt he pa
ttern o
f asi
ngle 4
-wavelength an
tenna. T he
g
ain in t
he ver
tical p
lane over av e
rtica
l 4-wave
leng th r
efe
rence antenna
w
ith the s
ame p owerinpu t i
sthen
G
,(0
) [ A
. 2R1 c
o
s (
d
,si
n 0± 6
)
(
1
1-69
)
H.W. N
/Ri ± R 12 c
o
s 5 2
I
tiso ften conven ienttor eferthe ga
in to
e
=o
a
ni s
otrop ic s
ou rce with t
he same powe rin
-
p
ut. S ince the g a
in o f a4-wavelength an
-
t
enna o ver an i s
otropic s
ou r
ce i s1.
64, t
he
g
ain i
nf i
eld intensi
ty as afunction o
f 0int
he
v
ert
icalp l ane of aver
tical4-wavelength an
-
t
enna inf ree s
pace overani s
otropic s
ource i
s
c
os [
(
7/2) c
os 0
1
= V1
.64 (
1
1-70
)
s
in 0
T
he gain i
n fi
eld i
n
tens
ity in t
he ve
r t
ical
Fm. 1-
12 . R e
lat
ion o
f p
ola
ran-
p
lane o
fthe ar
ray o
verthe i
s
otrop
ic source
g
l
e 9int he p
lane o
f t
he e
l
ement
s.
i
sthen t
he p
roducto
f(11
-69)and (1
1-70)o r
GA(
0
11
)
-LH A
. X Gf(
0
)[ Hi'
W
1
,
40 1 .W
. s
o
.
3.
2
8R 110 d
,si
n - 5
4 )co
s [
(
T/2) c
o
s 0
]
(
1
1-7
1)
N
IR1
, ± R 12 c
os 3 c
m \ 2 s
in
1-5
. Closely Spa
ced Elements a
nd Radia
ting Efi
ciency.
' T he end-f
ire
a
r
ray oft wo si
de-by
-side
, out
-of
-phase 4
-waveleng
th elements d
i
scussed in
S
ec
. 1 -3 produces s
ubstan
tial g
ain
s even when the spac
ing isdec
rea sed
G
. H. Brown, DirectionalA n
tenna s
, Proc. I
.R.E.
, 25
, 78-145
, J
anuary, 1
937
.
21 D
. K raus
, A ntenna A rrays with C lose
ly Spaced Elements
, Proc
. I.R
.E.
, 28
,
7
6-84
, February, 1940.
J
.D . Kraus, The C orner R
eflector An
tenna , Proc
. I
.R.E., 2
8, 5
13-5
19, November
,
1
940
.
2
96 AN TE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
t
os ma
ll va
lue 3
. As ind
icated b
yt he R L = 0cu
rve inthe ga
in-vs
.-spac
ing
g
raph of F
ig. 1-13a, the ga
in approa
che s 3
.9 db at sma
ll spac
ings
. A t
w
avelength s
pacing the ga
in is2.3 db. T h
is curve isca
lculated f
rom
(
1
1-52
) f
o
r = 0
° o
r (
1
1-54
) f
o
r 0= 9
0°
. A
s t
he s
pac
ing d a
pproa
che
s
5
RL=0
4
=
3
G
ain Re 5
RL-
20
2
I
n
+
1
d
b
0
)
,
.
.Il -
i d _
-
2
,
0
1 02 03 0
.4 0
.5
S
pac
ing d i
nwave
leng
ths
(a
)
8- 1
.
6 1
.
0
7- 1
.
4
.
8
6- 1
.
2
trength
)
. 5 1
.
0
.
6
ld s
▪ 4- .
8
S
e
i
n f
3 3- .
4 .
1
--
.
6 O
in t
(
5
' a.
a
2- .
4
G
.
2
.
2
00 0
.
1 0
.2 0
.3 0
.4 05
S
pac
ing d i
n w
ave
leng
ths
(
b
)
F
ie. 1 -13. ( a
) Gain o
fend-fi
re array o
ft wo out-o
f-phase I
-waveleng
th e l
ements (
flat
-
t
op beam a ntenna
) with re
spect to ai -wavelength r
efe
rence antenna as afunct
ion of
t
he spacing fo
r fi
ve va
lues of the l
oss r
esis
tance RL . (6
) Ga
in curve for RL = 0 with
v
aria
tion o f it
s component factor
s, the coupling fa
ctor and the pattern fa
ctor
, f o
r
= 0.
z
ero, t
he c
oupling fa
ctorbecome s i
nf
inite, b
ut atthe s
ame time the pa
ttern
f
actor approache
s z ero
. T he p roduct of the two or ga
in s tays fi
nite
,
l
evel
ing of at avalue ofabou t 3.9 db fo
r small s
pac
ings as ilu
strated by
F
ig. 1-13b
. T he fa
ct tha
t increased gain i
sassoc
iated w
ith s ma
ll s
pa c
ings
makes t
hisa r
rangement attractive for many appl
icat
ions
. E nd-f
ire a
rrays
S
ic. I
-5] AR R A YS OF L
97
o
ft h
is t
ype w
i th as pa
cing between el
ements o
f Iwavelength or l
e
ss may
b
ec a
lled "
f
lat
- top beam" a n
tennas,' s
i
nce t
he a
rray i
scommon ly o
perated
w
ith both e
lement s horizonta
l as ilus
tra
ted in F
ig. 1 -
14, a nd i
n t h
is
p
osit
ion it r
esemble s in appearance a t
op-
loaded or fl
at-top antenna.
Thus f
a
r ith as b
een a s
sumed t ha
t
t
here a
renohea tlo
ssesi nthe a
ntenna
s
y s
tem . I n many a ntennas s uch l o
sses m
ax
im um f Maximum
a
r e s mal a nd c an b e n eglected.
r
ad
iation r
adiation
Howeve r
,i nt he f l
at- top a ntenna s uch
l
osses may h ave c on siderab le e fect
o
n t he gain. T here fo re
, t he q uest
ion
o
f l o
sses a nd o f r adia ting e f
i c
iency
w
ill be treated i nt his s ection i nc on-
n
e ct
ion w ith ad iscus s
ion o fa r
ray s o f
two closely s paced , o ut-of-pha se e l
e-
ment s
. T he t e rm " closely-spaced" Fm . 1 -14. F lat-
top b eam a ntenna
w
il b e t aken t o m ean t hat t he e l
e- w ith c losely s paced e lem ents c
arrying
ment sares pa ced i w ave leng th orl es
s. e qualo ut-of-pha se cu
rren t
s.
Atran smit t
ing a nt enna i s ad evice
f
orr adiating r adio- frequency p owe r. L etthe r ad iating e f
iciency b edefined
a
st he ratio o ft he p owe rr adiated t ot he powe ri nputo ft he a ntenna. T he
r
ealp owe rd el
ive red t ot he ant enna t ha tisn otr adia ted i sdissipa ted int he
l
o
s s re
sistanc e and a ppear s chiefly int he f
orm o fh ea t int he a ntenna c on -
d
ucto r
, i nt he in sula to rss uppo rting t he antenna , e t
c. A n a ntenna w ith a
t
otal term ina l resi
s tance RIr may b e c ons
ide red t o h ave at erm ina
l r e
si s-
t
ance R„w hich i sa l
l r adia t
ion r esistance, a nd a ne quiva len tt e rminal los s
r
esis
tance R1z .such t hat
= R1+ RI
L (
1
1-72
)
I
tfo
llow
stha
t,
Rt
R
adia
ting e
fi
cien
cy, % — I R RX 1
00 (
1
1-73
)
+ iz
,
S
ince many t ypeso fh
igh-frequency a ntenna sh ave r ad iat
ion r es
istances
t
ha t are la
rge c ompa red to a ny loss resistance , t he eff
iciencies a re h
igh.
I
n a n array w ith c l
ose
ly s pa ced, o u
t -of-pha se e l
emen ts
, h owever , the
r
adiation resistance may be r e
la t
ively s mall and t he a ntenna c urrent very
l
a
rge a s ilustrated b y F
ig. 1 -15. H en ce
, ac on siderable re duction in
r
adiating e f
ic
iency may r e
sul t from t he p resence o f any loss r e
sis
tance.
The r ad
ia t
ing e fi
ciency may a lso be s mall f o
r l ow-f
requency a ntennas
which are very s hort c
ompa red t ot he w aveleng th. A lthough t he efect o
f
l
o
s s resi
stance w il
l be di
scu ssed s pec
ifica l
ly f or a n a rray o f t wo clo
sely
1J
. D
. K raus
, Antenna A
rray
s w
ith C
los
ely S
paced E
lem
ent
s, P
ro. I.
c R.E
.
,28
,
7
6-84
, F
ebruary, 1
940
.
2
98 ANTE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
s
paced i-wavelength e
lemen t
s, the m
ethod i
sgene
ral a
nd may be app
lied
t
oa ny t
ype ofa ntenna
.
L
et t
he e quivalent l
os
s resi
stance a
t the t
e
rminal
s o
f each e
lement be
RI
L . The elemen ts a
re cen
ter-fed a
nd are a
r
ranged s
ide by s
i
de with a
2
5 1
00
I f d- 1
2
0 8
0
I
1
5 6
0 E
‘'
0
I, RI
1
0 4
0 c
2
-
5 2
0
0I 02 0
.3 04
S
pac
ing d i
n w
ave
lengths
ha. 1-
15. Current ri a
nd radia
tion r
esistance R 1 i
neach e
lementof af
l
at-top b
eam
a
ntenna a
s af
unction o
f the spac
ing. T he current iscalcu
lated f
or ac
onstant i
nput
p
ower o
f 1
00 w
atts tothe ar
ray.
s
pac
ing d. T he t
ota
l termina
l r
es
istance R1T is a
s g
i
ven b
y (
1
1-72
). T
he
t
ermina
l rad
iation r
es
istance R,i
sgiven by
R,= RI
, — R1
2 (
1
1-74
)
S
ubs
titut
ing (11-74
) i
n (1
1-72
) t
he t
o
tal t
e
rmina
l r
e
sis
tance f
o
r each
e
l
emen t i
sthen
R1
2
' = RI
I RIL RI
2 (
11
-75)
I
f ap
ower W i
ssupp
lied t
o t
he t
wo-e
lemen
t a
r
ray
, t
he c
urren
t II i
nea
ch
e
l
ement i
s
I
,- (
1
1-76
)
1/
2(
R1
, + RI
L—R
12
)
T
he t o
tal t
ermina
l re
sis
tance Ror o
f as
i
ngle
, c
ente
r-f
ed I
-wave
leng
th
r
e
ference a
ntenna i
s
RO
T = RO
O + RO
L (
1
1-77
)
w
here Ro i
sthe s
el
f-re
sistance and R
oz
, the l
o
ssre
sistance o
fthe r
e
fer
ence
a
n
T
tenna
he cur
ren
t /
0
a
tthe terminals o
fthe r
ef
e r
ence a
ntenna ist
hen
I0 —
)
I
R
O+ RO
L
(
1
1-78
)
SE
C
. I-
5
] AR R A YS OF L
99
W
i th the a
rray e
lements ver
tical
, the g
ain infi
e
ld i
ntens
ity as afunc
tion
o
f4 )inthe hor
izonta
l plane (x
-y plane i
n Fig
. 1-7a
) iso b
tained by s
ub-
s
t
ituting (1
1-76) i
n (1
1-37), (
11-78) in (
11
-24) a
nd t
aking the r
at
io which
g
ives
rA . 2
(R0
0 R
oc) . (d
s
m ,co
s)0
G M[. w .]
H
\ 2
(
1
1-79
)
— R 12
Th
is exp
ression reduces to (1
1-52) if t
he lo
ss r
e
sis
tances ar
e zero
(
Roz
, = RIL =0 )
.
I
n asimi
la r way the g
a
in in fi
eld i
n
tens
ity a
s af
unction o
f 0in t
he
v
ert
ica
l p
lane (x-
z plane i
nFig
. 1 -7a
) i
s
2
(R o Ro
L)
s
m.(
d
,si
n 0)
Gf(
0) (
1
1-80
)
LIAM. .
1 — I
RI,± RiL — RI
R \ 2 /
This r e
duce s to ( 11-54) i ft he l o
s s resis tance sa r
e z e ro.
The e fec t o f loss r es
i stance o n t h e g ain o f ac lo sely s paced a rray o f
t
wo o ut-o f
-pha se 4 -wave leng th e l
emen t
s o ve r a4 -wave leng th r e
fe rence
a
n tenna i si lustrated b y t he c urve s i nF ig. 1 -13a . T he g a
in p resen ted i s
a
ctua lly t he max imum g ain w hich o ccu rs i n the d i rec t
ion s o f max imum
r
adia t
ion f rom t he a r
ray ( 4
) = 0 ° a nd 1 80 '
; 0= 9 0°). T he t op c urve,
which w as m entioned e a r
l ier, i sf or z ero l oss r es
i stance ( R oz,= =0 )
.
The l owe r c urve s are f or f our d if erent v alue s o fa s sumed l oss resistance :
1
, 1 ,5 ,a nd 2 0 o hm s. T he a ssump t ion i s made t ha t the l oss r es
i stance
f
lu o fe ach e lemen t o ft he a rray i st he s ame a s t he l oss r e
sistance R ol, o f
t
he r eference 4 -wave leng th a n tenna ( tha t i s X L = RO L )
. It i
sa ppa rent
f
rom t he c urve s t hat al os s re s
istance o f o n
ly 1o hm s e
riou sly l imit s the
g
ain a t spa cings o f less t han wave leng th, a nd l arger l oss r es
is tance s
c
ause r educ tion s i n g a
in a t c onside rab ly g rea ter s pa c
ing s. I f t he l o
ss
r
esistance i st aken t o b e 1o hm ( a n o t u nlikely v a
lue f or at ypical h igh-
f
requency a ntenna )
,t he g ain i sa lmo s tc ons tan t ( with in 0 .
1d b) f o
rs pac ings
b
etwe en 4 a nd 4 wave leng th. Sma l le r s pacing s r esu lt i n r educed g ain
b
ecau se o f d ecrea sed e f
i ciency w h
ile l a
rge r s pac ing s a lso g ive r e duced
g
ain, n ot b e caus e o f de crea sed e f
ic
iency , b u t b ecau se o f the d ecreas e in
t
he c oupling f ac
to r. As pa cing o f w ave leng th h ast he a dvan tage t ha tt he
p
hy sicals i
ze o ft he a ntenna i sl ess
. H oweve r, r esonance i ssha rperf ort h
is
s
pa cing t han f o
r w ide r s pa c
ing s
. H ence , as pa cing o f 4w ave leng th i sto
b
e p referred i f aw ide b and w id th i sd e si
red . I n some s i
tua tion s an i nte
r-
media te orc omp rom ise s pa cing i si ndica ted .
The Q o fa n a ntenna , l i
ke t he Q o fa ny r esonan t c ir cuit
, i sp ropo rt ional
t
o t he ratio o ft he e nergy s tored t o t he e ne rgy l o
s t ( in hea t or rad ia tion)
p
er c ycle. F or ac on stant p owe r i npu t t o t he c lo se ly s paced a rray t he
Qi snearly p ropo rtiona lt ot he s qua re o ft he c urren t Ii ne ach elemen t
. R efer
-
r
ing t oF ig. 1 -15 , iti sa ppa ren t t hatt he c urren t f or 4w ave leng th s pac ing
3
00 ANTE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
i
sa bou t t wice t he v alue f or Iw aveleng th s pacing. H ence t he Q f or
waveleng th s pa cing i sa bou t four times t he Q f or wave length s pa cing.
Al arge Q i n d
ica te s al arge amoun t of s tored e nergy n ear the a ntenna
i
np ropor tion t o t he energy r ad
iated p er cycle. T h
is a lso m eans t ha t the
a
ntenna a cts l i
ke a s ha rply t uned circuit. S ince t he b and w id th ( i
f iti s
n
arrow ) i si nver sely p ropo r t
ional to t he Q , as pac
ing o f Iw aveleng th
p
rov ides a bou t f our t ime s the band w idth o btained w ith waveleng th
s
pacing. A l though t he e f
iciency ofa n a rray w ith c l
o sely s paced , o ut
-of-
p
ha se elemen tsm igh tb e increased, fore xamp le, b yu sing al a
rge d iame ter
c
onduc to r f o
r e ach e lemen t, any sub stan t
ial i ncrease i n band w id th r e
-
q
uires a n i ncrea se i n the s pacing b etween t he e lemen ts
. T his i ncrease
a
lso raises the r ad ia t
ing e ff
iciency.
T he fla
t-top b eam o r c l
osely spaced a ntenna a rray d i
s cussed a bove i n
t
his s e
c t
ion c onsis t
s o f t wo s i
de-by-side, o ut-of-pha se I -waveleng th e l
e-
men ts as indica ted i nF ig
. 1 -14 and i nF ig. 1 -16a . F ive o ther examp les
o
ff lat
-top b eam a n
tenna s a re shown i nF ig. 1 -16 w i
th a rrow s l o
cated a t
T I E (
a) d (
d
)
- - *
1
1 7- 1 7— (
b
) (
e
)
T
erm
ina
ls
C
ente
r-fed t
ypes E
nd-fed t
ypes
P
ie. 1
-16
. S
ix t
ype
soff
l
at-
top b
eam a
ntennas
.
c
urren t max ima indicating the i
nstan taneousc ur rentd irec
tions. T he t ype
a
t F ig
. 1 -16b has a n a dd
itional coll
inea r I-wave length s e
ction
, t he t wo
s
ect
ions b e
ing ene rgized from the cent er
. Af our sect
ion c enter
-fed a rray
i
si lustrated in Fig. 1 -16c
. T he a ddi
tional s ect
ions y ie
ld a highe r gain
byv ir
tue o fthe sharpe rb eam int he plane oft he e l
emen ts
. T he antenna s
o
fF igs. 1 -16d, e,a nd fa re end
-fed t ypes correspond ing tot he center-fed
a
rray s int he l
eft
-hand g roup. T he spacing d i susually between a nd
waveleng th.
1-6 . A r
ray of nD riven Elemen ts. T he f i
eld p attern of an array o f
many e lemen t
s c an o f
ten b e obtained b y an a pplication of the principle
o
f p attern multiplication. A s a n examp le, conside r the vo
lume a rray of
SE
C
. 1
-6] AR R A YS OF L
01
F
ig. 1-17 con s
isting o fs i
xteen 1-wavelength elementsw ith equal current s
.
I
n the y direction t he s pacing between elemen ts isd, in t
he x d irect
ion
t
he spa
cing i sa,a nd int he zd ire
ction the s
pa c
ing ish. L etthe yd irection
a
rray and zd irection a rrays be broadside types and the x d
irection a rray
a
n end-fire type s uch t hat the max imum r ad
iation of the ent
ire v olume
a
rray isinthe p ositive xd irect
ion. L et d= h= X /2 and a = X /4. C on-
s
ider t
ha t the cur rents i n al
l elements are equal in magnitude a nd t hat
t
he currents int he f r
on t eight el
emen ts a
re inp hase but re
tarded b y 90°
w
ith respect to the c urrents int he re
ar eight el
emen ts
. B y the principle
z
t
2
M
ax
imum
r
ad
iat
ion
X
F
in. 1-
17. A
rray o
f 1
6 1
-wave
leng
th e
l
ement
s.
o
fp attern mult
ipl
ication the pa
tte
rn o fthe ar
ray isgiven by the p
attern
o
f as i
ngle element mult
ipl
ied b y the p
attern of avo
lume a rray ofpoint
s
ources
, w here t
he point s
ou r
ces have the same s
pace dist
ribution a
s the
e
lemen ts
. I n genera
l, the fi
eld p
attern E(e, 4) o
f av olume a r
ray as a
f
unction of 0and 0 i
s
E
(e,q
t
.
) =E
.(e
,4) .
) E
.(e
,0) E
.(e
,4.
) E
,(8
,4) (
1
1-81
)
wher
e E„(e,0) =p attern o
fs i
ngle element
E
.(e
,4 ) =p at
tern ofl i
neara rray ofp oint s
ources in xd
irection
E
.(e
,0 ) =p a
ttern ofl i
neara rray ofp oint s
ourcesi n yd
irection
E
.(e
,1 ) = p
6 a
ttern ofl i
near array o
fp oint s
ources in zd
irect
ion
The p
roduc t o
ft he l
ast th
ree term s in (
11-81) isthe pattern o
f av o
lume
a
rray o
fp ointsources [s
ee Eq. (4
-77)]. I f
, fori n
stance, we w
ish too btain
t
he pat
tern of the ent
ire array E (0) as af unction ofct)in t
he x-y plane
(
0=9 0°)
, w e i
ntroduce the a ppropr
ia te pattern expres
sion int h
is plane
3
02 AN TE N N AS [CH
AP. 1
f
or e
ach c
omponent ar
ray in (
11-81
). F
or t
he e
xamp
le b
e
ing c
ons
ide
red
t
he n
ormal
ized p
atte
rn becomes
s
i
n (
2rsi
n 4) F
i
r
= 4s
i
n [
(
r/2
) si
n4cs L
o 4(
- 1 — c
°
5 (
1
1-82
)
O
nly the E.(
16) broadside patte
rn and the E.(4
,
) e nd
-fi
rep attern con
tribute
t
othe array pattern int he x-y p
lane, s
ince inthis p
lane the E.(
16
) pattern
o
f asing
le elemen t and the E,(4
)) b
roadside pattern ar
e unity.
The impedance r e
lat
ion s for an ar
ray o f any n umber no f ident
ical
e
l
emen ts are der
ived b y an extens
ion o f t
he analys
is used i n t
he spec
ial
c
ase
s int he p
reced ing se
c t
ions.
' T hus
, for ndriven elementsw eh ave
V1 = /
,Z
,, /
2Z
12 /
2Z
13 ± •••+
V2 = 11 Z21 /2 Z22 /3 Z23 + • ••
Vg = /1 Z8 /2 Z32 /3 Z33 + •• • ± /
,, Z3. (
1
1-83
)
V ,Z.
. =I 3 /
2Z
,,
2 /
3Z.
3 + •••
w
here V
„ =t e
rm ina
l vol
tage ofthe nth e
lement
=te
rm ina
l current o
fthe nth e
lement
Z1.= mutual impedance between el
ement 1a
nd t
he n
th e
l
ement
=se
lf-
impedance o fthe n
th el
ement
T
he dr
iving
-point or termina
l i mpedance of o
ne o
f t
he el
ement
s, s
ay
e
l
ement 1,i
sthen
V1 • /2 /3
Z = = Z1 —
r Z
12 + T
. Z 13 -I- •••-
F (
1
1-84
)
I
ft he c
ur rents i
n t he elements and the se
lf a nd mutual impedances are
k
nown , the dr
iving -point impedance Z, can b
e e valuated
.
The vo
l tage ga
in o fa n a
rray of ne l
ements o ver asing
le e
lemen t c
an be
d
etermined i nthe s ame manne raso utl
ined fo
rt he s
pecia
lcases c
onsidered
i
n the previous s ect
ion s
. F o
r i n
stance, t
he g ain in fi
e
ld inten
sity as a
f
unction of4 ,int he x-y pl
ane ( 0 = 90°) f
or the array of F
ig
. 1 -17 with
r
espect to as ingle v ert
ica
l I -wavelength e
lemen t with t
he same p ower
i
nput is
G
A
60
R
,, Riz
,
RI
L R
13-
1-R
,3-
1- R 17 + l( R12 RIO
)+ M 1
4 ± R 18)
s
in ( 2rsin 4 ,
)
(
1
1-85
)
s
in [(r/2) s
in 4 ,
1 c
s [
o 4
7 1 —
. ( c
°
s
seefo
re xample
, P
. S
.C a
rter
, C
ircu
it Re
lat
ions i
n Rad
iat
ing S
yst
emsa
nd A
ppl
ica
-
t
i
ons t
o Antenna P
rob
lems
, Proc
. I
.R.E
., 2
0, 1
007
, June
, 1
932.
SE
c
. 1
.7] AR R A YS OF L
03
whe re R„ = s e
lf-resistance o fo ne e lemen t
R. = l o
s s res
is tance o fo ne e lemen t
= mu tual r esistance b etween e lement 1a nd e lemen t 2
R
, 3 = mu tual r esistance b etween e lemen t 1and e lemen t 3,e t
c.
The n umbe ring o ft he e lement si sa si ndicated i nF ig
. 1 -17. I ti sa ssumed
t
hat d= h = X /2 a nd a = X /4 a nd t ha
tt he curren t magn i
tude sa r ee qual,
t
he c urr
ents i n the f ron t eight e lemen ts b eing a l
l in the same p has e b ut
r
etarded 9 0° w i
th r e
sp ec tt o the c urrent s int he reare i
gh te l
emen ts.
1-7 . Ho rizon talA ntennas A bove aP lane G round. I nt he previou sd i
s-
c
ussions i th as b een a ssumed t ha t the a ntenna o r a
rray i si n free s pace,
t
hat i s
, inf
in itely r emo te f r
om t he ground . A lthough t he f i
eld s n ear
e
leva ted m ic rowave a ntenna s m ay c lo
se ly a pp
roxima te this i dea
lized
s
i
tua tion, t he f i
eld s of mo st antenna s a r
e a fected by t he presence o ft he
g
round . T he c hange i nt he p attern
f
rom i t
s free -spa ce shape i so f pri- /Antenna
mary i mpor tance . T he i mpedance
r
e
la tion s may a lso b e d iferen t than
when t he a
rray i si nfree s pa ce
,e spe -
G
round
c
ial
ly i fthe a rray i svery c l
ose tot he
g
round . Int hiss ec
tion t he efect o f
t
he g round o nh orizon tala ntenna si s
d
iscu ssed. I nS e c
. 1 -8 t he efec to f
t
he g round i sa na lyzed f or v er
tica l x —
ima ge
2
a
ntenna s
. An umbe ro fs pecialc ases FI G
. 1 - 18. i
-waveleng th a ntenna a t
a
ret r
ea ted ine ach s ection ,t heseb e
- h eight ha bove ground w ith i mage ate qua
l
i
ng l imited t o s ingle e lemen t s or to d i
s tance b elow ground .
s
imp le a rrays o fs eve ral e l
emen ts.
1-7a . H orizon tal 4 -wa veleng th An t
enna A bo v e G round . C onside r t he
h
o r
izon tal 4-wave leng th a ntenna s hown i nF ig. 1 -18 a t ah eigh t ha bove
ap lane g round o fi nf
in ite ex tent. Ow ing t o t he p resence o f t he g round ,
t
hef i
eld a t ad istan t p oint Pi sthe r esultan t o f ad irectw ave a nd aw ave
r
ef
lec ted f rom t he g round a s i n Fig. 1 -19 . A ssum ing t hat t he g round i s
p
erfe ctly c onduc t
ing , t he tangen tial componen t o f t he elec tr
ic f i
eld mus t
v
an i
sh a t it
s s u rface. T o f ulf
ill this b ounda ry c ondition , t he r ef
lec ted
wave mu st s
ufe r ap ha se reve rsal of 180°a tt he p oin t ofr e f
lec t
ion .
T
o o btain the f i
eld a t ad istan t poin t P , i ti sc onven ien t t o t r
an sform
t
he p rob lem b y t he " me thod o f image s." I n t h
is m e
thod t he g round i s
r
eplaced b y a n i mage o f the a ntenna s i
tua ted a d is
tance h b elow t he
g
round p lane. B y taking t he c urren t i n the i mage e qua l i n magn itude
b
ut r eve rsed i n p hase b y 180 ° w ith r e
spe ct t o t he a ntenna c urren t
, t he
c
ondi tion o fz ero t angen t
ial e lectr
ic f i
eld i sm e t a ta ll point s a long ap lane
e
verywhe re equ id istant f rom t he a ntenna a nd t he i mage . T his i st he
p
lane o ft he ground w hich t he i mage r ep laces. I n t h
is w ay, t he p rob lem
3
04 A N TEN N AS [Cm"
. 1
o
f ah or
izon tal a ntenna a bove a perfect
ly c onducting ground' of i
n f
inite
e
xtent can b e tran sformed into the problem a l
ready t r
eated inS ec
. 1 -3
o
f aso-called end-fire array
. O ne point ofdiference isthati ndeveloping
t
he gain e xp
ression i tisassumed t hat i fap ower W i sdel
ivered t o the
a
ntenna, a n equa l p ower isa l
so supplied to the i mage
. H ence
, at otal
p
ower 2W i sfu rnished t o t
he " end-f
ire array" consist
ing oft he antenna
a
nd its image.
Owing t othe pre sence ofthe ground, the dr
iving-pointi mpedance oft he
T
o distan
t
p
oint P
D
irect
w
ave
An
(
E
lement 1
)
R
eflec
ted
P
hase r w
ave
G
round
I
mage
(
E
lement 2
)
FI
G
. 1
-19
. A
ntenna a
bove g
round w
ith i
mage s
how
ing d
i
rect a
nd r
ef
lec
ted w
ave
s.
a
ntenna i
s
, ingene
ral
, dif
eren
t than i
t
s fr
ee-
space v
alue
. T
hus
, t
he a
p-
p
l
ied vo
ltage a
t t
he a
ntenna t
erm
inals i
s
V
, =I
,Z,
, I
,Z. (
1
1-86a
)
w
here I = t
he antenna cur
rent
/2 = t
he image cu
rrent
Z„ = t
he se
lf-
impedance oft he a
ntenna
Z. = t
he mu tual impedance of the an
tenna and it
s i mage a
t a
d
istance o
f2 h
S
ince /2 = — I
„ the d
riv
ing- orfeed-po
int impedance o
fthe a
ntenna i
s
Z1 = =Z
, —Z
. (
1
1-86b
)
T
he r
ea
l p
art o
f(1
1-86b
) o
rdr
iving
-po
int r
ad
iat
ion r
e
sis
tance i
s
R
, =R
,
, —R
. (
1
1-86
c)
T
he va
ria
tion o
fth
is r
es
istance a
t the c
enter o
fthe 4
-waveleng
th ant
enna
i
sshown in F
ig
. 1-20 a
s af unc
tion of the a
ntenna h
eight habove t
he
1I
tisal
so po
ssib
le to a
pply t
he me
thod o
fi mage
s to t
he c
ase o
f aground ofinf
ini
te
e
xtent b
ut off
in
ite c
onductiv
ity aa
nd ofd
ie
lectric c
on s
tant eb
y prop
erly adju
sting t
he
r
e
lative magn
itude and p
hase o
fthe i
mage c
urrent with r
e
spectto t
he antenna cur
rent
.
S
ac. 1
-7] AR R A YS OF L
05
g
round. A s t
he h eigh
t become s v ery la rge, t
he efect oft he image on the
r
es
istance d e
crea ses, t
he r adiat
ion r esis tance approa ch
ing i t
s f r
ee-space
v
alue.
S
ince the a ntenna a nd i mage h ave c urrent
s o f equal m agnitude b ut
o
pposite phase, there iszero radia tion i nthe hor
izon tal plane
, that is
, in
t
he di
rect
ion f orw hich t
he elevation a ng le a isze
ro (see Fig
. 1 -19). I fthe
h
eight his w avelength or les
s, t he m aximum r ad
iation i salways int he
v
ert
ical d
irection ( a = 9 0
° )
. F o r large r heights t
he max imum r adiat
ion
i
s
,i ngeneral
, a ts ome el
eva t
ion a ngle b etween 0°a nd 9 0°
.
I
ti sconven ient to compa re t he h or
izon tal i
-wave length a nt
enna a t a
V
1
00
9
0
e
o
7
0
R
esistance at
6
0 i
n
tini eheigh
t
5
0
4
0
3
0
2
0
1
0
o 0 0
1 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 1
0
H
eigh
t a
bov
e g
round i
nwave
leng
ths
F
ie. 1
-20. D r
iving
- or f
eed
-point r
eistance RIa
s t t
he cent
er of aho
rizonta
l i-wave
-
l
eng
th an
tenna a
s afunct
ion ofit
sheight above aper
fect
ly conduct
ing ground
.
h
eight habove g
round with respectto ai-wavelength a
ntenna i
nfre
es pace
w
ith the s
ame poweri nput. A t al
arge d
istance the g
a
in infi
e
ld intens
ity
o
f the "Half
- Wave
length a ntenna A bove G round" (H.W.A.G.) with re
-
s
pect to the "Hal
f- Waveleng th an
tenna i n Free Space" (H
.W .F.S.
) i s
g
iven by
,
F
H
.WA
.G R
11 ±R
ic
2
1 LH .W.F.S1 RI
L R
.
1
2si
n (
hrs
i
n a
)I (
1
1-87
)
w
here h
, = (
27
11)0h
RI,= s
e
lf-res
i s
tance ofi-wave
length a
ntenna
RIL= l
os
s resistance o
fI-wave
length an
tenna
R. = mutual r e
sis
tance o
fi-wave
length an
tenna a
nd i
t
s i
mage a
ta
d
istance of2 4
3
06 AN TE N N AS [CH
AP. 1
Hor
izontal
h
alf-wove antenna
/
Ground
'
7
.w.
r/f
/ m7
/7/7
/7,j
H
a
lf-wove
a
n
tennain
t
r
ee sp
ace
h0
.
1k h= 0
25 X
2 1 h
=0.5X 1 22 1 1 2
F
lo. 1-2
1. V er
tical
-p lane pa
tterns o
f ah or
izonta
l 4
-wavelength antenna a
t var
ious
h
eigh
ts habove aperfectly c
onducting g
round as c
a
lcu
lated fr
om (11-87) f
or RI
L = 0.
Equa tion ( 1
1-87) g ives t he g ain i n the v er
tical p lane n orma l t o the a n-
t
enna a s af unct
ion o f a( s
ee F ig. 1 -21)
.
The v ertical -plane p atterns o f a
Cone of c
ons
tant
h
o rizontal 4
-w a velen g
t h a
n ten na a
re
e
levat
ion ang
le a s
hown i n F ig. 1 -21 f or h eigh ts
Ho
rizontal h= 0 .1
,0 .25,0 . 5,and 1 .0w aveleng th .
a
ntenna
T
op o
int
The circula rp attern i sf or a4 -wave -
l
eng th antenna i nf rees pace ( thati s
,
w
i th the g round r emoved ) w ith t he
s
ame p owe r i nput . I t isa ssumed
t
ha t lo
ss r esistance sa re zero.
G
round
I
ti sa
lso o fi nteres ttoc alcula te t he
f
i
eld p attern a s af unction o ft he a zi-
mu th angle ei
)f or ac ons tante leva tion
Image antenna angle a. T he r adius v ecto r t o t he
G
round d
istan t p o
in t P t hen s weeps o ut a
I c
one a ss ugge sted i nF ig. 1 -22 . T o
f
ind thisf i
eld p attern,l e
tu sfi
r stc on -
FI
G. 1-22 . Hor izontala ntenna a theight
habove g round (x
-y p lane) s howing a z
i-
s
ide rthe field p a
tte rn o f ahorizon tal
muth a ngle ckand e l
eva t
ion a ngle a for antenna i n f ree s pace a s i n F ig.
adistant p o
intP. 1 -23. T he x -y p l ane i sh or
izon tal.
SE
C
. 1
-7] AR RA YS OF L
I NE A R ANTEN N AS 3
07
The f
i
e
ld i n
tens
ity at ala
rge d
is
tance i n t
he di
rec t
ion a, 0isthen given
b
y the l
ength OA b e
tween the o
rigin and the point of i
nte
rsec
tion of a
c
one o
felevat
ion ang
le aand t
he s
urface oft
he three-dimens
ionaldoughnu t
f
i
eld p
attern of t
he ant
enna as s
ugge sted i
n Fig. 1 -23
. T h
is le
ngth is
C
ross-sec
tion
T
hrough doughnut
s
haped fie
ld pa
ttern
C
one of c
onstant
e
levat
ion angle
Horizonta
l
antenna
Re)
. 1 -23
. G eome
trica
l c
ons
truct
ion f
o
r f
i
nding t
he f
i
e
ld i
n
ten
sity a
t ac
ons
tan
t
e
levat
ion ang
le a
.
o
btained f
rom t he fi
e
ld -pat
te rn f
o
rmula of t
he a
ntenna i
n f
ree s
pace by
e
xpress
ing the pola
r a ngle 0
' from t
he a
ntenna a
xis i
n t
erms o
f aa nd 0
.
F
ort he s
pherica
l right tr
iangle i
nFig
. 1-23 we h
ave
c
os0
' = c
os 0c
os a (
1
1-88a
)
o
r
s
in (
1
)
'= VI— c
os
' 0c
os
'a (
1
1-88b
)
S
ubs t
itut
ing these re
lat
ions i
n the p
atte
rn f ormu
la, w e get the fi
eld i
n-
t
ensity i
n the d
irec
tion a,0. For e
xample, b y s
ubsti
tuting (11-88a) a
nd
(
11-88b) i
nto (5
-84), no
ting t
hat 0
' in (
11-88a) and (11-88b
) e quals 0 i
n
(
5-84), w
e obta
in forthe fi
e
ld o
f ai-wave
leng th h
orizontal an
tenna
E
( ¢ ) c
os [
(
i/2
) cos co
sa] (
1
1-89
)
a
,( - V1 — c o
s' 0c
os
'a
T
hen t
he re
lat
ive fi
e
ld pa
tte
rn ofthe h
orizonta
l 4
-wavelength a
ntenna i
n
f
r
ee s
pace a
s afunc
tion o
f 0at af
i
xed e
levation a
ngle a0 i
sgi
ven by
c
os [
(
r/2
) c
os 0c
osa
.
]
E
(0) — (
1
1-90
)
V1 — c
os
' 4
1 c
os
'a.
3
08 ANTE N N A S [
CHAP
. 1
To obta
in t he fi
eld patte
rn o f the antenna w hen s i
tuated at ah eight h
a
bove a p erfe
ctly c onduct
ing g round, w e multiply the a bove f
ree-space
r
e
lations by the p a
ttern oft wo iso
tropic po
in t sour
ce s ofequal amplitude
b
ut opposite phase. T he sources areseparated b y adistance 2
ha long the
zax
is. F rom ( 4-10) the pattern of the is
otropic sources becomes in the
p
res
en t c
as e
E . = s
,.. i
n (h, s
in a) (
1
1-91)
w
here h
, i
sth
ehe
igh
toft
he a
ntenna a
bove g
round i
nrad
ians
, t
hat i
s
,
2
Th
h, = —x
Th
is p a
tt ern i
sindependent oft he a
z
imu th angle 4
)
. Mu lt
iply
ing t
he f
ree-
s
pace fie
ld p at
tern of any horizonta
l a ntenna b y (1
1-91) y
ie
lds t
he fi
e
ld
p
attern f or t
he antenna above a per
fe c
tly c onduct
ing ground
. T hus
, for
ahorizon tal 4
-wavelength antenna a bove a p er
fect
ly conduct
ing g
round
t
he three-dimensionalfi
e
ld p a
tt e
rn as afunction ofboth aand 4
)iso
bta
ined
b
y mu ltiplying (1
1-89) and (1
1-91) which gives
c
os [
(
T/2
) cos(i
)co
sa ] .
E — s
m (
1
4si
na) (
1
1-92
)
V1 — coe 4
)cos2 a
w
her
eh , = the h
eigh
t ofthe antenna a
bove g
round i nrad
ians
A
s a
n example, t
he f
ie
ld pat
terns as af
unct
ion o fthe a
zimuth ang
le 4)a
t
e
l
evat
ion angles a = 10
°, 2 0
°, and 30
° are presented i
n Fig
. 1 -24 a
s
1
80
'
.
0
O•
no. 1-24. Azimutha
lfi
eld p
atterns o
fhorizonta
l i
-wave
leng
th a
ntenna iw
ave
leng
th
a
bove ground a
tel
evat
ion ang
les a.1 0°
, 20°
, and 3
0°
.
SE
C
. 1
-7] AR R A YS OF L
09
c
alcula ted f rom ( 11-92 ) fo
r ah orizon tal 4-waveleng th antenna a
t ah eight
o
f4w aveleng th ( h
, = w ) a bove ap e rfec
tly conduc ting ground ofin f
in
ite
e
xten t
. T he re
lative magn itude s o ft hese pa
tte rns at( t
)= 90° o
r 270 ° a
re
s
een t oc or respond t ot he fi
eld i n
ten si-
t
iesa t a= 1 0°
, 20 °
,a nd 30°i nt he ve r-
H
alf-wave
t
i
cal -plane p attern o f Fig. 1 -21 f or e
lements
h= 0 .5X. I tshou ld b en oted t hatt he

f
i
eld ish o
rizonta l
ly p o
larized at4 )= 9 0 °
o
r 2 70° a nd i sver tical
ly p olarized a t
= 0° a nd 4 ,= 1 80 °
. A ti n
termed iate
a
zimu th a ngles the f i
eld isl i
nearly p o -
l
ar
ized a t as lanta ngle. G
round
1-7b. F lat-
top B eam An tenna A bove
G
round . I n t h
is s ect
ion t he c ase o f
t
wo h orizon tal
, clo sely spaced , o ut
-o f
-
p
ha se 4 -wave leng th e l
emen t s or f l
at-
t
op b eam a ntenna a bove a p erfectly
c
onduc ting g round i sd iscussed. R e- 3
I
mage
f
e
r r
ing t o F ig. 1 -25 , let the 4 -wave - e
l
ements
l
e
ng th elementsb ea t ahe
ight habove FI . 1-
G 2
5
. F la
t-top beam a
ntenna
t
heg round and separat
ed by adis
tance a bove g
round
.
d
. T he gain in f
ie
ld int
ensi
ty of th
is
a
ntenna r e
lative to a4-wavelength an
tenna in fr
ee space wi
th the same
p
owe ri nput isgi
ven by'
G
f(a
) l
- A
.A.G
. 1 RI
, R1
L
LH
.W
.F.
S1 \
12(R i L ±-
RI 1
-
R 14 - R 12 - R 13) (
1
1-93
)
I
[1 — 1/(d
, c
os , s
— 1A 2h i
na) 1/(d
, c
o
s a-
I
-2h
,si
na)1 I
w
here d
, = s
pacing ofe l
emen t
s i nradians =2 wd/X
h
, = h
eight ofe l
emen ta bove ground inr ad
ian s =2 wh/X
R. = s
e
lf-res
istance of asingle el
emen t
R,L = l
oss r
esi
stance of as ing
le el
emen t
R. = mutual re
sistance o
fe l
emen ts 1and 2
R 13 = mutual res
istance o
fe l
emen ts 1and 3,etc.
whe
re t he element s ar
e n umbered a sinF ig
. 1 -25. T he ga
in in(11-93
) is
e
xpressed a s af unct
ion o f aint he vert
ical pl
ane n o
rma l t
o the e
lements
.
Po
lar p lots c a
lculated b y (1
1 -93) fo
r the g a
in i n f
ie
ld inten
sity of a
f
l
at-top b eam a ntenna c ons
ist
ing o f two 4-wavelength el
emen ts spa
ced
IJ
. D . K raus
, A ntenna Arrays w
ith C lo
sely Spaced Elements
, P roc
. I.R
.E., 2 8
,
7
6-84, February, 1
940.
•T he s
ymbo ls i
nthe b
racketsarebyw ay o
fexplanat
ion thatt
he ga
in inf i
e
ld i
ntens
i ty
i
sfo
r t he "
Array Above G round w
ith r
espect t
o aHalf- Wave
length (antenna i
n) Free.
S
pace."
3
10 AN TE N N AS [CH
AP. 1
h
=0.5X h
=0.75X
F
lat-
top beam
F
lat
-top b
eam a
ntenna
H
alf-wave ( a
ntenna
a
ntenna
•4 •
h h H
alf
-wave
a
ntenna
t
rounc 1 2 3 1 2
Gain i
nfie
ld intensity G
ain i
nfi
e
ld in
tensity
o
ver h
alf-wave a n
tenna o
ver h
al
f-wave antenna
i
nf r
ee -space i
nfree-space
Pm. 1-26 . V ert

ical-plane p a
tterns ( s
ol
id c urves) o f t wo
-element f l
at-top beam
a
ntenna with [w avelength spacing at he
ights of [a nd Iw avelength above ground.
The pa
tterns a
re plot
ted r e
lat
ive to a[-wavelength a ntenna infree s
pace wi
th the s
ame
p
owe r i
nput. T he vert
ical pl
ane p a
tterns o
f asingle [-wavelength antenna at t
he s
ame
h
eights a
bove ground a nd with the same power input are s
hown f or comparison b
y the
d
ashed curves
. The l e
ft-hand quadrants ofthe vertical p
lanes are omit
ted.
3
.5
a
.
o
t.
.15
*
3
.0
c 2
.5
o
c=30
°
.
.
.
,.
-
_
,
2
.0 7
F
lat-top b
eam
/ \
r
.
, .
5 1 c
x—I5 °
/ H
alf -
wave
/ a
ntenna
/
/
.t
7
1
1
.0 N
,
.
.
0
.5 .
- \
-
-- \
- ---- - -- \
\
0 0 0
1 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 1
.
0
H
eight a
bove g
round i
n w
ave
lengths
FIG
. 1-27 . Ga in i n fie
ld i nt
ensity o f t wo-
element fla
t-top b eam a ntenna with [
wavelength s
pacing (so
lid curve s
) a nd of asing
le [-wave
leng th a
ntenna (dashed c
urves)
a
s af unct
ion of the h
eight a bove ap erfect
ly c onduct
ing ground. Ga ins are r
e
lat
ive to
asi
ngle [-wave
leng th antenna inf r
ee space with the s
ame powerinput. C urvesare g
iven
f
or eleva
tion a
ng les a = 5 °
, 15°, and 30°.
SE
C
. I-
7
4 AR R A YS OF L
11
waveleng th a pa rt are p resented b y t he sol

id curve s i n Fig. 1 -26 f or
a
n tenna h eight s of 4 a nd 4 wave length a bove g round . P atterns of a
s
ingle 4 -wave leng th a ntenna a t the s ame h e
igh ts above g round a nd w ith
t
he s ame p ower i nput a re s hown f or compa r
ison ( da
shed c urve s)
. T he
g
ain i nf i
eld inten s
ity i se xpressed r e
lative to a4 -wave leng th a ntenna i n
f
ree spa ce w ith the s ame p owe r in put.
I
n Fig. 1 -27 t he gain i sgiven a s af unc t
ion ofh eight a bove g round f or
s
eve ra
le levation a ngles
. C urvesa res hown f orboth at wo -elemen tf l
at
-top
b
eam a nd a s ingle h or
izon tal 4 -wave leng th antenna. I ti sa ssumed t hat
l
oss res
i stance s are zero. I ff o
re xamp le, the ef
fect
ive eleva tion a ngle ata
p
ar t
icula r t ime o n ac er
tain s hort-wave c i
rcuit (transm ission v ia i ono-
s
phe ric r ef
lection s) is3 0°, w e n ote f r
om F ig. 1-27 t hat t he o ptimum
T
o distant
p
oint P
G
round
F
t°. 1
-28
. T
ilt
ed f
l
at-
top b
eam a
ntenna
.
G
ain i
n f
i
eld i
n
tens
ity
F
lo. 1-29. V ertica
l-plane pa
tterns forhorizonta
l two
-element f
i
at-top beam a
ntenna
w
ith w aveleng th spacing a
t an ave
rage height of w ave
length above g
round f
or t
i
lt
a
ngle
s 7m i. 0°
, 3 0°
, 4 5
°, and 90
°. P at
terns give g
a
in in fi
eld i
n
ten s
ity ove
r asing
le
4
-wavelength a ntenna i nf
ree s
pace with th
e same poweri nput
.
3
12 ANTENNAS [CH
AP. 1
h
eigh
t f o
r at wo-elemen
t fl
at
-top b
eam is0
.
5 w ave
length
. F or asi
ngle
i
-wavelength antenna t
he o
ptimum he
igh
t i
sabout 0.
57 wave
leng
th.
0 1 2
G
ain i
nfi
eld i
n
tens
ity
Pm
. 1-30
. Same a
sf o
r F
i
g. 1
-29 b
u
t w
i
th a
r
ray e
l
emen
ts a
tav
era
ge h
e
igh
tofI
w
ave
leng
th a
bov
eground
.
I
tisin
tere
sting t
o c
ons
ide
r the e
fect o
fti
lting t
he plane ofthe f
l
at-top
b
eam el
ements by a
n ang
le -
yas i
n Fig
. 1-28. R esult
s calcu
lated by an
ex
tens
ion oft he above ana
lys
is are
,
T c
i
t i
lustrated i
n F ig
s. 1-29 and 1 -30
f
or t wo-e
lemen t ar
rays at average
h
eights of iand Ia bove aper
fectly
S
tacked
c
onduc ting ground.
' P a
tterns are
e
lements )
1h 1 s
hown f orti
l
ta ng
les-y= 0°,30°
,4 5°
21 h a
nd 9 0°
. I na l
lc ase sthe efecto fthe
t
i
l t i sto i
ncrease t he f i
e
ld i n
ten sity
a
t l arge el
eva t
ion a ngles and t o de-
G
r., n
d c
rease i tats mal
la ngles.
1 -7c
. Stacked H orizontal i- Wave-
l
ength An tennas A bo veG round. C on-
I B
ide r the case o f t wo h or
izon tal I-
I
mage
wave length e lemen t
s s tacked i n a
e
lemen
ts v
er ticalplane a bove ap erfec
tly c on-
ducting g round o f i nf
inite e xtent.
4i The e l
emen ts h ave e qual in-pha se
F
lo
. 1 -31
. A r
ray o
fs ta
cked h or
izon
tal cur ren t
s. T he a rrangemen t o f the
4
-wav
elength e
l
ement
s. e
lemen ts and their i mage s iss hown
i
nF ig. 1-31. T he h e
igh to ft he up-
p
er element above ground i sh . Let t
he s pac
ing b etwe en e lement s b e i
w
aveleng th s
othatthe he
igh to fthe l
owe
re lemen ta bove g round i sh — X /2.
1
J
.D.K ra
us,Cha
rac
ter
ist
icso
fAn
tenn
asw
i
th C
l
ose
ly S
pa
ced E
l
emen
ts,R
adi
o,9
-
19,
F
ebr
uary
, 19
39.
SE
C
. 1
-71 AR R A YS OF L
13
T
he ga
in inf
i
eld i
n
tens
ity o
fth
isar
ray over as
i
ngle i
-wave
leng
th a
ntenna
i
nfr
ees pa
ce w
ith t
he s
ame p
owerinput i
s
,
FAA .
G.1 I R
oo - I
-ROL
G I(C
t )
L H. W. F. S 1 R1
L ± R 12 — R 13) — R 23 — R 14
•2 I{
s
in (
h
,
.si
na) + s
i
n K
h, —r
) s
i
nal
l I(
1
1-94
)
w
he re R 12 i
sthe mutualresis
tance b e
tween elemen ts 1and 2, R lo t
he mu tual
r
e
sistance b e
tween elemen ts 1a nd 3,etc
. T he element s ar
e n umbe red as
i
nF ig
. 1 -31. T h
is e
xp re
ssion givesthe gain as af unc
tion of ha nd oft he
e
l
eva t
ion a ngle ainthe vertica
lp lane no
rma l tot he pl
ane oft he e l
emen ts.
A
s a n examp le
, the ga
in i nf i
e
ld i n
tens
ity fo r two stacked in-phas e h o
ri-
z
ontal i -wave length elemen ts over af ree-space I -waveleng th a ntenna
w
ith the s ame p ower input ispresented inFig. 1 -32 as afunc t
ion o ft he
h
eight ha bove ground, for an e l
evat
ion a ngle a = 2 0°
. T he g a
ins a t
3
.5
•F
lat-
top beam
a
ntenna
3
.0
/
h
alf-wave
a
ntenna .
2
.5
tacked S
S i
ngle
h
alf-
wave
e
lements
.
.
---
..,
i ,
•
/ ‘\ \\
I
/
/ \ \
/ \ '
/ \
\
.
0
\
S
ingle h
al
f-wave
\
a
ntenna i
nfr
ee-
s
pace \
\'
\
\
0
.5 1
f=
O 20
° \
\\ 1
•
0 \\
i
''
0 05 I0 I5
H
eight h a
bove g
round i
nwave
lengths
Fm. 1 -32
. G a
in in f
i
eld intensity of array o f t
wo s t
acked horizontal 4-wavelength
e
lem ents as afunct
ion ofthe h e
ight o fthe upper el
ement f o
ra n elevat
ion a ngle o
f2 0°
.
The element s a
re s
tacked 4 w avelength apa r
t. The g ain isre
lat
iv e to asingle 4
-wave-
l
ength a ntenna infr
ee space with t he s
ame p ower input. Ga ins of at wo
-elemen t f
la
t-
t
op b eam a ntenna and si
ngle 4-wave length a n
tenna as af unct
ion o f t
he h e
ight above
g
round a re also s
hown for compa rison att he same el
eva t
ion angl
e.
3
14 ANTEN N AS [
CHAP
. 1
a= 2 0° for at wo -elemen t fl
at
-top b eam a ntenna a nd as i
ngle h o
rizontal
i
-wave leng th a n
tenna a re also shown a s af unc t
ion o f height for c om-
p
arison.
I
npra ctice iti sc ommon t oc ompa re ad i
rectionala rray such a sw eh ave
b
een discu ssing t o ah o r
izon tal I-waveleng th an tenna w i
th t he same p ower
i
nput a nd a t the s ame h e
igh t above g round ( or at t he a verage height of
t
he array ). T hus, t he g ain as af unction o f ai n t he v er
tical plane for a
h
orizontal f l
at-top b eam a ntenna at ah eight ha bove g round w ith respect
t
o as i
ngle i -wave leng th r e
ference antenna a tt he same h e
igh t isfound b y
t
aking the r atio o fE q
. ( 11-93) toE q. ( 11-87)
.
1-8. V ertical A ntennas A bove a
,
-Vertica
l stub antenna P
lane G round . C onsider av ert
ical
d
i
C
us
tr
r i
eb
nu
tt
ion p
To
int
d
isp
tan
t s
tub an tenna o f length 1a bove a
p
lane h orizontal g round o f inf
inite
c
onductiv ity a s in Fig
. 1 -33. B y
t
he m ethod o f i mages t he ground
may be r ep
laced b y an i mage a n-
' t
enna ofl ength 1w ith si
nu so
idalc ur-
r
ent di
st r
ibu tion a nd instantaneou s
1A c
urrent direction a sindicated. T he
p
roblem o fthe s tub antenna a bove
g
round t hen r educe stot he problem
N"
-
Image a
ntenna a
lready tr ea
ted i nC hap. 5o f al i
n-
f
ia. 1
-33
. V
ert
ica
l s
t
ub a
ntenna a e
ar c
bove ente
r-fed antenna with sym -
ag
round p
lane
. metr
ical current di
str
ibut
ion. T he
e
le
c t
ric fi
eld in
tensi
ty as afunct
ion
o
fthe e
l
eva
tion a
ngle aa
nd d
i
stan
ce rmay bed er
ived from (5
-81
) obtain
ing
6
0 j c
o
s(/
,si
na ) — c
os /
,
E
(a, — (
1
1-95
)
r RiL c
osa
w
he re 1,= 1 3 = ( 2w/X)1
Ri,= sel
f-resis
tance o f aver
ticals t
ub a ntenna o fl
ength l
re
ferred t
ot he
p
oint ofc urrent max imum
R
IL = e fective los
s r e
sis
tance o fa ntenna r e
ferred t
os ame point
W =p owe r input
T
he f i
eld intensity E (a, r) isin v o
lts p er m e
ter i f ri
si n met
ers, W i n
w
a t
t s
, a nd R1 a nd RILi no hm s
.
Values of the self-
resistance referred t o the current l
oop of av er
tical
s
tub a ntenna a bove a p erfect
ly c onduc ting ground h ave been given b y
B
rown ' a nd b y L abu s
.2 T hese v alues a r
e p resented as af unct
ion o f
1G
. H. Brown, AC r
itica
l S
tudy of the C harac
teri
stic
s o f B
road cast Antennasas
Afected by Antenna C urren
t Dis
tribu
tion, Proc. I
.R.E., 24
, 48-81, January, 1936
.
2 J
.Labus
, R echner
ische Ermitt
lung der I mpedanz von A ntennen, H o
ch f
requenz
-
t
echnik u
nd Elec
troakust
ik, 41
, 1
7-23, January
, 1933.
SE
C
. 1
-8] AR R A YS OF L
15
a
ntenna length i n F
ig. 1-34. U sing t he
se v a
lues of se
lf
- re
sistance
, or
r
adiat
ion res
istance, t
he fi
e
ld i nt
en si
ty o f av e
rtica
l stub antenna o fany
l
ength 1a
nd p ower input W can be c a
lculated b y (
11-95
) ata ny elevat
ion
a
ngle a and distance r. Thu s
, t he f i
e
ld i n
tensity by (1
1-95) a l
ong the
g
round (« =0 )f o
r a1-wave
leng th verticalantenna (1
, =r /2)w ith apower
i
nput of 1w att ( W = 1) at ad istance of 1m ile (r = 1,609 m eter
s) i
s
1
40
1
30
1
20
10
1
00
g 90
.
c
c
.
8
0
.=
c
7
0
• 60
40
3
0
2
0
1
0
0
0 0
1 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 I0
A
ntenna h
e
igh
t t
i
n w
ave
lengths
Fm. 1-34
. Radiation r
es
istance at t
he c
urrent lo
op o
f ath
in ver
tica
l a
ntenna a
s a
f
unct
ion o
fthe h
eight 1o
fthe antenna
. ( Af
ter Brown a
nd Lana
.)
6
.5mil
livo lt
s/me ter. The value ofR ,, for a1-wave length stub an
tenna is
3
6.5 o
hm s
, and R, 1,i
sas
sumed t ob e z
ero.
V
ert
ica l stub an
tennas, si
ngly o r indirectiona l a
rrays
, a r
e very wide
ly
u
sed f
o r broadcasting
. I n t h
is a pp
lication t he fi
eld intens
ity along t
he
g
round (a = 0 ) isofpart
icular interest
. I tisa lso c
ustoma ry t
oc ompare
f
i
eld i
n tensit
ies at some s t
anda rd d i
stance, s ay 1 mile, and for some
s
tandard inpu t s
uch a
s 1kilowa t
t. F ort hi
s ca se (1
1-95) reduce
st o
1
.
18(1 — c
o
s
E— v
olt
s/me
ter (
1
1-96
)
vR
11 R1
L
3
16 AN TE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
whe
re E isthe f
i
eld i
nt
ens
ity a
long t
he ground at adis
tance of 1m i
le for
apowe r i
nput o
f 1ki
lowat. T
t he v
ariation of Eas given by (1
1-95) is
p
resented i
n Fig
. 1 s af
-35 a unct
ion o f a
ntenna le
ngth.' 2 Al ength of
about0.64 Xyi
eldst he g
rea
testf i
e
ld
3
00 i
ntensi
ty along the ground b ut as
p
oin ted o ut b y B rown ' t he l arge
E2 50
h
ig h- a ngl e r
adi ati on f
o r t
his l
en gth
r
educe st he non fad ing r ange a tb road -
c
astf requenc ie s ( 500 t o 1 ,
500 k c) a s
200 F
tc.0 c
ompa red f or e xamp le w ith a n a n-
t
enna a bou t w aveleng th lo ng. T he
o.
non fad ing r ange i sl arge stf o ra na n-
-
7
5
"1 50 t
tenna h eigh t o f0 .528X . T he v erti-
c
al-plane p atte rn s c a
lcu la ted b y
(
11-95 )a s af unc tion o ft he e leva tion
a
ngle af orv ertica la nt ennas o fv ari-
o
us h eight s a re p re sen ted i n F ig.
1-36 . 1' 2 I t isa ssumed t hatt he l oss
r
esistance RI L = 0 ,t ha t is
, t he e n-
ti
re i npu tt ot he a ntenna i sr adia ted .
00 02 04 06 08 10 The s mall amoun to fh i gh-ang le r adi-
H
eightl o
ta n tenna i nwavelengths a
t
ion , w hich i sa n i mpor tan t f acto r
FIG. 1-35 . F ield i ntens i
ty a tt he ground i
n r educ ing f ading , i sa pparen t f or
(
zero e leva t
ion a ng le) a t ad istance o f 1 t he 1= 0 .528 Xa n tenna a sc ompa red
mile from a v ert
ica l a nten.na w ith 1k i
lo- t
oo the rl ength s.
wa t
t i nput a s af unction o f i
ts height / .
The a na lysis o f a rray s of s eve ral
Perfectly c onduct ing g round i sassumed .
The s olid c urve i s f or a n assumed l o
ss
v
erti c al s
tu b ante n nas c
a n b
e r
ed uce d
r
esistance RL = 0 a nd t he dashed c urve in a s
i mi
l ar f
as hio n t
o a
r rays o
f sym -
f
or 1 4
, 1ohm . m etrica lc ente r-fed a ntenna s. Many
oft he se h ave b een t r ea ted i n p rev i-
o
us s ection s. I nt hisc ase iti so f
t en c onven ien tt oc ompa re t he p atte rn a nd
r
efe rt he g ain t o as ingle v e r
tica l stub a ntenna w ith t he s ame p owe ri npu t.
The s i
tua t
ion o f as ymme trical c en ter-fed v ertica l a ntenna w ith i ts l owe r
e
nd s ome d istance a bove t he g round c an a lso b e trea ted b y t he m e thod o f
image s
. I n t h
is c ase t he a ntenna i sr e
duced t o ac ollinea r a rray .
F
o r the c ase o f al inea r a rray o fv ertica l e l
ement s o fe qua l h eight a nd
o
f t he s ame c ur ren t d istribu tion , t he p at te rn E (4
)) a s af unc t
ion o f t he
a
zimuth a ngle a t ac on s
tan te leva tion a ng le a i sgi ven b y
E
(0) =E
i.
..('
) XE
l (
1
1-97a
)
IS
ee G
. H. Brown, AC r
itical Study ofthe Character
ist
ics o
fB roadcas
tA ntennas as
Afected b
y Antenna Cur
ren tD is
tribution, P
roc. I.
R. E.
,25
, 78-145
,J anuary
, 1937.
C
. E. Smith, "D
irect
iona l An tennas
," Cleve
land I ns
titut
e of Radio Electronics
,
C
leveland, Oh
io, 1
946
.
S
ec. 1
-8] AR R A YS OF L
I NEA R AN T E N N AS 3
17
w
her
e Ei..
.(') = r
e
lative pattern o
farray ofiso
trop
ic p o
int source
s used
t
or eplace e
lements
E
, = r
e
la t
ive fi
eld in
ten
sity of as
ing
le v
ertical e
lemen tat t
he
e
levation ang
le a
T
he ang
le O'i
nthe pa
tte rn f
ormula o
ft he a
rray ofi
sot
rop ic s
ources i
sthe
6
0*
a=90
* c
t=90
° 1
=0.75X
(
2701
V
ertica
l
a
ntenna)
1
=1
.0X
(
3601
1
=0.64X
0
801 1
=Q528X
(
2301
(
1
9on
G
round 1 i XP
c I
o i
o
o 2
00 t
t.. 3
00 0' o t
o
o f2
00 0
F
i
eld in
tens
ity i
n f F
i
eld in
tens
ity i
n 1
62 Ii2
76
m
i
ll
ivo
lts pe
r me
ter1
9
5 2
36 2
46 m
i
ll
ivo
lts pe
rm e
ter
o
tone mile a
t on
e mile 2
26 2
41
(
a) (
b) (
c
)
Fm. 1-36
. V er
tica
l-p
lane f
i
eld p atterns of ver
tica
l a ntennas fo
r severa
l va
lues of
a
ntenna h
eight /
. The fi
e
ld i
ntens
ity i sexpres
sed in mi
llivolts p
er me
ter at ad
istance
o
f 1m
ile f
o
r 1k
i
lowa
tt i
nput
. P
erfect
ly c
onduct
ing g
round a
nd z
ero l
o
ss r
e
sis
tance
a
re a
ssumed
.
a
ngle w
ith r
e
spec
t to t
he a
rray a
x
is o
r xax
is in F
ig
. 1 -37a
. B e
fore i
n-
s
e
rting t
hi
s f
ormula i
n
to (
11
-97a) iti
sne
cessa
ry to e
xpressct
.
'interms o
f
L
i
nea
r
a
r
ray
A
r
ray a
x
is V
er
tica
l
(
b
)
(
a
)
F
io. 1-37
. G eometr
ical construct
ion fo
r find
ing f
i
eld i
ntens
ity o
f al
i
near a
rray o
f
v
ert
ica
l el
ements a
t aconstant el
eva t
ion ang
le a.
t
he a
z
imu th a
ngle a
nd e
l
eva
tion a
ngle a (
F
ig. 1
-37a
). T
his i
sdone b
y
t
he s
ubs
titu
tion
s
c
os = c 6c
os c
i o
s a (
1
1-970
a
nd
s
i
ng6
' -
= N
/1 — c
os24
)co
s2 a (
1
1-97
c)
I
f t
he r
e
lat
ive f
i
e
ld i
n
ten
sity f
o
rmu
la E
, o
f as
i
ngle v
ert
ica
l e
l
emen
t i
s
3
18 ANTE N N AS [
Cum
. 1
g
iven i
nte
rms ofthe p
ola
ra ng
le 0,the elevation angle a isint roduced b y
m
eans oft
he s
ubst
itut
ion 0 = 90° — a,s ince, a
s indicated inF ig
. 1 -37b
,
0and a a
re c
omplementary a
ngles
.
1-9. A r
rays with P aras
itic E lemen ts
.
Inthe above se
c t
ion sith asb een a s
sumed
t
hat a l
l the array e l
emen ts a r
e d riven
,
t
hat i s
, al
l are supp l
ied w ith p owe r b
y
-1 J1 mean s of at ransm ission l ine. D irec
-
1;
I ti
ona l ar ray s c an a lso b e con struct ed
with the a id o f el
emen ts i n which c ur-
r
entsar ei nduced b yt he fi
elds of adriven
/ I 2 P
arasit
ic elemen
t
el
emen t
. S uch e lemen t
s h ave n o trans-
m
ission-line c onne c t
ion t o the t rans-
Dr
iven
e
lement m
itter a nd a r e usua lly r e
ferred t o a s
"
para s
itic e lemen ts."
Letu sc ons
ide rt he case ofana r
ray i n
Fm. 1 -38
. A rray with o ne dr
iven f
r
ee s pace c onsis
ting o f one d riven
e
l
em ent and one paras
itic e lement
. 4
-waveleng th e lemen t ( e
lemen t 1 ) a nd
o
ne p ara sitic e lemen t ( e
lemen t 2 ) a s
i
nF ig. 1 -38. T he p ro cedu re fo
l
lows t hatu sed b y B rown .' S uppo se t hat
b
oth e l
emen t
sa rev ertica ls othatthe azimu th a ngle 4)isa si nd
icated. T he
c
i
r cuit re
lation sf ort he e l
emen tsar
e
=/
1Z
11 1
2Z
12 (
1
1-98a
)
0= /
2Z2
2 /
1Z1
2 (
1
1-98b
)
F
rom (
1
1-98b
) t
he c
urren
t i
nel
emen
t 2i
s
2 = _ 1 Zi
1 2 = —I IZ1
2 IZai
. / Z
12 /
/
.2 (
1
1-99a
)
Z
22 IZ
22 I/7
2 I Z
22 —
o
r
12 = I
, (
11-99b
)
Z
22
w
here E= 7 + r, — 1
2
, i
nwh
ich
X
1 2
T
. =a
rc
tan R
—
1
2
X
22
7
2 =a
rc
tan
1
,
22
w
here R12 + jX
12 =Z12 = mutual impedance o
fel
emen ts 1and 2
R2 + j X
22 =Z22 =sel
f-impedance ofthe p
aras
itic e
l
ement
T
he e
lec
tric f
i
eld i
n
ten
sity a
t alarge d
istance f
r
om the a
rray a
s afunc
tion
o
f4)i
s
1G
. H
. B
rown
, D
irect
iona
l A
ntennas
, P
roc
. I
.R
.E.
, 2
5
, 7
8-145
, J
anua
ry, 1
937
.
SE
C
. 1
-91 AR R A YS OF LI N E A R AN T E N N AS 3
19
E
(0) = + I2 / +d
, c
os 0
) (
1
1-100
)
w
her
e d
, = = d
S
ubs
titu
ting (
1
1-99b
) f
o
r /2 i
n (
1
1-100
)
E
(0) = k
1 1(
1 -
I
- Fl A d
, c
os0
) (
1
1-10
1)
S
olv
ing (
11
-98a
) and (
11
-98b
) f
o
r t
he d
r
iving
-po
int i
mpedance Z
, o
f t
he
d
r
iven e
l
ement, w
eget
7 42 7 I4 2 I/2r
„,
= 7 (
1
1-102
)
G2 IZ
.
,2 I/
7 7
2
T
he r
ea
l p
art o
fZ, i
s
Z
!2
= R 11 c
os (
2r
„, — r
2
) (
1
1-103
)
z
22
A
dding at
e
rm f
o
rthe e
fec
tive l
o
ss r
e
sis
tance i
fany i
spr
esen
t, w
ehave
Z
f2
R
, =
- Ri, — c
os (
2r
„, — r
2
) (
1
1-104
)
z
22
F
or ap
owe
rinpu
t W t
o t
he d
r
iven e
l
emen
t
, Nr
117 W
= —
R
, N
IR „ -
I
-Riz
. — I42/Z22 Ic
os (
27. — T
2)(
1
1-105
)
a
nd sub
stitu
ting (11-105
) f
or I
, in (1
1-101) y
ie
lds t
he el
ect
ric f
ie
ld i
n
-
t
ens
ity a
t alarge d
i
stance f
r
om the a
rray as af
unct
ion o
fO. T hu
s,
KO
)= -I
Z,/Z2 Ic
os (
27
„, —
[i ± Z
12
A d
, c
os(
d (
1
1-106
)
Z
22
F
or apowerinpu
t W to asi
ngle ver
tica
l 1-
wave
leng
th e
l
emen
tthe e
l
ect
ric
f
i
e
ld i
ntens
ity a
t the s
ame d
istance i
s
En .
w.() = k
10 kJf
t (
1
1-107
)
-
r no
z,
w
here Ro = s e
lf-re
sistance ofsi
ngle 4
-wave
leng
th el
ement
R oy = l
os
s res
istance ofsi
ngle 4
-wave
length e
lemen t
T
he gain i n fi
eld in
ten s
ity (as afunct
ion o
f0) of t
he a r
ray wi th r esp
ect
t
o asingle 4 -wavelength antenna with t
he s
ame power i nput ist he rat
io
o
f (
11
-106 ) to (1
1-107). S ince R
oo = RI,and l
e
tting R oy = R i y, w
e have
± RI
L
GAOLH A
TJ R
ir
, I
42/Z
22 Ico
s (
2r
., — 7
2
)
•(
1 + ,
7-
1
1 A d
,
.co
s(k
) (
1
1-108
)
Z
/
22
3
20 AN TE N N AS (
CHAP
. 1
I
f Z2 i s made v ery l arge by d e
tun ing the parasitic el
emen t ( tha
t i s
, b y
making X 22 l a
rge), E q
. ( 1
1-108) reduce stou ni
ty, tha tistos ay,t he fi
eld of
t
he array b ecome st he same ast he single 4
-waveleng th compa r
ison a ntenna .
B
y m eans o f ar e
la t
ion e quivalen t to (
11-108 )
, B rown' h a
s a nalyzed
t
he a rray w ith a s ingle parasi
tic e lement for various v a
lues o f para s
i t
ic
e
lemen t r
e actance ( X„ ) and w as t he fi
r
st to poin t out that spacing s of
l
ess than w ave
leng th w ere des
irab le.
T
he magn itude o f the current i n the paras
itic e l
emen t a nd it
s p hase
r
elat
ion t o t he current i nthe driven e l
emen t depend s on it
s tuning. T he
paras
itic e l
emen t may h ave a f i
xed l ength of 4w avelength, t he tun ing
b
eing accomp l
ished b yi n
serting al umped
m
a
xim
um r
eactance i
ns e
rie
sw ith t
he an
tenna ati t
s
c
enter po
int. A l
ternat
ively the p
aras
itic
e
l
emen t may be con
tinuous and t
he tun-
i
nga ccompli
shed b yadju
sting t
he l
ength.
r
o
Mot
ion
D
i
r
ect :
- T his m ethod i so ften s imp ler i n p ractice
buti smo red ificu lto fa naly s
is. B yc hang -
ing t he t uning o f the p arasitic e lemen t
,
R
ef
l e
c tor Dr
ive
n
e
lment itcan a c t a s ar ef
lectors ending t he max i-
FIG. 1-39. T hree
-elem en ta rray. mum r adia t
ion i nt he = 1 80° d ire ct
ion
(
Fig. 1 -38 ) o r a s ad irec tor s end ing t he
max imum r adiation i nt he =0 °d irection .
Antenna a rray s may a lso b e c on structed w i th mo re t han o ne p ara s
i t
ic
e
lement . A c ommon a rrangemen t u ses o ne d riven e l
emen t a nd t wo
p
a rasitic el
ement s a nd i su sua l
ly r eferred t oa s at hree-elemen t a r
ray . A n
a
rray o fthist ype i ss hown i nF ig
. 1 -39 , o ne p a ras
i t
ic e lemen ta cting a sa
r
ef
le cto r and the o the r a s ad irecto r
. T he a naly sis for t he t hre e-elemen t
a
rray i s mo re c omp lex t han f o
r t he t wo -elemen t t ype t rea ted a bove.
Exper imen tal
ly m easu red f i
eld p a
t tern so f ah orizon talt h ree-elemen ta rray
s
i
tuat ed 1w aveleng th a bove a s qua re h orizonta l ground p lane a bou t 13
wave length s on as ide a re p resen ted i n F ig. 1 -40. T he e l
emen t l e
ng ths
a
nd s pacings are a s i n d
icated . T he g a
in a t a= 1 5
° f or t h
i s a rray a t a
h
eigh tof 1w aveleng th i sa bou t 5d b w ith r espec t to as ingle 4 -wave leng th
d
ipo le a n
tenna a t t he s ame h e
igh t.2 T he v ertica l plane p atte rn i ss hown
i
n F ig. 1 -40a. I ti si nte resting t o n ote t ha t b ecau se o ft he f i
nite s ize of
t
he g round p lane t he r e i sr adiation a t n ega tive e l
eva tion a ng les. T h
is
p
henomenon i sc ha ra cte ristic o f a ntenna s w ith f i
nite g round p lane s
, t he
r
adia tion a t negative a ng le s b e
ing l argely t he r esult o f c urr ent s o n t he
1G
.H .B rown, Di
rect
ionalAntennas
,P roc
. I.R.E.
,25
, 7 , J
8-145 anua
ry, 1
937.
2N
otet h
ati tisne
ces
sary tospe
cify b
oth t
hehe
ighta ndel
evat
ion a
ng
leatw h
ich t
he
c
ompar
ison ismade
. I nc ompar
ing on
ea nt
enna wi
th ano
ther
,t h
egain a
s af
unct
ion o
f
e
l
evat
ion ang
le at agiv
en heigh
to ras afunc
tion o
fheightat agi
ven e
l
evat
ion an
gle
m
ay, i
ng e
neral
,r angefr
om z e
rot oin
f
ini
ty.
SE
C
. 1
-9] AR R A YS OF L
I NEA R AN T E N N AS 321
e
dges of t
he g round planes or b
eneath it
. T he a
zimu tha
l patte
rn s at
e
l
evation a
ngles a= 1 0
°, 15°
, and 2
0°areshown inF
ig. 1406 . Ap aras
itic
a
rray of t
h
is type with clo
sely s
paced e
lements h
as as mal
l dr
iving-point
r
adia
tion r
esis
tance and ar e
lat
ively n
arrow band w
idth
.
c
e
.so
•
(
a
)
Cf
l
ecto
r
aa20
*
k4 D
i
rec
tor
c
t
wiV
o
cw
10*
I G
round p
l
ane
S
i
de v
i
ew 4 6
R
e
lat
ive fie
ld in
tens
ity
t
o
rr p
=Os
D
riven
e
l
ement
R
ef
lec
to!) (D
i
rec
tor
F I 0
0
.
58X
L I 0
.
45X
i
P
l
an v
i
ew
I
b)
FI
G. 1-40
. Measured v ertica
l plane p attern (a
) and horizontal plane pat
terns (b
)
a
t t
hree e
l
evation ang
les f
or athree-element array l
o
cated 1w avelength above a l
a
rge
g
round p
lane
. ( Pa
tte
rns b
y D . C
. C leckner
, Antenna Laboratory
, T he Ohio S
tate Uni
-
v
e
rsi
ty.)
A
rrays may b e const
ruc ted with l
arger numbers of paras
itic e
lements
a
l
though customari
ly with l a
rgerspac
ingsb etween el
emen ts
. F o
rexample,
Yag
il has bui
lt ar
ray s with a numbe r of para
sit
ic dire
ctor element
s ar-
r
anged in arow infront oft he d
r
iven element. H e al
so used one o
r more
p
arasi
tic r
ef
lecto
re lemen t
s w ith s
uch ar
rays.
I
II. Yag
i, B
eam T
ran
smis
sion o
f U
ltra
-shor
t Waves
, P
roc
. I
.R.E
., 1
8
, 7
15-740
,
J
une
, 1
928
.
3
22 ANTEN NAS [
CHAP
. 1
PROBLEMS
11-1. a. C alcu la te a nd p lo t t he g ain o f ab road side a rray o f t wo s ide-by-side

4
-wave leng th e l
emen ts i nf ree s pa ce a s af unc t
ion o ft he s pac ing df or
v
alue so f df rom 0t o 2w aveleng ths . E xp resst h eg ain w i th r e
sp ectt oa
single 4 -wave leng th e lemen t. A ssume a l e l
emen ts a r e 1 00 p er cen t
ef
i cien t.
b
. Wha t s pa cing r esu l ts i nt he l a
rge s t gain?
c
. C alcu la te a nd p lott he rad iat ion-fi eld p attern sf o
r 4w ave leng th spacing .
S
how a lso t he p a tte rn s o ft he 4 w ave leng th r ef e
r ence a ntenna t o t he
p
rop er r elative s c ale .
11-2. At wo - elemen te nd -fire a rray i nf rees pa ce c on sist
so ft wo v er t
ica ls ide-by -
s
ide 4-wave leng th e lemen ts w i th e qua l o ut-o f-pha se c urrent s
. A t w ha t angles i n
t
he h or
izon tal p lane i st he g a in e qua l t ou nity ?
a
. When t he s pac ing i s4 w av eleng th?
b
. When t he s pac ing i s w ave leng th?
1-3 . C alcula tea nd p lott he f i
eld a nd p ha sep atte rnso ft he f arf i
eld f ora na rray
o
ft wo v e
rtica ls ide-by -side 4 -wave leng th e lemen ts i nf rees pace w ith w aveleng th
s
pacing w hen t he e l
emen t s a re
a
.i np ha s e a nd
b
. 1 80 ° o ut o fp ha se.
Fort he i n
-pha se c a s
es how t he p a ttern si nb oth t he y -zo rv ertical p l ane a nd x -y
o
rh orizonta l p lane o fF ig. 1 -2a . F or t he o ut -of-pha se c ase s how t he p atterns i n
b
oth t he x
-zo rv er tica l p l
ane a nd x -yo rh orizon tal p lane o fF ig. 1 -7a .
1-4 . C alcu la te t he v er t
ica l a nd h o r
izon ta l p lane f ree-
spa ce f i
e
ld p a tterns o fa
f
l
at-top b eam a ntenna c on sis ting o f t wo h o r
izon tal o ut-o f-pha s e 4 -wave leng th
e
l
emen ts spaced 4 w ave leng th . A ssume al oss r esistance o f 1o hm a nd s how t he
r
e
lative p attern s o f a4 -wave leng th r e
f er ence a ntenna w ith t he s ame p ow er inpu t.
1-5 . C onfirm E qs
. ( 11-85 ) a nd ( 11-93 ).
1
1-6 . a. C on side r t wo 4 -wave leng th s ide -by -side v ertical e lemen ts s paced a
d
i stance dw i th c ur ren tsr e
la ted b y 12 = a /
, /O . D eve lop t he gain e x-
pre ssion i n ap lane p ara l
le l t ot he e l
emen tsa nd t h
eg a
in e xp ression i na
p
l ane n orma l t ot he e lemen ts, t ak ing a v e
r t
ical 4 -wave leng th e lemen t
with t he s ame p ow er i npu t a s r e
f erence ( 0 < a< 1 )
. C heck t ha t
t
he se r e duce t o ( 11 -69) a nd ( 1
1-67 ) w hen a= 1 .
b
. P lo tt he f i
eld p attern si nb oth p l ane s, a nd s how a l
so t he f i
eld p attern o f
t
he r e
f eren ce a ntenna i np rope r r elative p ropo rtion f o
r t he c ase w her e
d= X /4, a= 4 ,a nd ( 5= 1 20 °
.
1
1 -7. a. C a
lcu la te t he d riv ing -po in ti mpedance a tt he cen tero fe ach e lemen t o f
an i n
-pha se b road s ide a rray o fs ix s i
de -by -side 4 -wave leng th e lemen t s
s
pa ced 4 w ave leng th a pa rt. T he c ur ren ts h ave a D o
lph -Tcheby schef
d
i stribu tion s uch t ha t the m ino rl obes h ave 4 t h e fi
eld i nten sity oft he
ma jo r l obe .
b
. D esign af eed s ys tem f o
r t he a rray .
1
1-8 . a. D eve lop E q. ( 11-94 ).
b
. C a
lcu la te a nd p lo t f rom ( 11 -94) t h e gain i nf i
e
ld i n tensity f or a n ar
ray
o
ft wo i n
-pha seh orizon ta l4 -wave leng th e lemen tss tacked 4 w aveleng th
ARRAYS OF L
I NEAR ANTEN NAS 3
23
apart ( as i nF ig. 1 -3 1) o ver a4 -wave leng th a ntenna i nf r

e es pa ce w ith
t
h es ame p owe ri nput a s af unc tion o f hu pt o h= 1 .
5 Xf ora ne l
eva tion
a
ngle a = 1 0°. A l so c alcu la te a nd p lot f or c ompa rison o n t he s ame
g
raph t he g ain sa t a= 1 0° f or at wo- e
lemen t h o
rizon ta l f l
at-top b eam
a
n tenna a nd f o
r as ing le h orizon tal4 -wave leng th a ntenna a s af unc tion
o
ft he h eigh ta bov eg round f rom h= 0t o h= 1 .5X . N ote d if erence o f
t
hes e c urve s a nd t ho se f o r a= 2 0° i nF ig. 1 -32 .
1-9 . Ab roadca s t-station a n tenna a rray c on s
i s
ts o ft wo v ertica l I -wav e
leng th
t
ow ers s paced wav eleng th a pa rt. T he c urr ents a r e e qua l in magn itude a nd in
p
ha seq uadra tur e. A s sume ap e rfe ct
ly c onduc t
ing g round a nd z ero l ossr esistance .
Calcu la te and p lott h ea zimu tha lf ie
ld p a tte rn i nm i
llivo lt s( rm s) pe rm etera t 1m i
le
w
ith 1k i
lowa tti npu tf o
rv ertica le l
eva tion a ngles a= 0 °, 2 0°, 4 0°, 6 0°
, a nd 8 0°
.
The t ow ers a re serie s f ed a tt he b as e. A s sume t hat t he t ow ers ar e i nf
init e
sima lly
t
hin .
1-10 . C alcu lat ea nd p lott he r elat ive f i
eld p attern i nt he v ertical p lane t h rough
t
he a xis o ft he t wo - tow er b roadca st a r
ray f ulfi
lling t h e r equi remen t s of P rob . 1 9
,
Chap .4 ,i ft he t ow e rsa r
eI -wave leng th h i gh a nd a res erie sf eda tt he b ase. A s sume
t
ha tt he t ow er sa rei nfinite sima lly t hin a nd t ha tt he g round i sp erfe ctly c onduc ting.
1-11 . C alcu lat ea nd p lott he r elat ive f i
eld p attern i nt he v ertical p lane t h rough
t
he a xis o ft he t hre e -tow e r b roadca sta rray f u
lfil
ling t he r equ irement s ofP rob . 2 0
,
Chap .4 ,i ft het ow e rsa r
e w av eleng th h igh a nd a r
es erie sf eda tt he b ase
. A s sume
t
ha tt het ow er sa rei nfinite sima lly t hin a nd t ha tt he g round i sp erfe ctly c onduc ting.
1
1-12 . D es ign ab roadca st-s ta tion a ntenna a r
ray o ft wo v ertical b a se-fed t owe rs
I
-wave leng th h igh a nd s pa ced 1w ave leng th w hich p roduce s ab road m ax imum o f
f
i
eld i nten sity t ot he n orth i nt he h orizon ta l p lane a nd an ull ata ne l
eva tion a ngle
a= 3 0 °a nd a zimu th a ngle 4 )= 1 35° m ea su red cw f rom n orth. A ssume t ha t the
t
owe rsa rei n f
initesima lly t hin ,t ha tt he g round i sp erfec t ly c onduc t
ing ,a nd t ha tt he
b
as e c ur rent s o ft he t wo t ow er s a r e e qua l. S pecify t he o r
ien tation a nd p hasing o f
t
het ow ers. C alcula te a nd p lott he a z imu tha l f i
eld p at te rn a t a= 0 °a nd a = 3 0°
a
nd a lso t he p a
tte rn i nt he v ertica l p l ane t hrough 4 )= 1 35 °. S ugg e sted p rocedur e:
S
olve ( 1
1-97b ) f o
r0 'a tt he n ull. T hen s et c t
,i nt he p at t er n f acto r in( 11-67 ) e qual
WO 'a nd s olve f o
rt he v a
lue o f bw h ich m ake st he p atte rn f acto rz ero. T he r e
la tive
f
i
eld i nten si
ty a ta ny a ngle ( 0,a ) i st hen g iven b y (11 -68 ) w he re s in 0= c o s 01 =
c
os ac os4 )i nt he f i
r stp att ern f acto ra nd 0= 9 0° — ai nt he s econd p a ttern f a c
to r
.
1-13 . D esign ab roadca st-s ta tion a rray o ft wo v er tica l b ase-fed t ow ersi -wave -
l
eng th h i
gh t ha t p roduce s ab road max imum o ff i
e
ld i nt en sity t ot he n orth i nt he
h
ori zonta l p lane a nd a n ull a t a l
l v er t
ica l a ngle s to t he w est
. A s sume t ha t the
t
ow ersa r
ei nfinitesima lly t hin a nd t ha tt he g round i sp e rfec tly conduc t
ing . S pecify
t
he s pa c
ing , o r
ien ta tion , a nd p ha sing o ft he t ow ers. C alcu la te a nd p lot t he a z
i-
mu tha l relative f i
eld p a t
t ern sa te leva tion a ngle s ofa= 0 °, 3 0°, a nd 6 0°
.
1-14 . Two , t h
in c ent e r-fed 4 -wave leng th a ntenna s a r e d riven i np hase o ppo s
i-
t
i
on . A ssume t hat t he c urr en t d i stribu tion s a re sinu so ida l. I ft he a nt enna s are
p
ara llel a nd s paced 0 .2 w av e
leng th ,
a
. C a
lcu la te t he mu tua l i mp edance o ft he a nt enna s.
b
.C a
lcu late t he g a
in o ft he a rray i nf r
ee s pace o ver o ne o ft he a ntennas
a
lone .
CHAPTER 1
2
REFLECTOR
-TYPE ANTENNAS
1
2-1 . I ntroduc tion . R efl ecto r s ar e w idely u sed t o mod ify t he r adia tion
p
att e rn o f ar adiating e l
emen t. F ore xamp le, t he b ackwa rd r adia tion f r om
a
n a ntenna may b e e lim ina ted w i th a p lane s hee t r e f
le cto r. I n t he mo re
g
ene ral c ase , ab eam o f prede te rm ined c hara cte ri st
ic s may b e p roduced
b
y m ean s o f al arg e, s uitab ly s haped , a nd i lum ina ted r e f
lec to r s ur face.
The c ha ra cte r
is t
ics o f a n tennas w ith s he et r e f
le cto rs o r t heir e qu iva len t
a
re c on s
ide red i nt h
i s c hap te r.
An umbe r of refle cto r t ype s a re i lu strated i n F ig. 1 2
-1. T he a rrange -
men t i n F ig. 1 2
-la h a s al arge, f l
a t s hee t r e f
le cto r n ear al inea r d ipo le
a
ntenna t or educe t he b ackwa rd r adia t
ion ( to t he l e
fti nt he f i
gure ). W ith
small s pacing s b etwe en a ntenna a nd s he et t h
i s a r rangemen t also y i eld s a
s
ub stan tial g a
in i nt he f orwa rd r adia tion . T hi s c ase h a s b een d iscus sed i n
S
ec. 1 -7a w ith t he g round a cting a st he f l
a ts hee tr eflec to r. T he d esirab le
p
rope rtie s o ft he s hee t r ef
lec to rm ay b el a
rge ly p rese rved w i th t he r eflec tor
r
educed i ns i
ze a s inF ig. 1 2
- lb a nd e ven i nt he l imiting c as e o fF ig. 1 2-1c.
Here t he s hee th asd egene ra ted i nto at h in r ef
lec to re lemen t. Whe rea st he
p
roper tie s o f t he l arge s hee t a re r e
la tive ly i nsens itive t o s mall f requency
c
hange s, t he t hin r e f
le cto r e lemen t may b e high ly s en sitive t o f requency .
The c ase o f aI -wave leng th a ntenna w i th p ara sitic r eflecto r e lemen t w a
s
t
rea ted i nS ec. 1 -9 .
Wi th t wo f l
at shee ts inte rs ecting a t a n a ngle o r c o rne r a s i n F ig. 1 2-1d,
as ha rpe r r ad iation p a ttern c an b e o bta ined . T his a r rangemen t, c alled a
c
orne r-
r efl
e cto r antenna , i s mo st p rac tical w he re a per ture s o f 1o r 2w ave-
l
eng th s a re o f c onven ient s ize. A c o
rne r r efle cto r w ithou t a n e xc i ting
a
n tenna c an b e u sed a s ap a ssive r eflecto r o r t arge t f or r ada r w ave s
. I n
t
his a pp l
ica tion t he a perture may b e many w ave leng th s
, a nd t he c o rner
a
ng le i sa lway s 90°. R ef
l ecto r s w ith t h
i s a ngle h ave t he p rope rty t ha t a n
i
nciden t w ave i sre f
le cted b a ck t owa rd i ts sour ce a s i nF ig. 1 2-1e.
When i ti sc onven ien t t o b uild a n tenna s w ith a per tu res o f many w ave-
l
eng th s
, p arabo l
ic r ef
lec to rs c an b e u sed t o p rov ide h igh ly d irec tiona l
a
ntenna s
. A p arabo lic r ef
lec to r a ntenna i ss hown i n F ig. 1 2-1f. T he
p
arabo la r e f
lect s the w ave s o rig ina ting f rom a s our ce a t t he f ocus i nto a
p
ara llel b eam . Many o the r s hape s o f r ef
lec to rs c an b e e mployed f o
r
s
pe cial a ppl ication s. F or i nstance , w ith a n a ntenna a t o ne f ocu s, t he
3
24
SE
C. 1
2
-2] REFLECTOR
-TYPE ANTENNAS 3
25
e
lipse r
ef
lector (F
ig. 1
2-1g
) produce
s adi
verging b
eam with a
ll r
ef
lected
waves pa
ssing through the se
cond fo
cus of the e
lip
se. E xamples of
r
ef
lecto
rs of othe
r shape
s are the h
ype
rbol
ic' and t
he ci
rcu
lar r
ef
lec
to r
s'
s
hown inF igs
. 12-
1h and i
.
o f L
arge f
lat
s
hee
t S
mal
ls f
l
a
tt
hee / R
eflec
tor
e
l
ement
61 (
(
a
) (
b
) (
c)
:
C
orner P
assive P
arabol
ic
F
r
e
flector c
o
rner r
e
flecto
r
a
ntenna r
e
flecto
r
A
per
ture )
r
i a
t
venf
o
ce
lusen
em t
A
per
ture
A
perture
D
r
iven
e
l
ement
(
d) (
e
) (
f
)
H
yperbo
lic
D
r
iven e
l
ement r
e
flecto
r C
i
rcu
lar
E
l
l
iptical \% r
e
flector
r
e
flecto
r
--
D
r
iven D
r
iven
e
l
ement e
l
ement
I
E
l
lipse
(
9
) (
h
)
FI
G. 1
2-1
. R
ef
le
cto
rso
fva
riou
ssh
ape
s.
The p
lane shee
tr ef
lector, th
ec ornerref
lector
, and the parabol
ic ref
lec
tor
a
red i
scu
s sed in mo
re de tai
l inthe fo
llowing se
ctions
.
1
2-2. Plane SheetR eflector
. T he p
roblem ofa nantenna at adi
stance S
f
r
om a p erfe
ctly condu cting plane sheet ref
lector of inf
inite ex
ten t i
s
1C
hap
. 6b y G.Stevie and A.Dome, "Very H
igh F
requency T
echn
iques
," Rad
io
R
esea
rch L
ab o
rato
ry S taf
, M cGr
aw-Hi
ll Book C
ompany, In
c.
, New York
, 19
47.
A
shmead and A . B.Pippard
, T
h e Use o
fSphe
rica
l Refl
ect
ors asMicr
owave
S
cann
ing A
eria
ls, J.I.E.E.(L
ondon)
, 93, P
ar
tI IA, N
o. 4
,6 2
7-632
, 19
46.
3
26 AN TE N N AS [Q u
i.
. 1
2
r
eadi
ly handled b y t
he method o fimage s.
' I n th
ism ethod t he r ef
lectori s
r
eplaced bya n i mage o
fthe antenna a t ad i
stance 2 8f r
om t he a n
tenna a s
i
n Fig. 1
2-2
. T h
is si
tua
tion isi dentical w ith t he one c onside red inS e c
.
1-7, fo
r ah o r
izon tal a ntenna a bove g round . I f
F
lat sheet
r
efl
e
cto
r
t
he antenna i s aI -wave length d ipole t his in turn
r
educes t othe prob lem o fthe t wo-e
lemen t fl
at-
top
b
eam a n tenna d iscus sed i n Sec
. 1 -5. A ssuming
z
ero ref
lector losses
, t he g a
in i nfie
ld i ntensity ofa
I
-waveleng th dipole a ntenna a t ad istance S f rom
I
mage A
ntenna a
n inf
inite plane r ef
lec tor isfrom ( 11-79 ),
O
- -S-
-'
---
- S
G
,(0
) — i
i
ii R±"R±,R `
Ri
2 Is
i
n (
8
, c
o
s(1
) (
12
-1)
w
here S
. =2
i
r—X
FI
G. 1
2-2
. A ntenna
T
he g
a
in i
n(1
2-1
) i
sexp
res
sed r
e
lat
ive t
o aI
-wave
-
w
ith f
l
atshee
tr ef
lec
tor
, l
ength a
ntenna i
nf ree space wi
th the same power
i
nput. The fi
e
ld p
atte rn
so fI-wavelength a
ntennas
a
t di
stance
s S = X /4
, X /8
, and X/16 fr
om t he fl
at shee
t ref
lec
tor are
s
hown in Fig
. 1
2-3
. T hese p
atterns a
re calcula
ted f r
om ( 1
2-1) fo
r the
c
ase whe
re RL = 0
.
H
alf
-ware
1
a
ntenna m
f
ree s
pace
A
n
ten
na e.
l .
A
nte
nna
4
. A
n
ten
no
4
1
4- 4
F
l
ats
h
eetr
e
f
lec
tor
F .12-3
. P atterns o
f 1
-wave e
ngth antenna a
t spa
cings o
f 1
,1,and i
e wavelengths
f
r
om inf
inite f
la
ts heet r
ef
lecto
r. Pa
tterns g
ive g
ain i
nfi
eld i
n
tens
ity o
ver 1
-wavelength
a
ntenna i
nf r
ee space w
ith same p
ower input
.
1S
ee
,fo
rexamp
le, G
.H. B
rown
, D
irect
iona
lAn
tennas
, P
roc
. I.
R.E.
,25
,122
,Janua
ry,
1
937
.
SE
C
. 1
2
-2] REFLECTO R -TYPE AN TEN N AS 3
27
T
he g
a
in a s af
unct
ion of the s
pac
ing S ispres
ented in F
ig. 1
2
-4 fo
r
a
s
sumed ant
enna l
oss r
es
istances RL = 0 , a
, 1 nd 5 ohms
. T he
se c
urve
s
3
.0
Flat s
heet
r
ef
lector
2
.5 4
-s4
41
'Half-wave
antenna
7
; 2
.0
a
.
i
li tw5ohms
0
0
.5
oo 0I 02 03 04 05 06 07
S
pac
ing S
in w
ave
lengths
FI
G 2-
. 1 4. Ga
in i
n f
i
eld i
n
tens
ity of 4-wave
leng th d
ipo
le antenna a
t d
is
tance S f
rom
f
l
at s
heetr ef
lec
tor
. G a
in i
sre
lative t
o 4-wavelength d
ipole an
tenna i
nfr
ee spa
ce w
ith
t
he s
ame p ower i
nput
. Gain isin d
irect
ion = 0a nd isshown f
or a
n as
sum ed l
os
s
r
e
sistance RL = 0 , a
, 1 nd 5 o
hms
.
a
re calculated from ( 12-1) f or = 0 . I t i sa ppa ren t t hat v ery s mall
s
pacing s c
an b e u
sed e fective ly p rovided t ha t l o
s ses ar e neg l
igible. How -
F
l h eve r
, t he b and w idth i s na rrow f or
a
t seet
r
ef
lector sma l
ls pa cing sa sd iscus sed inS ec. 1 -5.
W ith w ide s pa c
ing st he g ain i sl e
ss, b ut
t
he b and w id th i sl a
rge r
. A ssum ing a n
antenna l os
s r esistance o f 1o hm , a
s
pac ing o f0 .125 Xy ieldst he max imum
gain. F or S= 0 .25 X ,the g a
in i sa bout
B
eam 1.3 d b l e
s s
.
Al a
rge f lat s heet r ef
lector c an c on -
vert ab id irectiona l a ntenna a rray i n to
au nidir ectiona l s ystem . A n e xamp le
i
ss hown i n F ig. 1 2-5. H e
re a b road -
s
i de ar ray o f 16 i n
-phas e 4-wave leng th
e
lemen ts s pa ced 4w ave length a part is
ba cked u p b y al a
rge s heet r ef
l ecto rs o
tha t au nidirec tiona lb eam i sp roduced .
FIG
. 12-5
. A
rray o
f 4-wave
leng th ele-
T he f eed s ystem f or the a rray i si ndi-
ments with fl
at s
heet ref
lector ( bi
ll-
b
oard or matt
ress a
ntenna).
c
at ed, equ a
l i
n-p hase vo
lt ag es b
ei ng
a
pp l
ied a t t he t wo p a
ir s of t erm ina ls
F
-F. I ft he edges of the s heet e x
tend s ome d istance b eyond t he a rray ,
t
he assump t
ion tha t the ground p lane i si nfinite i ne xtent i s ag ood f i
rst
3
28 AN TE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
2
a
pp roxima tion. T he c hoice o ft he s pacing S b etwe en t he a rray a nd the
s
hee t usua lly involves ac omp rom ise b e
tween g ain a nd b and w idth. I fa
s
pacing o f 4w aveleng th i su sed , t he r adia
tion r e
si s
tance o ft he element s
o
f al arge a rray r ema ins a bou t t he s ame as w i th n o re f
lecto r pre sent
.'
This spa cing also h a
s t he advan tage o ver wider s pac ings o fr educed i nter
-
a
ction b etween e l
emen ts. O n t he o ther hand, as pa c
ing s uch a s 4w ave-
l
ength p rovides ag reater b and w idth , and the p recise v alue o f Si sles
s
c
r
itical i ni tsef ect on the elemen ti mpedance.
1
2-3. C orner- ref
lector A ntenna . 2 Two f l
atr ef
le c t
ing s hee tsi ntersecting
a
t an angle o r corne r a s in Fig. 1 2
-6
Corner f
orm ane f ect ive direc tiona lan tenna.
r
ef
lector
When the c orne ra ng le a = 9 0 °
, the
T
ransmission D
riven s
heets i
nter sec t atr igh t angles f orm-
I
me a
ntenna
ing as qua re corne rr e f
lecto r
. C o rner
B
eam angles b oth g rea ter o r l e
s s than 9 0°
can b e used a lthough t he re a re p rac-
ti
cal d isadvan tage s t o a ngles much
le
sst han 9 0°. Ac orne rr ef
lec to rw ith
Fm. 12-6. C orner
- ref
lector antenna. a= 1 80°i sequiva len tt o af l
ats heet
r
ef
lecto r a nd may b e c on side red a s a
l
imiting c ase oft he c orne rr ef
lector
. T h
i sc ase ha sb een t r
ea ted i nS ec. 1 2
-2.
Assum ing p erfe ctly c onduc t
ing r ef
le ct
ing s hee ts of i nf
in ite e xten t
, t he
method o fi mage s c an b e a ppl
ied t o a nalyze t he c orne r-refle cto r a ntenna
f
or a ngles a= 1 80°/n, w here n isa ny p osit
ive i n
tege r. T h
is m ethod o f
h
and ling c o rners i sw e
ll-known i n ele ctrostatic s
.' C orne r a ngle s o f 180°
(
f
lat s hee t
), 9 0°, 6 0°, et c
. c an b e tr
ea ted i n this w ay. C orne r re f
lectors
o
f intermed iate a ngle can n ot be d e
t erm ined b y th
i s m e thod b ut c an b e
i
nt
e rpola ted a pp roxima tely f rom the o the r
s.
In the a naly s
iso ft he 9 0°c ornerr ef
le ctort he re aret hree i mage e l
ement s
2
,3 ,a nd 4 l o
cated a s s hown i n Fig
. 1 2-7a. T he d riven a ntenna 1a nd
t
he t hree i mages h ave c urrents of e qua l magn itude . T he p has e o f the
c
urrent s in 1a nd 4 i st he s ame. T he p hase o ft he cur ren ts i n 2a nd 3i s
t
he s ame b u t 180 ° o ut of p hase with r espect t o the c ur ren ts i n 1a nd 4.
A
ll elemen tsa rea ssumed t ob e 4w ave leng th l ong.
Att he p oint Pa t al a
rge d istance D f rom t he a ntenna,t he f i
eld i nten sity i
s
E
(0) =2
k11 I[
c
os (
S
, c
osc
b
) —c
os (
S
, s
i
nOA I (
12
-2)
H. A. Wheeler, The Radiat

ion R es
istance of a n Antenna in a
n I nfin
ite Ar
ray o
r
Waveguide, Proc. I
.R.E., 3
6, 478-487, A pri
l, 1
948.
IJ
.D . Kraus
, The C orner R
eflector A ntenna
, P roc
. I.R.E
.,2 8
, 513-519, November
,
1
940
.
3See, f
or e
xamp le
, Sir James Jeans, "Ma thema t
ical Theory ofElectrici
ty and Mag
-
n
et
ism ," Cambr idge Univers
ity Press
, L ondon, 5th ed.
, p. 1
88.
SE
C
. 1
2
-3] R EF L E C T O R -TY P E A N T E N N AS 3
29
C
orne
r r
e
fle
cto
r
•
• T
o p
o
int
•
•
•
•
4o
-
v-
-- S S
90
* ID
r
iven
e
l
ement
(
a
) (
b
)
F
lo
. 12
-7
. S qua
re co
rne
r re
f
lec
tor w
i
th imag
es u
s
ed i
nana
lys
is (
a
) a
nd f
our
-lobed
p
a
ttern o
fdr
iven e
l
ementand i
mag
es (
b
).
w
her
e I, =curren tineach e
lement
S
, =spacing ofeach el
ementfrom t
he c
ornerinrad
ians
=2T(S/X )
k= c
ons tan
t invo
lving t
he d
is
tance D
, e
tc.
T
he em
f V1 a
tt he t
erminalsat t
he c
ente
rofthe dr
iven e
lemen
t i
s
='
,Z i
t + I
iZi
4 —2
1 1Z1, (
12
-3)
whe
re Zi = s el
f-impedance ofd r
iven el
emen t
R1L = e quivalent l
ossres
istance ofdr
iven el
emen t
Z 1, = mutual impedance ofelements 1and 2
Z„ = mu tual impedance ofelements 1and 4
S
imilar express
ion s can b
e w r
itten fo
r the emfs a
t the te
rminals o
f e
ach
o
f the image s
. T hen ifW i sthe power del
ivered to t
he dr
iven el
ement
(
power toe a
ch i mage e
lement isalso W)
, w ehave fr
om symme try t
hat
— (
12
-4)
R
i4 —2
R12
S
ubs
titu
ting (
12
-4) i
n(1
2-2
) y
i
elds
E
(4
2) = 2
k N
IR R1
L-I
-R 14 2 R12
• [
C
OS ( S, C
O
S CO C
O8 ( S, s
i
ny6
)
] I(
12
-5)
T
he fi
e
ld in
tens
ity a
t t
he po
int P at adis
tance D f
r
om t
he d
r
iven 4
-
w
ave
length e
lemen
t w
ith t
he r
ef
lec
tor r
emoved i
s
E ) =k , n, (
12
-6)
V
' ail ILI L
w
here k = t
he same c
ons
tant asin( 12
-2) and (1
2-5
)
T
his isthe r
e
lat
ion fo
r fi
eld in
tens
ity of a4-wavelength d
ipo
le a
ntenna
i
nfre
e space w
ith a p
ower input W and provides aconven
ien
t r
ef
erence
3
30 ANTENNAS I
CHA
P. 1
2
f
o
r t he c
orner-ref
lec
tor a n
tenna
. T hus
, div
iding (1
2-5
) by (1
2-6)
, we
o
btain t
he ga
in i nfi
eld i
ntens
ity o
f as
quare c
orne
rref
lec
toran
tenna ove
r
asi
ngle i
-wavelength antenna i
nfr
ee s
pace w
ith t
he s
ame p
owerinput
, o
r
E(4
)
) RI,± RI
L
G M — EH
.w.
(0) —2 \
1Ri
i + RI
L+R 1
4 —2
R12
• I [C OS (
S,COS C
O — COS ( S, s
i
n41
)
] I (
12
-7)
where t he e xp ression i n bracke ts isthe p attern f actor a nd t he expression
i
ncluded u nder t he r ad
ical s i
gn i sthe c
oup l
ing f acto r
. T he p a
ttern s hape
i
s af unc tion o f b o th the a ngle 4,a nd t he an tenna -to-co rner spa c
ing S .
The p at tern c alcula ted b y ( 1
2 -7) has fou r l
o bes a s shown i n F
ig. 1 2-7b.
Howeve r
, o n
ly o ne o f t he lo bes isre a
l.
Expression sf o
rt he g a
in i nfi
eld in-
2
+04 0— t
ensity o fc orne rreflectorsw ith c or-
.
.
n
era ng
le so f6 0°,4 5°,e tc
.c an b eo b-
'
N
.
..
sN. t
ain ed i
n asi m
ilar m anner. For t
he
.N
.
6o N
.
6
0° l• 0 6
0° c orne r t he a naly s
is r equires a
+ t
otal ofs i
xe lemen t s
, o ne actual a n-
t
enna a nd f i
ve i mage sa sinF ig
. 1 2-8.
Gain-pa ttern e xpres s
ions f or corne r
5 3 r
ef
l ectors o
f 9
0° a
n d 60
° a
re l
i
ste d i
n
F
ro. 1 2
-8 . 6 0° c orne r ref
lector w ith Table 1
2-1. The expr es
sio n f
or a 1
80°
i
mages u sed i na nalysis. "
co rner" o rflatshee ti sal
so inc
luded .
TABLE 1
2
-1
GA
IN-PATTERN F
ORMULAS F
OR C
ORNER
-REFLECTOR ANTENNAS
Number o
f G
ain i
nfi
eld in
ten
sity over i
-wave
-
C
orner
e
l
ements in l
ength a
ntenna i
nf r
ee space w
i
th
a
ngle
a
naly
sis s
ame poweri nput
RI
,-I
- RI
L .
1
80° 2 2
NIR I ± RIL _ R12 sm (
S, c
os0
RIi4- RI
L
2N
iRl
i -
I
- RIL ± R14 —
9
0° 4 2 R12
I [
C
OS (S,COS 4
3
) — C
O
S (S
,. s
i
nOA I
RI,4
- R1
L
2'
I
/RI
6
0 0 I-
I
- RI
L -I
-2R
14 — 2
R12 — R16
6
I{
s
in (
S
, c
o
s0) —s
i
n [
S
, c
o
s (
6
0° — O
A
—s
i
n [
S
, c
o
s (
6
0° ± OM I
Se
c
. 1
2
-3] REFLEC T O R -TYPE AN TE N N AS 3
31
In the f
ormu las o
fT ab
le 12-1 itisas sumed t ha t t
he ref
lecto
rs heets a re
p
erfectly conduc t
ing and of inf
inite exten t
. C urves of gain vs
. s pacing
c
alculated from t hes
e re
lat
ions a r
e presen ted inF ig
. 12-9
. T he ga
in g iven
i
si n the d
ire ct
ion 4)= 0 . Two c urves a re shown f or e
ach corner a ngle.
The so
l id curve i ne
ach case iscompu ted f or ze
ro losses (R
,r, = 0)
, w hile
t
he d ashed c urve isfor a
n assumed l oss res
istance R1L = 1o hm. I t is
a
ppa ren tthatf o
re f
ic
iento pe
ration too s ma
ll aspa c
ing should bea voided .
1
4
6
0' -
-
1
2
1
0
ls
8
ec
n d
in i ibe
6
I
a
.
G
1
80'
1
2
oo 0
1 02 03 0
4 0
5 06 0
7
ntenna -
A to-
corner s
pac
ing i
nwave
leng
ths
FI
G. 12
-9. Ga in of corner r
ef
lector antenna s o
ver a 4 -wavelength antenna in fr
ee
s
pace w
ith the s
ame power input a
s afunc t
ion of t
he antenna -to
-corner s
pacing
. Ga in
i
sinthe d
irect
ion = 0a nd i
sshown for zero l
os
s res
istance ( s
olid c
urves
) and fo
r an
a
ssumed lo
ss re
sis
tance of 1ohm ( RIL = 1o hm) (
dashed c urves)
.
As mall spacing isal

so o bjec tionable because of narrow b and w
id th. O n
t
he othe rhand , t
oo large as pacing resul
ts inless g
ain.
T
he c a
lculated patte rn of a9 0
° corne r r
ef
lector with antenna-to-co
rner
s
pac
ing S = 0 .5 Xiss hown i nF ig. 12-10a. T he gain isnear
ly 10 d b ove
r
are
fe rence 4-waveleng th a ntenna . T hi
s pattern istypical i
fthe s pa
cing
Sisn ott oo la
rge. If Se xceeds ac e
rtain value, amu lt
ilobed pa
ttern may
b
e obta ined
. F or examp le, as quare-corner ref
lec
to r with S = 1 .0 Xh a
s
3
32 ANTE N N AS [Our
. 1
2
atwo-lobed p a
tt e
rn as inFig. 12-
10b . I fthe spac
ing isi n
crea
sed to 1
.5
,
t
he patte
rn s hown inF ig
. 12-10ciso bta
ined w
ith ma jor l
obe inthe 4
,= 0
d
ire
ction b u
t w ith minor lo
be s p
re sent. This pattern may be con
side
red
a
s be
longing t o ah i
ghe r o
rder radiation mode oft he ant
enna. T he ga
in
o
ver as i
ngle 4-wavelength dipole antenna i
s1 2
.7 d b
.
4
5.
2
0*
1
0.
t
o.
H
i
.
oX \
\
(
6
) \
F
lo. 12-
10. C a
lcu
lated patterns o
f s
qua re c
orner
-ref
lecto
r antenna
s with an
tenna-
to-
c
orner spac
ings of 0
.5 wavelength (a
), 1 .
0 wave
length (6), a
nd 1.5 w
avelengths (
c)
.
Pa
tterns give g
ain re
lat
ive t o i
-wavelength ant
enna in free s
pace w
ith same power
i
nput.
R
estr
icting p
attern
stothe l
owe
ro rder r
ad
iat
ion mode (
no mino
rlo
bes
),
i
tisgeneral
ly d
esi
rable t
hat Sl
i
e be
tween the f
ol
low
ing l
imit
s:
a S
9
0 . 0
.
25-0.7 A
1
80° (
f
lats
hee
t) 0
.1-0
.3 A
S
ec. 1
2
-3] REF L EC T O R- T Y P E AN T E N N AS 3
33
The t
e
rmina
l r
e
sis
tance RT o
fthe d
r
iven a
ntenna i
sobta
ined by d
iv
iding
(
12
-3 ) b
y I
,and t
ak
ing t
he r
eal pa
rts o
fthe i
mpedance
s. T hu
s,
R,= R
iL + R 14 — 2
112 (
12
-8)
I
fR = 0 ,the t
e
rminal r
es
istance isa
ll r
ad
iat
ion res
istance
. T he va
ria-
t
i
on o
fthe t
e
rminal r
ad
iat
ion res
istance o
fthe d
riven e
lement i
spresented
1
50
1
40
6
00
1
30
1
20
9
0°
11
0
.
c
1
00
90
.
o
z 1
80.
80 (
f
lat s
heet
)
9 70
60
E
. 50
l
e 40
30
20
1
0
oo 0I 0
.2 03 04 05 06 07
A
ntenno-to-co
rner s
pac
ing i
nwave
lengths
F
in. 1
2-11
. T erminal r
adiat
ion res
istance o
f dr
iven - wave
leng th a
ntenna as af
unc
-
t
i
on of t
he a
ntenna-
to-corner s
pac
ing for c
orner r
ef
lectors o
f three c
orner a
ngles
.
i
n Fig. 1 2-11 as af unct
ion o f the spac
ing S f o
r c o
rner a ng
les a= 1 80°
,
9
0°
, a nd 6 0°
.
I
n t he a bove a nalys
is i tisa s
sumed t hat the r ef
lectors ar
e p erfec t
ly
c
onduc ting and of i nf
inite extent, w
ith t he exception that the ga
ins w ith
afi
nite ly condu ct
ing r ef
le ctor may b e approxima ted with a proper c hoice
o
f R, L. T he analy s
is p rovides ag ood f i
rs
t a pproxima tion to the g ain-
p
atte rn c harac
teristics ofa ctua
l corner ref
lectors with fi
nite s
idesp rovided
t
hat t he s i
des ar
e n ot too s mal
l. N eglecting edge e fect
s, as u
itable v alue
f
ort he l e
ng th o
fs ides may b earr
ived atb y t
he fol
low ing li
ne ofreason ing.
3
34 AN TE N N AS (CH
AP. 1
2
An e
ssential reg
ion oft he ref
lecto r i stha
t near the point a
tw hich aw ave
f
rom the d riven antenna i sref
l ec ted p a
ral
lel to the axis
. F o
r e xamp le
,
t
hisisthe p oint Aoft he square c o rnerref
lectoro fFig. 12
-12. T his p
oint
i
sat ad istance of 1.418 f r
om t he c orner C
, w here S i sthe a ntenna-to-
c
orne
r spa cing. I fthe re
flectore nd sat the po
in t Ba t adis
tance L = 2 S
f
rom t h
e c orner
, as i n Fig
. 1 2-12 , the ref
lector extends a pprox imately
0
.68 beyond A . W ith t he ref
le cto r end
ing a t B, iti sto be n oted that
t
he on
ly w aves ref
lected from in f
in ite si
des
, b ut no
t f r
om f i
nite sides
, a r
e
S
D
r
iven
a
n
tenna
r'
7 •
\ •
•
\ •
\ •
\ ••
\ •
•
\ •
\ •
\
\
\
F
lo. 1
2-12
. S qua
re c
orner r
ef
lec
tor w
ith s
i
des o
fle
ngth L e
qua
l t
o t
wice t
he a
ntenna
-
t
o
-corner s
pac
ing S
.
t
hose r adia ted in the sec
tor s 7. F urthermo re
, the se w ave s a
r e ref
lected
w
ith i nf
ini te sides i
nto a direction t hat isat ac on siderable angle 6 1
)with
r
espect to t he ax
is. H ence, t he absence o fthe ref
l ector beyond B s hould
n
o t have a l a
rge efect
. I ts hould a l
so h ave re
lative ly li
tt
le e fec
t o n the
d
r
iv ing-po in t impedance. T he mo st n o
ticeable e fect with finite sides is
t
hat the m easured pat
tern i sa ppreciably broader t han tha t c
alculated f o
r
i
nf
inite s ide s and a null doe s not oc cur at 0= 4 5° b u
t a t as omewha t
l
argera ngle . I fth
isi snoto bjectionable, aside l
ength o ft w
ice the a n
tenna -
t
o-corne r s pacing ( L = 2 8) i s ap rac
tical minimum v alue for s quare
c
orner r ef
le ctors
.
SE
C
. 1
2
-3] REF L EC T O R -TY P E A N T E N N AS 3
35
A
lthough t he gain of ac orne rr e
flectorw ith inf
inite sidesc an bei ncrea sed
b
y r educing t he corner a ngle, itd oes not fo
llow t hat t he g ain of ac o
rne r
r
ef
lec tor w i
th f ini
te s i
de s o ff i
xed l ength will in
crea se a s the c orner a ngle
i
sd ecreased . T o ma inta in a g iven e f
ic
iency w ith a s malle r corner a ngle
r
equir es tha t Sb e increa sed. A lso o n a6 0° ref
lec tor, for e xamp le, t he
p
oint a t w hich a w ave i sr ef
lected p a
rallel to t
he a x
is i sa t ad istance o f
1
.735 f rom t he c ornera s compa red t o 1.412 f o
r t he s qua re c o
rne r t ype.
Hence , to realize the i ncrease i ng a
in r equires that t he leng th o f the r e
-
f
l
ecto rs ides be much l arger t han f or as quare cornerr eflecto r designed f or
t
he s ame f requency . U sua l
ly t hi
s i s ap ractica
l d isadvan tage i n view o f
t
he relatively s mal
l increas e tob ee xpected i ngain.
To r educe t he w ind r esistance o fered b y as o
lid r ef
lec tor
, ag rid o f
I
t L-
2S
T
ronsm
ission
l
i
ne
S
upport
ing
m
ember\
.
/19
c
r
D
r
iven
e
l
ement
FI
G
. 1
2-13
. Gr
id-type r
ef
lector
.
p
aralle
l w ires o rconduc to r
s can beu sed a s inF ig
. 1 2
-13. T he suppor ting
memb er j o
ining t he m id -points of t
he r e f
lector conduc to
rs may b e either
aconduc to r or a n i
nsu la tor
. I n gene ral t he spa
cing G b e tween r ef
lector
c
onduc tors s hould be e qua l t
o or le
s s than 0 .1 A. W ith a I -waveleng th
d
riven e l
ement t he l
e ngth H o fthe ref
lec torc onduc to r
ss hou ld bee qualt o
o
r greater t han 0 .6 A. I ft he le
ngth H i sreduced t o va
lue s o fle
ss t han
0
.6 A,r adiation t o the s ides and rear t ends t o i
n crease a nd t he ga
in d e
-
c
reases
. When H i sd ecr eased toasl i
t t
le a s0 .
3 A,t he st
ronges t radiation
i
sn olo ngerf o
rwa rd a nd t he "ref
lec
to r" a ctsa s ad irector
.
Two s qua re c orne
r r ef
le c
tors of practica l dimen sions ar e ilust
ra ted i n
F
ig. 12-14. T he one at ( a) wi
th 2 = 0 .35 Aa nd t he side length L = 0 . 7
3
36 AN TE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
2
c
an be u sed w here the physical s
ize o
ft he antenna mu st b e am in
imum .
I
fphy sical s i
ze isn ot arest
rict
ion, the d
esign of( b) may b eu sed with the
a
dvan tage o f ag reaterb and width.'
The s qua re c orner re
flector
s of Fig. 12-14 h ave a pertures betwe en 1
a
nd 2 w ave leng ths. I f an a p
erture of 1w avelength i si nconveniently
l
a
rge, ac orne r ref
lector ofs ma
ller s
ide l
ength a nd larger corner angle can
b
e used. C arrying t h
is procedure to t
he limi
t r esul
ts i n ac l
osely spaced
f
l
at-
shee t r ef
lec tor (a = 1 80°) as in F
ig. 12-1b. I f, on t he other hand,
L
OX
0
.35X -
0.,\ 1
.
0X 0
.5X -1 4K\ 1
.
4X
A
ntenna A
ntenna
(
a
) (
b
)
FI
G
. 1
2-14
. D
imens
ions f
o
rsqua
re c
orne
r-r
eflec
tora
ntenna
s.
a
n a perture o f more t han 2 w avelengths isconven ient, more direct
ivity
c
an b e o btained f o
r ag iven p hysical si
ze of antenna w ith a p a
rabo l
ic
r
ef
lector.
1
2 -4. The P arabola. G eneral P ropert
ies. S uppose that w e have a
p
oint s ou
rce a nd that w e wish top roduce ap l
ane-w ave f
ront over al a
rge
a
perture b y m eans o f as heet re
flector
. R e
fe r
ring t o F
ig. 12-15a, iti s
t
hen r equired t ha
t t he di
stance fr om the source to the plane
-wave f ront
v
iap ath 1a nd 2b ee qua
l o r
'
2
L =R
(1 -
1
-co
s 0
) (
1
2-9
)
a
nd
2
L
R— (
12
-10
)
1-
1
-cos 0
1The type ofdr

iven el
ement isalso af
actor indetermin
ing t
he b
and w
idth
. T hu,a
s
f
atc y
lindricalelement or ab
iconicalel
emen tgivesm oreband w
idth t
han at
hin d
riven
e
l
ement .
1This i
sa n a
pplica
tion o
ft he pr
inc
iple o
fe qual
ity ofp a
th l
e
ngth t
othe s
pec
ialca
se
where al
lp ath
sa reinthe s
ame m edium. Fort he moregeneral s
i
tuat
ion i
nvo
lving mor
e
t
han o ne medium see Chap. 1
4.
S
ec
. 1
2
-4] REFLECTO R-T YPE ANTE N N AS 3
37
Thi
s ist he equation for the r
equired su
rface contour. I tist he e
quation
o
f ap arabo la with the focusatF.
Ref
er ring toF ig. 12-156, t
he parabo
lic curve may b e def
ined as f
o
llow s
.
The di
s tance f r
om a ny p o
int Po n ap arabolic curve to afixed po
int F,
c
al
led t he focus
, isequa lt othe p
erpendiculard i
stance to afi
xed li
ne ca
lled
t
he directrix. T hus
, i n Fig
. 12-
156 , PF = PQ . R ef
erring n ow t
o F ig
.
A
xis
P
lane
w
ave
f
ront
S
heet'
\ A
r
e
flecto
r
A
perture
p
lane
(
a
) (
b
) (
c
)
F
lo. 1
2-15
. P
arabo
lic r
ef
lecto
rs.
1
2-15
c, l
et AA' b
e aline n
ormal t
o t
he a
x
is a
t a
n a
rb
itrary d
i
stance QS
f
rom the d
ire
ctr
ix. Since PS = QS — PQ and PF = PQ, itfol
lows
t
hat t
he d
is
tance fr
om the f
ocus t
o Si
s
PF + PS = PF + QS — PQ = QS (
12
-11
)
Thus, ap roperty of ap a
rabo lic r
ef
le ctori sthata llw avesfrom a ni sotropic
s
ource a t the focus that ar e r
ef
lected f rom t he p arabola a rr
ive a t al i
ne
AA' w ith equal phase. T he " image" o ft he focus i sthe d
irectrix, and t he
r
ef
lected f i
eld along the line AA ' a ppea r
s as t hough i to r
igina ted a t the
d
irectrix as aplane w ave
. T he plane BB ' (Fig
. 1 2-15 c) a
tw h
ich ar ef
lector
i
sc uto fi scal
led t he ape
rtu replane.
Ac y
lindrical parabola c onverts ac yl
indrical w ave radiated b y an i n
-
p
hase l ine s
ource at the focus, a
s i nF ig. 12
-16a , i n
to a plane w ave at the
a
pertu re. O r ap a
raboloid o f revolution conver t
s as pherical w ave from
a
n isotropic source atthe focu sasi nF ig. 12
-166 i nto au ni
fo rm p lane w ave
a
tt he a per
ture. C onf
ining o ura t
ten tion to as ingle ray orw ave p ath, the
3
38 AN TE N N AS [
CHAp
. 1
2
C
yl
indr
ical
p
arabol P
arabo
loid
L
ine
s
ource P
oint
s
ource
(
a
) (
b)
A
pertu
re A
per
ture
I
'm. 1
2-16
. Line source a
nd c
yl
indr
ica
l p
arabo
lic r
ef
lector (
a
) a
nd p
oint B
ourse a
nd
p
arabo
loida
l r
ef
lector (
b)
.
p
arabo
lo id h as the p
roper ty o fr ef
lect
ing a ny ray from the focu s i
nto ad i
-
r
ec
tion p a
rallel tothe a xi
s a ss uggested inF ig. 12-
15b.
1
2-5
. AC ompa r
ison B etween t he P arabolic and Corner R eflec
tor. A l-
t
hough the c ornerr e
flectord if ersi nprinciple fr
om t he parabolic ref
lecto r
,
t
here a
r e situations i n which t he two may b e n ear
ly e quivalent. T his
may b e il
ustrated with the aid ofF ig.
C
y
l
i nd
rical 1
2-17. L e
t al i
neara ntenna b el o
cated
p
arabola Square a
tt he focus Fo f ac
yl
ind ricalp arabolic
c
orner
r
ef
lec
tor r
e f
lecto r, and l e
t t h
is a rrang emen t b e
c
ompa red with as qua re c o
rne rr ef
le ctor
o
ft he s ame a perture a nd w i th a n a n
-
t
enna -
to -corne r s pacing AF . The
L
inear an
tenna p
a rabo lic and c orner r ef
lec to rs are s u-
A 5
p
e rimpo sed f or c ompa r
ison i n F ig.
1
2- 17. Aw ave r adiated i nt he posi tive
yd irection fr om F i sr ef
l ected a t 0b y
t
he c orner r eflector a nd a t 0 ' b y t he
c
ylind rical pa rabo l
ic r ef
le cto r
. H ence ,
t
his w ave t rave ls as hor ter d is
tance i n
t
he c orne r ref
le ctor b y a n a moun t 0 0'
.
I
f AF = 2 X ,t he e lectrical l e
ng th o f
0
0'i sa bout 1 80 °sot hat ama rked d if
-
FIG
. 12-17
. C yl
ind
rical parabolic re- f
erence w ould b e expe cted i n the f i
eld
f
l
ector compa red with s quare c orner p
a ttern s of t he t wo r eflecto rs. How -
r
ef
lector
. e
ve r, i f AF = 0 .35 X t he e l
ect rical
l
eng th o f 00' i so nly a bou t 3 0°
, a nd
t
his would b ee xpected t oc ause o nly as l
igh td iference i nt he fi
eld p atterns .
I
tf ol
low s tha t if AF i ss mall i nt e
rms o ft he w ave leng th t he e xa ct s hap e
o
f t he refl
ec tor is n ot o f g reat i mpo rtance . T he p ra ctical a dvan tage
o
f the c orner r ef
lector i st he s implic
ity a nd e as e of c on struc tion o f t he
f
i
a t si
des.
S
ec
. 1
2
-6] REFLEC T O R-T YPE AN TE N N AS 3
39
12-6. The P
araboloidal R ef
lector
.' T he sur
face genera
ted byt he revo-
l
u
tion o f aparabola around i ts ax
is isca
lled a parabolo
id or ap arabola
o
frevolut
ion. Ifan isotropic source i
spl
aced att he f
ocus o
f aparaboloidal
r
ef
lector as i
nFig. 12-18.1a, t
he p or
tion A oft he s
ource rad
iat
ion that is
S
econda
ry p
attern
I
s
otrop
ic source p
atte
rn
(
primary pat
tern)
(
a)
T
ape
red i
lum
ina
tion
(
b
)
P
r
ima ry R
elat
ive
p
atte
rn f
i
eld i
ntens
ity
T
ape
red I l
umina
tion
w
i
th dashed p
r
imary pa
tte
rn
N
ear
ly un
iform i
lum
ination
w
i
th so
lid p
r
imary p
atte
rn
P
r
ima ry
p
atte
rns
R
e
lat
ive fi
eld
(
c) i
n
tens
ity
F
in. 12
-18
.1. P arabo
lic r
ef
lecto
rs o
f d
ife
rent f
o
cal l
e
ngths (
L) a
nd w
ith s
ources o
f
d
ifer
ent pa
ttern
s.
" Microwave A n tenna Theory a

nd De s
ign," ed
ited by S
.S ilver
, McGraw-H il
l B ook
Company , I nc.
, N ew Y ork, 1
949.
H
. T. F r
iis and W . D . L
ewis, Radar Antennas, B
el
l S y
stem T ech. 2
6
, 2 19-317,
Apri
l, 1947.
C
. C
.C ut
ler, Parabolic An
tenna D e
sign fo
rM icrowaves
, P roc. I
.R.E.
, 3
7, 1284-1294,
November , 1 947.
J
. C
. S later, "M icrowave Transmission
," McGraw -H i
ll B ook C ompany
, I nc
., N ew
York, 1
942 , p p
. 272-276 .
3
40 ANTE N N AS [
Cu m
. 1
2
i
nte
rcep ted b y the parabo lo
id i sref
lected a s ap lane w ave o f c
ir
cu lar
c
ross sect
ion p rovided t hat the ref
lector s urface d ev
iates f rom a t rue
p
arabolic sur
face b y n
o mo re than as mall f r
ac tion of awave length
.
I
f the distance L b etween t he focu
s a nd v ertex of t
he p a
rabolo
id i s
a
n even n umbe r of Iw avelengths, t
he dire ct r adiat
ion int he axia
l direc-
t
i
on from t he source w
ill be ino ppos
ite p ha se a nd wil
l tend t o c
ance
l t he
c
entra
l r eg
ion oft he r
ef
lected w ave. Howeve r
, i f
(
12
-12
)
where n = 1 ,3 ,5 , ...,t he direct rad

iation in the axial direction f rom
t
he source w i
ll be i nthe same p hase and wil
l tend tor e
in force the c entral
r
egion o f the re f
lected w ave. D irect radiat
ion f rom t he s ource c an b e
e
l
im inated b y m ean s of ad irectional source or primary a ntenna ' as in
F
ig. 12-18.1b and c .
Apr
ima ry a ntenna w i
th t he ideal
ized h emispherica
l p a
tte rn s hown i n
F
ig. 12-18.1b ( so
lid c urve) results in aw ave of uniform p hase o ver the
r
ef
lector a perture. Howeve r, the amp li
tude i stapered a s indica ted. T o
o
btain a mo re u n
iform a per
ture f i
eld d i
str
ibu t
ion o r ilum ina tion , itis
n
ecessary t o make 0 ,s mal
l ass uggested inF ig
. 12-18.1c b y increa sing the
f
ocal length L w h
ile keeping t he ref
lector diameter D c onstan t
.' I ft he
H
alf
-wove a
a
nd r
S
n
ef
p
tenna
lecto
econdary
attern
r
/ H
orn
\
o
g D
S
econdary
'
Pr
imary p
atte
rn P
r
imary p
attern
p
attern
P
r
imary
p
attern
(
a) (
b
) (
c
)
Fm
. 1
2
-18
.2. P
arabo
lic r
ef
lecto
rs w
ith v
ar
iou
s f
e
ed a
r
rangement
s.
s
ource pat
tern i sunifo
rm between t
he ang
les ±0, asfo
r t
he sol
id patte
rn,
t
he aperture ilum inat
ion isthen n
early uni
form. At ypica
l p a
tte
rn f o
r
adi
rectional source as i
nd
icated b
y the dashed c
urve a
t (c
) gi
ves amo re
t
apered aperture d i
str
ibut
ion as s
hown by t he d
ashed l
i
ne. T he grea
ter
1I
t i
sconvenient to re
fer to t
he pat
tern of the s
ource or pr
ima ry a
ntenna a
sthe
p
r
imary pa
tte
rn and the pattern o
fthe e
ntire a
ntenna a
st he s
econda
ry pat
tern.
IT
hat i
s
, by us
ing ar ef
lectorsys
tem w i
th al a
rger Fnumbe r
. T he F n
umb eri
sthe
r
a
tio o
fthe f
oca
l distance L tothe d
iameter D (F =L ID ).
S
ec
. 1
2
-6] REFLECT O R-T YPE ANTE N N AS 3
41
amount o f taper w ith r esu l

tan t r educ t
ion i n e dge i lum ina tion may b e
d
esirable ino rdert or e duce t he m inor-lobe l evel
, t his b eing a chieved , how-
e
ver, ats ome s acrifice i nd irectivity.
T
he arrangemen t o fF ig. 1 2-18.1b il ustrates t he c ase o f as mall r a
tio of
f
ocal distance L t o a pe r
tu re d iame ter D . T he a rrangemen t a t (c) ilus-
t
rates the c ase o f al a
rge r r at
io . A n extreme e xamp le o f ap arabolic
r
ef
lectorw i
th l a
rg e r atio o ff ocal dis
tance t oa p
e rtu re d iame te r isa forded
by many a stronom ica l te
le scope s oft he re f
lecting t ype .
Su
itable d irectiona l p a ttern s m ay b e ob tained w i th v ariou s type s of
p
rima ry a ntenna s
. A s e xamp les
, a4 -wave leng th a nt enna w ith a s mall
g
round p lane i sshown i nF ig. 12-18.2a, a nd a s mall h orn a nt enna i nF ig.
1
2-18.2b.
The presence o ft he p r
ima ry a ntenna i nt he pa th o ft he reflected w ave,
a
s in the a bove e xamp le s, h as t wo principa l disadvan tages. T he se are,
f
i
rst
, that w ave s reflected f rom the p arabo la b ack t ot he p rima ry a ntenna
p
roduce i n
tera ct
ion a nd m isma tching. ' S econd , t he p rima ry a ntenna
a
cts as an o bstruction , b lock ing o ut t he cen tra
l p ortion o f the a perture.
To avoid b oth e fec ts, only a p ortion o f the p arabo loid c an b e used a nd
t
he prima ry a n
tenna d ispla ced asi nF ig . 12
-18 .2c.
Let us next d evelop a n e xpression f or the f i
eld d istribution a cro ss the
a
perture o f ap arabo l
ic r ef
l ector. S ince t he d eve lopmen t iss imple r for a
d
p
d
8 d
e
A
xis
L
ine s
ource P
oint s
ource
o
t f
ocus a
t f
ocus
(a) f
F
lo. 1
2-19
. C
ros
s s
e
ctions o
f c
yl
ind
rica
l p
arabo
la (
a
) a
nd o
f p
arabo
loid o
f r
evo
lu-
t
i
on (b
).
c
yl
indrica
l parabola, th
is c
ase istr
eated f i
r
st, a
s an in
troduction t
o the
c
ase f
or aparaboloid. C on
sider acy
lindrical p
arabo
lic r
ef
lector w
ith li
ne
s
ource as i
n F
ig. 1 2
-19a. T he l
i
ne sour
ce i sis
otrop
ic i
n ap lane p
erpen-
1Th
is may b e g
reatly r
educed b y u
sing ac i
rcular
ly polar
ized p
rimary a
ntenna,such
a
s ahe
lica
lbeam a ntenna. Ift he p
rimary antenna radia
tion isr
ightci
rcu
lar
ly po
lariz
ed,
t
he wave r
ef
lected fr
om the parabola is mo
stly le
ftcircu
larly po
lar
ized a
nd the p
rimary
a
ntenna i
sinsensit
ive tothis pola
riza
tion.
3
42 AN TE N N AS [O w
. 1
2
d
icu
lar to i
t
s ax
is. For aunit d
i
stance i
n t
he zd
i
rec
tion
, F
ig
. 1
2
-19a
,
t
he power W i
n ast
rip o
fwid
th dy i
s
W =d
yP, (
12
-13
)
w
here P
, = the p
ower d
ens
ity a
t y
B
utw e h
ave a
lso t
hat
W = d
o U
' (
12
-14
)
w
here U
' = t
he p
owe
r p
er u
nit a
ngle p
er u
nit l
e
ngth i
n t
he zd
i
rec
tion
Thu
s,
P
,dy = U
' d
e (
12
-15
)
a
nd
P 1
U
' — (
d
/d0
)(R s
i
n 0
)(
12
-16
)
w
here
2
L
R — 1+ c
os 0 (
12
-17
)
Th
isy
ie
lds
1-
I
- cos 0
P m— 2L U
' (
12
-18
)
T
he ra
tio o
fthe p
ower dens
ity Po a
t 8to t
he p
owe
r d
ensi
ty Po a
t 0= 0
i
sthen g
iven b
y t
he r
at
io of (
12-18
) when 0 = 0t
o (
12
-18) when 0 = 0
,
o
r
Po 1± cos 0
(
12
-19)
P
. — 2
Hence
, i
nthe a
per
ture p
lane t
he f
i
e
ld-
int
ens
ity r
a
tio i
sequa
ltot
he s
qua
re
r
oot o
fthe p
owerrat
io o
r
Eo Il
\ ± c
os 0
(
12
-20
)
2
w
he re E,/E0 isthe re
lat
ive fi
e
ld in
tens
ity a
t adistance y f
r
om t he axis
a
sg iven by y= R sin 0.
Turning now tothe ca
se of ap
arabo
loid o
frevo
lution w
ith an i
sotropic
p
oint source as i
n Fig
. 1 2
-19b
, t
he to
tal power W through the annular
s
ect
ion o frad
ius pand width d
p i
s
W = 2
i
rp d
p P
, (
12
-21
)
w
here P, = the powe
r d ens
ity at adi
stance pfrom t
he a
xi
s
Th
is power must be equal to t
he power rad
iated b
y the i
so
trop
ic s
our
ce
o
verthe s
ol
id angle 27 s
in 0d O
. T hus
,
W = 2
rsi
n 0d
0 U (
12
-22
)
Se
c
. 1
2
-7] REFLECTO R -TYPE ANTEN N AS 3
43
w
here U = t
he r
ad
iat
ion i
n
ten
sity (
powerperuni
t s
o
lid a
ngle
)
T
hen
pdpP, =s i
n 0d0 U (
12
-23
)
o
r
Et s
i
n
(
12
-24
)
U p
(dp/d0
)
2
Lsin 0
w
here p = R s
i
n 0—
1-
I- c
o
s 0
T
his y
i
eld
s
( 1 ± c o s 0 ) T r
(
12
-25
)
2
4 L 2 U
T
he r
at
io o
f t
he powe
r d
ens
ity Po a
t t
he a
ngle 0 t
o t
he p
owe
r d
ensity
P
oat 0= 0i
sthen
Po (
1± cos 0
)2
(
12-26)
Po 4
Hence
, i
nthe a
per
ture p
lane t
he f
i
e
ld-
inten
sity r
a
tio i
sequa
ltot
he s
qua
re
r
oot o
fthe p
ower r
at
io o
r
Eo 1+ c
os 0
(
12
-27
)
E0 — 2
w
here E./E0 isthe r
e
la t
ive f
ie
ld in
tens
ity at aradiu
s pf r
om the a
xis as
g
i
ven by p= R s in 0
.
1
2-7
. P at
terns o
fL arge C
ircul
ar Apertu
res wi
th U ni
form Ilum
ination.
T
he rad
iation f
rom alarge p
arabolo
id w
ith un
ifo
rm ly ilum
inated a
perture
U
nifo
rm
p
lane
wave
U
niform U
niform
i
luminat
ion i
l
um inat
ion
R
elative fi
eld 1 R
e a
t
ive fi
eld
i
ntensity n
tens
ity
P
arabo
loid
I
n
fin
ite s
heet
(
a) (
b
)
FI
G. 1
2-20
. L arge p
araboloid with u
niformly i
lum
inated ape
rture (
a) a
nd equ
iva
lent
u
ni
formly ilum
inated aperture o
fsame d iame
ter D i
nin
fin
ite fl
at s
hee
t (
b).
3
44 ANTE N N AS [
CHA
P. 1
2
i
sequiva lent to tha
t f r
om a c i
rcular aperture oft he s
ame diamet e
r Di n
a
n inf
inite m etal pl
a te with a u ni
form p lane w ave in
cident on the pla
te
a
s in F
ig. 1 2
-20. T he radiation-f
ield pat
t ern fo
r such a un
iformly i l
um i
-
n
ated a perture can b e calculated' by a pplying Huygen s
' p r
inc
iple i n a
s
imi
larw ay asd one for arectangula raperture inC hap.4. T he n
orma l
ized
f
i
eld pa
tt ern E( 0
) as af unction of 0and D i s
2XJ,
[
(wD/X)s
in0
1
E(
0
) — (
12
-28
)
2
-D s
in(I
)
w
here D = d
iame terofa perture
X= f
ree-space w avelength
c
l
,= a
ngle w ith respect tothe n
ormal t
othe apertur
e (Fig
. 1
2
-20
)
J1= f
i
rst-o rderB esse
lf unct
ion
T
he ang
le c
ko t
ot he fi
rs
tn u
lls ofthe r
ad
iat
ion pat
tern ar
eg iven b
y
2
-D .
—x s
m0 =3
.83 (
12
-29
)
ince Ji(
s x
) = 0w
hen x = 3
.
83. T
hus
,
.3
.83 X .1.
22 X
c
t
io = a
rC81
11 - wD —a
r
csm (
1
2-30
)
D
When 00 i
sve
ry s
mal
l (
aper
ture l
a
rge
)
1
.22 7
0
—
D7 rad = 7
) -
xd
eg (
1
2-31
)
w
here D),= D/X = diame
terofa per
ture
, w aveleng
ths
T
he beam wid
th between f
i
rstnu
lls istw
ice thi
s. H ence f
o
rla
rge c
i
rcu
lar
a
per
ture
s, t
he beam w
idth be
tween fi
rstnul
lsi s
1
40
-
DT d
eg (
1
2-32
)
By way o
f c
ompari
son the b
eam width b
etwe
en fi
r
st n u
lls f
or alarge
u
nifo
rmly i
lum
inated r
e
ctangu
lar a
per
ture o
r alo
ng li
nea
r array i
sfrom
(
4
-149)
15
(
12-33)
I
-
4
w
here LA = l
e
ngth o
fap
ertu
re, w
ave
leng
ths
1See, fo
r example
, J. C . Slater and N. H. Frank, "
Introduct
ion t o Theo
retica
l
P
hysics," McGraw-Hil
l B ook C ompany , I
nc
., New Y o
rk, 1
933, p
.3 25
.
A
lso see "Microwave A ntenna Theo ry a
nd Design
," ed
ited by S.Silver
, McG raw-
H
il
l B ook Company, Inc
., N ew Y ork
, 1949
, p. 1
94
.
SE
C
. 1
2
-71 REFLEC T O R -TYPE AN TE N N AS 3
45
T
he b
eam w
idth b
etween h
al
f-powe
r p
o
ints f
o
r al
a
rge c
i
rcu
lara
per
ture
i
s'
5
8
(
12
-34
)
DA
T
hese beam width
s are s
ummarized a
nd compared wi
th tho
se fo
r h
orn
a
ntennas i
nTable 1
3-1
.
The d
i
rec
tiv
ity D of al
a
rge u
nif
ormly i
lumina
ted a
pertu
re i
sgi
ven b
y
D = 4
7 a
rea
(
12
-35
)
X2
F
or ac
i
rcu
lara
per
tur
e
D = 4
r = 9
.
87D 2 (
12
-36
)
4
X2
whe
re D),= t
he d
i
ame t
er o
fthe a
per
ture i
nwave
lengths
The p
ower g
ain G o
f aci
rcu
lar a
per
ture o
ver af-wave
leng
th d
ipo
le an-
t
enna i
s
G = 6M
, (
12-37
)
F
or example, an antenna with a unifo
rm ly i
luminated c
i
rcula
r aper
ture
1
0w ave
leng ths i
nd iameterh as aga
in of6 00 o
rnear
ly 28 d
b with r
e
spect
t
o af-wavelength dipo
le antenna
.
F
or asquarea pe
rture
, the di
rect
ivity is
L2
D =4
T—2 = 1
x 2
.6L
; (
1
2-38
)
a
nd t
he p
owe
rga
in o
ver a1
-wave
leng
th d
ipo
le i
s
G=7
.
7V, (
12
-39
)
whe re Lk = t he length o f as i
de
Fore xamp le
, a n antenna w i
th as quare ap er
ture 10w ave lengths o n as ide
ha
s ag ain of 70 o rn ea rly 29 d b over af -wavelength dipole.
T he a bove d i
rectivity a nd g a
in r e
lations a r
e for un
ifo rmly i lum ina ted
a
per tures a t l e
ast s eve ra l wave lengths a cross
. I f the i lumina tion is
t
ape red, the direct
iv i
ty a nd ga
in a rel e
ss.
T he pa t
tern s fo
r as qua re aperture 1 0 wavelengths on as i
de a nd for a
c
ir
cu lar a perture 10 w ave lengths i ndiame ter are compa red in F ig. 12-21.
I
n b o
th c ases the fie
ld i sa ssumed t o b e uniform in both magn itude a nd
p
ha se ac ross the apertu re. T he p a
tterns a re gi
ven as af unct
ion o fct
,in
t
he x -y plane. T he p at terns int he x-z plane are i
dentical to tho se int he
x
-y p lane. A l
though t he ma in-lobe b eam w idth for t
he c ircu
lar a perture
"Microwave A
ntenna Theory a
nd Des
ign
," e
dit
ed b
y S
.Si
lver
, McGraw
-Hil B
ook
C
ompany, I
nc.
, New York
, 1949, p
. 1
94
.
3
46 AN TE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
2
i
sgrea
ter t
han for t
he s
quare a
perture
, the s
i
de-
lobe leve
l f
or t
he c
i
rcular
a
per
ture i
ss mal
ler. As imi
lar efect c
ould b
e produced wi
th the s
quare
a
per
ture b
y taper
ing the i
luminat
ion.
1
.0
I I
0
.8 I
I
I
0
.707 /
/ I
I
r
i I
I
I i S
quare a
pertu
re
I
I I
C
i lar a
rcu perture
I I
I I
/
I
/
/ I
/ I
I I
t
i ‘ I
I / \
' ‘
.
.
..--
.•
% I
, /
/.
.
..
.."•
• / 1 \ , \
'N
... .
' • / 1
\ • .
.'
\V I ‘
• / I
VI • / •
a' V v
NZ
9 -
1
0° — 5
° 0° 5
° 1
0° 1
5
° 2
0*
c
Fm. 1
2
-21. R ela
tive r
adia
tion p
att
erns o
fcircu
lar a
per
ture o
fdiamet
er D = 1
0 Xa
nd
o
fsquare a
per
ture ofsi
de leng
th L = 1
0 X.
1
2-8. T he Cyl
ind ri
cal Parabol
ic R ef
lector
. T he cyl
indrica
l parabolic
r
ef
lector isused with a l
ine
-source type of p
rima
ry a n
tenna. Two t ypes
a
re ilus
tra ted i
n F ig
. 12
-22. B oth produce f
an beam s
, that is
, af i
eld
p
attern that iswide inone plane and narrow i
n the o
ther
. T he an
tenna
(
a
)
(
b
)
Fm. 12
-22. P arabo
lic ref
lec
tor with li
near ar
ray o
f e
i
ght i
n
-pha
se 4
-wave
leng
th
a
ntennas (
a) a
nd "pi
llbox" or "
cheese" a
ntenna (
b)
.
S
ec
. 1
2
-9] REFLECT O R-T YPE AN TE N N AS 3
47
i
nF ig
. 1 2-22a h as al i
ne s ource o fe i
gh t in-pha se 4 -wave leng th a ntenna s
a
nd p roduce s ab eam t hat i sn a rrow i nt he E p l ane ( x
-z p lane ) a nd w ide
i
nt he H p lane ( x
-y p lane ). T he a ntenna i nF ig
. 1 2
-226 p roduce s ab eam
t
ha t i sw ide i n t he E p lane ( x
- z p lane) a nd n arrow i n t he H p l ane ( x
-y
p
lane )
. T he p rima ry a ntenna c on s
ists o f ad r
iven s tub e lemen t w ith a
r
ef
le cto r elemen t. T he d riven e l
emen t isf ed b y ac oaxial l i
ne . T he s i
de
p
late s a ct as ap a ralle l plane w ave g uide. T hey g uide t he r ad iation f rom
t
he p rima ry a ntenna t o t he p arabo l
ic r ef
lec tor. T his t ype o f an tenna i s
c
alled a" pi
llbox" o r" chee se" a ntenna . I fL < X /2, p ropaga tion b etween
t
he p lane s isre stric ted t o t he p rinc ipal o r TE M mode . I n t h
is c ase t he
s
ou rce may b e as t ub a ntenna o f l e
ng th l ess t han 4 w ave leng th ( as in
F
ig. 1 2-226 ), ort he s ou rce may b ea no pen -ended w ave g u
ide o rs ma llh orn.
Neglec ting e dge e f ec ts
, t he p a tt erns o f t he a ntenna s of F ig. 1 2-22 a re
t
ho seo fr ec
tangu la ra perture so fs ide dimens ion s Lb yH . I ft he il um ina -
t
ion i ss ubstan tially u niform o ve r t he a pertur e [ 0s mall i n E q. ( 12-20 )
],
t
he r e
la tion sd eve loped f orr ectangu la ra pe r
ture si nC hap . 4c an b ea pp lied
t
o c a
lcu la te the p at te rns p rov ided t hat t he s i
de l e
ng th i sl arge c ompa red
t
ot he w aveleng th.
1
2-9. A pertu re D is tribu t
ions . T he fi
eld p a
tte rn i nt he x -y p lane f rom a
l
i
ne s our ce o f l eng th L ( Fig . 12 -23a ) i si den t
ical w i th t he p attern i n t he
x
-y p lane f rom a r ec tangu la r a pe rtur e ofl eng th L ( F
ig. 1 2
-236 ) p rov ided
t
ha t b oth h ave t he s ame d ist
ribu tion i nt he y d i
rec t
ion . T he p at tern o f
ac i
rcu lar a perture ( D = L ) w ith t he s ame d istribu tion w ill b e d if eren t
(
wide r b eam w id th a nd s maller s ide lobe s). Howeve r
, t he r elat
i ve e fect
o
f ac hang ei nt he t ape ro f ad i s
t ribu tion i st he same i na l c ases.
Al ong l inear a rray o f d iscre te c l
osely s paced s our ces h as n ear ly t he
s
ame p attern a s ac on t
inuous a rray w ith t he s ame amp litude a nd p ha se
d
istribu tion, s o t ha t s ome o f t he c onclu s
ion s r eached i n C hap . 4c an b e
e
xtended t o fl
a t c on s tant -pha se b road s
ide a rray s or a pertur es i ng ene ral.
Tos umma r
ize:
1
. Au niform a mplitude distr
ibu t
ion yie
lds t
he maximum d i
rectivity
.'
2
. Tapering the a mpli
tude f r
om amax imum a t t
he center to as mal
ler
v
alue a t t
he edge s reduces the si
de-
lobe l
eve
l b u
t resul
ts i n awider
main lobe and less d
irectiv
ity.
3
. Ad i
stribut
ion w ith ani nver
se taper (
ampl
itude depress
ion atc enter
)2
r
esults in asharper ma in lobe bu
t al
so inan i
ncreased si
de-lobe le
vel
a
nd l e
ssd i
rectivity.
I
fthe a
mpl
itude i
sde
creased g
radua
lly t
o as
mal
l v
a
lve a
tthe e
dge
s o
f
1S
ee S
. Silver
, o p
. ci
t.
, p
. 1
77; s
ee a
l
so T. T. T ay
lor
, P roc
. I.R
.E.
, 36
, 135, Sep-
t
emb er
, 1948.
2T h
is t
yp e o
fd i
stribut
ion m
ight b
e i
nadvertently p
roduced b yt
he p
rimary a
ntenna
b
locking out t
he center o
fthe a
per
ture a
s d
iscussed i
nS ec
. 1 2
-6.
3
48 AN TE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
2
t
he a perture, as i n ab inom ial or Gau ss e rro r-cu rve t ype o f dis tribu tion ,
t
he s ide-lobe l e
vel i seffec t
ively zero
. Howeve r, t he a ttendan t d ecr eas e in
d
irectiv ity g ene rally make s thi s k ind o f
d
istribu tion u na ccep table. F o r ap rede -
t
erm ined s ide -lobe l evel t he o ptimum
.
4,-
Line so
urce d
istribu tion i so ft he Do lph-T cheby sche f
f
t
ype. An umbe ro fo ther amp litude d is-
V x t r
ibu t
ion s a re o f s ome i ntere st, f or e x-
ample,t he t riangu lar, c os
ine , a nd c o s
ine
s
qua red t ype s
. T hes e a re conven ien tly
(
a
) a
nalyz ed b y t he F ourier t r ans fo rm
method a sd e scr ibed i nt he nex ts ec tion .
I
n t he a bove d iscu ssion i ti sa s
sumed
S
quare t
ha tt he p ha se i su niform o vert he a per-
a
p
erture t
ure. Howeve r, i ft he p r
ima ry a nt enna
i
sd i
sp la ced f rom t he focus o ft he p arab -
o
la,o ri ft he p ha se p attern o fthe p r
ima ry
(
b
) a
ntenna i sn o t c on stan t, there w ill b e a
p
ha se v aria tion o ve rt he ape rtu re. T his
i
su sualy r e
f er red t o a s ap has e e rror.'
The e fe cts o f s uch p hase e r
ro r s a r e, in
g
ene ral, u nde sirab le s ince incr ea sed s ide-
l
obe l evel a nd r educed d irec tiv i
ty r e
-
g C
i
rcular s
ult. T he l e vel o f t he m inima b etween
a
pertu
re
l
obes i sa lso i ncrea sed .
(
c) I
ns ome a pp lica tion s beam so fs pe cial
s
hape a red e s
ired t ha t may r equ ire d istri-
Fm. 1 2
-23. L ines ource, squa re ap
- b
u t
i ons h
a vin g both amplitu de an d p
has e
e
rture, and ci
rcular aperture. t
ap ers
. I ng ene ral, ab eam o fa ny s hape
c
an b e p roduced b y t he p rope r amp li-
t
ude a nd p hase distribu tion o ver an ape rtu re.'
1
2-10 . F ourier T rans form Me thod . T he F our ie r t ransfo rm m e thod
p
rov ide s ac onven ient p rocedure for f i
nding t he f i
eld p atterns o f c e rtain
1F
or ad e tai
led discussion of b oth amp l
itude d i
stributions a nd phase e
rrors se
e
"Microwave A ntenna T heo ry and D es
ign," e dited by S . Si
lver, McGraw -Hill Book
Company , I
nc., New Y ork , 1949
; also H. T . Fr
iis and W . D. L ewis
, Rada r Antennas
,
B
ell System Tech. .
I, 26
, 2 19-317
, Apr il
, 1 947.
Chap. 1
3 b y L
. C. V an A tta and T . J.K eary, "M icrowave A ntenna T heory and
Des
ign," McGraw -Hil
, N ew Y ork, 1949, p.465. G ives agenera
l
s
urvey o fb
eam -shaping techniques.
Chap . 6b
y G . Stav
is a nd A. Do me, " Very High F requency T echniques," McGraw -
H
ill B ook C
ompany , Inc
., N ew York , 1947, p. 161
. G ives ad iscuss
ion of el
l
ip t
ical
-
p
arabolic r
ef
lectors
.
SE
C
. 1
2
-10
] REFLEC T O R-T YPE AN TE N N AS 3
49
a
perture d ist
ribu tions. S pec
if
i ca
lly, the fi
e
ld p atte rn c
an be formulated
a
st he Fou riert r
an sform ofthe a perture d
is
t ribu tion .'
Consider ac on
tinuou slineari n
-pha sesource o fl e ngth L o
r ar
ectangular
a
perture o fh eight La s i
n Fig. 12-24. I tisa ssumed t ha
t the a mp
litude
d
istr
ibu t
ion i sk nown a nd that t he phase distribu tion i
su n
ifo
rm . I t i
s
f
urthera ssumed t hat L> > Xsot ha t
t
he beam w idth o fthe main lobe (in
xdirect
ion ) iss mall
. T hen it may
b
e shown t hat ift he ampl
itude d is-
t
r
ibu t
ion i sgiven b y F(y) the fi
eld I
n-phase l
ine
s
ource
p
attern as af unc tion of4,inthe x -y
p
lane isgi ven b y
+
L/2
E
(4
,) = F
(y) 'i
n° d
y (
1
2-40
)
-
L/2
R
ectangu
lar
w
her
e (
1
2-40
) i
sthe F
our
ier t
r
ans
- a
perture
f
o
rm o
fF(y
). T
he d
i
str
ibu
tion f
unc
-
t
ion F(y) i sre
al i fthe phase isuni
- Fm . 12-24. L ine source o
f h
eight L a
nd
f
orm o vert he apertu re
. F urther
, if rectangular aperture o
fh e
ight L
.
t
he a mplitude d i
s t
ribu t
ion i ssym-
metr
ical a bout the c ente
r o f t
he aper
tur e (origin in F ig. 12-24
), F (y
) i s
e
ven a nd t he pattern i sgiven by the Fou r
ie r cosine t ransform o f F
(y).
For e
xamp le , i
ft he amp l
itude dis
tribut
ion i su niform , F (y) = 1a nd the
f
i
eld pattern is
E
(4
)) — 2s
i
n [
(
L,s i
n0 )/2
1
(
12
-41
)
1
3si
n4 ,
T
he n
orma
lized f
i
e
ld p
atte
rn i
s
E
(4
)) — 2s
i
n [
(L
,
.sin0
)/2
1 (
12
-42
)
L
,sin4
,
T
he f
i
eld p
atte
rn sfo
rf our t
ype
s o
famp
litude d
i
str
ibu
tion
s (
s
ee R
amsay
')
a
rel
i
sted i
nT able 1
2-2
.2
IJ.F. Ramsay , FourierT rans

form s i
nA erial Theory
, Ma rconi Rev
., 9,139,O ctobe r-
D
ecembe r
, 1 946.
R. C. Spencer, "Fourier I n
tegral Methods o f Pat
tern A nalys
is," M .I
.T . Rad iat
ion
L
aboratory R ep. 762-1, Janua ry 2
1, 1946
.
2For other distr
ibu t
ions s ee "Microwave A ntenna Theo ry and D es
ign," edited b y
S
. Si
lver
, McGraw -H il B ook C ompany , Inc
., N ew Yo rk
, 1 949; al
so R . C. S pencer,
"
Fourier In
teg ral Me thods o f Pa
ttern A na
lysis," M.I.T. Radiation L aborato
ry R apt.
7
62-1
, Janua ry 21, 1946.
3
50 ANTENNAS [
CHAP
. 1
2
TABLE 1
2
-2*
T
ype o
fdi
str
ibu
tion
F
ie
ld p
atte
rn
(
norma
lized
)
N
ame S
hap
e F
ormu
la
L
s
i
n [
(L,s
i
n
U
niform __
.
_
__ _ 1
[
(L,s
in4
,
)/2
]
2[
sin [
(L,s
in0
)/4 1 2
T
riangu
lar ___ _ 1— 2
Y
L L,s
i
n4,
_L
2
)
r
y (
w/2
)2 c
os [
(L,s
i
n 4
,
)/2
]
C
osine +1
2 c
o
.
: --
L (
7/2
)2 — [
(L
, s
in 4
,
)/2
] 2
-
C
osine 2T Y s
i
n [
(L,s
i
n 4
)/2
] 2
s
quared c
os L
L,s
i
n 4
, 1— [
(L
, s
in4
,
) 2/4r21
l
e
ngth ofa
r
ray o
raper
ture i
nrad
ian
s
=2
w(L/X
)
=a
ngle f
r
om t
he n
orma
l toth
e ar
ray o
rap
ertu
re (
F
ig. 1
2
-24
)
PROBLEMS
12-1. C a
lculate a nd p lo
tt he radia t
ion pattern of a4 -wave
leng th dipo
le a ntenna
s
paced 0 .15 w aveleng th fr
om a n in f
inite f
la
t sheet fora ssumed a ntenna loss re
sist
-
a
nces Ri = 0 a nd 1 0 ohms. E xp res
s the p a
tterns i ngain o ver a4 -wave length
d
ipole a ntenna i nf ree space w ith t he same p ower inpu t (
and z ero los
s resis
tance).
1
2 -2. As qua re-corne rr e
flectorh as adriven 4-wave length dipole antenna s paced
0
.5 w aveleng th from t he corne r
. A ssume p erf
ectly c onduct
ing s heet r
eflectors o
f
i
nf
inite exten t (i
dea lr ef
lector). C alculate and plott he rad
iation p attern in aplane
a
trigh ta nglest ot he driven e l
emen t.
1
2-3 . C alculat e a nd plot t he p attern of a n idea
l s quare
- corne r ref
lector with
4
-wave leng th d r
iven a n
tenna s pa ced 0 .
5 w avelength f rom t he c orner b ut with
t
he an tenna d isplaced 2 0
° from t he b i
sector oft he corner angle. T he p at
t e
rn to
REFLECTOR-TYPE ANTENNAS 3
51
b
ec a
lculated isi n ap lane pe rp endicu lart ot hea ntenna a nd t ot her e f
lect
ing s ide s
.
1
2-4. C a
lcula tea nd plot t her ad iation p att
erns of ap a rabo lo ida l r ef
lecto r wi th
u
ni form ly ilum ina ted a per
tu re w hen t h ediame teri s 8w av eleng th s a nd w hen t he
d
iame teri s16w av elength s
.
1
2-6. C a
lcula t
e t he r ad
ia tion p atte rn o f ac yl
ind rical p a rabo li c r ef
lec tor o f
s
qua rea pe
rtur e 16w aveleng th so n as ide w hen thei lum ina t
ion i su ni form o vert he
a
p ertur eand w hen t hef i
eld inten s
i ty a cros
st hea p
e r
tu ref o
llow s ac o sine v ariation
w
ith m aximum i n
ten s
ity a tthec ente ra nd zero in
tensity att hee dg e s. C ompa ret he
t
wo c asesb yp lott
ing t hen orma l
ized c urveso n thes ame g r aph .
1
2-6. a.C alcula t e and pl ot t he p attern o f a9 0° c o
rne r r ef
l ec to r w ith a t hin
c
enter-fed 4 -wave leng th d riven a ntenna s paced 0 .
35 w ave leng th f r
om
the corne r. A s
sume t ha t the corner ref
lecto ri so fi n f
in it e e x
ten t.
b
.C alcula te th e r
adia tion r es
i stance oft hed riven a ntenna .
c
.C alcula te theg ain o ft hea ntenna a nd corne rr ef
l ecto ro ve rt hea ntenna
al
one . A ssume t ha tl o
sse s aren egl
igible.
1
2-7. Assume t ha tthec orne rr eflectoro fP rob. 6isr emoved a nd t ha tini t
sp lace
t
het hree image su s ed int hea nalysisa re pres
en tp hysically r e
su lting i n af ou r
- ele-
men td riven array.
a
.C alcula te and p lott hep atter no fthi
sa rray .
b
.C alcula te th eradia tion r es
i stance att he ce n
te ro fo ne o ft hea ntenna s
.
c
. Calcula t e t
h e ga
in o ft he a rray overo ne o ft he a ntenna s a l
one.
1
2-8. Four9 0°c or n
er-ref
le cto ra ntenna sarea r
ranged i nl i
ne a s ab road s
ide a rray .
The c orneredge sa rep a
rallela nd s ide b ys i
de asi nthef i
gur e. T he s pac ing be tw e en
c
orne rs is 1w aveleng th. T he d riven a ntenna i ne ach c o rne r i s a4 -waveleng th
e
l
emen tspaced 0 .
4w avelength f rom t h ec orner
. A lla ntenna sa r ee ne rg ized inp ha se
r
i
ven
• e
l
ement
a
nd havee qua
lc u
rrenta mplitude. A s
suming t hatthep ropertie
so feach c
ornerar
e
t
hes ame asifit
ss i
des w
er eo finf
inite e
xtent, whati s
a
. th
e ga
in ofthe a rray over asingle 4
-waveleng th antenna?
b
. th
eh a
lf-powe
rb eam w idth i
nt h eHp lane?
12
-9. Show that th
e variation offi
eld acros
s the aperture of ap a
rabo
loidal r
e
-
f
l
ector w
ith an is
otrop
ic source isproport
iona l t
o 1/(1 + ( p/2L) z)wher
e pi sth
e
r
ad
iald i
stance f
r
om t hea
xiso ft h
ep arabo
loid . Show thatt hi
sr e
lation i
sequiva
len
t
t
o( 1+ c os 0
)/2
.
3
52 ANTEN NAS [
CHAP
. 1
2
1
2-10
. a
. S
how t
hatt
he r
e
lat
ive f
i
eld p
a t
tern i
nt he p
l
ane o
fth
edr
iven I
-wave
-
l
e
ngth e
l
emen
t o
f asqua
r e c
orner r
ef
lec
tor i
sgi
ven b
y
c
os (
90° c
os 0
)
E = [
1 — c
os (
S, s
in 0
)
]
s
i
n 0
w
he r
e 0i sthe ang
le with re
spe c
tt ot
heelementaxis
. Assume thatt h
e
c
orner-ref
lecto
r sheets are p
erfect
ly c
onduct
ing and o
finf
inite e
xtent
.
b
. C
alculate and plo
t the fi
eld pat
tern i
nthe p
lane o
fthe d
riven el
ement
f
o
r as pacing o
f Iw avelength tothec
orner
. C omparewith the p
att
ern
a
tr i
ght a ng
les (Prob. 12
-2).
CHAPTER 1
3
S
LOT
, HORN
, AND COMPLEMENTARY ANTENNAS
1
3-1
. S l
o t A
ntennas. T he antenna shown i n F
ig. 13-
1a , c
on s
ist
ing of
t
wo resonant I-wavelength stubs conne cted t
o at wo
-w ire tr
ansm is
sion
l
i
ne, f
o rms an inef
fi
cien t rad
iator. T he long w
ires are c l
osely spaced
(
w < X ) and c
arry current
s ofo pposite phase s
o that t
heir fi
e
ld s t
end to
M
eta
l s
hee
t
7 2f
/ ‘
(
a
) (
b
)
P
ia. 1
3
-1. P
ara
lle
l c
onnec
ted I
-wave
leng
th s
t
ubs (
a
) a
nd s
imp
le s
l
ota
ntenna (
b
).
c
ancel
. T he e nd w ires carry c urren ts inthe same p hase, b ut t hey are too
s
hort to rad ia te e f
iciently. H ence , enormou s c u
r rents may b e requi
red
t
or ad
ia te a pp reciab le amoun tso fp owe r
.
The antenna i nF ig. 13-1b, o nt he othe rhand, is av ery e f
icien tradiato r
.
I
n t h
is a rrangemen t a4 -wave leng th s l
ot i scut i n af l
at m etal sheet.
A
lthough t he w id th o ft he slot iss mal
l (w << X), the cu rrents a re not con-
f
i
ned t o the e dge s o f the s lot b ut spread o ut over t he s heet. T h
is isa
s
imple t ype o f slot a ntenna . R ad iat
ion o ccurs e qually f rom b oth sides
o
ft he sheet. I ft he s l
ot i sh orizon tal
, as shown , the r adia t
ion n orma l to
t
he sheet isv erticaly p olarized.
As l
ot a nt enna may b e c onven ien t
ly energized w ith a c oax ial t
r ansmis-
s
ion li
ne a s i nF ig. 1 3-2a. T he o uter conducto r o
ft he c able i sbonded t o
t
he m etal shee t. S ince t he t e
rm ina l re
sis
tance a tt he cen ter o f aresonan t
4
-waveleng th s loti n alarge s heeti sa bout5 00 ohm sa nd t he c haracter
istic
i
mpedance o fc oax ial tran sm iss
ion l i
nes isusually much l e
s s
, a n of-center
f
eed such a s s hown i n Fig. 1 3-2b may b e used t o prov ide a b e
tt er im-
3
53
3
54 ANTENNAS [
CHAP
. 1
3
p
edance ma tch. F or a5 0-ohm c oaxial cable t he d i
stance s s hould b e
a
bout wavelength. Slo t ant
enna s fed by ac oax ial li
ne int hi
s manne r
a
rei lustrated inF ig
. 13
-2 ca nd d. T he radiat
ion n orma ltot he sheet with
t
he horizon talslo
t( F
ig. 13-2c) i
sv ertical
ly p o
larized w h
ile r
adiation norma l
t
o the s heet with the vertical sl
o t (Fig. 13-2d) i sh or
izontally p o
larized.
The slot may b e 4w ave
leng th long, a ss hown, or mo re
.
Af l
a t sheet with a 4
-wave leng th s l
ot radiates e qual
ly o n both side s o
f
t
he she e
t. Howeve r
, ifthe sheet isv ery large (ideally inf
in
ite ) and b oxed
i
na s in Fig . 13
-3a, rad
iation o ccur s only from o ne side
. I ft he dep th d
V
C
oble bonded
t
o sheet
(
a
) (
b
)
V
ert
ically
p
o
larized
s
lot H
o izonto
lly
a
ntenna p
o
larized
l
ot
(
c
) I (
d) p a
ntenna
F
lo
. 13
-2
. S
l
ota
n
tenna
sfe
dbyc
o
axia
ltr
ansm
iss
ion l
i
ne
s.
o
ft he box isapprop r
iate (d X
/4 for at hin slo
t), n
o a ppreciable shunt
s
usceptance appears across the te
rm inals. W ith such a ze
ro s usceptance
b
ox, t he te
rminal i mpedance o f the resonan t 4-wavelength s l
ot isn on-
r
eactive and approximately t w
ice it
sv a
lue w ithou tthe box ora bou t 1
,000
o
hms .
The b oxed-
in s l
ot antenna m igh t be a ppl
ied e ven at r e
latively long
w
ave lengths' by us
ing the ground a s the flat conduct
ing s heet and exca-
IH
. G
. B
ook
er, S
l
ot A
er
ia
ls a
nd T
he
ir R
e
lat
ion t
oComp
lem
ent
ary W
ire A
er
ia
ls
,
1
.I.
E.E.(
L
ondon
),9
, P
3 a
rtI
IA, N
o.4
,19
46.
S
ec
. 1
3
-11 SL OT AN D HO R N AN TE N N AS 3
55
v
a t
ing a t
rench w
aveleng
th long b y Iw aveleng
th deep as s
ugges
ted in
F
ig. 13
-3b. T he a
bsence o
fa ny structure above the g
round le
vel might
make th
is type o
f antenna at
trac
tive, for example, i
n appl
icat
ions near
a
irpor
ts. T o imp
rove the ground conduc t
ivity, t
he wall
s of the t
rench
M
ax
. 7 M
in
M
ax M
ax
.
.=G
round
M
tn
. I
7
f- i
•v
__
Ie
(
a) (
b
)
F
la. 1
3
-3. B
oxed
-in s
l
ot a
ntenna (
a
) a
nd a
ppl
ica
tion t
o p
rov
ide f
l
ush r
adiato
r (
b
).
a
nd t
he g
round su
rround ing t
he s
l
ot c
an b e c
overed w
ith copper s
hee
t or
s
c
reen
. R ad
iation is max
imum inall d
ire
ctions a
t r
igh
t angles t
othe sl
ot
a
nd i
szero a
long the ground i
n t
he di
rect
ions of t
he end
s o f t
he s
lo
t as
F
ront v
i
ew
.
CW-o
v
e g
uide
S
ide
v
iew
(
a
) (
b
)
F
la. 1
3-4
. Wave
-gu
ide f
ed s
l
ot (
a
) a
nd T
-fed s
l
ot (
b
).
s
ugges
ted in Fig
. 13-3b. T he r
ad
iat
ion al
ong the ground isv ert
ica
lly
p
olar
ized.
Rad
iation f
r
om only o ne s
ide o
f al
arge f
l
at s
hee
t may also be ach
ieved
b
y as l
otfed w
ith aw ave gu
ide asinF
ig. 1
34a. W ith t
ransmis
sion inthe
3
56 AN TE N N AS (
CHAP
. 1
3
g
uide i n the TE H,mode t he d irection of the e l
ec tric fi
eld E i sa s shown .
The w idth L o f the guide mu st b e more t han 4 w avelength t o transm it
e
nergy , but i tshould be l e
ss than 1w aveleng th t o supp ress higher o rder
t
ransm iss
ion mode s
. W ith t he s lot hor
izon tal, a s s hown , the radia tion
n
orma l to the sheet isvertically p olar
ized. T he s lot opening c onstitutes
a
n a brup t termina t
ion t o the w ave guide. I t h as b een found ' tha t the
r
esult
ing i mpedance m isma tch i sl e
ast over aw ide f requency b and i fthe
r
atio L /w isl e
ss than 3.
Ac ompac t wide-band m ethod f or f
eeding a b oxed -
in s lot isilustra ted
i
n Fig. 1 3
-4b . I n thi
s T -fed a rrangemen t' the b ar compen sates the i m-
p
edance c haracteris
tics so as to p rovide a SWR o n a5 0-ohm f eed l i
ne of
l
e
s s than 2o ver afrequency r ange o fn early 2t o 1. T he rat
io L /w o ft he
l
ength t ow idth oft he sl
oti sa bout 3 .
D
ispen s
ing w ith the fl
at s hee t al
togethe r
, a n a rray o fs l
ots may b e cut
F
lo
. 1
3
-5
. B
road
sid
ear
ray o
fsl
o
tsi
nwav
egu
ide
.
i
nt he w ave g u
ide a s inF ig. 13 -5 so as t o produce a d i
rectiona l r ad iation
p
a t
te rn
.' W i th tran sm iss
ion i n the g u
ide i n the TE , 0 mode, t he i nstan -
t
aneou s direc tion o ft he electr
ic f i
eld E i n
side t he g u
ide isa si ndica ted b y
t
he d ashed a r rows. B y c utt
ing i ncl
ined s lots a s shown a t i nterva ls o f
X
./2 ( where X .i st he w aveleng th i nt he g uide), t he sl
ots ar e e nergized i n
p
hase a nd p roduce a d irectiona l p a
ttern w ith max imum r adia tion b road -
s
ide t o t
he g uide. I f t he g u
ide i sh orizon tal a nd E i ns
ide t he g uide i s
v
ertical,the r adiated fie
ld i shorizon tal
ly p o
la r
ized a ssugge s
ted i nF ig. 1 3-5.
1
3-2. Pa tterns o fS lotA ntennas i nF latS heets. C on s
idert he h orizon tal
4
-wave leng th s l
ot a n
tenna o fw id th w i n ap erfectly conduc ting f l
at s hee t
o
fi nf
inite e xten t asi nF ig. 1 3
-6a . T he s heet ise nergized att he t erm ina ls
FF. I th a
sb een p ostulated b yB ooke rt hatt he r adiat
ion p a
t tern o ft he slot
i
st he same a s t hat oft he c omp lemen ta ry h or
izonta l 4-wave leng th d ipo le
1Chap. 7byA .D omea nd D.Lazarus

, " V
ery H
igh Fr
equ
ency Te
chniques
," R ad
io
R
esearch Laborato
ry St
af, McG r
aw-H il
l Book Company
, I
nc
., New York
, 1947
.
2W.H .W atson,"TheP hy
sica
lP r
incipl
eso fWaveG u
ideTran
smis
sion a
ndA n
tenna
S
y
st ems," Ox
ford U n
ive
rsi
ty Pre
ss, L
ondon, 194
7.
SE
C
.
. 1
3
-2] SLOT AN D HO R N ANTE N N AS 3
57
c
onsi
sting o
f ap e
rfe
ctly conducting fl
at st
rip ofwidth w and energized at
t
he terminal
s FF a s ind
ica ted in Fig
. 1 3-6b bu
t w i
th t wo diference s
.
The
se are (1
) that t
he el
e c
tric and m agnetic f
i
elds ar
e int
erchanged a nd
(
2) t
hat the c
omponen t o
ft he el
ectr
ic fi
eld ofthe s
lot no
rma l t
ot he sheet
(
a
) (
b
)
FI
G. 1
34. i-wave
leng
th s
l
ot i
ninf
in
itef
l
ats
hee
t (
a
) a
nd c
omp
lementa
ry j
-wave
leng
th
d
ipo
le an
tenna (
b
).
i
sdi
scontinuous fr
om o ne s
ide o
ft he sheet t
o t
he o
ther, t
he di
re c
tion of
t
he fi
e
ld rever
sing. T he tangent
ial componen t o
f the magne
tic fi
eld is
,
l
i
kewise
, di
scontinuous
.
T
he patte
rnso fthe i
-waveleng
th slo
ta nd t
he c
omplementary dipole a
re
'
H
S
l
oti
nshee
tin
x
-z p
l
ane
(
a) (
b)
F
la. 1
3-7
. R ad
iation f
i
e
ld p
atterns o
fsl
ot i
ninf
in
ite s
hee
t (
a
) a
nd o
fcomp
lementa
ry
d
ipo
le an
tenna (
b)
.
c
ompa red i n Fig
. 13-7. T he i
n f
in
ite fl
at sheet i
sc o
incident wi
th the x
-z
p
lane
, a nd t he l
ong dimension o
ft he s
lo
t isi nthe xdirect
ion (F
ig. 13
-7a
).
The c
omp lemen tary dipo
le isc
oinciden
t with the x a
xis (Fig
. 1
3-76)
. T he
r
adia
tion -f
ield p a
tterns have t
h e same doughnu tshap e
, asind
icated, b
ut
3
58 ANTEN N AS [
CHAP
. 1
3
t
he direct
ionso f Ea nd H are in
terchanged. T he so
lid a
rrow sind
ica te t
he
d
irect
ion o f the e l
ectr
ic f i
e
ld E a nd the dashed arrows the dir
ec t
ion of
t
he magne tic fi
eld H.
I
ft he x
-y p l
ane i n Fig. 13
-7a i sho
rizonta
l and the zaxis ver
tical, t
he
r
adiation everywhe re i nthe x
-y plane f
rom the hor
izontal s
lot i
svertica
lly
p
olarized. T urning t he sl
ot to av ert
ical pos
ition (co
incident with the
zaxis) ro
tates t he rad
iation patte
rn through 90° to t
he posi
tion shown in
S
lot i
nshee
tin
x
-z pl
ane
F
la. 1
3
-8. R
adia
tion p
attern o
fver
tica
l s
l
ot i
ninf
in
ite f
l
at s
hee
t.
F
ig. 1
3-8
. T he r
adia
tion int
his ca
se iseverywhere h
or
izontal
ly po
lar
ized.
That i
s
, the e
l
ectr
ic fi
e
ld has on
ly a n E4,c
omponent. I fthe s
l
ot isvery
t
hin (w <
< X) a
nd wave
length long (
L = X /2
), the v
ar
iation o
f E. a
s a
f
unct
ion of 0i
sfrom (5
-84) g
iven by
E c
os [
(
T/2
) c
os 0
1
.
(0
) — s
in 0(
1
3-1
)
As
suming tha
t the s
hee
t isper
fect
ly c
onduct
ing and i
nf
ini
te i
nexten
t, t
he
magn
itude ofthe f
i
eld componen
t E, r
emains c
onstan
t as af
unc
tion o
fc h
f
or a
ny va
lue of0. Thus,
E1(
0
) = c
ons
tan
t (
13-2
)
C
on side
r n ow t he si
tuation w here the s lot i
sc ut in as heet o f fi
ni
te
e
xten ta ssugge s
ted by the dashed li
nesi nF ig. 1
3-8. T his change p roduce s
r
elatively l
it
tle efectont he E.(0) pat
tern g iven by (1
3-1). Howeve r, there
must b e adrastic change int he E,
(0) p attern si
nce int he xd irection, for
e
xamp le, t
he fie
ld s r
adiated from the t wo s i
des of t
he s heet are e qual in
magn i
tude b u
t o ppos
ite in phase so that t hey cance
l. H ence, t here isa
nul
l ina l
l direct
ion s i
nthe plane ofthe s heet. F or asheet ofg iven l e
ngth
SE
C
. 1
3
-2] SL O T AN D HO R N AN TE N N AS 3
59
Lin t
he x d
i
re c
tion the f
ie
ld p
atte
rn i
n t
he x-yp
lane might then b
e a
s
i
nd
ica
ted by the so
lid cu
rve i
n Fig
. 1
3-9a
. T he d
ashed curve isf
or a
n
x x
(
a) (
b
)
F
la. 13-9
. S ol
id curve
s show p
atterns i
nx -y plane f
or s
l
ot in f
in
ite s
hee
t o
flength L
.
S
lot isopen on bo
th sides i
n (
a
) a nd c
losed o n le
ft s
i
de in (
b)
. Dashed curve
s show
p
attern fo
rinf
inite s
heet
. A l
l p
atterns i
dealized.
i
nf
inite s
heet (
L =a))
. I fone s
ide o
ft he s
l
otisboxed i
n, t
here i
srad
iation
i
n the plane o
f the shee
t a s s
uggested by the pa
ttern in F
ig. 13-9b
.1
W
i th afin
ite s
hee
t the patt
ern usua
lly exh
ibi
ts ascal
loped or u
ndulating
z
X 6
.
3X
Pm. 13
-10. Mea sured 0
-plane patte r
ns o
f i-wave
leng
th boxed-
in s
l
ot an
tennas i
n
f
i
nite s
hee
ts o
f three l
eng
ths L = 0 .5
, 2.75
, and 5.
3 wave
lengths
. The w
idth o
f t
he
s
l
ots i
s0.1 w
avelength. (Aft
er Do
rm a nd Laza
rus
.)
'A
ccording t o H. G. Booker
, Slot A
eria
ls and The
ir Relat
ion to C omplementary
Wire Aer
ials
, J .I
.E .E. (
London)
, 93
, Part IIA, No
. 4, 1
946
, the e
nergy density i
nthe
0= 0 ° or 180° direc
tions i
s ithat f
or a
n inf
ini
te s
heet o
r the f
i
eld in
tensity is0
.707
t
hat for an inf
inite s
heet
.
3
60 AN TE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
3
c
ha rac teris
tic as s ugge
sted i n Fig
. 1 3
-9. A s the l ength L o ft he s hee t i
s
i
ncrea sed , t
he pa ttern undulations become mo re n ume rou s but t he magn i-
T
1S
t
ude o ft he u ndu lation sde creasess ot hat
h
e
t
f
or av e ry l arge s heet the p atte c
on-
f
orm sc lo sely t o ac i
rculars hap
at
pt
eer
. nMes s-
u
red p at tern s' i lustrating t hise fe cta re
s
hown i nF ig
. 1 3-10 f ort hree v a
lue so fL.
Am e thod d ue t oA l
ford f orl ocating t he
s
l
ot a
ngu lar p o s
ition s o f the max ima a nd
m
in ima i sd escribed b y Dome a nd L aza-
r
us.' I n t his m ethod t he as sump tion i s
made t ha t the f ar fi
eld i sp roduced b y
t
hree s ou rces ( see F ig. 13
- 11), one ( 1
) at
t
he s l
ot o fs treng th 1s in cu
ta nd t wo (2
T
opo
int P
a
nd 3 ) a t t he e dge s o
ft he s heet w ith a
s
treng th ks in ( wt — 8 )w here k< < 1a nd
g
ive s t he p ha se d iference o ft he e dge
F
lo. 1 3-11. C ons
truction f
or lo
cat-
i
ng max ima a nd m
in ima o
ftppattern s
ource sw ith r espec ttot he s ource ( 1
) at
f
or sl
ot i n af
ini
te sheet
. t
he s l
ot. A t t he p o
int Pa t al arge d i
s-
t
ance i nt he d i
re ction t he relative f i
eld
i
ntensi ty ist hen
E=s
i
nwt ks
i
n (
c
o
t — 8— e
) ks
in (
wt — ô+ e
) (
1
3-3
)
w
here e = (
7/X) Lco
sc8
B
y tr
igonometr
ic e
xpans
ion a
nd r
ea
rrangemen
t
E= (
1+ 2
kco
s c
os e
)si
n w
t — (
2
k s
i
n Sc
o
s e
)co
s c
o
t (
1
3-4
)
a
nd t
he modu
lus o
f Ei
s
E I= ± 2
k c
os Sc
ose
)2 ± (
2
ksi
n 8c
ose
)2 (
1
3-5
)
S
qua
ring a
nd n
eg
lec
ting t
e
rms w
ith 1
e
, s
i
nce k< 1
,(1
3-5
) r
educe
sto
E I= V1 + 4
k c
os 8c
o
se (
1
3-6
)
T
he maximum and m
inimum v
alue
s o
f IE Ia
s af
unc
tion o
f eo
ccur w
hen
e= nr
, sot
hat
e= Lc
os4
,= (
1
3-7
)
1Chap
. 7
,b y A
. Do me a
nd D
. Lazarus, "
Very H
igh F
requency Techn
ique s
," Rad
io
R
esea
rch Labora
tory S
taf, McGraw-H i
ll Book Company
, Inc
., New Y ork
, 1947 (
s
ee
S
ec 7
-3
).
S
ac
. 1
3
-3] SL OT AN D HO R N AN TE N N AS 3
61
w
her
e ni
san i
n
teg
er. T
hus
n
X n
X
c
o
s4)= —
L a
nd = STCCOS — (
1
3-8
)
L
T
he va
lueso f( I
)fo
rm axima a
nd minima int
he 4)pa
t t
ern ar
eg iven b
y( 13
-8).
T
hese lo
cations a r
e in
dependent o
f ka nd S
. Ifc os 8isposi
tive
, then the
m
axima corr e
spond t oeven v
alues o
f nand the minima too dd v
alue ofn.
1
3-3
. B abinet's Pr
incip
le and Complementary Antennas. B y means of
B
abinet
's principle many ofthe p
rob
lem s o
fs l
ota ntennas c
an be reduced
a
P
lane of
P
lane o
f s
creens o
bserva
tion
S
had v
i C
ase
S
ource
C
omp lementa
ry
s
creen
S
hadow
C
ase 2
S
ource
C
ase 3
S
ource
No s
creen
Fm
. 1
3-12
. O
ptica
lilu
stra
tion o
fBab
ine
t's p
r
inc
iple
.
t
osi
tuat
ion si
nvo
lving c
omplemen
tary l
i
nearantennas f
orwh
ich s
o
lut
ions
h
ave a
lr
eady b
een obta
ined
. In op
tic
s Bab
ine
t'sp r
inc
iple
' may b
est
ated
a
sfo
llows:
'S
ee
, f
o
r e
xamp
le, Max B
orn
, "
Opt
ik," V
erlag J
ul
ius S
pringe
r, B
erl
in, 1
933
, p
.155
.
3
62 AN TE N N AS (O
iss
. 1
3
The fi
eld ata ny poin
t behind ap lane hav
ing a s c
reen
, ifadded tot hefi
eld
a
tt he same p oint when th
e c ompl ementary scr
e en issubs
titu
ted, ise qua
l to
t
h
ef ie
ld a tth
e p ointwiun nos creen isp r
esent.
The principle may b e ilustrated b y cons
ide ring an e
xamp le with three
c
ases
. L e
t as ource and t wo i maginary plane s
, plane of s
creens A , and
p
lane o f observa t
ion B, be a rranged a s in Fig. 13
-12. A s C ase 1,let a
p
erfect
ly a bso rbing sc
reen b e placed inp lane A . T hen inp l
ane B t here
i
s ar eg
ion o f shadow as i nd
ica ted
. L et the f i
e
ld behind this screen be
s
ome f unction fi ofx,y ,and z . T hus,
F
. = fi(
x
, y
,z,
) (
1
3-9
)
A
sC ase 2l
etthe f
i
rs
tscreen b
erep
laced b
y i
t
scomp
lemen
tary s
c
reen a
nd
t
he f
i
eld b
ehind i
tbegi
ven by
F
. = f2(
x
, y
,z) (
1
3-10
)
A
s C
ase 3w
ith n
osc
reen p
res
entt
he f
i
e
ld i
s
=f
3
(x, y
,z)
. (
13
-11
)
T
hen
, B
abine
t's p
r
inc
iple a
s
ser
tst
hata
t t
he s
ame p
o
intx
,
, yi,z
,
F
. ± F
e
. =F
o (
13
-12
)
The sour ce may b e ap oint a s i n the a bove e xamp le or ad i

st r
ibu t
ion o f
s
ources. T he p rincip le applie sn ot o nly t o poin ts int he p lane o fo bserva-
t
ion B a s sugge sted i nF ig. 1 3-12 b ut a l
so t o a ny p o
in t behind s creen A .
A
lthough t he p rincip le i s obv iou s e nough f or t he s imp le s hadow c ase
a
bove, i ta l
so a ppliesw here d ifrac t
ion i sc onside red.
Babine t's princ ip
le h as b een e xtended a nd g ene ral
ized b y B ooke r' to
t
ake into a ccoun t t he v ector n ature o ft he e l
ec tromagne t
ic f i
e
ld. I n t h
is
e
xtension i ti sassumed t hat t he s creen i splane , per fect
ly c onduc t
ing , and
i
nf
inites
ima lly t hin. F urthermo re, i fo ne s creen i sp erfectly c onduc ting
=c o
), t he c omp lemen tary s creen mu st h ave i n
finite p ermeab il
ity
(
A =c o
). T hus, ifo ne screen i s ap er fec tconduc toro fe lectr
icity, the c om-
p
lemen ta ry s c
reen i s ap e
rfec tor " conduc to r" o f magne tism . No i nf
initely
p
ermeab le ma terial e x
ists, b ut t he e quivalen t e fect may b e o b
ta ined
b
y mak ing b o
th t he o r
igina l a nd c omp lemen tary s creen s o f perfectly
c
onduc ting mat e ria
l a nd i n
te r
chang ing e lectric a nd magne tic q uan tit
ies
e
verywhe re. A lthough n o p erfec t c onduc to rs o f e l
ectricity e x
ist, many
metals
, s uch a s s i
lve r a nd c opp e r, h ave s o h igh a c onduc t
ivity t hat w e
may a s
sume t he c onduc tivity i si nf
in ite w ith a n egligible erro r in mo st
a
pplication s
.
11
. G. Booker
, S
lot A
eria
ls a
nd The
ir Relat
ion t
o C
omp
lementa
ry Wi
re A
eria
ls,
J
.I
.E.E. (
London), 9
3, P
art IIA
, No
. 4, 1
946.
S
ec. 1
34] SL O T AN D HO R N AN TE N N AS 3
63
A
s an i
lustration o
fB ooker's exten sion ofB ab inet's p
rinciple, consider
t
he ca
ses in Fig. 13
-13. T he sou rce i n al
l case s is ashort d ipole
. I n
C
ase 1the dipole ishorizontal
, a nd t he origina
l s creen isan i nf
inite
, per-
f
e
ctly c
onducting, pl
ane, inf
inites
ima lly t h
in sheet w ith av ert
ica l sl
ot cut
o
ut as i
nd
ica ted. A t ap o
in t P b ehind t he screen t he fi
e
ld i s E1. I n
C
ase 2 t
he original s
creen isr ep
la ced b y the c
omp lementa ry s cre
en c on-
S
l
ot
C
ase I
S
o
t
S
trip
C
ase 2
C
ase 3
F
io. 13
-13
. Ilust
ration o
f B
abinet
's pr
inc
iple a
ppl
ied t
o as
l
ot i
n a
n i
n
fin
ite me
tal
s
heet a
nd t
he c
omplementa
ry meta
l st
rip
.
s
i
sting of ap er
fect
ly c onducting, plane, inf
inites
ima lly th
in st
rip o f the
s
ame d imensions as the sl
ot inthe original sc
reen. I n addit
ion the dipole
s
ourc e i
st urned vert
ica l so as to interchange E a nd H. A t t he same
p
oin t Pb eh
ind t he s
creen the fi
eld is E2. A s an alterna
tive s
i
tua tion for
Case 2 the dipole s
ource i shor
izon tal
, a nd the st
rip i sal
so t
urned h o
ri-
z
on ta
l. F inal
ly, in Case 3 no screen i spresent, and the fi
e
ld at p o
int P
i
s Eo. T hen, by Babinet's p
rinciple
3
64 AN TE N N AS (
CHAP
. 1
3
E
, E
, =E
c
, (
1
3-13
)
o
r
E
, E
,
(
1
3-14
)
.
1
20
Babine t's princip le may a lso b e a pplied t o p oints inf ron t oft he s creen s
.
I
n t he s i
tua t
ion o fC ase 1( Fig. 1 3-13 ) al a
rge amoun t ofe nergy may b e
t
ran sm itted t hrough t he s l
ot s o t hat t he f i
eld El may b e a bou t equa l t o
t
he f ie
ld E0 w ith n o i ntermed iate s creen ( Case 3). I n s uch a s itua tion
t
he c omp lemen ta ry d ipole a cts l ike a r ef
lector, a nd E2 w ould b e v ery
small
. T he fa c
tt hat am etals hee tw ith ai -waveleng th slot, or, ing ene ral
,
a
n o rif
ice o f a t l e
ast Iw aveleng th p erimet er, may t ransm it c onside rable
e
nergy , m ean s t ha t s.ots o r orifice s o f t his s i
ze s hould b e a ss
iduou sly
a
voided i n shee t ref
lecto rs such a s d escribed i n C hap . 12 w hen E i sn ot
p
arallel t ot he s lo
t.
1
3-4. T he I mpedan ce o fC omp lemen ta ry S creens. I nt h
iss ect
ion B ab i-
n
et's p r
inciple i sa ppl.ed w ith t he a id o f at r
an smission -
line a nalogy t o
f
i
nd ing t he r e
la tion b etween t he sur face i mpedance Z , o f as creen a nd t h
e
s
urfa ce i mpedance Z , oft he c omp lementa ry m e
tal screen.'
Conside r t he i nf
inite t ransm ission l ine s hown i n Fig. 1 3-14a o f c har -
a
cteri st
ic i mpedance Zo o r c haract eristic a dm ittance 1 c, = 1
7 /Z0. L et a
s
hun ta dm ittance Y , bep laced a cro sst he l i
ne. A ni ncident w ave trave ling
t
ot he r ight o fv o
ltage V . i sp ar
tly r ef
lec ted a t Y , as aw ave o fv o
ltage V ,
a
nd p artly transm itted b eyond Y , a s aw ave o fv o
ltage V ,
. T he v oltage s
a
rem easured a cro s
s th e li
ne.
Thiss i
tua tion i sanaogous t o ap lane w ave o ff i
eld inten s
i ty E, i nc
iden t
n
o rma lly o n ap lane s c
reen o f inf
in ite e xt en t with a s urface a dmit tance ,
o
r a dm ittance p er squa re, o f Y ,. T hat i s
, t he a dm ittance m ea sured
b
etwe en t he o ppo site e dges o fa ny s qua re s e
ction o f the s heet as i n F ig.
1
3-14 ci sY,. N egle c
ting t he i mpedance o ft he le
ad s the a dm ittance
Yi = —
I mho
s (
p
ers
qua
re) (
1
3-15
)
V
T
he value o f Yisthe s
ame f ora ny square se
ction o
ft he s
heet
. T hus
, the
s
e
ction may b e 1c m square or 1m e te
r s quare. H ence
, (13-15
) has the
d
imensions o f a
dm i
ttance rather than o f adm it
tance per l
ength squared
a
nd i scalled a surf
ace adm i
ttance
, o r adm it
tance per s
quare
. T he fi
eld
i
n
tensities ofthe waves ref
lected and t r
an smitted normal
ly t o t
he s
creen
a
re E
, a nd E,. L et t
he m ed
ium s urround ing the s
creen be f
ree s
pace
. I t
h
as ac haracter
ist
ic admittance Y.w h
ich i s apure c
onductance Go. Thu s
,
1T
he t
r
eatment f
o
llow
st ,
-atgiven b
yH .G.Booker. See S
lotAer
ials a
nd The
ir Rela
-
t
i
on toComp
lementary Wire A
eria
ls, J.
I.E.
E.(London)
, 93
, Par
t IIA , No
. 4,1946
.
S
im. 1
3
-4] SLOT AN D HO R N ANTE N N AS 3
65
(
1
3-16
)
T
he ra
tio o
f t
he magne
tic t
o t
he e
l
ectr
ic f
i
e
ld inten
sity o
f a
ny p
lane
t
r
ave
ling w
ave i
nfr
ee s
pace h
ast
hisv
alue
. Hence
,
Y I
i eH H
,
o= — = — = (13
-17
)
Ei
w
here H
,, H„ and H
, are t
he magne
tic f
i
eld i
n
tens
itie
s o
f t
he i
n
ciden
t,
r
ef
lec
ted
, a
nd t
ransmi
tted wave
s, r
e
spect
ive
ly.
V
, V
. V
,
-0- - - I.-
Y
. Y
,
(
a
)
E
1 E
.
I
n
cident
p
lane
wave
(
b
)
S
creen
Zero
i
mpedonc
st
raps
(
c)
Fm. 1 3
-14. S hunt admit
tance a
cros
s transm
iss
ion line (
a
) i sa
nalogous to inf
ini
te
s
creen inp a
th of p
lane wave (
6
). Me thod o
f measur
ing s
urfa
ce a
dm ittance o
fs c
reen
i
ss uggest
ed in (
c
).
T
he t
ran
smiss
ion c
oef
f
ic
ien
t f
or v
o
ltage 7 , of t
he t
r
ansm
iss
ion li
ne'
(
F
ig. 1
3
-14a) i
s
V
, 2Yo
(1
3-18)
217 0 + Y1
S
ee
, fo
r example
, S
. A
. S
che
lkunof
, "
Elect
romagne
tic Wave
s," D
. V
an No
strand
C
ompany
, Inc
., N
ew York
, 1
943
, p
.212
.
3
66 AN TE N N AS [CH
AP. 1
3
B
yana
logy t
he t
r
ansm
iss
ion c
oef
fic
ien
tfo
rthe e
l
ect
ric f
i
e
ld (
F
ig. 1
3
-14b
) i
s
E
, 2
1'
,
,
rE — Ea — 2Y
0 (
1
3-19
)
I
fnow t
he o
rig
ina
l scre
en isrep
laced b
y it
s c
omp lementary sc
reen w
ith a
n
a
dmit
tance p
er s
quare of Y2,t
he new t
ransmis
sion coef
fi
cient i
sthe r
at
io
o
fthe n
ew t
ransmi
tted fi
eld E
; to t
he i
nc
iden
tf ie
ld. T hus,
E
; 2
170
TI
E — E
. — 2Yo y2 (
1
3-20
)
A
pply
ing B
abine
t's p
r
inc
iple
, w
e h
ave f
r
om (
13
-14
) t
hat
E
, E
;
(
13
-21
)
Ea Ea
or
+ • = 1 (
13
-22
)
T
here
fore
,
2Yo 21
'0
(
13-23a
)
2Yo Y
, 2Y
o ± Y2 — 1
a
nd w
e o
bta
in B
ooke
r'a r
e
sul
t t
hat
Y
1Y2 = 4
11 (
13
-23b
)
S
ince Y1 = 1
/Z1
, Y
2 = 1
/Z2,a
nd Y
o = 1/
Z,
,
V,
2 =z0
ZiZ2 = —
4 o
r v
z,z 2
(
1
3-24a
)
T
hu s
, the geometr
ic mean of t
he impedances o
f t
he two s
cre
ens equa
ls
o
ne-hal
f the i
ntr
insic i
mpedance o
f the s
urround
ing medium
. S ince
, fo
r
f
r
ee space
, Z, = 376.7 o
hms,
z 3
5
,476
o
hms (
1
3-24b
)
Z2
I
fs c
reen 1isa ninf
inhe grating o fn arrow pa ra
llelstr
ipsa si nFig. 13-15a,
t
hen t he complemen tary screen ( screen 2) isa n inf
in
ite grating ofn arrow
s
l
o ts as shown i n F
ig
. 13-15b. S uppo se t
hat al ow-fr
equency p l
ane w ave
i
si nc
iden tnorma l
ly on sc
reen 1w i th the e
lectric fi
e
ld p a
ralle
lt ot he str
ip s
.
Then t he g
rating acts a
s ap e
r fectly ref
lect
ing s creen and z e
ro fie
ld p ene-
t
rates t o t
he rear
. T hu
s Z , = 0a nd from ( 13-24b) Z2 = CO so tha t the
c
omp lementary s c
reen of s l
ot s ( s
creen 2 ) o fers no i mpedimen t to t he
p
as sage of t
he w ave. I fthe f r
equency i si ncreased suff
iciently
, s c
reen 1
b
eg ins to transmit part of t he i nc
iden t wave . I f at the f r
equency F o
SE
C
. 1
3
-5] SLOT AN D HO R N AN TE N N AS 3
67
s
c
reen 1h as as urface impedance Z, =j188 o
hm s p
er s
qua re
, the i mpe-
d
ance Z2 o
fscreen 2i s—j188 ohmspersquare s
othatboth s
creens tr
ansm it
e
qual
ly well
. I fs c
reen 1 becomes more tr
ansparen
t (Z, larger
) a s the
f
r
equency isf u
rther in
c rea
sed, sc
reen 2 wi
ll become more o paque ( Z2
S
creen I (s
t
rips)
(
a
) (
b
)
FI
G
. 1
3
-15
. S
creen o
f p
ara
lle
l s
t
rip
s (
a
) a
nd c
omp
lementary s
c
reen o
fsl
ots (
b
).
smaller
) . A t a ny f requency t he s um of t he f ie
lds transmitted t hrough
s
creen 1a nd t hrough s creen 2i s ac ons
tan t a nd e qual t
o the fi
e
ld w ithout
a
ny s creen p r esent .
1
3-5. T he I mpedan ce ofS lotA n
tennas. I nt hi
ss ect
ion ar e
lation isde-
v
eloped f ort he i mpedance Z . of as l
ot antenna i nterm s o
ft he i mpedance
Z
,i of t he c omp lemen ta ry d ipole a ntenna.' Know ing Z a fo
r t he dipo
le,
t
he i mpedance Z , oft he slot can t hen bed ete rm ined.
Conside rt he s lot antenna s hown i nFig
. 1 3-16a a nd the comp lemen tary
d
ipole a ntenna s hown i n Fig. 1 3-16b. T he t erm inals of e
ach a ntenna are
i
ndicated b y FF , a nd i ti sa ssumed t hat t hey a re separated b y a n in
-
f
i
nite s
ima l distance . I ti sa ssumed t hat t he d ipole and slot ar
e c ut fr
om
a
n i nf
ini tesima lly t h
in, p lane, p erfect
ly conduc ting sheet
.
L
e t ag ene rato rb e c onnec ted t ot he t
erm ina ls ofthe sl
ot. T he d r
iving-
p
oin t i mpedance Z . a t the t erm inals ist he r atio of the terminal v o
ltage
V
. t ot he t erm inalc urrentI ,. L e
tE . and 1 , b et he el
ectr
ic and magne tic
f
i
eld so ft he s l
o ta ta ny p ointP . T hen the v o
l tage V. att he t
erm inals FF
o
ft he s loti sg iven b yt he l i
ne in tegral o
fE . o vert he path C, (F
ig . 1
3-16a)
a
s C , app roache s zero. T hus,
v
. = ur
n f E. •d
l (
1
3-25
)
c
,
w
here d
l =a
n i
nf
in
ite
sima
l v
ecto
r e
l
emen
t o
fle
ngth a
l
ong t
he c
ontou
ror
p
ath C
,
The t
r
eatmentfolows thatg i
ven byH.G.B ooker
, S
lot A
eria
lsand Th
eir Re
lat
ion
t
o Complementa
ry Wire Aerial
s, J.I
.E.E
. (London )
, 93
, Pa
rt I IA
, No
. 4, 1
946 w
ith
m
inor embel
ishments s
uggested by V. H
. R
u ins
ey.
3
68 AN TE N N AS [CH
AP. 1
3
T
he c
urr
ent I
.att
he t
e
rmina
lso
fthe s
l
oti
s
I
. = 2l
im f H
. •d
l (
13
-26
)
The pa
th C2 is jus
t p u
tside the metal she
et and para
lle
l to i
ts s
ur
face
.
The f
acto
r 2e nt
ers because on
ly one-halfthe c
los
ed li
ne in
tegra
l i
staken
,
t
he l
ine i
nteg
ral overthe othe
rs ide o
ft he s
hee
t being e
qual b
ys ymmetry
.
(
a
) (
F
lo. 1
3-16
. S
lota
ntenna a
nd c
omp
lemen
tary d
ipo
le a
ntenna
.
Turn
ing our attention tot he c
omplemen tary dipole a
ntenna, let agene-
r
ato
r b e connected t o the t e
rminal
s o f the dipole. T he driving-point
i
mpedance Z d a
t t he terminals i
sthe ratio of t
he t e
rminal vo
ltage V d to
t
he te
rminalc urrent /d. L e
t Ed and H d b
et he e
lectr
ic and magne t
ic fie
lds
o
fthe dipo
le ata ny point P. T hen the vo
ltage at the d
ipole te
rm inals i
s
Vd = Ed •d
l (
1
3-27
)
c
.
a
nd t
he c
urren
t i
s
= 2l
i
rn H
, •d
l (
1
3-28
)
c
,
B
ut
l
i
ra f Ed • d
l = Zo ur
n f H. •d
l
c
. c
.
-.
o C. (
1
3-29
)
a
nd
h
im f H d • d
l = l
im f E. •d
l (
1
3-30
)
c
,
-.
0 •c
, z
a
o c
,
-.
0 c.
S
a
c. 1
3
-5
] S
LOT AND HORN ANTENNAS 3
69
w
here Z
. isthe i
n
trins
ic impedance o
ft he s
urround
ing m
edium
. S
ubs
ti-
t
ut
ing (
13-27
) and (1
3-26
) in (
13-29
) y
ields
Zo
=—
2 I. (
13
-31
)
S
ubs
titu
ting (
1
3-28
) a
nd (
1
3-25
) i
n(1
3-30
) g
ive
s
Zr
,
V
. = (
1
3-32
)
Mu
ltip
lying (
1
3-31
) a
nd (
1
3-32
) w
e h
ave
V
. Vd _
(
13
-33
)
I. Id — 4
o
r
Z
.Zd = —
4 o
r (
1
3-34
)
Thus, w
e obtain Booker
's r
esu
lt tha
t the t
erminal impedance Z, o
f as
lo
t
a
ntenna isequal t
o o fthe s
quare ofthe i
nt
rinsic impedance o
fthe s
ur
-
r
ounding med ium div
ided by the t
erminal i
mpedance Zd o f t
he c
omple
-
mentary d
ipole a
ntenna. Forf r
ee s
pace Zo = 376.7 ohms, s
o
Z:
Z' = — — 3
5 ,
7
476 o
hms
' (
1
3-35
)
4
Zd
T
he impedance o
fthe s
l
ot isproportional t
ot he a
dmit
tance o
fthe dipo
le,
o
r v
i
ce versa
. Since
, i
ng ene
ral, Z a may b
e complex
, we may w
rite
3
5 4
76 3
5
,476 ,
D 2
Z — n jn
. — n2 j_ y2 kiLd .
1
"v.1,
1
1 (
1
3-36
)
a na ‘1,
1
whe
re R d a nd X d a
re the res
ist
ive a nd reac
tive componen ts oft he d
ipole
t
erminal i mpedance Z d. T hus
, ifthe dipole a
n tenna isinduc t
ive, the s
lot
i
scapa c
itative a nd v
ice ve
r sa. L engthening a4 -wavelength d ipole makes
i
t mo re inductive, but lengthening a 4 -wavelength s l
ot make s it more
c
apacitat
ive .
Let us now c ons
ider some n umer ical e
xamp les proceeding f r
om k nown
d
ipole type s to the complemen tary slot types. T he i mpedance o f an
i
nf
inites
ima lly thin 4-wavelength a ntenna (L = 0 .5 Xa nd L ID = . ) is
7
3 - I j
42.5 o hm s (
see Chap . 1
0). T herefo
re, the terminal i mpedance of
1
I
f the i
ntr
ins
ic impedance Zooffree sp
ace w
ere unknown
, (13
-35) p
rov
ide
s a
m
ean
s ofdet
ermining i
tb ym ea
suremen
ts ofthe i
mpedanceZ. o
f asl
ot a
n
tenna a
nd
t
h
e imp
edance Zd o
fthe complemen
tary di
pol
e an
tenna. T h
e imp
edance Z
oistw
ice
t
h
egeometr
icm eansof Z. a
nd Za o
r
Zo 2VI T
Z
,/ (
1
3-37
)
3
70 AN TE N N AS [CH
AP. 1
3
a
n i
nf
ini
tes
imal
ly t
h
in 1
-wave
leng
th s
l
ot a
ntenna (
L = 0
.
5 X a
nd
L
/w = c
o) i
s
5 ' .
42.5 — 3
63 — j
211 o
hms
Z 33
, — 7 + 43
7
6
S
ee F
ig
. 1
3
-17a
.
H
alf-wave d
ipo
le
L
4-1- -L 4- 1
(
a)
D-+0 71
Z
1-
=73+
j42 5 "
».
3
2)"
R
esonan
t h
alf-wave d
ipo
le R
esonan
t h
alf-wave s
lot
L
=0A75A - H L
-0.475X
(
b
)
0= m
1o-X0 .
005X
Z= 6
7+j0
'
Ful
l w
av e d
ipo
le "
Ful
l w
ave
"sl
ot
I
=
+ m L=0 9
25X L-0
.925X
D
=2L
8a0
.03 7
3
X
(
c
)
/ Z=50+10 / w=207
40.06,6
/y /
Z
=710+10
no. 13-
17. C ompar
ison o
f i
mpedance
s o
f c
yl
indr
ica
l d
ipo
le a
ntenna
s w
ith c
omp
le-
menta
ry sl
ot a
ntenna
s.
As another more prac

tical e
xamp le
, acylindr
icala ntenna with al e
ngth-
t
o-diame te
rr at
io of100 (L/D = 1 00) i
sresonant w hen the l
ength isabout
0
.475 w ave
length (L =0 .
475 X)
. T he t
erminal impedance isresis
tive and
e
qua l t
o a bou
t 6 7 o
hm s
. T he te
rm ina
l resi
stance of the complemen tary
s
l
o t an
tenna i sthen
3
5
,476
Z
, — 6
7 5
30 j
0 o
hms
S
ee F
ig
. 1
3
-17b
.
S
ec
. 1
3
.6] SL OT AN D HO R N ANTE N N AS 3
71
T
he complementary sl
ot has alength L = 0 .
475 X,the s
ame as for the
d
ipole, b
ut the w
idth o
ft he s
lo
ts hould bet w
ice the d
iameteroft he c
ylin-
d
rical d
ipo
le. A s i
nd
icated i
nS ec. 9
-7, afl
atstrip o
fw idth w i
sequiva
len t
t
o ac yl
indr
ical conduc
tor ofd iameter Dp rovided that w= 2 D
. T hus,
i
nt h
is example, t
he w
idth ofthe comp lementary sl
otis
2L 2X 0
.475 X
w = 2D — — 0
.01 X
1
00 1
00
As at hi rd e xamp le, ac ylind rica l d ipole w ith a n L ID r at

io o f 2 8 a nd
l
eng th o f a bou t 0 .925 w ave leng th h as at e
rm ina l r esistance o f a bou t
7
10 + j 0 o hm s. T he t erm ina l r es
is tance o f the c omp lemen ta ry s lo t i s
t
hen a bou t 5 0 +j 0 o hm s s o t ha t a n i mpedance ma tch w i ll be p rov ided
t
o a5 0-ohm c oax ial l ine. S ee F ig . 1 3-17 c.
I
ft he s lots i nt he se e xamp le sa ree nc losed o n o ne s ide o ft he s he e t w ith
ab ox o fs uch s ize t ha tz ero s u scep tance i ss hunted a cros st he s l
ott erm ina ls,
d
ue t ot he b ox , t he i mpedance sa red oub led .
The b and w id th o r s e
lec tivity c ha racter istics o f as lot a ntenna a re
t
he s ame a sf ort he c omp lemen ta ry d ipo le. T hu s, w iden ing as l
o t ( sma ller
L/w r atio ) i ncr ea ses t he b and w id th o f the s lo t a ntenna t he s ame a s i n
-
c
rea sing t he t hickne ss o f ad ipo le a n tenna ( sma ller L ID r atio) i ncrea ses
i
t
s b and w idth .
The a bove d iscu ssion o ft h
i s s ection a pplies t os lots i ns hee ts o fi n f
in ite
e
xten t
. I ft he s hee t i sf i
nite, t he i mpedance v a
lue s are s ub stan tia lly t he
s
ame p rov ided t ha t t he e dge o f t he s hee t i sa t l east aw aveleng th f rom
t
he s l
ot. Howeve r, t he m easured s l
oti mpedance i ss en si
tive t ot he n a tu re
o
ft he t e
rm inal c onne ction s.
1
3-6 . Horn A ntennas . S eve ra lt ype so fh o
rn a ntenna sa r ei lu stra ted i n
F
ig. 1 3 -18 . T ho se i n t he l eft c olumn a re r e ctangu lar h orns. A ll a re
e
ne rgized f rom r ectangu la r w ave g u
ide s. T ho se i n t he r i
gh t c olumn a re
c
i
r cu lar t ypes. T om in im ize r e f
l ection s oft he g uided w ave, t he t ran s
i tion
r
egion o r h o
rn b e tween t he w ave g uide a t t he t hroa t a nd f r
ee s pa ce a t
t
he a pe rture c ou ld b eg iven ag radua l e xponen t
ia l t ape ra si nF ig s
. 1 3-18a
o
r e . H oweve r
, i ti st he g ene ra l p ra ctice t o make h orns w i
th s traigh t
f
l
a resa ss ugge s ted b y t he o the rt ypesi nF ig. 1 3-18 . T he type s inF ig . 1 3-
1
86 a nd ca r
e s ecto ral h o rn s
. T hey a re r e
c tangu la r type s w ith a f l
a re i n
o
nly o ne d imen sion . A ssum ing t hat t he r ectangu la r w ave g uide i se ner-
g
ized w i th aTE , 0 mode w ave e lectric f i
eld ( E i n yd irection )
, t he h orn i n
F
ig. 1 3-18b i sf l
ared o ut i n ap lane p erpend icula r t oE . T his ist he p lane
o
f t he magne tic f i
eld H . H ence , t his t ype o f h orn i sc alled a s ec to ral
h
o rn f la red i nt he H p lane o rs imp ly a n H -p lan e s ec
tora l h orn. T he h o rn
i
nF ig. 1 3-18 c i sf lared o u t i nt he p lane o ft he e lectric f i
eld E , a nd , h ence ,
i
ti sc aled a n E -p lan es ecto ralh orn . Ar ectangu la rh orn w ith f lare i nb oth
3
72 AN TE N N AS [CH
AP. 1
3
p
lanes
, as i
nFig. 1
3-18d
, iscal
led ap y
ram idal h
orn. W ith aTE 1 0 w
ave i
n
t
he wave gu
ide the magnitude o
fthe e l
ectr
ic fi
e
ld i squite un
iform inthe
ydire
ction a
cros
s the ape
r tu
res o
f the horns of Fig
s. 13
-186, ca nd d b
ut
t
apers to z
e
ro in t
he x direc
tion a
cross the apertures
. T hi
s v a
riat
ion i
s
s
uggested b
y the a
rrows at the a
pertures in F
igs. 13-
186 , c
,a nd d. The
RECTANGULAR HORNS C
IRCULAR HORNS
Wave
g
uide
(a
) E
xponen
tia
lly t
ape
red p
yram
ida
l (
e) E
xponen
tia
lly t
apered
(
b
)Se
cto
ra
l H
-plane
(
C)Secto
rol E
-r l
ane (
g
) TEM b
icon
ica
l
(d) P
yram
ida
l (
h
)TE0
1 b
icon
ica
l
no
. 1
3
-18
. Tr
pes o
f r
e
ctangu
lar a
nd c
i
rcu
lar h
orn a
ntenna
s.
a
rrow s i
nd
ica te the dire
c t
ion oft he e
l
ectr
ic fi
e
ld E
, a nd t
he
ir le
ng th g
ive
s
a
n a pprox
ima te indicat
ion o f t
he magn i
tude of t
he fi
eld i
nten
sity. F or
smal
l fl
are angles the fi
eld var
iation a
cross t
he a
perture o
fthe re
ctangular
h
o rns issimi
la r to t he sinu
soidal di
str
ibut
ion of the TE 1
0 mode across
t
he w ave gu
ide .
SE
C
. 1
3
73
The h orn s hown i nF ig . 1 3

-18f i s ac on ica l type . When e xcited w i th a
c
ircula r g uide c arrying a TE , i mode w ave, t he e l
e ctric f i
e
ld d is
tr ibu tion
a
tt he ape r ture i sass hown b yt he a r
row s. T he h orn si nF ig. 1 3-18g a nd h
a
re b izoni cal t ype s
. T he o ne i n Fig. 1 3-18g i se xcited i nt he TE M mode
by av ertica l rad iato r w hile t he o ne i nF ig. 1 3-18h i se xcited i n the TE 0
1
mode b y as mall h orizon tal l oop a ntenna . T hese b icon ica l h orn sa ren on-
d
irec t
iona l i nt he h orizon ta l p lane.
Neglec t
ing e dge e f ect s, t he r adiation p at tern o f ah o rn a ntenna c an b e
d
eterm ined i ft he a pe rtu re d imen sions a nd a pertur e f i
eld d istribu tion a re
k
nown . F or ag iven a pe rtur e t he di rectivi ty i s max imum f or au n
i form
d
istribu tion . V ariations i nt he magn itude o r p hase o ft he f i
eld a cros s the
a
pe rture d ecrea se t he d irectiv ity. S ince t he H -plane s e ctora l ho rn ( F
ig.
1
3-18 b) h a s af i
eld d is tribu t
ion o ve r the xd imen sion w hich t ape rs to z ero
a
t t he e dge o f t he a pe rture , o ne w ould e xpe ct ap atte rn i nt he x -z p lane
r
e
la tively f ree o fm ino r l obe s a s compa red t o t he y-z p lane p attern o fa n
E
-p lane s e ctoral h orn ( F
ig . 1 3-18 c
) f or w hich t he magn itude o f Ei sq uite
c
on stan t o ve r the yd imen s
ion o ft he a pertu re
. T his i sb orne o ut e xpe r
i-
men tally.
To o btain a s u ni
fo rm a n a perture d istribu t
ion a s p os sible, av e ry l ong
h
orn w ith a s mall f l
a re a ngle i srequired . Howeve r
, f r
om t he s tandpo int
o
f p ra ct
ica l c onven ience t h e h orn s hould b e a s s ho r
t a s p oss
ib le. A n
o
ptimum h orn i sb etwe en t he se extreme sa nd h ast he m in imum b eam w id th
w
ithou te xcessive s ide -lobe l e
ve l f
or ag iven l eng th.
Con s
ide rt he l ongi tud ina l s ect
ion t h rough ah orn a ntenna o fF ig. 1 3-19.
FI
G
. 1
3-19
. C
ons
truct
ion f
or f
i
nding p
ath d
iference 8
.
T
he a xia
l length of t
he h
orn i sL
, the aper tu
re isA, and the total f
lare
a
ngle i s 00. The le
ngth 8 isthe diference i n p
ath le
ngth f o
r aw ave
r
eaching the a
perture a
tthe ax
isand o ne reaching t
he a
perture att he s
ide
o
ft he horn
. I f 8is as
ufic
iently s
mall fra
ction of awavelength, the fi
e
ld
i
sn ear
ly u n
iform over t
he en
tire a
pe r
ture. F or acon
stant length L t he
3
74 ANTE N N AS [CH
AP. 1
3
d
irectivity of the h orn increa ses ( beam w idth d ecr ease s
) as t he aperture
Aa nd f l
are angle O.a r
e i ncrea sed. Howeve r
, ifA a nd 4),become s ol arge
t
ha t 8i sequivalen t to 180 e l
ec trical degrees
, the f i
eld a t t
he e dge oft he
a
pe rture isinp hase oppo s
ition t o the fi
eld at the a x
is. F or all b
u t very
l
a
rge f la
re a ngles the rat
io L /L i
ss o n
early u nity t ha
t t he efect of
t
he a dditional p ath le
ngth 5o n t he distr
ibution o f t he fi
eld magn itude
c
an b e n eg
lected. Howeve r, w hen 8 = 1 80°
, t he p hase r eversa
l a t the
e
dge s of the a perture redu ces t he direc
tivity ( i
nc rea ses side lobes)
. I t
f
o
llow s tha t t
he max imum d irec tivity occurs a
t t he l argest fl
are angle f o
r
which (5d oes not exceed a c ertain v alue (S). T hu s, the o pt
imum h orn
d
imens ion s c
an b e re
lated b y
5
.—
c
os(
0/2
)
o
r
8
0co
s (0/2
)
L—
1— c
o
s (0/
2
)
D
r
= 2a
r
cco
s L± So
(
1
3-40
)
I
t turn s out t ha t the v a
lue o f Bo mu st usua l
ly b e i nt he r ange o f 0.1 t o
0
.4 fr
ee -space w aveleng th
. ' S uppo se tha tfora no ptimum h orn 8.= 0 .
25
a
nd t hat the a xial length L = 1 0 A . T hen from ( 13-40), 4 )
. =2 6°. T h
is
f
l
are a ngle t hen r esults i n the max imum d irectivity f or a1 0-wave leng th
h
orn.
The p ath l eng th
, o r 8e fec t
, d iscu s
sed a bove i sa n i nherent li m
ita tion
o
fa l
l h orn a ntenna s oft he c onven tional type.' T he relations o f (13-38 )
,
(
13-39), a nd ( 13-40) c an b e a pplied t o a l
l the h orns o f Fig. 13-18, t o d e
-
t
ermine t he o ptimum d imen sions. Howeve r
, t he a pprop riate value o f So
may d ifer as d iscu ssed i nt he f olow ing s e
ction s
. A nothe r limitation o f
h
orn a ntenna s ist hat for t he mo st u niform a perture i lum ina t
ion h i gher
modes o f transm iss
ion i n t he h orn mu st be s upp r
e ssed. I tf o
llow s t hat
t
he wid th o ft he w ave g uide a t t he throa t oft he h orn mu st be between
a
nd 1w aveleng th, ori ft he ex c
ita tion s ystem i ssymme trical, sot hate ven
modesa r en ote nergized, the w idth mu st be between a nd w aveleng ths.
'
A
t ag iven f r
equency t he w ave
leng th i nthe horn X5 i
salwaysequalt oorgr
eaterthan
t
he fr
ee-space w ave
leng th X. S ince X d epends o n t
he h orn d
imensions, i
tismore con-
v
enient toe xpress d oi
nf r
ee-
space w avelengthsX .
'
In the l e
ns -
comp ensated t ype of horn a ntenna ( s
ee C hap
. 14) the ve
loc
ity of the
wave i
si n
c reased n ear the edge oft he h orn with re
spect to t
he veloci
ty at t
he ax
is in
o
rder toequa lize the phase o ver the aperture.
S
r
(. 1
341 SL O T AN D HO R N AN TE N N AS 3
75
1
3-7. T he R ectangu lar H orn A n
tenna.' P rovided tha t the a perture i n
b
oth planes of ar ectangu lar horn exceeds 1w avelength, t he p at
te rn i n
o
ne plane issub stantialy i ndependen t o
ft he aperture int he o ther pl ane.
H
ence, ing eneral, the H -plane p a
ttern ofa n H-plane sectora l horn i st he
s
ame as the H -plane p attern of ap yramidal horn w ith the s ame H -plane
c
ro
ss sect
ion. L ikew ise, the E-plane patte
rn o fa n E-plane s ectoral h orn
i
sthe same a s t he E -plane p at
tern of ap y
ram idal born w i th the s ame
E
-plane cross s e
ction. R e f
erring to Fig
. 1 3-20
, t he total f l
are a ngle i n
E
-plane c
ross-sec
tion
H
-plane c
ross-sect
ion
(
a
) (
b
)
FI
G
. 1
3
-20
. E
-plane a
nd H
-plane c
ros
s s
ect
ions
.
t
he E plane i s 00 a
nd the t o
tal fl
are angle inthe H p lane isdh. T he axial
l
ength oft he h orn fr
om t h roat to aper
tu re isL , a
nd t he radial length is
R
. I n Fig. 13-21a m easu red patterns' in the E p l
ane a nd H p lane a re
c
ompa red as af unction o fR . B oth sets ar
e for af l
are angle of2 0°. T he
E
-plane p atterns h ave m ino r lo
bes w hereas t he H-plane p a
ttern s h ave
p
ractica
lly n one. I n Fig. 1 3
-21b m easured p atte
rns 2 fo
r h orns 8 w ave-
l
engths long are compa red a s afunc t
ion o ffl
are angle. I n the u pper r ow
E
-plane p atterns are g iven a s af unct
ion o f the E-plane f la
re a ngle B o,
a
nd i n the lowe r row H -plane p atterns are shown a s af unction o f the
1W. L. Barrow a nd F . D. L ewis

, The S ectora
l E lec t
romagne t
ic Ho rn, Proc. I. R.E.,
2
7, 41-50, January, 1 939.
W. L. B a
rrow a nd L . J. Chu, T heory o f the E lectromagne t
ic Ho rn, Proc. I. R.E.,
2
7, 51-64, January, 1 939.
L
. J. Chu a nd W . L . B arrow, Electromagnet ic Horn D esign, T ran s
. A. I.E.E.,68,
3
33-337 , Ju
ly, 1939.
F
. E. Terman , "Rad io E ngineers
' Handbook ," McGraw -H il B ook C ompany , Inc.,
New Y ork
, 1943, p p. 824-837 . Th is reference i n
cludes a s umma ry o f des
ign d a
ta o n
h
orn s
.
Chap. 10 by J.R . R isser, "Microwave A ntenna Theory a nd D esign," e d
ited b y S.
S
ilver, McGraw -Hil B ook C ompany , I nc., New Y ork, 1949, p p. 349-365 .
Chap. 6
,b y G. Stav is and A. Dom e , " Very High F requency T echn ique s
," b y Rad io
Research Labo ratory S taf, McGraw -H i
ll B ook C ompany , I nc., N ew Yo rk, 1947.
'D
. R. Rhode s
, A n E xperimen tal Investiga t
ion oft he Rad iation P atterns ofE lectro-
magnetic Horn A n
tenna s
, P roc
. I. R.E.,3 8
, 101-1105 , Septembe r, 1 948.
3
76 ANTE N N AS (CH
AP. 1
3
H
-plane fla
r e a
ngle 00. F o
r afla
r e ang
le 00 = 5 0° t
he E-plane p attern is
s
p
lit, w
he reas f
or 00 = 50 ° t
he H-plane p a
ttern isnot
. T h
is i sbecau se a
g
iven phase shi
ft at t he aper
ture i n the E-plane horn h a
s mo re e fect
o
n the pattern than the same p hase shif
t in the H-plane h orn
. I n t he
H
-plane h orn t
he fie
ld g oes t
o zero at the edge of the aperture
, s o t he
p
hase n
ea r the edge isre
lative
ly less important. Acco rd
ingly, w e shou ld
R
=I\ R
= X R
=4X R
=8X R
=16
).
4=20
* E
-plane
(
l
t
(
a
)
R
=IX F
t=2
X R \ R
=8X R=
16)
,
5
60=
20*
0
00 H
-plane
66=5
. 6
!-IO 9 =2O 00 =30 ° 00=40
° 00=50 °
R
=8X 0 E-
p
lane
/
\) C
0,0=
.20
* 00=30 ° 0
0=4CP =5
0°
R
-8X H
-
p
lane
ha. 1
3-21
. Measured E
- and H-p
lane p
atte
rns o
f r
e
ctangu
lar h
orn
s a
s af
unc
tion o
f
f
l
are a
ngle a
nd h
orn l
e
ngth
. ( Af
terRhod
es.
)
e
xpe ct the va
lue o f Bofor the opt
imum H -plane h orn to be l a
rge r than
f
ort he optimum E -plane h orn. This isilu
st rated i
nF ig. 13-22 discussed
i
nt he next paragraph.
F
rom Rhode s
's exper
imen ta
l patte
rns, optimum d imen s
ion s
' w e
re s e
-
l
e
cted f or bo
th E - and H -p
lane fl
are as afunc t
ion off l
are angle and h orn
l
ength L. T hese optimum d imen
sions are indicated by the sol
id l i
ne s i
n
F
ig. 13-22. T he c
orresponding half
-power b eam w idths and a pertur e
s in
wavelengths are al
so indicated. T he dashed c urves show t he ca
lcu lated
M
inimum b
eam w
idth a
s af
unc
tion o
f e
o o
r4N)f
o
r ac
ons
tant l
e
ngth L
.
S
ec
. 1
3
-7] SLO T AN D HO R N ANTE N N AS 3
77
5
0°
X i t
i
onaAi
:
:
_>. 7
' I
.
. 1
5
' (H- p
0 lane
)
.
.
40°
1
4*
1
4•'
" - 1
3
'
1
2* I
l
• Half-power
7
b
eam w id
ths
l
i
• 5 1
9.7
_ j
:
.
. 9.
AN
A
e
o
(E -p
lane -
-
-
- A
pertu
res
• r
•
i
n
w
ave
leng
ths
H
alf-power
eam w
b idths
\ AE
A
l
t
r I
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1
2 1
4 1
6 1
8 2
0 2
5 3
0
Horn l
ength L i
n wave
lengths
F
lo. 13-22
. E xperimentally d e
term ined o p
timum d imensions for re
ctangular horn
a
ntennas. S o
lid curves gi
ve relation of 1ar
e angle 00 i
n Ep lane and fl
are ang
le 00 i
n
H p
lane to horn length (s
ee Fig. 13-20)
. T he cor
responding h a
lf-power beam widths
a
nd ap e
rtures i
n w ave
lengths are indica t
ed al
ong t he curves
. Da shed curves s
how
c
a
lculated dimens
ions f or 4
30 = 0
.25 Xa nd 0.4 X
.
d
imen s
ion s for ap ath l ength S o = 0 .25 Xa nd S o = 0.4 X . T he v alue o f
0
.25 X g ive s ac u rve c lose t o t he e xperimen tal c urve f or E-plane f lare
,
while t he v a
lue o f 0 .4 Xg ive s ac urve c lose t o the e xper imen tal o ne f o
r
H
-p lane f l
areo ver ac ons iderab le r ange ofh o rn l e
ng th. T hus,t he t o
le rance
i
np ath l ength isg rea ter f or H -plane f lare t han f or E -plane f lare as i ndi
-
c
ated a bove .
Toi lus tratethe u se o fF ig. 13-22 ,
s
uppo set ha tw ew ish t oc ons tructa n
o
ptimum h orn with a1 4
°h alf-powe r
b
eam w id th int he H p lane . F rom
t
he u pp e
r s o
lid c urve i n Fig . 13-22 ,
t
he h orn s hould h ave a f l
are a ng le
= 3 6° a nd a l eng th L = 7 .8. X
.
E-p
lans A
xis c
ihal
t
The c orrespond ing H -p lane a perture s
ectoro
l horn
x
i
s 5X . I ft he max imum d irectivity
i
sa l
so d esired in t he E p l ane w ith
Fm . 1 3-23. C y
lindrical coordinates for
t
hiss ame h orn (L =7 .8X ), w en o te E -plane s ec
toralh orn.
f
rom t he l ower s ol
id c urve t ha t
t
he f la
r e a ngle 00 i n t he E p lane s hould b e 2 9° a nd t hat t he h a
lf-powe r
b
eam w id th t o be e xpe cted i n t he E p lane i s 1 2°
. T he corr espond ing
a
p erture E p l
ane i sa bou t 4X . T hus
, a lthough t he E -plane a pertur e is
n
ot s o l arge as the H -plane a p
e rture, the b eam w idth i sless ( but m inor
3
78 AN TE N N AS (
CHAP
. 1
3
l
obes l
arger
) b ecau se the E -plane aperture d i
stribu tion is mo re u niform .
For h
orn operation o ver af requency band i ti sde s
irab le tod eterm ine t he
o
ptimum d imen s
ion s f o
r t he highest frequen cy t o b e used, s i
nce ( 5as
measu
red inw aveleng ths islargestatt h
is highe stf requency .
The fi
eld in as ectoral h orn may b e dete rmined b y deve lop ing f rom
Maxwell
's equa t
ion s aw ave e quat
ion i ncylind r
ical c oord
ina te s and t hen
f
i
nding a so
lution a ppropriate to the bounda ry c ondi tions at t he w alls of
t
he horn
. T he h o rn isc onsidered as as ectoral g uide o f inf
in ite l ength.
The g
eneralsolution sf ort he fi
e
ldsi nthe h o
rn h ave b een given b yB arrow
a
nd C hu.
' F or e xamp le
, t he fi
elds in
side t he E -plane s ectora l h orn a re
g
iven intermso ft he cy
lind r
ical coord
ina tes (r
, 0,z )o fF ig
. 1 3-23 b y
E =K
, c
o
s (2
—
w)[H
12)(
1
c
r) K2
1-
1" (
k
r)] (
1
3-41
)
H
, =2
7.
-
g—1 s
C i
n (1
-1[1
1i)(
2 k
r) ± K2
1
1.1
"(k
r)] (
1
3-42
)
wow w
H = ig—
1 c
(
1 o
s (1
z-
)[1
1 )(
2 k
r) K2
HV )(
k
r)] (
1
3-43
)
Ago
w
here K
, =c
omplex c
onstant
r
at
io ofref
lected t
o i
n
ciden
t w
ave amp
litude
s a
t ap
o
int i
n
t
he h
orn
k= A 632 — 0 0 02
W = h
e
igh
t o
fho
rn
= 21rf
= Hanke
l f
unct
ion o
ffi
rs
tkind a
nd z
ero order
H
OE = Hanke
l f
unct
ion o
fse
cond k
ind a
nd ze
ro order
1 1
) = Hanke
l f
unc
tion o
ffi
rs
tkind a
nd f
ir
st orde
r
= Hanke
l f
unc
tion o
fse
cond k
ind a
nd fi
r
st order
'
'
See W . L. Bar row and L.J .C hu, Theory o
ft he Electromagne t
ic Horn, Proc
. I.R.E.,
2
7, 5 1-64 , Janua ry, 1939; al
so C hap. 10 by J
.R . Risser
, "M icrowave A ntenna Theory
a
nd D esign," e d
i ted b y S
.S i
lver, McG raw -Hi
ll Book C ompany , Inc., New York, 1949,
p
p. 3 49-365 .
21
-0( )(
1 kr
) J
o(kr) jNo(k
r)
How (k r
) =J o(kr) - jN o
(kr)
1
/1( 1)
(kr
) = JI( k
r) jA
r i(
kr
)
1
/ 1()(
1 kr
) = Jt( k
r) - jN i(kr
)
where J r epresen ts aB essel f
unction and N aN eumann f unct
ion.
Bessela nd N eumann f unctions are s
omewha ta nalogous tosine and co
sine f
unctions.
S
im ilarly there isa na nalogy between Hanke lf unct
ion sa nd e
xponent ialfunc
tions
. F or
e
xamp le, compa re
Hom(u) =J o
(u) jNo(u
)
a
nd
e
i
u = c o
s u jsi
n u
(
Footnote con t
inued on p
.3 79.)
SE
C
. 1
3
79
A
ssum ing f i
e
ld d istribu tion s a cross t he h orn a per ture o ft he type g iven
a
bove , the r ad iation -f
ield p attern s o f h orn s h ave b een c a
lculated b y
Barrow' and b yC hu.' T he m ethod i ss imi
la rt ot ha td iscus sed inC hap. 4
i
n w hich Huygen s' p rincip le i sa ppl
ied a nd t he c ontribu t
ions t o t he far
f
i
eld i n
tegrated o ve r the a pertu re. I ti sa ssumed t ha t the a pertur e isat
l
east several w aveleng th s. E dge e fects a re a l
so n eglected, t hat i s
, iti s
a
ssumed t hat t he f i
e
ld a t t he a pertu re i sthe s ame a s though t he sectoral
g
uide e x
tended t o i nf
in ity. T he a ctua l f i
e
ld d istribu tion d ifer s fr
om t h
is
b
ecaus e the a brup t t erm ina t
ion o f the s e
cto ral g u
ide a t t he a perture
r
esults inh ighe r mode w ave s a nd a lso c urren ts on t he o utside s urface of
t
he h orn. H ence , e xt reme ly c lose a g reemen t b e twe en c alculated a nd
measured p attern s isn ott o b ee xpe cted .
By calculating t he r adiation i ntensity i nt he direc t
ion o ft he h orn a x
is
a
nd c ompa ring t his w ith t he r adia t
ion i n
ten sity f rom a n isotropic s ource
r
adiating the same p owe r,t he direc t
iv i
ty c an b eo b tained f orl arge sectoral
h
orn s
. F ore xamp le t he d ire c
tivity D f orh ornsw ith o nly E -plane f lare i
s
g
iven b yS chelkuno fe a s
D = MR A [c
2 ( AEx ) s 2( AEx ) ]
W AS ‘
li n V211), (
1
3-44
)
w
here R = r
adial s
ide l
e
ng th o
fhorn ( i
n Fig
. 13-19
, R=L d
)
Ag = a
perture ofhorn i
n Eplane
• = a
perture ofhorn i
n Eplane i nfr
ee-
space w ave
length
s
• = a
perture of horn i
n H pl ane in fr
ee-space wave
length
s a
nd
w
here C a
nd S ind
icate t
he Fr
esne
l integrals
. T hat i
s
,
• 7
rn2
C(
X
) = I Cos - 2 d
u (
1
3-45
)
0
An d
• n 2
T
S
(x
) = asi
n — du (
1
3-46
)
2
Ac y
lindr ical traveling w ave may b e r
epresented b y aHenke l function j u
stas aplane
t
raveling w ave may b e represented b y an e xponen tial function . T hus, i
n (13-41),
(
13-42), a nd ( 13-43 ) 1( 2)represents ac y
lindrical w ave t r
aveling i n the +r direction,
a
nd Ho ) repres ents ac y
lindrical wave travel
ing i nt he — r direction.
1W.L . B arrow a nd L .J.C hu, Theory ofthe E lectromagne t
ic Horn , P roc
. I
.R.E.
, 2 7,
5
1-6 4
, J anua ry, 1939 ; W . L . B ar
row a nd F . M . G reene, R ectangu lar Hol
low P ipe
Radiator s
, P roc. I .R.E., 26, 1498- 1519, Decemb er, 1 938
.
11. J.C hu, C alculation of Rad iation Properties of Holow P ip es and Horn s
, J. Ap -
p
li
ed P hys.
, 1 , 603-610 , September , 1940
.
'S
. A . S che lkunof , " Electromagnet ic Wave s
," D . V an No s
t rand C ompany, I nc
.,
New Y ork, 1943 , p p
. 360-365 .
3
80 AN TE N N AS (
CHAP
. 1
3
Asimple app
roximat
e e xpre
ssion f
o
r the d
i
rec
tiv
ity o
f ahorn a
ntenna
w
ith la
rge aper
ture may b e writ
ten i
n te
rms o
f t
he maximum efect
ive
a
per
ture. T hus
, fr
om (3-47)
D =7
41
rA i
nA i
n, (
13
-47
)
w
here Airk = a
perture i
nf ree
-space wavelengths in Eplane
Af = a perture i
nf ree
-space wavelengths inHp lane
7= ra
tio o f maximum e f
ective a pe
r ture t
o physica
l ape
rture
(
s
ee absorpt
ion r a
tio
, Sec
. 3 -
6).
F
or op
timum h orns av alue of 7 0
.6 isa ppropr
iate
. T hus
, (1
3-47)
b
ecomes
D 7
.
5 AE
x i
ti
rk (
13
-48
)
T
he p
owe
r g
ain G o
fthe h
orn o
ver ai
-wave
leng
th d
ipo
le a
ntenna i
sthen
G 4
.
5 As
kAr
ix (
13
-49
)
1
3-8
. B eam-width Compa r
ison
. I tisinterest
ing t
o compare t
he b eam
w
idth between fi
rst n
ull
s a nd b
etween h a
lf-power p
oints f
or uniformly
i
luminated re
ctangular a nd ci
rcu
lar a pertures o
btained in previous
c
hapter
s with t
hose fo
r o p
timum rectangular horn a
ntennas (
sec
to ra
l or
TABLE 1
3
-1*
B
eam w
idth i
ndeg
ree
s
T
ypeo
fap
ertu
re
B
etw
een B
etw
een
f
i
r
stnul
ls h
a
lf-p
owerp
oin
ts
U
nifo
rmly i
l
umina
ted r
e
ctangu
lara
per
tur
e 15 5
1
o
rli
nea
rar
ray
1
40 5
8
U
nifo
rmly i
l
umina
ted c
i
rcu
lara
per
tur
e
Dx D),
15 5
6
O
ptimum E
-p
lan
ere
ctangu
larh
orn
Ain A Ex
1
72 6
7
O
ptimum H
-plan
ere
ctangu
larh
orn
AH
X Ai n
* =leng
th ofrectangular ap
erture or l
inea
r array infree
-space w
ave
leng
ths
=diameter o
fc i
rcular a
perture infr
ee-space w ave
lengths
AK
, = a
perture i
nEp lane i
nfree-
space w ave
leng ths
= a
perture i
n H plane i
nf r
ee-space wavelengths
SE
C
. 1
3
.9] SL O T AN D HO R N AN TE N N AS 3
81
p
y ram idal
). T h
is i sd one i nT able 13-1. I n general, t he r e
la t
ion s a
pply
t
o a pertures t hat a re at l e
a s
t s everal w avelength s
. T he b eam w idths
b
etween n ul
ls for t he h o rn s are c a
lcu lated , and t he h alf-powe r beam
w
id th s aree mpir
ica l
.'
3-
1 . C
9 ircular H orn A ntennas . T he c on ical ho
rn ' ( F
ig. 1 3-18f) can be
d
irect ly excited from ac i
rcu lar w ave g u
ide . O pt
imum d imen sions can be
d
ete rm ined f rom ( 13-38), (1 3-39), and ( 13-40) b y taking ( 30 = 0 .
32 X.
The b i
con ical horn s3 o
fF ig. 13-18 have p atterns tha t are n ondirect
ional
i
n t he h orizon ta
l p lane ( axis o f horns v ert
ical)
. T hese h o rns may b e
r
ega rded a s mod ified p yram ida l h o
rns w ith a 3 60° fl
a re a ngle int he hor
i-
z
on tal p l
ane . T he o ptimum v ertical
-plane f l
are a ngle i sa bou t the s
ame
a
sf o
r as ectoral h o
rn o ft he s ame c ross section excited i nt he s ame mode .
PROBLE MS
1
3-1. Wha ti sthe terminali mpedance of as l
ota ntenna boxed i ntor adiateo nly
i
no ne ha
lf-
space w hose comp lementa ry dipole a n
tenna h as ad r
iving poin t impe-
d
ance of Z = 1 00 + j 0 ohms . T he box a dds no shunt s usceptance a cross the
t
erminals
.
1
3-2. Wha t dimen s
ion sa re r
equ ired of as lo
t antenna ino rder tha
t its terminal
i
mpedance b e 75 ± JO o hm s
. T he sl
ot iso pen on b oth s
ides . U se the e mpir
ical
f
ormula ofSec. 10-11 for t
he c omp lemen tary dipole.
13-3
. Wha t isthe approxima te maximum p ower g a
in ofa n optimum h orn a n
-
t
enna with as quare aperture 10 w avelength s on as i
de?
1
3-4. a. Calculate and plott he E-plane p attern o
ft he h
orn o fP rob. 3
,a ssum ing
u
niform ilum ination o ver the aperture.
b
. Wha t isthe h a
lf-powe r beamw idth a nd the angle b etween fi
r s
t n u
lls?
1C
hap
. 6
,byG.S tav
isand A.D
om e
, "Ve
ry H
igh F
requency Techn
iques
," b
yR ad
io
R
esea
rch L
abo
rato
ry Staf
, McGraw-Hi
ll B
ook C
ompany, Inc
., New York
, 1
947
.
*G
. C . Southwo rth and A.P.K ing, Me tal Horns a s Direct
ive R eceivers o
f Ultra-
s
hort Wave s, Proc. I
.R.E., 27
, 9 5-102, February, 1939
.
A.P.K ing , The Radiation C haracter
istics ofC on
ical Ho rn A ntennas, Proc
. I.R.E.,
3
8, 249-2 5
1, Ma rch
, 1950. F or o p
timum c onical ho
rn s King g ives half-p
owe r beam
w
idths of6 0/A n i nthe E pl
ane a nd 70/A m int heHp lane
. T hes eare about 6perc ent
more than the values f
or ar ectangular horn as given i
nT able 13-1
.
*W
. L. B arrow, L.J. Chu,a nd J.J .Jansen, Biconical Electromagnet ic Horns, Proc.
I
.R.E., 27
, 7 69-779, December , 1939.
CHAPTER 1
4
LENS
, LONG WIRE,
AND OTHER TYPES OF ANTENNAS
I NTH
IS c hapter acons
iderable variety ofantennas i
scons
ide r
ed. S ome
a
re c
omb inations o
r modif
icat
ions o ft ype
sd i
scussed i
nprevious chapt e
rs,
wh
ile o
ther s
, such a
s the le
ns a ntenna s t
rea
ted in t
he fi
rs
t sections, are
b
ased on ent
irely d
ifer
en tpr
inc ip
les.
1
4-1
. L ens A n
tennas
. A tc ent
ime terw ave
lengths many opt
icald evices
c
an be a ppl
ied. T he pa
rabolic r
ef
lector h
as a lr
eady b een c on
sidered
(
Chap. 12). T he le
ns i
sa no
ther op
tical d
evice w hich o
f er
s intere
sting
p
oss
ibi
lit
ies.
L
ens antennas may be div
ided into two di
stinct type
s: ( 1
) those in
wh
ich the el
ectr
ica
l path l
eng
th isin
creased by the len
s m ed
ium a nd (2)
D
ielectr
ic l
ens
\ \ P
lane
Source wave
o
r f
ront
p
r
ima ry
ntenna .) ) ) ) )
a
/ j /
Wave f
ronts
Wave
(
a) r
etarded
E
-plane meta
l p
late l
e
ns
P
lane
S
ource wave
o
r f
ront
p
r
imary o
e"
a
ntenna
Wave
a
ccele
rated
(
I
)
)
F
lo. 1
4-1
. C
ompa
rison o
fdi
elec
tric l
e
ns a
nd E
-plane m
eta
l-p
late l
e
ns a
ct
ion
s.
3
82
SE
C
. 1
4
-2] LE NS AN D LO N G WI RE ANTE N N AS 3
83
t
ho se inw hich t he e lectrica
l p ath l ength i sdecrea sed b y the l ens medium .
The f i
rst t ype i ss ome time s c a
lled ad elay l ens since the w ave i sre
tarded
b
y t he l ens m ed ium . D ielectric l enses a nd H -plane m etal-plate lenses
b
elong t ot h
i st ype. E -plane m etal-p late lensesb e
long t ot he se
cond t ype.
The a ction s o f ad ielectric lens a nd a n E -plane m etal plate lens are com -
p
a red i nF ig. 14-1.
The d ielec t
ric a n tennas may b es ubd ivided i nto t wo group s:
1
.L ense s c on s
t ruc ted o fn onme ta l
lic d ie
lectric s
, such a s lucite or poly-
styrene
2
. L en sesc onstruc ted o fm etallic o ra rtif
icial dielectrics
The se type s are con s
ide red i nthe n ext t wo sect
ion s.
1
4 -2
. N onme tallic D ielectric L ens A n
tennas .' T h
is type i ssimi
la r to
t
he o ptica l lens. I t may b e d esigned b y the r ay a na
ly sis m ethod s of
g
eome trica l o ptics. A s a n e xamp le, l e
t u s de term ine t he s hape o f the
p
iano -
convex l ens o fF ig. 14-la f or t ransform ing t he sphe rical w ave front
f
rom a ni s
ot ropic p oin ts ource orp r
ima ry antenna i n
to ap lane w ave f
ront.2
S
our
ce or
p
r
ima
ry an
tenna
Pm 1
4
-2. P
ath l
e
ngths i
ndi
ele
ctr
ic l
e
ns.
The fi
eld over t
he plane su
rface can be made e ve
rywhe re in pha
se by
s
haping the l
enssothat a
ll pa
th sfrom t
he source t
ot he p
lane ar
eo fequa
l
e
l
ectrical l
eng
th. T h
is isthe pr
incip
le o
fe qual
ity ofe l
ect
rical (
oropt
ical
)
p
ath l e
ngth
. T hu
s, in F
ig. 14-2
, the e
lec
trica
l length of the p
ath OPP'
1A d
etai
led d
iscus
sion isg
iven by J. R. R
isser
, Chap. 1, "M icrowave Ant
enna
T
heory and Des
ign," ed
ited by S
. Si
lver
, McGraw -H
il
l Book C ompany, Inc
., New
Yo
rk, 1
949.
2Awave fr
ont isdef
ined a
s asur
face a
t al
l poin
ts o
fw hich t
he f
ie
ld isin t
he s
ame
p
hase
.
3
84 AN TE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
4
mus
t equal t
he el
ectr
ical le
ng th o
f t
he p
ath OQQ
'Q"
. O r mor
e s
imp
ly
OP must e
qua
l OQ'. L et OQ = L and OP = R
, a
nd l
ett
he med
ium s
ur-
r
ounding t
he l
en
sb ea i
r orv acuum. Then
,
R L ,R c
os 0— L
(
1
4-1
)
T
o =T
o 7
- X
d
whe
re X. =w aveleng
th i
nfr
ee s
pace (
a
ir o
rva
cuum
)
Xd = w
aveleng
th i
nthe l
e
ns
Mult
iplying (
14-1
) byX.
R = L+ n
(R c
os 0— L
) (
1
4-2
)
w
here n= Xo
/Xd =i
ndex o
fre
fra
ction
I
n g
enera
l,
)
t
o f
X
0 v
o Vm
e
—
(
1
4-3
)
Xd fXd Vd
w
here f = fr
equency
v o = v
eloc
ity infree space
v d = v
e
lo c
ity ind i
elec
t r
ic
1
2 = p
ermeabil
ity o fthe d
ielect
ric medium
e= di
electr
ic constant ofthe die
lec
tric med
ium
IL
o = p
ermeabil
ity offrees pace = 47 X 10-7 h
enry/me
t e
r
e o = d
i
electr
ic constant offree s
pace = 8.
85 X 10-2 f
1 arad/me
ter
B
ut
A= A
oA
r (
14
-4)
a
nd
e= E
of r (
1
4-5
)
w
here µ
, = = r
e
la
L
i tive p
ermeabil
ity o
fdie
lec
tric medium
A
t
o
e
,=—
e = r
e
lat
ive di
elec
tric c
ons
tant o
fdielec
tric m
edium
(
0
T
hus
, f
r
om (
1
4-3
)
n= µ
,
e, (
14
-6)
F
orn
onmagne
tic ma
ter
ial
spri
sve
ry n
ear
ly u
nity s
otha
t
n = Ve—,
T
he i
ndex o
fref
raction of d
ielectr
ic s
ubs
tances i
salways g
rea
ter than 1
.
F
or v
acuum e„ = 1b y def
inition
. F o
r air a
t a
tmospher
ic p
ressu
re e,=
1
.
0006
, but i
n mos
t a ppl
icat
ion s i
tissuf
icien
tly a
ccurat
e t
o take e,= 1
S
ec 1
4
-21 LE NS AN D LO N G WI RE ANTE N N AS 385
-
f
o
r a i
r. T he re
lative d
ie
lectr
ic c on
stant, index o f r
ef
raction, a nd power
f
a
cto r fo
r an umbe r o
flens materia
ls are li
sted inT able 14-1 i n o
rder of
i
n
creasing e ,
. A
lthough the dielec
tric constant o f materials may v ary
w
ith frequency ( , f
e o
r water i
s8 1 at radio frequencies and a bout 1.8 at
o
ptica
l frequencies
), the t
able v
aluesa r
ea ppropriateatr adio w ave
leng ths
TABLE 1
4
-1
Re
lative
Ma
ter
ial d
i
electr
ic I
ndex of P
ower
c
onstant r
e
fra
ction f
ac
tor
e
r n
P
araffin 2
.1 1
.4 0
.0003
P
olyethylene 2
.2 1
.5 0
.0003
L
ucite orplex
iglas
s ( me
thacryl
ic r
e
sin
) 2
.6 1
.6 0
.01
P
olystyrene 2
.5 1.6 0
.0004
F
l
in t g
lass 7 2
.5 0
.004
P
olyglas (T
iO 2 o
r ti
tanate f
i
l
ler
s) 4-16* 2-4 0
.003
Ru
tile (TiO2) 8
5-170t 9
-13 0
.0006
*
Depends o
n c
ompos
ition
.
t
Dep
end son o
r
ien
tation o
fcry
sta
l w
ith r
e
spect t
o f
i
e
ld.
d
own tothe o
rdero
f 1cm. The powe
rf a
ctoralso i
saf
unct
ion o
ffr
equency
.
T
he v a
lues l
i
sted me
rely i
ndica
te the orde
r of magn
itude a
t r
adio f
re
-
q
uencie
s.
R
eturning n
ow t
oE q. (
14
-2) and s
olv
ing forR, wehave
(
n - 1
)L
R (
14
-7)
- nc
os 0- 1
Th
is equa
tion g
i ves the r
equ
ired s
hape ofthe len
s. I tisthe e
quat
ion of
ahyperbo
la. T he dis
tance L i
sthe f
ocal l
ength o
ft he l
en
s.' The asymp-
t
o
te s o
f t
he hype rbo
la are a
t an ang
le 0 0wi
th respect t
o th
e ax
is. T he
a
ngle 00may b
e d ete
rm ined f
rom (
14-7) b
yl ett
ing R = co
. T hus
,
1
0=a
rccos - (
14
-8)
n
The po
int 0i sat one focus of t
he h yperbola. T he othe
r fo
cus isat0'.
F
o r ap o
int source at the focus the t h
ree-dimensional le
ns su
rface isa
s
pher
ical h yp
erbola obtained by rotat
ing t he hyperbola on i
t
s axis
. F or
a
n in-phase li
ne source n ormal to the p age (Fig
. 1 4
-2) as t
he primary
a
ntenna, the l
enssur
fa ce is ac
yl
indricalh ype rbo
la obta
ined by tr
ansla
ting
'
The F or fn
umber o
f al
e
nsist
he r
a
tio o
fthe f
o
cald
i
stanc
etot
he d
iam
ete
r Ao
fth
e
l
e
ns ape
rture
. T hu
s, F n.L
/A.
3
86 ANTE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
4
t
he h ype rbola p aral
lel t o t
he line s ource. T he l en s con tour s of F ig. 1 4
-2
i
lustra te b ut one of many p ossible l ens conf igura tion s.
A
lthough E q. ( 14
-7) f or the l ens s urfa ce w a s d erived w ithou t u s
ing
S
nell
's l aws of r e
fraction,' these l aws a re s atisf
ied b y t he l ens b ounda ry
a
sg iven b y (14-7).
The p lane w ave e merging f r
om t he r igh t s i
de o f t he l ens p roduce s a
s
econda ry p at
te rn with max imum r adiation i n t he d ire ct
ion o f t he a x
is.
The s hape o ft he seconda ry p attern i s af unction o fb oth t he a per ture A
a
nd t he t ype ofi lum ina t
ion. T hisa pertu re-pa tte rn r e
la t
ion h asb een d is-
cu
s sed i np reviou sc hap ters.
For a n i s
o trop ic poin t-sou r ce p r
i-
ma ry a ntenna a nd ag iven f o cal dis-
t
ance L , the f i
eld a t the e dge o ft he
l
ens ( 0=0 ,)i sl e
s sthan a tt he c enter
(0 =0 )
, t he e fects ofr ef
lection s at
t
he l ens s urfa ces a nd l o
sse s i n the
Fla
. 14-3
. A nnular z
one. l
ens mat e
ria l b eing n eg lected . T he
var
ia t
ion o f f i
eld i nten s
i ty i n t he
a
pertu re p lane o fthe s pher
ical le ns can b e dete rm ined b y calcu lating t he
p
owe rp eru nita rea passing through a na nnu lars ection o ft he a pe r
ture a sa
f
unction o fthe radiusp .2 R e
f e
r r
ing t oF ig. 1 4-3,t he t ota lp owe rI Vt h rough
t
he a nnu lars ection ofr adius pa nd w id th d p isg iven b y
W =2
wp d
pP, (
1
4-9
)
where P, =p owerden
sity (
powerperu n
itar
ea) atr
adiusp
Thi
s p owe
r mu s
t be e
qual t
o that r
ad
iated by t
he i
s
otrop
ic s
our
ce o
ver
t
he so
lid ang
le 2rsi
n odo. Thus,
W =2
i
rsi
n 0d
O U (
14
-10
)
w
here U = rad
iat
ion i
nten
sity o
fthe i
s
otrop
ic s
our
ce (
powe
rpe
run
its
o
lid
ang
le)
E
quating (
1
4-9) and (
14
-10)
pd
pP, =s
i
n 0d
0 U (
1
4-11
)
1Snel's l aws of r e
fract
ion a r
e ( 1
) that the i n
cident r ay
, t he refracted r ay, and the
n
o rma l tot he surface li
ei n aplane a nd (
2
) t hatt he ra
tio oft he si
ne o ft he angle ofin
ci-
d
ence t ot he s i
ne o fthe angle ofrefract
ion equa ls acon stantf orany t wo m edia. I fthe
medium o f t he incident w ave isa ir
, the con s
tant i sthe i ndex o f re
f rac
tion n o f the
medium w ith t he refracted ray
. T hus
, si
n a /sin 13 n
,w he re a ist he angle between
t
he i nc
ident r ay i n a
ir and the n ormal to the surface a nd ftist he a ngle be tween the
r
efracted r ay i nt he die
lectric medium a nd t he norma l to t
he s ur
fac e.
2 J
. R. R isser, C hap. 1 , "M icrowave A ntenna T heo ry a nd D esign," e dited by S.
S
ilver, McGraw -H i
ll Book C ompany , I
nc.
, New Y ork, 1949.
SE
C
. 1
4
-2] LE NS AN D LO N G WI RE AN TE N N AS 3
87
a
nd
Et s
i
n 0
(
14
-12
)
U p
(dp/c
10)
B
ut p= R s
i
n 0a
nd i
n
troduc
ing t
he v
a
lue o
f Rf
r
om (
14
-7)
(
n c
os 0— 1)8
P — (
14
-13
)
° (n — 1
)8(
n — c
os 0
)L2 U
The r
atio of t
he p
owe
r d ens
ity Po a
t t
he ang
le 0 t
o the p
ower d
ens
ity
Po a
t the ax
is (
0 = 0
) isgiven b
y the r
at
io of (
14
-13) when 0 = 0
,to
(
14-13
) w hen 8= 0
. T hus
,
P
. (
n c
os 0— 1
)8
(
14
-14
)
P
o — (
n — 1
)2(
n — c
os 0
)
I
n t
he a
per
ture p
lane t
he f
i
e
ld-
inten
sity r
a
tio i
sequa
l t
o t
he s
qua
re r
oot
o
f (
14
-14
), o
r'
E
. \I
P-0 1 l
(
n c
os 0— 1
)8
(
14
-15a
)
Eo n— n— c
os 0
T
he r
at
io E
,/E0 i
sthe r
ela
tive f
i
e
ld i
n
ten
sity a
t ar
ad
ius p g
iven b
y
p= R s
i
n 0
. F
or n= 1.
5,
E
.
— =0
.7 a
t 0= 2
0°
Eo
a
nd
Es
— = 0
.
14 a
t 0= 4
0°
Hence, for anea r

ly u ni
form a perture i
lum inat
ion a n angle 0,to the edge
o
ft he le
ns even l e
ss than 20° ise s
sentia
l u nless the pat
tern oft he pr
ima ry
a
ntenna i sa n inverted type, t hat is
, one w ith l e
ss in
tensity in t
he a x
ial
d
i
re ct
ion ( 0 = 0 ) than in directions of t he axis
. F or ac onstant si
ze of
a
perture as ma
ll v a
lue of0 ,r e
su l
t s i
n al a
rge focal length L.
I
n s
tead o f uniform a perture i lumination , at apered i l
um inat
ion may
b
e d e
sired inorde r to suppress m inor lobes. T hus, inthe above examp le
'E
qua t
ion (
11
-15 1
)isf
o
r aspher
icalle
ns. A
ttenua
tion i
nthe l
en
sisn
eglec
ted
. F
or a
c
yl
indrica
l l
ens t
he f
i
e
ld i
ntens
ity ra
tio i
s
Eo nc
os 0— 1
(
14
-156
)
Eo Vin — 1
)
(n — c
os 0
)
w
here E
o/Eo i
sthe r
e
lat
ive f
i
e
ld i
n
ten
sity a
t ad
i
stance y f
r
om t
he a
x
is g
iven b
y
y = Rs
in 0
3
88 AN TE N N AS L
CHap
. 1
4
w
ith 0 , = 40°
, the fi
eld at the edge o f the lens is0 .
14 i t
s value at the
c
enter. T he di
sadvantage oft h
is m ethod o fp roducing a taperi sthatthe
l
ens isb u
lky ( F
ig. 14-4a)
. A n al
terna tive a r
rang emen t
, shown i n F
ig.
1
4-4b, has al
ens ofs mal
ler 01 va
lue w ith t he desir
ed t aper obtained with
adirect
ional pr
ima ry antenna a t al arger f o
cal distance (re
lative to the
a
pe r
ture). T he le
ns in this ca
se isl ess b ulky, but the focal distance i
s
l
arger (Fn umberl a
rger)
.
Forc ompactnessand m echanical li
gh tness itw ou
ld b e des
irable toc o
rn-
I
sotrop
ic
p
r
imary
a
ntenna
(
a
)
D
i
rect
ional
p
r
imary ontenno
(
b
)
(
1
2X 0
P
rimary
a
ntenna
Z
oned l
ens
(
C)
FI
G
. 1
4-4
. S
hor
t-focus l
ens (
a
), l
ong
-focus l
ens (
6
), a
nd z
oned l
ens (
c
).
b
ine the s
hort f o
cal distance o f the l e
ns at ( a
) with the light weight of
t
he le
ns at (
b)
. T his comb ina t
ion may b e la
rgely achieved w ith t
he short
f
oca
l dis
tance zoned l e
ns o fF ig
. 14 -4c. T he w e
ight oft h
is lens i
sr educed
b
y the removal ofs e
ction s o
rz ones
, t he geome try o
ft he zone s b
e
ing s uch
t
hat the le
ns p er
formance i ss ub
s tantial
ly u nafected at t he de
sign f r
e-
q
uency. Whe reas the u nzoned l ens isn ot f
requency s ens
itive, t
he z oned
l
ens i
sa nd th
is may b e ad isadvan tage
. T he t h
ickness zo f azone step
SE
C
. 1
4
-2] LENS AN D LON G W IR E ANTE N NA S 3
89
i
ssuch t
hatthe e
lectr
icallength o
f zinthe d
i
electr
ic isa
n i
nteg
ral n
umber
o
f wave
lengths lo
nger (usual
ly 1 ) t
han t
he ele
ctrica
l l
eng
th of zin a
i
r.
T
hu s
, f
or a1-wavelength d
if
ference
z= 1
2 _ —
_ (
14
- 16
)
X
d X
0
or
X
0
z— (
14
-17
)
n— 1
F
or ad
i
ele
ctr
ic w
ith i
ndex o
fre
frac
tion n = 1
.
5
z= 2
X0
t
hat i
s
, e
ach z
one s
t
ep i
stw
ice t
he f
r
ee-
spa
ce w
ave
leng
th. S
ince n =
X
o/k
t
z= 3
X4
T
hus, in this case, t
he elect
rical l e
ngth o f zi n the d ie
lectr
ic i s 3w ave-
l
e
ngths, w hi
le t he el
ectr
ical le
ng th o f zi n ai
r is 2w avelengths ( s
ee Fig.
1
4-4
c).
I
n le
ns a ntenna s t
he pr
ima ry a ntenna d oes not interfere with the p
l ane
w
ave leaving t he apertu
re as itd oes in as ymme trical p a
rabo l
ic ref
lector
(
Fig
. 12-18.2b). How ever
, the energy r e
flected fr
om t h e lenss u
rfaces may
b
e sufi
cien t to cause am ismatch o ft he prima ry a nt
enna t o it
s fe
ed l i
ne
.L 2
F d g
u
ide
--
-..
.
..,
P
rimary
a
ntenna
(
a
)
P
r
imary
a
ntenna
T
- - ,
'
A
ntenna a
xis
(6
)
FI
G. 1
4-5
. R ef
lected waves e
nter
ing p
r
ima
ry a
ntenna (
a
) a
nd r
e
focus
ed t
o o
ne s
i
de
o
fprimary a
ntenna (b
).
3
90 AN TE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
4
o
rg u
ide. I n the le
ns ofF ig. 14-5a r
ef
lections from the c
onvex surface o
f
t
he lensd on otr e
turn t
ot he source e
xceptf r
om p oint
sa to rnea
r t he a
xis
.
This isnot se
rious. B u
t t he w ave r
ef
lected interna
lly fr
om the plane le
ns
s
urface isr e
focused at the p r
ima ry antenna a nd may b e d
is
turbing. I n
t
his case
, the w ave isr
ef
l ected at normal inc
idence, and the r
ef
lection c
o-
ef
icient is
Zo — Z
(
1
4-18
)
P Zo Z
w
here Zo = i
n
trins
ic i
mpedance o
ffr
ee space =
Z= i n
trin
sic i
mpedance o
fdi
ele
ct r
ic l
ens m
ate
ria
l = Vi
.
t/e
T
hus,
(
Zo/Z
) — 1 n— 1
(
1
4-19
)
P (
Z ) ± 1
o/Z n 1
where n = t he i ndex o fr efra ction o ft he d ie

lec t ric lens ma te r
ial
For n= 1 .5
, p= 0 .2; w hi
le f or n= 4 , p= 0 .6
. H ence, for as ma l
l
r
eflec t
ion al ow i ndex o fr efrac tion i sd esirab le. T he r e f
lection can a lso b e
min im ized b y o the r m ethod s. F or e xamp le, aI -wave leng th p late c an b e
a
pp lied t o t he p lane l ens s urface w ith t he r e
fra ctiv e i ndex o f t he pl ate
made e qual t o Vt i, w here n i st he r e
f ractive i ndex o f the lens p rope r.'
Ano ther m ethod i stou se at yp e ofl e nsw hich d oesn ot h ave a ne quipha se
s
ur face . At hird m e thod i st o ti
lt t he l ens s ligh tly a s i ndicated i n F ig.
1
4-5b s o t hat t he r ef
lec ted w ave r efo cuse s t o o ne s ide o f the p r
ima ry
a
n tenna .
14-3. A r
tificial D ie lec t
ric L ens A ntennas . I n stead o f u s
ing o rd
ina ry ,
n
onme tallic d ielectric s for t he l ens
, Ko ck ' ha s d emon s trated t hat a r
tificial
o
rm etallic di e
le ctr
ic sc an bes ub stitu ted ,g ene rally w ith as aving i nw eigh t.
Whe rea s the o rdina ry d ie
lec tric c on sists o f mo le cula r p articles of m icro -
s
cop ic s ize, t he a rtif
ic ial di elec tr
ic c on s
i sts o f d iscrete m etal particles o f
mac roscop ic s i
ze. T he s i
ze o f the m eta l p ar t
icle s s hou ld b e s mall com -
p
a red t o t he d esign w aveleng th t o a void r esonance e f ects. I t i sf o
und
t
ha t t h
is r equiremen t i s s at
i sf
ied i ft he max imum p article d imen sion
(
pa rallel t ot he e lectric f i
eld) i sl es
s t han Iw aveleng th. As econd r equi re-
men t i st ha t the s pac ing b e tween t he p article s b e less t han aw ave leng th
t
oa vo id d ifrac tion e fec ts
.
T
he p articles may b em e
ta ls phe r
e s, d iscs, s t
rip s, orr ods. F ore xamp le,
'
In general t
he r
ef
ractive index of aI-wavelength matching p
late between two media
s
hould bee qua
l tothe g
eome tric m ean o
ft he i
ndice
s o fthe t
wo m ed
ia. T his i
sequiva-
l
ent t
os ay
ing thatthe i
ntrins
ic i mpedance Z,
,o fthe pla
te mater
ial is made e
qual t
ot he
g
eometric mean o f the intr
in s
ic i mpedances Z1 a nd Z2 of the two m edia
. T hus,
Zt,= V Z
IZt
.
2W
. E
. Kock, Me
tal
lic D
elay L
ens
, B
el
l S
ystem T
ech
. J
.
, 2
7
, 5
8-82
. J
anua
ry, 1
948
.
S
ec. 1
4
91
apiano-convex lens constructed ofm etalspheresisilustra

ted inFig. 1
4-6
.
The spheresa r
ea rranged i n athre
e-d imen
siona l a
r
ray o rlat
tice s
t
ructure
.
S
uch a n arrangemen t simulates the crysta
lline la
ttice of an ord
inary
d
ielec
tric s ubs
tance b ut on a much
l
argerscale. T he radio wavesf r
om t he
s
ource or primary a ntenna cause osc
il-
l
a
ting c urrent
s to flow on the spheres.
• -
T
o
s
h
ci
ela
s
p
ti
hn
er
ge
smo
l
a
re
e,
cul
t
hau
r
s,d
ip
a
no
l
al
eo
sgo
o
fus
ant
oo
rd
t
h
ie
- S
ource L
n
ary d
i
electr
ic.
A
nartif
ic
iald i
ele
ctr
ic l
en
scan bed
e-
P
lane
s
i
gned i
nt he same manne
ra s a
n o
rd
i- wove
n
ary dielec
tric len s (
Sec
. 14-2
). T od o FI G
. 14-6. A rt
ifi
cia
l die
lectr
ic le
ns o
f
t
h
is, iti snece s
sa ry to know the ef
ec- meta l spheres
.
t
i
ve index o fr e
fra ct
ion ofthe ar
tif
ic
ial
d
i
electric. T hisc an bem easured e
xper
imen tal
ly w ith as l
ab oft he materia
l,
o
ritc an bec alculated approx
ima te
ly bythe f olow ing m ethod o fanalysis
.'
A
lthough m etal discs o
rs t
rip
s ' a
regenera
lly p referable tos pheres because
E
l P
C
ross s
ect
ion o
f l
e
ns C
onvex s
i
de o
f l
e
ns
(
a
) (b
)
Fm
. 1
4
-7. A
rtif
ic
iald
i
elect
ric l
e
ns o
ffl
at m
eta
l s
t
rip
s.
t
hey a r
e l i
gh ter in w e
igh t, t he sphere is more readily analyzed, a nd the
method w i
ll b e ilus
tra ted f or the c
ase oft he sphere
.
Let an u ncha rged conduc ting sphe re be pl
aced i nan e le
ctric fi
eld E as
i
nF ig
. 14-8a . T he f
i
eld i nduce sp os
itive and negative chargesa si nd
icated.
A
t ad istance t he efe c
t o f t hese charges may b e represented b y p o
int
c
harges +q a nd —q s epa rated b y ad istance 1a s in Fig
. 1 4-8b
. S uch a
c
onfiguration i sa n e
lectri
c d ipole ofdipole momen t q
l. A t ad istance r> > 1
t
he poten t
ial d ue tot he d ipole isgiven b y
v = q
lcos 0
(
1
4-20
)
47€0r
2
1W
. E
. Kock, Metal
lic Delay L
ens
, B
el
l System Tech
. J., 2
7, 5
8-82
, January
, 1948
.
'T
he s
t
rips may be cont
inuous i
n ad
irect
ion perpendicula
r to t
he e
l
ectric f
i
eld a
s
i
nd
ica
ted i
nFig
. 14-7
.
3
92 ANTE N N AS (
CHAP
. 1
4
T
he p
o
lar
iza
tion P o
fthe a
r
tif
ic
ial d
i
elec
tri
c i
sgi
ven b
y
P=N
ql (
1
4-2
1)
w
here N = numbe r o
fsphere
s pe
rc ubic m
eter
1= vectorjo
ining t
he c
harges q
T
he el
ect
ric d
i
sp la
cementD, the e
lec
tric f
i
e
ld in
tens
ity E
, t
he p
o
lar
iza
tion
Pare r
e
lated b
y
D = e
E = e
oE + P (
1
4-22
)
w
here eo = di
elec
tric c
onstant o
ffr
ee s
pace
T
hus, t
he efect
ive di
elec
tric c
ons
tant eo
fthe a
r
tif
ic
iald
i
ele
ctr
ic m
edium i
s
P
e= e
o± -
i= s
o -
I-N V (
14
-23
)
H
ence
, ift
he number o
fsphere
s per u
nit v
olume and t
he d
ipole momen
t
p
er u
nit a
ppl
ied f
i
e
ld are k
nown , t
he e
fect
ive d
ie
lectr
ic c
onstant c
an b
e
(
a) (
b
)
FI
G
. 1
4-8
. C
harged s
phere a
nd e
quiva
len
tdipo
le.
d
eterm
ined
. L e
t us now d
ete
rmine t
he dipo
le moment per unit a
ppl
ied
f
i
e
ld.
We h
ave E = — V V
. Then i
n aun
ifo
rm f i
eld t
he p
otent
ial
V = —f E c
os 0d
r = —E
r c
o
s 0 (
14
-24
)
w
here 0i
sthe a
ngle b
etween t
he r
adiu
sv ec
torand t
he f
ie
ld (s
ee F
ig
. 1
4-8b)
.
T
he pot
ent
ial Vo out
side t
he s
phere pl
aced i
nan or
iginal
ly un
iform f
ie
ld
i
sthe s
um of(1
4-20) and (
14
-24) o
r
a
lcos 0
V
,
, = —E
r c
os 0+ --
-- -
- (
14
-25
)
4re or
2
S
a
c. 1
4
93
A
tthe s
phe
re (
r
adius a
) (
1
4-25
) b
ecome
s'
a
/co
s 0
0 = —Ea c
os 0±
4
e
-eoa2
a
nd s
o
lving f
o
r q
l
/E w
e o
bta
in
=4
r 3 (
14
-26
)
E e
2
a
I
ntroduc
ing t
h
is v
alue f
o
r t
he d
ipo
le momen
t p
er u
nit a
ppl
ied f
i
e
ld i
n
(
14
-23)
e e
o 4
reoNas
o
r
e
, = 1+ 4
71
1ras (
14
-27
)
where e ,= e fective r
elat
ive die
lectric constan t ofthe a
rtif
ic
ialdie
lectric.
I
ft he ef
fect
ive r e
lat
ive permeab i
lity oft he artif
ic
ial di
electr
ic i
su n
ity ,
t
he index o fr e
fraction isgi
ven b y the squa re root of (
14
-27). Howeve r,
t
he lines ofm agne t
ic f
ie
ld of aradio w ave ared eformed around the s
phe re
s
ince h i
gh-frequency fi
elds penet
rate too n
ly av ery sma
ll di
stance i
ng ood
c
onducto r
s. T he ef
fect
ive rela
tive p e
rmeab i l
ity of an art
if
icia
l die
lectric
o
fc onduc ting spheres i
s
M
r = 1— 2
e
-Nce (
14-28
)
TABLE 1
4-2*
ARTIFICIAL DIELECTRIC MATERIALS
R
elat
ive R
ela
tive .
Type o
f Index o
f
d
ie
lectr
ic p
ermeab
ili
ty
p
art
icle r
e
fraction n
c tant e
ons , p
,
S
phere 1± 4
rNa 3 1— 2
7Na 3 •
\(1 -
/ 1
- 4
r Na3)
(
1 — 2
r Na 3)
D
isc 1+ 5
.
3Na 2 -
,-
, ,1 V1 ± 5
.
3Na 3
S
t
rip 1± 7
.
8N'w 2 ,-
,1 V1 ± 7.
8N it
o2
•
N — n
umber o
fs pheres o
rd i
scs p
er cubic mete
r
a r
ad
ius o
fsphere ordisc inmeters
N
' — n
umber o
fstripsper squar
em eteri nle
ns cros
sse
ction (
s
ee F
ig
. 1
4-7a
)
w w
idth o
fst
rips inm e
ters (s
ee Fig
. 14-7
)
The p
otent
ialo
fthe s
pher
e i
sze
ro s
i
nce t
here i
sas much p
os
itiv
easn
ega
tive c
harge
o
n i
t
s s
urface
.
3
94 AN TE N N AS [CH
AP. 1
4
The e
fec
tive i
ndex o
f r
ef
rac
tion o
f t
he a
r
tif
ic
ial d
i
ele
ctr
ic o
f c
ondu
cting
s
phere
sisthen g
iven b
y
n = Ve
,µ, = V(1 + 4
7
1
-Na3)
(
1 —2
-Na3) (
14
-29
)
Equa t
ion ( 14-29) g ive s as mal
le r nt han o btained b y t he s qua re root of
(
14-27) a lone. A ccord ing t o (
14-29) the i ndex o frefraction o fa n ar
tif
icial
d
ielectric o f conduc ting s pheres can b e calculated i fthe r adiu s ao f the
s
phe re (inm eters) a nd t he numbe rNo fs phe resp erc ubic m et era rek nown .
The rela t
ive p e
rmeab i
lity o fdisc ors t
rip- type a rt
ifi
cial d ie
lec trics i
s mo re
n
ea r
ly u n
ity s ot hat o ne can take \ /,
. a s their index o fr efraction . T heo-
r
et
ica l v a
lue s o f e„ , u
., and n f o
r artif
i c
ial d ie
lec t
rics made o fc onduc t
ing
s
phe res
, d iscs, and s tripsa rel i
sted inT able 14-2.1 A ccord ing t o Kock t he
t
able v aluesa re rel
iab le o n
ly for e,< 1 .5
, a nd o n
ly a pprox ima te f orlarger
e
,
. F or e,> 1 .5, N b ecome s sufic
ien tly l a
rge t hat the p ar t
icle s i
nteract
b
ecau se o ft heir c l
ose s pacing. T h
is e fect isn eglected b y t he f o
rmu las.
1
4-4. E -plane Me tal-plate Lens A ntenna s
.' Whe reas t he o rdinary a nd
a
rtif
icial d ie
lec tric l ens d epend f o
r t heir a ct
ion o n ar etarda tion o f the
wave i n the l ens, t he E -plane m etal-pla te typ e of l e
n s d epend s fo
r i t
s
2
V0
v
o
0
05 1
:0 1
5 20
bi
ntr
ee s
pace wave
lengths
FI
G. 1
4-9
. Wave between F
ru. 14-10. V eloc
ity v of wave be-
p
la
tes in E
-plane t
ype o
f t
ween p aral
lel pla
tes and equ
ivalent
me
tal
-plate l
ens
. i
ndex of re
fract
ion n as afunct
ion of
s
pacing bbetween pla
tes
.
a
ct
ion on a
n a
cce
lerat
ion ofthe w ave by t
he le
ns. In t
h
is type oflen
s the
m
etal pl
ate
s a
re p a
ralle
l to the E plane (or pl
ane o
f the el
ect
ric fi
eld
).
R
efer
ring t
o F
ig
. 14-9, the v
e
lo c
ity vofp ropagat
ion o
f aTE i
o w ave (E a
s
IFrom W
.E . Kock
, Metal
ic Delay L
ens, B
el
l Sys
tem Tech
. J.
, 2
7, 5
8-82
, J
anuary
,
1
948.
2 W
. E
. Kock
, Metal L
ens Ant
enna, Pro
c. I.R.
E.,34
, 8
28-836
, November
, 1
946
.
SE
C
. 1
4
95
i
ndica
ted) in t
he x d
i
rect
ion b
etween t
wo p
ara
lle
l c
ondu
cting p
lat
es o
f
l
arge e
xtent i
sgi
ven b
y'
V
o
V—
x )2
(
1
4-30
)
\
11 —
where v o = velocity i nfree space

X= w avelength i nf ree s
pa ce
b= s pacing o fp lates ors heets
The plates act a s ag u
ide , transm itt
ing t he wave fo
r v alues of b> X /2.
The spa c
ing b = X /2 i st he cr
itical spacing si
nce for s ma
ller values ofb
t
he guide i sopaque a nd t he wave i snott ran
smitted. T he var
ia t
ion oft he
v
elocity f o
r af ixed w avelength a s af unct
ion o f t
he p late spacing b is
i
lustrated i n Fig
. 1 4-10. T he veloci
ty o fthe w ave between t he pla
tes is
a
lway s greater t han t he f r
ee-space v e
locity vo
. I ta pproa ches inf
ini
ty a s
bapproa ches0 .
5 X ,a nd i tapproache sv oa
s bbecome s inf
inite.
The e quivalen t index o f re
fraction of am edium c onstructed o f many
s
uch p aral
lel plat e
s w ith as pacing bi s
(
14
-31
)
v 2
b
The i
ndex isa lwaysles
st han 1ass hown inF ig. 14-10.
The a
ccelera t
ion ofw aves between plat
es h as been a pp
lied 2 i
n ameta
l-
p
late l
ens fo
rf o
cus
ing r adio waves
. F ori ns
tance , am e
tal len
s equiva
lent
t
o the p
lano -convex die
le ctr
ic le
ns of Fig
. 1 4-la or Fig. 14-2 is apl
ano-
c
oncave type a s ilu
stra ted in F
ig. 14
-11. T he plates a
r e cut fr
om fl
at
FI
G
. 1
4-11
. E
-plane t
ype o
f me
tal
-pla
te l
e
ns.
s
heets
, t
he t
hickness ta
tany p
ointbeing s
uch a
st otr
ansform t
he s
phe
rical
wave f
rom t
he sour
ce in
to apl
ane wave o
nt he p
lane s
ide o
fthe l
e
ns. T he
e
l
ec t
ric f
i
e
ld ispara
lle
l tothe p
la
tes
.
IL
. J
. Chu and W. L. Barrow, Elect
romagne tic Waves i
n Hol
low Me ta
l Tubes o
f
R
ectangula
r Cros
s S
ection, P
roc. I
.R.E., 26, 1
520-1555
, December
, 1
938.
2W. E
. Kock
. Metal Lens Antennas, Proc
. I.R
.E., 3
4, 8
28-836
, November, 1
946.
3
96 ANTE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
4
T
he le
ns p
late onthe ax
is oft
hel e
ns inFig
. 1
4-11 i s
hown inFig
. 14-12
.
T
he shape o
ft he pla
te can be d
etermined by t
he p
rinc
iple o
fequali
ty of
e
l
ectr
ical p
ath length
. T hu
s, i
n Fig
. 14-12 OPP' must b
e equa
l to OQQ'
i
nele
ctr
ical l
e
ng th. O r
L R L— Rco
s0
— (
14
-32
)
w
here X = w
ave
leng
th i
nfr
ee s
pace
X
, =w ave
leng
th i
nle
ns
T
hen
(1 —n
)L
R (
14
-33
)
— 1— n c
os 0
Thi
s r e
lation isi dentical with (14-7). Howeve r, to keep b oth n ume rator
a
nd d enom inatorp o
si t
ive ( s
ince n < 1i nt he pre sentc ase), t he n ume rator
a
nd d enom inatoro f( 14-7
) s hou
ld b e multiplied b ym inu s 1. W i th n < 1 ,
(
14-33 ) i st he equa tion o fa n elipse.
The t hree-dimen siona l c oncave s ur-
f
ace o ft he lensi nF ig. 14 -11 w ould be
g
ene ra ted b yr otating t he c ontour f o
r
Et t
he c ent er plate, asg iven b y (14-33),
o
n t he a xis
. I ft he p r
ima ry a ntenna
were al i
ne source pe rpend icu lart othe
p
age i nF ig. 1 4
-12,a llthe p latesw ould
b
e i den t
ica l a nd t he l ens s urface
Fm. 14
-12. G eometry f o
rE -plane t
ype woul d b
e in t
he f
orm o
f an el
i pt
ical
o
fm etal
-plate l
e
ns. c
ylinde r
.
Wave s e nter
ing t he l ens o f Fig.
1
4-11 a tthe point Po bey S ne
ll
's laws ofr ef raction. Howeve r, t hi
s i snot
n
ecessarily the case f o
r w ave s e
ntering at P ' w here the m etal p lates con-
s
t
rain t he wave tot ravelb etween them . E -p lane m etal
-p late l e n
se s may b e
S
ource S
ource)
(
a
) (
b
)
F
la. 1
4-13
. C
ros
s s
e
ctions o
fcon
stra
ined t
ype
sof E
-olane m
eta
l-p
late l
e
nse
s.
S
ec
. 1
4
97
c
on structed t hat h ave o nly s uch c onstra
ined r efraction. Two t ypes are
i
lu s
tra ted inc ros
ss ec t
ion i nFig . 14
- 13
. B oth have al ine s
our
ce n ormalt o
t
he p age. T he e le
ct r
ic f i
eld E i sp ara
l-
l
e
l t o t he s
ou rce. A ll l ens cros s se
c-
t
ions p erpend iculart ot he line sources
a
ret he s ame a st he o ness hown i nt he
f
i
gu re. I nthe l ensa t ( a) the s pacing
b
etwe en p lates i su niform , b u t the
w
id th v a
ries from p la te to p late. I n
t
he len sa t(b
)a llpl a
te sh ave t he s ame
w
id th, b ut the s pacing v aries.
A d isadvan tage o f t he E -plane
F
ro. 14
-14. G eomet
ry fo
r b and
-width
metal-p late len s as c ompa red t o the c ons
iderations
.
d
ielectric type i st hati tisf requency -
s
en s
itive , t
ha ti s
,t he l ensh a s ar e
latively smallb and width. Tod etermine
t
he b and w id th,' c on s
ide r t he g eome try o f Fig. 14-14. A t the d es
ign
f
requency f
L R t
(
14
-34
)
o
r
L= R+ n
t (
14
-35
)
w
here n = i
ndex o
fref
rac
tion a
tthe d
es
ign f
r
equency f
A
ts ome o
the
rf r
equency f
'
L+ =R+ n
'
t (
14
-36
)
w
here 6= the diference i
ne l
ectr
ica
l pa
th le
ngth o
f OQ a
nd OPP
'
n
'=i ndex ofr e
frac
tion atthe f
r
equency f
'
S
ubtra
cting (
14-35) fr
om ( 1
4-36)
= An t (
1
4-37
)
w
here A
n =n' —n
B
ut f
or as
mal
l w
ave
leng
th d
i
ffe
rence A
X,
a
n
=— (
14
-38
)
a
x
I
ntroducing n f
r
om (14
-31) i
nto (
1
4-38
), d
ife
ren
tia
ting
, a
nd s
ubs
titu
ting
t
h
i svalue o
fA nin (
1
4-37) y
ie
lds
o— n2 — 1A
X°
(
1
4-39
)
n X
0
1
.
1. R
. Risse
r, Chap
. 1, "M
icrowave Antenna T
heo
ry and De
sign
," e
d
ited b
y S
.
S
i
lve
r, McGraw -H
ill B
ook C
ompany, I
nc
., New York
, 1
949
.
3
98 ANTE N N AS [
CHA
P. 1
4
o
r
na
(
14
-40
)
I Xo 1 — n2)
- ( t
The t
ota
l b
and w
idth B i
stw
ice (
1
4-40
) s
o
2
na 2
n 8,
)
B — (
14
-41
)
(
1 — n2)
t - 1— n2 4
w
here a,= max
) imum t
ole
rable p
ath d
ifer
ence i
nfr
4 =t hickne
ssofle
ns pl
ateatedge o
fle
nsinfr
I
fwe a
rbitrar
ily t
ake ô= 0.
25 X,
5
0n
B — (
14
-42
)
(
1 — n2)
t 7°
F
or n= 0
.
5 a
nd t= 6X
,the b
and w
idth
B = 5
.
5%
1
1
1
11
i
ii
i
ii I
*W "
.
1 4101#4
4 1
'
0
111
111 0 //
////i,;; ,
1
11
1 4
,
',,,
1 //il
/
4
"
1
.
i '
fi
ii
,
%.
1
11
1 1i
t 1 ir
1 i .
f
i /f l
it
l
'
i
l 11 1
1II
1
1 !1
i
w
o r
loof
i
f
l
N
M f
o
i
s
;
„
I i
n
o
m f9
!
t 0
FIG
. 14
-15. Z
oned t
ype o
f E
-plane metal
-plate l
ens w
ith a s
quare a
per
ture 4
0 w
ave
-
l
engths o
n as
i
de. (
Cour
tesy W
. E. Kock, Be
ll Te
lephon
e Lab
orato
ries
.)
SE
C
. 1
4
99
Thus, the u sab le frequency b and f or t

his a ntenna i s5 .5 per cent o f t
he
d
esign frequency .' A l
though z oning adi e
lec tr
ic lens introduce sfrequency
s
ensit
ivity , the e fe ct of zon ing a n
E
-plane m etal-plate l ens i st o de-
c
rease t he f r
equency s e
n s
i t
ivity.
5
Hence, z oning i sd es
irable w ith E -
p
lane m eta l
-p late lens, both t osave -
10
we
ight a nd t o i ncrease t he b and 1
5
w
idth. A nE -plane m etal-pla t
el ens
2
0
4
0 w aveleng ths s quare w ith n i ne
z
onesi si lustrat ed inFig. 14-15.T he -
25
r
adiat
ion -fie
ld p atterns oft h
is lens, -
30
f
ed with a s hor t prima ry h orn a n-
-
35
t
enna, are s hown i nF ig. 14-16.
The b and w id th o f az oned E -
-
30* -20 - 10
' 0 Kr 20 30*
p
lane m e tal-plate l ens isg iven a p-
F
lo. 14-16
. E -p
lane p at
tern (s
olid) a
nd
p
roxima tely b y H
-plane p atte
rn ( da
shed) of 4 0-wav
e-
l
e
ng th s
quare z
oned E
-plane l
e
ns o
f F
ig
.
B — 15 1
4-15. (Af
ter W
. E. K
ock.)
0n Kn % (
14
-43
)
w
here n = index ofr efra c
tion a t t
he design fr
equency
K=n umbe r ofz one s. T he zone on the ax
is ofthe lens iscounted
a
st he fi
rst z one.
Azoned le
ns compa rab le t o t he unzoned l en
s of n= 0 .5
, t= 6X ,and
B= 5.5 per c
ent, has n= 0 .
5 and K = 3s i
nce with n = 0.5, K 4
/2.
T
he band width B o ft his z oned l e
ns is1 0 per c
ent, or n
early doub le t
he
b
and width o
fthe u nzoned l ens
.
T
he maximum a b
so rp t
ion r atio 7 t
o be expected ofl a
rge lens antennas
i
sabout 0.
6 so that t he d irec t
ivity and g ain ar
e a bout t
he s ame a s f
or
o
pt
imum h ornso fthe s ame s ize aper
ture [ s
ee (1
3-48) and (13-49)
].
R
efe
r r
ing t
oF ig. 14-17a , t he th
ickne s
s zo f azone step i
sg iven by
z z
X X,
o
r
— (
14
-44
)
1— n
2AX X
i — — (
1/ A) — —I
, 2
.
1f
(
1
1f) l
ift —
w
here X= d esign w avelength
I= design frequency
xi = s
hort w avelength l imi
to fband
2 =l
X ong w avelength l imit o
fband
f =h igh-frequency l imit ofband
2 =l
1 ow-frequency l imit ofband
4
00 ANTE N N AS [CH
AP. 1
4
The equa
tion f
or t
he con
tour o
fthe zoned l
en
s i
st he s
ame a
s (
14
-33
) f
o
r
t
he unzoned l
en
se xcep
t tha
t Lisrep
laced by Lb w
here
— 1
)
X
Lk = L (
K — —L (
K — 1
)
z (
14
-45
)
1 n
F
ort he f
i
rstzone (onthe ax
is) Lk = L. F o
rt he s
econd zone Lk = L z
,
f
o
rt he th
ird zone Lk = L 2
z, et
c.
T
o s h
ield agains
t stray rad
iation fr
om t he source side o f al e
ns, a
m
etall
ic enc
losure may be u
sed as inFig
. 14-17b. T his e
nclo sure f
ormsan
e
l
ectromagne t
ic ho
rn o
fw ide fl
are ang
le w
ith al en
sa tt he aperture
. W ith
-
L
ens
(a
) (b
)
no
. 1
4-17
. (
a
) Z
oned l
e
ns p
la
te. (
6
) Ho
rn w
ith l
e
ns.
o
utt he lensa n optimum h orn o fthe same a perture w ould b e much longer
(
smaller fl
a re angle)
. T he fac t that the l en
s p e
rm i
ts a much s horter
s
tructure forthe same size a p
er ture i
s,p erhaps, the principala dvantage of
alens orlens-horn comb ination o ver as imple horn a ntenna .
14
-5. T olerances o nLens A ntennas .
' L e
tt he max imum a l
lowab le var
i-
a
t
ion ôi nelectr
icalp ath length b earbi
trarily se
ta t w avelength (5=
I
n ad ie
lectric l
ens, dife
rence si nthe path length may b ec aused byd evia-
t
i
on s in th
ickne ss from t he ideal contour a nd b y va r
iations in the i
n dex
o
f refract
ion . T hen a ssigning a n al
lowab le v ariation o f X/16 t o each
c
ause, we h ave a
s t h
e th
ickne sst o
lerancet hat
A
t A
t _ 1
Xd — X — 1
6
o
r
A
t —
1
6
(n — 1
)
o
r
0
.03 X
A
t — 3 2
(
n
—
1
) — ±n — 1 (
1
4-46
)
1J. R
. Risse
r, Chap. 1, "M ic
rowave An
tenna Theo
ry a nd D
e s
ign
," edi
ted by S
.
S
i
lver, McGraw -H
il
l B ook Company, I
nc
., New Yo
rk, 1
949.
2 T
he maximum allowable d
eviat
ion f
r
om the m
ean isthen ±1/16 wav
elength
.
SE
C
. 1
4
-5] LE NS AN D LO N G WI R E AN TE N N AS 4
01
F
or n= 1
.
5
A
t = ±0
.06X
F
ort
he t
o
leranc
eonn
X
A
n t= .
1
o
r
0
.03
A
n — ± 4
, (
14
-47
)
w
here t
x = t
hickne
sso
fle
ns i
nfr
ee-
space w
ave
leng
ths
D
ivid
ing (
14-47) b
yn
A
n = ±_
_ .3o
_ z
, (
1448
)
n n
ix '
"
I
fn= 1 .
5a nd t= 4X ,An/n = ±4 % .
I
n an E-p
lane me ta
l-pla
te le
ns t
he path l
eng
th may bea fe
cted b
yb o
th
t
he t
hicknessofthe len
sa nd bythe s
pac
ing bbetween le
ns p
lates
. Tak
ing
/
3= X/8 asforthe die
lectr
ic l
ens a
nd a
ssign
ing X/16 t
oeach c
ause,w
ehave
a
sthe th
icknes
st o
lerance t
hat
X 0
.03 X
t— 1
6
(1 — n
) 1— n (
14
-49a
)
F
ort
he t
o
leranc
eon t
h
e s
pac
ing bb
e
twe
en p
la
tes w
e h
ave
Ab 3n
(
14
-4 0
)
b — ± (
1 — n2)
4 %
I
t i sinteresting to compa re these to
lerances wi
th t he sur
face c
ontour
r
equir ement o f ap arabolic ref
lector
. A d i
splacemen t Ax normal t
o the
s
urface oft he r ef
lec
to r a
t the vertex (t
ha t i
s
, adisplacemen t i
n t
he ax
ial
d
irection) results in achange i nw ave path of 2Ax. T ak
ing a = X/8
, as
f
ort he lensa ntenna s
, the t
olerance A xon normal sur
face disp
lacementsof
t
he reflec
tors urface i
sg i
ven b y
X
A
x = ±3
-2 = ±0
.03 X (
14
-50
)
Thi
s is asevere requiremen t f
or ala
rge r
eflector and s mal
l wave
leng th,
s
ince itmeans tha t t
he sur
fa ce c
ontour s
hould b e maintained to ± 0.
03 X
w
ith respect to the vertex and focus a
s re
ference p oint
s. T hi
s pl
aces a
s
evere lim
itation o n the al
lowable w arp
ing o r twist
ing o f the r
ef
lector.
I
n contrast to th
is, the thickness t
ole
rance o n al ens refe
r s o
nly t
o t he
t
hickness d
imen sion. I t does not imp
ly tha t the lens contour b
e ma in-
t
ained tothi
sa ccu racy
. W ith alens
, are
latively la
rge amoun tofwarping
4
02 AN TE N N AS (CH
AP. 1
4
o
r t w
ist
ing can b e t
olera
ted, and th
is isa n impo r
tant advan
tage o
f th
is
t
ype ofa ntenna. F urthermore, t
he len
s axis can be t
i
lted a c
ons
ide
rable
a
ngle r with re
spect to t
he axis t
hrough the pr
ima ry a
ntenna a
nd c
enter
o
ft he l
ens (s
ee Fig
. 14-5b
) without se
riouse fec
t s
.'
TABLE 1
4-3
TOLERANCES ON LENS AND REFLECTOR ANTENNAS
Type o
fant
enna T
ype o
fto
lerance Amoun
toft
o
leranc
e
P
arabo
lic r
ef
lec
tor S
urface c
ontour ±0
.03 X
0
.03 X
T
hickne
ss
±n— 1
D
iele
ctr
ic l
e
ns* (
unzoned
)
3
I
ndex o
fre
frac
tion
T
hickne
ss ± 3%
D
ielec
tric l
e
ns* (
z
oned
)
3
(n — 1
) ,
I
ndex o
fre
fra
ction ± 7
0
n
T
hickn
ess 0
.03 X
± 1— n
E
-plane m
eta
l-p
lat
e l
e
nst (
unzoned
)
3
n
P
lat
e s
pac
ing ± (1 .
_. n
i2 i
x %
T
hickne
ss ± 3%
E
-plane m
eta
l-p
lat
e l
e
nsf (
z
oned
)
3
n
P
lat
e s
pac
ing
n=i
ndex o
fre
frac
tion
t = l
ens t
h
ickne
ss
t
x • l
ens t
h
ickne
ss i
nfr
ee-
space w
ave
leng
ths
•n > 1.
tn < 1.
The above-men
tioned t
o
lerances a
re s
umma r
ized inT ab
le 14-3
. T ole
r-
a
ncesf o
rz oned l
ens
esareal
so li
sted
. T he
se ar
ed erived f
r
om t he u
nzoned
l
ens t
olerances b
y tak
ing t
he die
lectr
ic l
ens t
hickness a
s nea
rly equa
l to
'But li
ttle d
iference inradia
tion-f
ie
ld p
atternsofanE -p
lane meta
l-platelensan tenna
i
srevealed for ati
lta ngle 7 a
slarge a
s30°according t
o pat
tern
s presented b
y F r
iis and
L
ewi s
. S ee H. T. Fri
is and W . D. Lew
is, Radar Antennas
, Bel
l S y
stem Tech. J., 26
,
2
70, A pr
il
, 1 947
.
SE
C
. 1
4
03
X
/n — 1a nd t he m etal-plate le nst h
ickne ssasn ear
ly e qua lt oX /1 — n . If
t
he in
dex tolerance o fthe l ensa ntenna i szero,t hen the allowab le tolerance
o
n the t
hickne ss isd oub led, or v ice versa
. L ikew ise, ift he p late-
spa cing
t
o
lerance o f the E -plane m etal-plate l e
ns a ntenna i sz ero , the t hickness
t
o
lerance isd oub led or v ice v ersa. A ll to
lerance s i n t
he t able are b ased
o
n a max imum a l
lowab le d eviation i n path l ength ( f
rom a l
l c auses) of
±X/16 f
rom am ean v a
lue ( t
otalv a r
iation ö= X /8)
. F or al a
rge ra l
lowab le
d
eviat
ion i n path l e
ngth t he tolerance s ar
e p roportiona tely g rea t
er. F or
e
xample, ifthe total va r
ia t
ion 6= X /4, t
he tolerance sa re d oub led.
1
4-6. H -plane Me tal-plate L ens A ntennas.' Aw ave en tering as t
ack of
me
tal plates o r
iented p arallel t o the H p l
ane ( p erpend icula r t o the E
D
i
rect
ion D
irect
ion
o
f w
ave o
f wave
E
l
E
l
(
a
)
S
ource
S
lanted
meta
l plates
(
e
)
F
la. 14
-18
. ( a) H-p
lane st
ack offl
at meta
l pla
te s
. (b
) H-p
lane s
tack w
ith in
creased
p
ath le
ngth. (c
) Slanted H-p
lane p
late
s. ( d
) H -p
lane m
eta
l-p
late le
ns u
sing sl
anted
p
late c
ons
truc
tion.
p
lane
) a s i
n Fig
. 1 4
-18a i sa fected b ut li
t
tle in it
s ve
locity
. Howeve r,
t
he wave isc
onstra
ined t op a
s s between the plat
ess othat
, once in
side, the
p
ath length c
an be increased i fthe plates ar
e d e
formed, as suggested in
F
ig. 1
4-18b. A n i
ncrease inp ath length can al
so b e p
roduced by sl
an t
ing
t
he p
lates as a
t (c
). T he increase of path length isS — T . U s
ing t he
1
W. E
. Kock
, P
ath L
ength M
icrowave L
ense
s, P
roc
. I
.R
.E.
, 3
7
, 8
52-855
, A
ugu
st,
1
949
.
4
04 AN TE N N AS [CH
AP. 1
4
s
l
ant plat
e m ethod ofincreas
ing the path le
ng th, a
n H -p
lane m eta
l-plate
l
e
ns can b e des
igned b y app
lying the princ
ip le of equa
lity of el
ect
rical
p
ath le
ngth. T h
is type oflen
s isca
lled an H -plane type si
nce the p
lates
a
re p
aral
lel tothe magne t
ic fi
e
ld (perpend
icula r tothe E plane)
.
R
eferr
ing t o Fig
. 14-18d, t
he condit
ion for e qua
lity of el
ectr
ical path
l
e
ngth requir
est hat
Rc
o
s 0— L
R=L (
1
4-51a
)
c
osE
or
(
n — 1
)L
R— (
14
-51b
)
nco
s 0— 1
where n= 1 /cos E= e fect

ive i ndex of re
fraction ofthe slant p l
ate l
ens
medium
I
n this c
ase t he index o
f re
fraction ise qual to or g
reater than 1s o t
hat
(
14-51b) i
si dentica
l with (
14-7) for adie
lectric le
ns. T he index nd epends
o
nly on the p la
t e s
lan
t angle Ea nd isn ot af unct
ion oft he frequency as
i
n the E-plane t ype of me
tal-plate len
s. T he mo st c
rit
ical dimen s
ion i
s
t
he path length S i nthe l
ens
. T h
is may b e afected by ac hange i n Tor
i
nE . Assum ing amax imum a llowab le v
a r
iation ö= X /8 ine l
ectrical p
ath
l
ength, t
he tolerance in Sisgiven b y
A
S = ±0
.06 X
Ad isadvantage o f the H -plane m etal-plate len

s i sthat t h
is t ype o fc on-
s
truction t ends to produce u nsymme trical aper
tu re ilum ination i n the E
p
lane.
1
4-7. Po lyrod Antennas . Ad ie
lectric rod orwi re c
an a c
ta s ag uide for
e
lectromagnet ic waves.' T he guiding a ct
ion, howeve r, isi mper fect since
c
on s
ide rab
le power may e scape through t he walloft he rod and b er adiated.
This t endency to radiate ist urned to a dvantage i n t
he p o
lyrod a ntenna,2
s
o-called b ecause the d ie
lectric rod i su sual
ly made o f po
ly sty rene. A
6
-wave length-
long p o
ly rod antenna i sshown i ncros ss
ection inF ig. 14-19a.
The r od isfed by as horts ect
ion o fcylind r
ical wave g u
ide w hich , int urn,
1D
. Hondro s and P. Debye, Elektromagnetische Welen an die
lekt
rischen Draht
en,
Ann
. P hysik
, 3 2
, 465-476, 19
10.
S.A.S chelkunof , " E
lect
romagne t
ic Waves ," D. Van No s
trand C ompany, Inc.
,
New Y ork
, 1943, pp. 425-428.
R. M . Whitme r, Fie
lds in Non -metal
lic Guides, P
roc
. I.R
.E., 36
, 105- 1109, S
ep-
t
ember, 1948.
'G
. E . Mueller and W. A. T yr
rel, Polyrod A n
tennas
, Be
llS ys
tem Tech. J
., 2
6, 8
37-
8
51, October, 1947.
SE
C
. 1
4
05
i
sene rgized by ac oax
ial tr
ansmiss
ion l
ine
. T h
is t
ype ofp olyrod a
cts as
a
n end -f
ire a
ntenna .
'
The p hase v
elocity of wave p
ropagat
ion in the r
od and a l
so the r
atio
o
f the p ower gu
ided o uts
ide t
he rod t
o the power g
uided ins
ide are both
f
unction softhe rod di
ame te
r Di nwave
lengthsa nd t
he di
electr
ic c
onstant'
o
fthe r od mate
rial.
' F o
rp o
lystyr
ene r
odsw i
th D < X /4
,t he r
od pos
sesse
-s
T
un
ing
s
tub
1
4 3
X 3
X
M
ax
im um
r
a
diat
ion
0
.5X D P
o
lys
tyrene
C
i
rcu
larm e
taltu
bing
w
ave g
u
ide
k
Coox
I ial f
e
ed l
i
n
e
(
a)
(
b
)
F
io. 1
4
-19
. ( a
) C y
lind
rical po
lys
ty rene a
ntenna 6 wave
leng
ths l
ong i
n c
ros
s s
ec
tion
.
(
b
) Radia
tion p
atte
rn. ( Af
ter Muel
lera nd Tyr
rel
l.)
l
i
ttle gu
iding efect o n t
he wave, a nd on
ly as mal
l fract
ion oft he poweri s
c
onfined to t
he i n
side of the rod. T he phase velocity in t
he r od isal
so
c
lose to t
hat fo
r the s u
rrounding m edium (free space). F o
r di ameters o
f
t
he order of aw avelength
, howeve r, most o
ft he powe r isconf
ined t o t
he
r
od,a nd t
he phasev eloc
ity inthe rod isnear
ly the same asi nanu nbounded
medium ofp o
ly styrene. F or increased di
rectivi
ty o perat
ion the diameter
D),in f
ree
-space w avelengths of au n
iform r od (l
eng th LA > 2a nd 2 <
e
r<5 )is
3
D),'
•
• 41' /A ± 0
2 .2 (
14
-52a
)
I
nprac
tice
, p
o
lys
tyrene r
od d
iame
ter
sint
he r
ange 0
.
5 Xt
o0.
3 Xa
re u
sed
.'
A
n end -f
ire polyrod a ntenna may b e re
garded as ad egenerate f
orm ofl e
ns antenna
w
ith an efective lens cross se
c t
ion of t he o
rder of aw avelength. See Gilbert Wi
lk es
,
Wavel
eng th L ens
, P roc. I.R.E
., 36, 206-212, February, 1 948.
'
The relat
ive d ie
lec t
ric constant fr 2
.5 f
or polystyrene . SeeT able 14
-1.
'
G. E. Mue lle
r a nd W . A. T yrr
ell, P o
lyrod A ntenna s
, B e
ll Sys
tem T ech. J.
, 2 6
,
8
37-851, Octobe r
, 1947 .
'
To transm it the lowest (TE i )mode i n aci
rcularw ave g u
ide, t
he diameter Doft he
g
uide mu st be atl e
a st 0.
58 X/ VT ,w here xisthe f r
ee-spa ce wavel
eng th and e,isthe
4
06 AN TE N N AS [CH
AP. 1
4
The r od may b e uniform o r to r educe m ino r lo bes can b e tapered a s in

F
ig. 14 -
19a . T his poly rod ist ap e
red h alfway a nd u n
iform i ncross section
t
he rema inde r ofi t
s length. T he diame ter Di s0 .
5 Xa t the b u
tt end a nd
0
.3 Xa tt he fa
re nd. T he radiation -f
ield pattern f ort h
isp oly rod a
sg iven b y
Mueller a nd T yrrel
l iss hown i n F ig. 14
- 19b. T he gain o ver an is
ot ropic
s
ource i sa bout 16 db.
To af i
rst approxima t
ion t he r adiat
ion p attern o f ap olyrod an tenna
e
xci
ted u niformly a long its leng th may b e calcula ted by a ssuming t ha t i
t
i
s ac ontinuous a rray ofi sotropic p oint source sw ith ap ha se shi
ft ofa bout
3
00 ( 1 -I
- 1 /2Lx)d eg/wave leng th o fa n
tenna , w here LA ist he to
tal l ength
o
f the a ntenna i n w aveleng ths
. ' T he relative f i
eld p at
te rn as af unc tion
o
ft he a ngle 0from t he a x
is ist hen g iven b y
s
i
n (
1
,
1
//2
)
E
(0) — (
14
-52b
)
1 1
w
here I
V = 2
114 c
os 9— 2
wL),
(
1 =2
r[LA(
co
s e— 1
)—
The r adiat
ion fie
ld could bec a
lcu lated e xac
tly bya pplying S
chelkunof '
s
e
quiva lence p r
inciple, provided t he f i
e
ld s o n the surface were known!
By this p r
incip
le t he f
i
elds at the r od surfaces are r
eplaced by equ
iva len
t
e
lect
ric a nd fi
ct
itious magne tic cur rent sheets, and the rad
iation fi
eld is
c
alculated f rom t hese cur
ren ts
. Howeve r
, the fie
lds are not known o n
t
he p olyrod b ut an approxima te calculation may b e made by assuming a
f
i
eld d is
tribution.3
The d irect
ivity D of ap o
ly rod a ntenna i sgiven approximate
ly b y
'
D 8
Lk (
14
-53
)
a
nd t
he h
al
f-powe
r b
eam w
idth B b
y
6
0
B (
1
4-54
)
VL
A
w
here Lk = l
ength o
fpoly
rod i
nfree
-space w
avelength
s
P
oly
rod antennas may al
so b
e of s
quare o
r rec
tangula
r c
ro
ss s
e
ction
.
r
e
la t
ive die
lec tric cons
tant of the guide
. Thu s, f
or arod ofp olystyrene (e
, = 2 .
5) fed
f
rom ac i
rcula rw ave gu
ide asi nFig. 14-19a, t
he gu
ide diame ter mustb e atleas
t0 .37 X
t
o al
low t r
ansm iss
ion int he metal tube
.
This isthe Hansen a nd Woodya rd condit
ion for i
ncrea
sed d irect
ivity ofan end-f
ire
a
rray. S ee Sec. 4-6.
IS.A. Schelkunof , Equivalence Theorem s inElectromagne tics
, BellS y
stem Tech. J.
,
1
5
, 9 2-112, 1936 .
'R. B. Wa tson a nd C. W . Ho rton, T he Radiat
ion P atterns of Dielectr
ic R ods—
E
xperiment a nd Theory , J. Applied Phys.
, 19, 6
61-670, July, 1948.
'G. E. Mue ller and W . A. Tyrrel, Polyrod Antennas, B
ell S y
stem T ech
. J.
, 26, 837-
8
51, October, 1 947.
S
ec. 1
4
07
Ano the rp ossibility i st ou se ad ielec-

t
r
ic s leeve o fc ircula ro rs qua re c ross
s
ect ion , t he i n terio r o f t he s leeve
b
eing a ir
-filled . I nt hisc ase t he a p
-
(
a)
p
ropr ia te d iame tero ft he s leeve may
b
eo ft he o rde ro f 1w ave leng th .
14 -8. Long Wire Antennas . I
n
t
he n ext sect ions a ntennas o fq u
ite a
d
ife ren tt ype a re c on s
ide red b riefly. V
-ortenno
The se a re l ong w ire a ntenna s. T heir

p
rinc ipa l a pplica tion i sf ound i nt he
wave leng th r ange o f 1t o 5 0 m e te rs
.
14-9 . V A ntennas .' B y a ssum - (
b
)
i
ng as inuso ida lc ur r ent d istribu tion ,
t
he p attern o f al ong t hin w ire a n-
t
enna c an b ec alcu la ted a sd escr ibed
i
n C hap . 5 . A t yp ical p a ttern i s TV
e
.
rm
inated
-antenna
s
hown i n F ig. 1 4 -20a f or aw ire 2
wave leng ths l ong. T he ma in l obes
a
re a ta na ngle f t= 3 6° w i th r espe ct
(
c
)
t
ot he w ire. B ya r rang ing t wo s uch
w
i re s i n aV w ith a n i ncluded a ngle
7 = 7 2° asi nF ig. 1 4-20b , ab idire c-
t
iona lp atte rn c an b eo b tained . T his
pat tern i st he sum o ft he p a tte rn so f
t
he i ndividua l w i re s o r l egs. A l-
t
hough a n i ncluded a ngle 7 = 2 $
r
esu lt si nt he al
ignmen to ft he ma jor
(
d)
l
obe s a t z e ro e leva tion a ng le ( wires 2
0
h
orizon tal) a nd i n f ree s pa ce , i ti s Fm . 1 4-20. ( a) C a
lcu lated p attern o f
n
ece ssa ry t o make 7 s omewha t l e
ss 2-wave leng th w ire w ith s tanding w ave.
t
han 2 0 i n o rde r t o o b tain a lign - (
h) Va ntenna o ft wo such wires. ( c) T e
r-
mina ted V a n
tenna w ith l egs 2 w ave-
ment a t e l
eva tion a ng les g r ea ter
l
engths l ong. ( d) Va ntenna of c y
lindri-
t
han z ero.' T h
is i s b ecaus e t he calc onducto rs 1 .
25 w aveleng ths l
ong w ith
s
pa ce p attern o f as ing le w ire i s measured p a
tt ern.
c
on ica l, b eing o bta ined b y r evo lv-
i
ngt he p att er no fF ig. 1 4-20a , f o re xamp
le , w ith t he w i re acting a st he a xis.
I
P
.S . Car
te r
, C
. W. Hansen
,a nd N. E
. Lindenblad, Development ofD irect
ive T rans
-
m
itt
ing A ntennas by R .C.A
. C ommun ications
, I nc
., Proc. I.R
.E .
, 1 9, 1773-1842,
O
ctober
, 1931.
P
. S. Car
te r
, C
ircuit Re
lat
ions in Radiat
ing S ys
tem s and Appl
ica t
ions to A ntenna
P
roblems, Proc
. I
.R.E., 2
0, 1
004-1041
, J une
, 1932.
"The A.R.R.L. An
tenna Book," American Radio Relay League,Inc.
, We s
t Ha rtford
,
C
onn., 1
949, p. 1
74
. G ives d
esign c
harts.
4
08 ANTE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
4
I
f t he l eg s o
f the t hin w ire V a ntenna a re t erm ina ted i n their char-
a
cteristic i mpedance , asi nF ig. 1 4-20 c
, s othatt he w ire sc arry o n
ly ano u
t-
g
oing t rave ling wave, t he b a
ck r adiation isg rea t
ly r educed . T he patterns
o
ft he i ndividual wiresc an b ec alcu lated, assum ing as i
ngle t r
aveling w ave
a
sd one i nC hap. 5
.
As imila r efect may b e produced w i
thou t t erm ina tion s b y the use of
V conduc to rs of conside rable t hickne ss
. T he r ef
lec ted w ave o n such a
c
onduc tor may b e s mall compa red t o the outgo ing w ave, a nd a condit
ion
a
pp roa ching t hat of as ingle trave ling ( outgo ing) w ave may r e
sult
. F or
e
xamp le, aV a ntenna c ons
i st
ing o ft wo cy
lind r
ical c onduc tors 1 .
25 w ave-
l
ength s long a nd 21(rw aveleng th d iame ter with a n i ncluded a ngle 13= 9 0°
h
as t he hi ghly unid
ire ctiona l pattern ' o fFig. 1 4-20d.
14-10. R hombic A ntenn as.' Ar homb ic a ntenna may b e regarded asa
d
oub le-V t ype. T he wire sa tt he e nd r emotef rom t he f eed e nd arei nclose
A
xis o
f
r
hombic
T
erminat
ing
r
es
istance
V
ert
ica
l p
attern
(
a
) (
c
)
F
la. 1 4
-21. T erm ina
ted r hombic a
n tenna
(
a) with azimuthal pattern (
b) a
nd vertical
p
lane p at
tern (c) for ar hombic 6 w av e-
A
zimutha
l p
otte
rn o
ti
:X=
10 . l
engths lo
ng on each leg
,4 ,= 70°, a
nd a ta
h
eight of 1.
1 wavelengths above aperfect
ly
(
b
) c
onducting ground. ( After A
. E. Harper.)
p
rox
imity, a
sinFig. 14-21a. At ermina
tion re
sis
tance, usua
lly 6
00 to8 00
o
hms, can be c
onvenien t
ly connected at t
his lo
cation so tha
t t here i
s
s
ubs
tant
ially a s
i
ngle outgoing tr
avel
ing wave on the wires
. T he length
o
feach le
g i
sL, and one-hal
ft he i
nc
luded s
ide angle i
s4)
. T he ca
lculated
'
Chap. 4b yA . Dorm , "Ve
ry H igh F
requency T echn
ique s," R adio Research Labora-
t
ory Staf, McGraw -Hil Book C ompany, Inc.
, N ew York, 1 947, p. 15.
IE. Bruce
, D evelopment in S hort
-wave Direct
ive A ntenna s
, Proc
. I.R.E.
, 1 9
, 1406-
1
433, Augu st
, 1931.
E
. Bruce, A. C. Beck,and L.R .L ow
ry, HorizontalR homb ic Antennas
, Pr o
c. I.R
.E .
2
3
, 2 4-46, January, 1935
.
A
. E. Harp er
, "Rhomb ic A ntenna Des
ign," D. V an Nostrand C ompany , Inc
., N ew
York, 1
941.
Dona
ld F o
ster, Radiat
ion f rom Rhomb ic A n
tenna s
, P ro c
. I.R.E., 25, 1327-1353,
O
ctober, 1937.
SE
C
.
. 1
4
-10
] LE NS AN D LO N G WI RE AN TE N N AS 4
09
pa
t tern s' o f at ermina ted r homb ic w ith l egs 6w aveleng ths l ong a re shown
i
nF ig. 1 4-2 1b a nd c. T he r homb ic i sa ssumed t ob e 1 .
1 w aveleng ths a bove
ape rfe ctly c onduc t
ing g round , a nd 4 )= 7 0°
.
I
n d esign ing a r homb ic a ntenna , t he a ngle 4)
, the l eg length , a nd t he
h
eigh t a bove g round may b es oc ho sen t hat (1) the max imum o ft he ma in
l
obe c oinc ide s w ith t he d esired e l
eva tion a ngle a ( alignm ent d esign ), or
(
2) s ot he max imum r ela tive f i
eld i nt en s
ity E f or ac ons tan t ant enna c ur-
r
ent i so bta ined a t t he d esired e l
eva t
ion a ngle a ( ma ximum E d esign)!
I
ft he h eigh t a bove g round i sl e
s s t han t hat required f or the se d esign s
,
a
l
ignmen t may b e obtained b y i ncrea sing t he leg leng th. I fthe h eight i s
main tained b ut t he leg l eng th i sr educed , a l
ignmen t may b e o btained b y
c
hang ing t he a ngle lb
. O ra s at h
ird p ossibi
lity, ifb oth t he h e
igh ta nd t he
l
eg l ength a r e r educed , t he a ngle 4 ,c an b e changed t o produce a l
ignmen t
.
Any o f t hes e t hree mod ifi ca t
ion s r esul ts in as o-ca
lled c omp rom i sed esign'
h
aving r e duced g a
in. I f mode rat e depa rture sfrom o ptimum p er formance
a
re a ccep tab le , ar homb ic a ntenna c an b e opera t
ed w i thou t a dju s
tmen t
o
ve r af requency b and o ft he orde ro f 2t o 1. .
The p att ern o f ar homb ic a ntenna may b e ca
lcula ted a s the s um o ft he
p
att ern s o ff our t i
lted w i re s each w ith a s ing
le o utgo ing t r
ave ling w ave.
The e fe ct o f ap e
rfe ct
ly c onduc ting g round may b e i ntroduced b y t he
method o fi mage s. F or ah or
izon tal r homb ic ofp erfec t
ly c onduc ting w ire
a
bove ap erfe ctly c onduc ting p lane g round , Bruce, B e ck, a nd L ow ry ° give
t
he r e
la tive f i
eld i n
ten s
i ty E i n t he v e rt
ical plane c oinciden t w ith t he
r
homb ic a x
is * a s af unc t
ion o fa,l b
, Lx,a nd Ilk a
s
(
c
os4
)
[sin (
H,s
i
n«Ak
in (
4
,L,
)12
E— (
14
-55
)
w
here a = e
l
eva t
ion angle wi
th respec
t toground
=half i
ncluded si
de ang
le ofr hombi
c antenna
= H/X = h e
ight ofrhomb ic a
ntenna above g
round
LA = L/X =l egl e
ngth
H
, =2 7H ,
, =2 r
(H/X )
L
, =2 rLA = 2 rL/X
= (
1 —s in4)cos a
)/2
Acons
tant a
ntenna c u
rrent isas
sumed , and mu
tual coup
ling i
sneg
lec
ted
.
'
From A.E.Harper
, "Rhomb
ic A
ntenna D
esign
," D
. V
an No
strand C
ompany
, I
nc
.,
New York, 1941.
'E.Bruce
, A . C
. Beck,and L.R.Lowry, Hor
izonta
l Rhomb
ic An
tenna
s, P
roc
. I.R
.E.,
2
3
, 24-26, January, 1
935.
*The rad
ia t
ion inthi
s plane i
shor
izonta
lly po
lar
ized
. However
, i
nother p
lanes t
he
p
ola
riza
tion i
snot
, i
ngene
ral
, h
orizonta
l.
4
10 ANTE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
4
F
ol
lowing t
he pro
cedure o
fBruce
, Beck
, and L
owry
, the va
rious d
es
igns
may b
ed e
termined asf
ol
lows. For t
he maximum E c
ondit
ion, Eis max
i-
m
ized w
ith r
espect t
o HA,t
hat i
s
,w e make
aE =o (
14
-56
)
aH),
w
hich y
i
eld
s
c
os (
2
7rl
ix s
i
n a
) =0
w
hich i
ssa
tisf
ied w
hen
2
wHA s
i
n a = n2
-
w
here n = 1
,3,5
, ...
F
or t
he l
owes
t p
rac
tica
l h
e
igh
t, n= 1
. T
here
fore
,
HA — (
14
-57
)
4s
i
na
E
quat
ion (
14-57
) give
s t
he he
igh
t HA f
or t
he antenna
. T
o f
i
nd t
he l
e
g
l
e
ngth
, Eis max
imized w
ith r
e
spec
t t
o LA,o
bta
ining
1
L
o
. — (
14
-58
)
2
(
1 —s
i
n co
sa)
F
ina
lly, by max
imiz
ing E w
ith r
e
spe
ct t
o4)a
nd i
n
troduc
ing t
he c
ond
ition
o
f (
14-58
)
= 9
0° — a (
14
-59
)
S
ubs
titu
ting (
14
-59
) b
ack i
n
to (
14
-58
) y
ie
lds
1
LA— •2 (
14
-60a
)
2s
m a
Equations (1
4-57), (14-59), and (14-60a) t hen g ive the h eight in wave-
l
engths HA,the half
-side angle (1
)
,a nd the leg length i nw aveleng ths LA,for
maximum E a tthe des
ired elevation angle a. T hisi sf o
r ac on stanta n
tenna
c
urrent. Itd oesn ot fo
llow thatt he fi
eld intensity a tthe d esired e
levation
a
ngle is a maximum f or ag i
ven p owe r inpu t to the a ntenna . Howeve r
,
i
tisp robably very close to th
is condition. I ti sal so of interest t
ha t f
or
t
he maximum E c ondit
ion the max imum p ointo ft he ma in lob eofradiation
i
sn ot
, ingeneral
, al
igned w ith the desired e l
eva t
ion a ngle.
I
nt he al
ignmen tdesign the maximum p o
in to fthe ma in l obe ofradiation
i
saligned with the desired el
eva t
ion a ngle a. F or t h
is c ondition, Ea t a
SE
C
. 1
440
] LENS AN D LON G WIRE ANTENN AS 4
11
TABLE 1
4
-4
DES
IGN FOR MULAS FOR TER M
INATED RHO MB
IC ANTENNAS
*
T
ypeof
r
homb
ic a
ntenna F
ormu
las
1
F
ix =
4s
i
na
Max
imum E atel
eva
-
t
i
on a
ngle a 4
)= 9
0° — a
0
.5
I
A — si
n2 a
1
Hx —
4s
ina
A
l
ignmen tofm a
jo r
l
obe w
ith e
l
evation 4
2= 9
0° — a
a
ngle a
0
.371
s
in
2a
4
)= 9
0° — a
R
educed he
ightH'
C
omp romis
e d
es
ign LA _ t
an E
(L
,/2) s
i
n2a
] 1 1;
,
f
o
r al
ignment a
tel
e- s
ina L
2a
rsi
n a— t
an (
1
1: si
na)
v
at
ion ang
le a
H
' H
'
w
here 1
; = — a : = 2
nd H w —
X X
1
Hx —
4s
i
n a
R
educed le
ng th L
'
C
omp romise de
sign [L
>
, — 0
.371]
f
o
r al
ignmen t a
t el
e- (
f
r= a
rcs
in
L)
'
,co
sa
v
at
ion angle a
w
here L
'k = L
'/X
S
olve t
h
is e
qua
tion f
o
r0:
R
educed he
ight H'
a
nd l
ength L' 1
C
omp romise de
sign s
i
n42t
an a t
an (
H: s
in a
) 4
24 t
an (
0 0
f
o
r al
ignmen t a
te l
e-
1— s
i
n c
osa L
'
v
at
ion angle a w
here 4
,-
2
a
nd L
:=2
a
r —
X
*
After E
.Bruc
e, A
.C . Beck, a
nd L. R
. L
owry
, H
ori
zon
tal R
homb
ic A
ntenna
s,
P
roc
. I.R
.E.
, 2
3, 2
4-26
, January
, 1
935
.
4
12 ANTE N N AS [CH
AP. 1
4
i
ssl
ightly l
e
ss t
han fo
r t
he max
imum E cond
ition
. A l
ignment i
saccom-
p
l
ished by max
imiz
ing E wi
th re
spe
ct t
o aand in
troduc
ing t
he c
ondit
ion
o
f (
14-57)
. T h
is g
ive
s
0
.371
L
o
. — (
14
-60b
)
1— s
i
n c
osa
S
ubst
itut
ing (
14
-60b) i
n (
14
-55) a
nd max
imiz
ing t
he r
e
sul
ting r
e
lat
ion f
o
r
t
he f
i
eld wi
th r
e
spect t
o4)g
ive
s
c
t
,= 9
0° — a (
14
-61
)
a
s b
efo
re. F
ina
lly s
ubs
titu
ting (
14
-61
) i
n (
1
4-60b
) w
e o
bta
in
0
.371
— •2 (
14
-62
)
s
m a
E qua tions ( 14-57), ( 14-61 ), and ( 14-62) t hen g ive 1 -),4 3

,a nd fak fora l
ign -
m
en t o ft he max imum p o
in t o ft he ma in l obe ofr ad ia tion w ith t he desired
e
l
eva t
ion a ngle a . O nly t he l ength i sd iferen t i n t he a l
ignment d e
sign ,
b
eing 0 .371/0 .5 = 0 .74 o ft he v alue f or the max imum E d esign.
T he a bove d es
ign r e
la tions a re s umma rized i nT ab le 1 4
-4 t ogethe r wi th
d
esign f ormu la sf o
r t hre e kind s o fc omp rom is e d es
ign s.
A n e nd-to -end r eceiving a rray o f an umbe r ofr homb ic s may b e so con -
n
ected a s t o p rov ide a n e lectricaly c on trollable v e rtical plane p atte rn
w
hich c an b e a djusted t o c oincide w ith t he o ptimum e l
eva t
ion a ngle o f
d
owncom ing w ave s. T his Mu lt
ip le U n
it Steerab le A ntenna ,
'o r Mu sa,c on -
s
t
itu te st he p re sent-day u l
tima te forl o
ng -distance s hor t-wave r e
cep tion o f
h
orizon tally p ola r
ized d owncom ing w aves.
14-11 . B eve rage o r Wave A ntenna .2 T he e l
ec tric f i
eld of aw ave t r
ave l-
i
ng a long ap erfe ct
ly c onduc ting sur face i spe rpend icu la rt o the s urface a s
i
n Fig . 1 4-22a . Howeve r
, i ft he s urface i sa n i mpe rfect c ondu cto r
, s uch
a
s t he e arth's s urfa ce o r g round , t he electric-f
ie ld l i
ne s have a f orwa rd
t
i
ltn eart he s urface a si nF ig. 14-22b . H ence, t he f ield a tthe s u
rfa ce ha sa
v
ertica l componen t E . a nd a h orizon tal c omponen t E ..* T he c omponen t
E
. i sa sso c
ia ted w ith t ha t p art o ft he w ave t hat e nt er s the surfa ce and i s
d
iss
ipa ted a sh eat. T he E .c omponen tc ontinue st ot r ave la l
ong t he s u
rfa ce.
1
H. T . Fri
is a nd C. B. F e
ldman , A Mu ltiple Unit Steerable Antenna fo
rS hort
-wave
R
ecep t
ion , Proc. I.R.E.
, 2 5
, 8 41-917 , Ju
ly, 1937.
2H. H. B everage , C.W .R ice ,a nd E .W .K elogg,T he Wav eA ntenna, aNew T yp eof
H
igh ly D irective A ntenna, T ran s
. A .I.E.E., 42, 215, 1923.
'Actualy t he w ave exhibitse l
l
ipt icalcross-f
ield, thati s
, t
he el
ectric v
ecto
rd escr
ib es
a
n e l
lipse w hose plane i sp a
rallel to t he di
rection o f p
ropaga t
ion. H owever
, the a x
ial
r
atio oft his el
lipse isusually v ery l arge
, and t he fi
eld may b e r
egarded asbe
ing linear.
F
o r ad i
scus s
ion o fcross
-fi
eld s e
eC hap . 9b yA . Alford,J.D . Kraus
,a nd E
.C .B a
rko fsky,
"Very H igh F requency T echn ique s," R adio R esearch L aborato
ry S taf
, McG raw -Hill
B
ook C ompany , Inc
., New Y ork, 1 947, p.2 00.
SE
C
. 1
4
-12
] LE NS AN D LO N G WI RE ANT E N N AS 4
13
The fac
tt hat ahorizonta
lc omponen tE .e xistsisa pp
lied int he B everage
o
r w ave type of a
nt enna for rece
iv ing v ert
ica l
ly p o
larized w aves. T h
is
a
ntenna c on
sists o
f al ong hor
izon tal wire te rminated ini t
s c ha racterist
ic
i
mpedance a t the end toward t he transm itting stat
ion a s in F ig. 1 4-22c
.
T
he g round acts a
st he imperf
ec t conduc tor. T he emfs induced a l ong the
a
ntenna b y th
e E. componen t, ast he wave t ravelstowa rd the r ece
ive r, al
a
dd u p inetc same p hase at t
he r ece
ive r
. E nergy from a w ave a rriving
f
r
om t he o
ppositedirect
ion islarge
ly a bso rbed int he t
erm ination . H ence,
D
i
rec
tion o
f D
i
rec
tion o
f
p
ropagat
ion p
ropagat
ion
P
erfec
t c
onducto
r I
mpe
rfect c
onducto
r
(
a) (
b
)
T
o
T
erm
ina
tion
t
ransmit
ter
G
roun
d
(
C)
FI
G. 1
4-22. (
a) Wave f
ront o
ver aper
fect c
onductor
. (
b
) Wave f
r
ont o
ver i
mpe
rfect
c
onduc
to r
. (c
) Beve
rage o
r wave a
ntenna.
t
he a ntenna e xhibits ad i
rec t
iona l pat
tern i n t he h or
izon ta
l plane w ith
maximum r esponse in the d ire c
tion of t he term ination ( to le
ft in Fig.
1
4-22 c
). T he B everage antenna f i
nds application i nt he l
ow a nd m edium
f
requency r ange.
14-12. C urtain Arrays
. I ns hort-wave c ommun icationst he c
urtain type
o
fa rray finds many a pp
lication s
. A s an e xamp le, ac urtain type isi l
us-
t
rated i nFig. 14-23a tha
tc onsi stso fana rray o fi -waveleng th d
ipolesw ith
asimilar curtain at ad i
stance o fa bout X/4 a ct
ing a s ar ef
lector
.' I ft he
a
rray i sl arge i n te
rm s of w avelengths, t he re f
lec
to r curtain isn early
e
quiva lent to al a
rge sheet ref
le ctor
.
1H
. B
ruckmann
, "An
tennen
, i
h
re Theo
rie u
nd T
echn
ik," S
. H
irze
l, L
eipz
ig, 1
939
,
p
.300
.
4
14 ANTE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
4
S
evera
l othe
r examples o
f curta
in arrays a
re t
he Bruce type o
f F
ig.
1
4-23b
, the S
terba t
ype' o
f Fig
. 14-23
c, and t
he Ch
ire
ix- Me
sny type 2 o
f
F
ig. 14
-23d. T he a
rrows ar
e l o
cated at or n
ear c
urrent maxima and
(
a
) (
c
)
IN
4
'
, .. .
. .
.
(
d
)
F
ie. 14-23
. ( a) Array o f i-wave
length d
ipoles w
ith ref
lectors, (
b
) s
ymme tr
ical Bruce
a
ntenna, (c
) Sterba curtain array
, and (d
) C h
ire
ix-Nlesny a r
ray. Arrows i
ndica
te in-
s
tantaneous c
urrent directions
, and dot
s i
ndicate c
urrent minimum points
.
i
ndicate t
he instantaneous cur
rent d
ir
ec t
ion. The sma
ll d
ots ind
icate t
he
l
ocations o
fc urrent minima
.
1
4-13. Locat
ion a nd Method ofFeeding An
tennas I
tisinteres
ting t
o
n
ote the efect w h
ich the method a
nd locat
ion o
ffe
eding has on t
he cha
r-
a
cterist
ics of an antenna. A s i
lus
trations
, l
et u
s cons
ider t
he fol
lowing
c
ases.
'
E.J.S terba, Theore
tical a
nd Pra
ctical A
spect
so fDirec
tional Transm
itt
ing Sy
stem
s,
P
roc
. I.R
.E ., 19
, 184-1215 , Ju
ly, 1
931.
'H
. Chireix, French Sy
stem o fDi
rectiona
l Aer
ials f
or Transmis
sion o
n Shor
t Wave
s,
E
xp. Wire
l es
s and Wi re
less Eng
., 6
,2 35
, May , 1
929.
SE
C
. 1
4
-14
] LE NS AN D LO N G WI RE ANTE N N AS 4
15
I
fa n ant
enna isfe
d with a ba
lanced two-w
ire li
ne, e
qual o
ut-o
f-phase
c
urrents must f
l
ow at t
he f
eed poin
t. T hus, asquare l
oop 1wavelength
i
np er
imetera nd f
edatthe b
ottom asinFig. 1
4-24a musthave t
he cur
rent
k G
round p
lane
(
a) (
b
)
h
- -
1
,
1 1
1 1
I l
i
g
• 1
(
c) (d) (
e)
Fm. 14-24. ( a) Loop w
ith two-wire feed, (1
0 loop with one
-wire fe
ed, (c) cente
r -
fed
b
roadside array o
ft wo 5
-wavelength dipoles
, (d) end
-fed end-f
ire a
rray oft wo 5-wave-
l
ength dipoles
, and (e
) e
nd-fed broads
ide a rray of two 5-wave
length dipoles
. A rrows
i
ndica
te i n
stantaneous c
urrent d
irect
ions, a nd dots ind
icate c
urrent minimum p o
in ts
.
d
i
s tr
ibu tion i ndica ted. T he a rrow s indica te t he i n
stan taneous c urrent
d
i
re ction s a nd t he d o ts the l o
ca tion s of cur rent min ima . T he r adiat
ion
n
orma l t ot hisl oop i sh o r
izon tally p ola
rized .
C
on side r n ow t he s i
tua t
ion s hown i nF ig. 1 4-24b. H ere t he l oop i sfed
a
t the s ame l ocation . Howeve r
, t he lo
op i sc ont
inuou s a nd i sf ed at a
p
oint b y a n u nba lan ced l ine. I n t h
is case, t he antenna c urrents f l
owing
t
o the f eed p oint a r e equal a nd i np hase s o that the c ur ren t d is
t r
ibu t
ion
o
n t he a n tenna mu s t be as i nd
ica ted. T he r ad
ia t
ion n orma l t o this loop
i
sv ertically p ola rized.
T
he l ocation a t w hich a n a ntenna i se ne rgized also may b e impor tant.
F
o r e xamp le, t wo 4 -wave leng th e lemen ts h ave i n-pha se c u rrents w hen
s
ymme trically f ed a s in F ig. 1 4-24 c but o ut-of-pha se c ur ren ts w hen f ed
f
r
om o ne e nd a s i nF ig. 14-24d . F or t
he c urrent s t
ob e inp has e when t he
a
rray i sf ed from o ne e nd require s t ha
t t he l i
ne b e
tween t he e l
emen ts be
t
r
an spo sed a si nF ig. 1 4
-24 e.
1
4-14 . F olded D ipo le A n
tenna . A s imp le 4 -wave leng th d ipo le h a
s a
t
e
rm inal r e
sistance o fa bou t 7 0 o hm s s
o t hat a n impedance t ran s
fo rmer is
4
16 ANTE N N AS (CH
AP. 1
4
r
equired t o match thi
s antenna t o a
n ord
ina ry open t wo-wir e li
ne of300
t
o 600 o hms c hara
cteris
tic impedance ( s
ee S ec
. 14 -24 ). Howeve r, the
t
ermina l res
istance of the mod if
ied i-wavelength d ipo le s hown i n Fig.
1
4-25a i snearly 300 ohmss o t
ha t i
tcan be direct
ly c onne cted t oa n o
pen
t
wo-w ire li
ne having a charact
e r
ist
ic impedance o fthe s ame v alue. T his
t
ype o f antenna i scal
led af olded d
ipole
. Mo re spe cif
ically t he one in
F
ig. 14 -25a isa" two-wire fo
lded i-wave length dipo le." T he a n
tenna
,
I4
v'1
>
2-wir
e
f
o
lded
d
ipo
le
(
a) (
b
)
1 f
o
ld
3
-we
ird
e
d
ipo
le (
c)
F
l
o. 1
4
-25
. F
o
lded d
i
pol
es.
c
ons
i sts of two closely-
spaced I -wave
length elements connected together
a
t the o uter ends
. T he c ur
rents in t
he el
ements are substant
ial
ly e qual
a
nd i np hase
.
A
s sum ing that bo th conductors o
f the d
ipole have t
he s ame diame t
e r
,
t
he a pproxima te value of the t
erminal impedance may b e deduced v ery
s
imply a s fo
llows.' L e
t t he emf Va ppl
ied to the ant
enna t erminals be
d
iv
ided b etween the two dipolesasi nFig
. 14-25b
. T hen
V = z
iz
y a
7 n.
T 2"
7
1
2 (
14
-63
)
2
w
here I = cur
ren
ta ttermina
ls o
fdipole 1
=cur
ren
t attermina
ls o
fdipole 2
21 = se
lf
-impedance o
fdipo
le 1
Zig = mu
tua
l impedance o
fdipo
le 1and 2
1
R
.W .P .K ing
,H.R .M imno,andA.H .W ing
," T
ransm
iss
ion Lin
es,An
tennasand
W
aveG uides
," M cGraw-Hi
ll B
ook Company
, I n
c.
, N ew Y
ork
, 194
.5
, p.24.
W
.V.B .Rober
ts,InputImpeda
nceof aFolded D
ip o
le
, RCA Re
v., 8
,28
9-300
,J u
ne,
1
9
47. Tr ea
ts fo
lded di
pol
es wi
th co
nducto
rs o fequa
l di
amete
r and al
so ofun
equal
d
i
amete
r.
SE
C
. 1
4
-14
17
S
ince /1 = 4
, (
1
4-63
) b
ecome
s
V=2
.
1
,(Z„ Z
.) (
1
4-64
)
F
urthe r, s
ince t
he two d
ipo
les a
re c
l
ose t
oge
the r
, usua
lly disofthe o
rder
o
f 7-6-i w
avelength
, Z13 .
Z
-
"
' Zil
. Thus, t
he te
rm inal i
mpedance Z o
f the
a
ntenna i sgiven by
Z=—
, •
I _
•
-
, 4ZI, (
14
-65
)
T
aking Z„ 7
0 j
0f o
r aI-wave
leng
th d
ipo
le, t
he t
e
rmina
l i
mpedance
o
fthe t
wo-wi
re f
o
lded d
ipo
le b
ecomes
Z 2
80 o
hms
_
x
2
"
tr Y
1
(
a) (
h
)
Ax
4
>
(d)
- 1
I
T
ota
l
T
ota
l
F
ia. 14-26. ( a
). Three-wire fo
lded i-waveleng
th dipole, (b
) fou
r-wire f
o
lded i-wave-
l
e
ng th dipo
le, (c
) two-wire I-waveleng
th a n
tenna, (
d) four-wi
re j-wave
length a
ntenna
,
a
nd ( e
) two-wire j-wavelength stub antenna. Arrows i nd
icate i
nstan
taneous c
urrent
d
ir
ections, and dot
si nd
ica te c
urrent minimum p o
ints
.
4
18 ANTE N N AS [CH
AP. 1
4
For at hree-w ire f o

lded 4 -wave leng th d ipo le a s inF ig. 14-25 c t he t erm ina l
r
esi
s tance c alcula ted i nt his w ay i s9X 7 0 = 6 30 o hm s. I n g ene ral, f or
afolded 4 -wave leng th d ipo le o fN w ire s, t he termina l r es
is tance i s7 0N 2
o
hm s
.
Seve ral o the r type s o f f olded w ire a n tenna s
' are s hown i n F ig. 1 4-26 .
The o ne a t (a) is at hree-w i
re t ype w hich d ifersf rom t he o ne i nF ig. 1 4-25 c
i
n tha t t her e ar e n o c l osed l oop s
. T he m easured t e
rm ina l r esistance o f
t
his a ntenna i sa bout 9 00 o hm s. T he a nt enna a t ( b
) i s af ou r-w i re t ype
w
ith a m easu red t erm ina l r e
sistance o f a bout 1 ,
400 o hm s. T hu s f ar
, a l
l
t
he f olded d ipole s d iscu ssed h ave b een 4 -waveleng th t ype s. T he t otal
c
urrent d istribu tion f or t he se t ype s i sn ea rly sinusoida l, t he s ame a s f or
as imp le 4 -wave leng th d ipo le. F olded d ipoles of l e
ng th o the r t han
waveleng th' a re i l ustra ted i n F ig. 1 4
-26 c a nd ( d
). T he o ne a t ( c
) i sa
t
wo -wi re t ype I w aveleng th l ong a nd t hat a t (d
) i s af ou r-w ire t ype
waveleng th l ong. T he i nstan taneous c ur rent direction s
, t he c ur ren t d is-
t
r
ibu t
ion o n t he i nd ividua l c onduc tor s
, a nd t he total c urren t d is tr
ibu tion
a
re a lso i ndica ted. O ne -ha lf t he t wo -w ire 4 -wave leng th d ipo le c an b e
o
pera ted w i th ag round p lane a s inF ig. 1 4-26e, yi
eld ing t he 4 -wave leng th
s
tub a ntenna w ith t ota l c urren t d i
s tribu tion s hown . T he m ea su red
t
erm ina lr es
i stance o ft he t wo -w ire 4 -wave leng th dipo le isa bou t4 50 o hms ,
o
ft he f ou r
-w ire 4 -wave leng th d ipole a bou t 225 ohm s
, a nd o ft he t wo -wi re
4
-wave leng th s tub a ntenna a bou t 2 25 o hm s
.
14-15 . Mod ifica tions o fF o
lded D ipo les . C on s
ide r at wo -w ire f o
lded
d
ipole s hown i n F ig. 1 4-27a . T he t erm ina l re
sistance i sa pp rox ima tely
3
00 o hm s. B y mod ifying t he dipo le t ot he g eneralf orm s hown i nF ig. 1 4-
2
7b, aw ide r ange o f t erm ina l r es
is tance s c an b e o btained , d ep end ing o n
2
2
'
) D
F
olded d
ipo
le L - 11 Hmatch
0
.48X
0
.12 X
•
•
,0.000
1 t
o 0
.00
1 XT match
•
•
--
•0
.01X
600
ohm (
c)
l
ine
P
ia. 1
4
-27
. F
olded d
ipo
le a
nd T
-ma
tch a
ntenna
s.
1J
. D
. K
rau
s, Mu
lti
-wir
e D
ipo
le A
ntennas
, E
lec
tron
ics
, 1
3
, 2
6-27
, J
anua
ry, 1
940
.
SE
C
. 1
4
-15
19
t
he value ofD . T h
is arrangemen t isca
lled a T
-match a
ntenna
.' D imen -
s
i
ons i nw aveleng ths fo
r providing an impedance match t
o a600-ohm l i
ne
a
res hown i nF ig. 14
-27c.
A two-wir
e f o
lded 4 -wavelength dipole isal
so shown in Fig
. 14-28a.
The arrowsi nd
ica te the i
nstantaneous cu
r ren
tdirec
tion,and t
he sma
lld ots
i
ndicate the lo cat
ions o f curren
t m inima B
y p u
ll
ing the d
ipole wires
(
a)
(
e
)
1
4
-28
. (a
) Two
-wiref
o
lded d
ip
ole a
nd (
b
) asmod
if
ied tofo
rm s
i
ng
le t
u
rn l
o
op.
(
c
)Fou
r-w
iref
o
lded d
ipo
lea
nd () a
d sm od
if
ied t
ofo
rm 2-
turn l
o
op
.
a
pa r
ta tt he cente r
, the single-
turn l oop antenna ofF ig
. 14
-28b i sobtained .
The length o fe ach side is Iw avelength. T he loop has al ower te
rm inal
r
esi
stance t han t he fo
lded d ipole.
Af our-wire f olded 4-wave leng th dipole iss hown i n F
ig. 14-28c
. T his
d
ipole isthe s ame t ype ass hown i nF ig
. 1 4
-26b. I ti s
,howeve r, s
ke tched
i
n ad if
feren t m anne r
. B y pull
ing t his dipo
le a part at t
he center t he 2-
t
urn loop ors o-ca l
led " quad a ntenna" o fF ig
. 1 4
-28d resu
lts.
The directivity o fa l
l the typ es shown i n Fig
. 1 4
-28 isn ear
ly the s ame
a
sf or asimp le 4 -waveleng th dipole. W ith the loop types vert
ical and t he
t
erminals at t he l owest corner, t he rad
iation n ormal to the plane o f the
l
oops ish or
izon ta l
ly polarized.
1
J
. D
.K rau
san
dS.S
.St
urg
eon
.Th
eT-ma
tch
ed A
ntenna
,QST
,2, 2
4 4
-25
,Se
ptem
-
b
e
r, 1
94
0.
4
20 ANTE N N AS [CH
AP. 1
4
1
4-16. G round-plane A ntennas. S everal types of ground p lane or r e
-
l
ated a ntennas are shown i n Fig. 14
-29. T he type at ( a
) has a v er
tical
I
-wave length stub with ac i
rcu
la r s
heet g
round p lane a bout w aveleng th
i
nd iame ter
. T he antenna i sfed by ac oaxial transmission li
ne w i
th t he
i
nne r conductor conne c
ted t o the I-wavelength s t
ub a nd the o uter con-
d
uc tort e
rm inat
ing int he ground plane. I n (b
) the ground plane h a
s b een
modified to as k
irt o r cone shape. B y rep
lacing t he I-wavelength s tub
w
i th a disc as i
n (c
), a" c
fi
scone" a nt
enna ' isobtained. T he dimen s
ion s
A
xis
•
•0.
25X
(
a)
C
ross s
e
ction
.
(
d
) C
oaxia
l (
e
)
l
i
ne
Fu
t. 14
-29. ( a) S
tub an
tenna w
ith f
lat ci
rcular g
round p
lane
, (1
) same antenna with
g
round plane modif
ied t
osk
irt o
r c
one
, (c) di
scone an
tenna, (
d
) s
tub antenna with four
r
adia
l conductors t
o s
imula
te g
round plane
, a nd (
e
) ame thod o
f f
eed
ing ground -p
lane
a
ntenna.
g
iven are appropria
te for t he cen
ter fr
equency of ope
ra t
ion. I n Fig.
1
4-29d the s
ol
id sheet g
round p lane isr
ep
laced by f
our r
adial conductors.
A modif
icat
ion oft h
is antenna i ss
hown at (e
) inwhich a short-
circu
ited
I
-wavelength sec
tion of c oaxia
l line i
s conne
cted in paral
lel with t he
a
ntenna terminals
.' T his w idens the i
mpedance band w idth (see Sec.
1A.G . Kando ian
, Three New A n
tenna Typ es and The
ir Applicat
ions, Pro
c. I.R.E.
,
3
4
, 7 0 W-75 W, February, 1
946.
A.G . Kandoian,W .Sichak,and G
. A. F
el s
enhe ld
, High Gain with Di
scone A ntennas
,
P
roc. Natl
. Elect
ronics Conf
., 3
,318-328, 1947.
2 T
hese rad
ial conductorground-p
lane antennas w er
e or
iginated by G. H. Brown .
Se
c
. 1
4
-16
21
14
-24 ) a nd a l
so p l
ace s the s tub a ntenna a t d-
c g round p o
tential
. T h
is is
de
sirab le t op ro tectt he tr ansm ission line from l i
gh tning s urges
.
With r eference t os ol
id s heet g round-p lane antennas , i tshould be n oted
t
ha t t he r ad ia tion p attern o f av er
tica l i-wave leng th s tub o n af i
nit
e
g
round s heet d ifers a ppre ciably f rom t he pattern w i th a n inf
inite s heet
.
This isi lu s
t ra ted b y Fig. 1 4-30. T he so
lid curve i st he c a
lculated p a
ttern
w
ith ag round s heeto finf
in itee xten t.
The d ashed c urve i sfor as heets e v-
e
ralw ave leng ths i nd iame te rand t he
d
otted c urve f or as heeto ft he orde r
o
f 1w ave leng th i nd iame t er. W ith ,
-
*
f
in
ite s olid s hee t ground p lane s t he
maximum r adia t
ion i sgene raly n ot •
.
..
i
nt he d irection o fthe ground p l ane FI G. 1
4-30
. V er
tical-p
lane pat
t erns o
f }-
b
uta ta na ngle aa bove it. I no rde rwavelength s t
ub a ntenna o n i nfin
ite
g
round p
lane (
s
ol
id)
, a
nd o
n f
i
nit
e g
round
t
hat maximum r ad
iat
ion b e in t
he p l anes severa
l w ave
length
s i n d
iame
ter
h
orizonta
l p lane, t
he ground p lane (
dashed) a nd a bou
t 1 w ave
leng
th in
may be modif
ied asinFig s
. 14-29b o
r d iame ter (dot
ted).
(
c
). T he m aximum r adiation fr
om
t
he dis
cone antenna isnearly hor
izontal( norma lt oa x
is)o ve
r ac ons
iderab
le
b
and w idth
.'
B
y top l
oad ing avert
ical stub antenna, it may b e modif
ied through the
D
i
sc
l
i
nes
S
tub T
op l
oaded D
isc
a
ntenna s
tub a
ntenna a
ntenna
Ia )
E
l
ise
^
-0.02X
Id
F
in
. 1
4-31
. E
volu
tion o
ffl
ush d
i
sc a
ntenna f
r
om v
ert
ica
l }
-wave
leng
th s
tub a
ntenna
.
I
A.G. Kandoian, Three New Antenna T
ype
s and The
ir App
licat , P
ions roc
.
3
4
, 70 W -7
5W. February. 1
946.
4
22 AN TE N N AS [
O w. 1
4
s
uccess
ive s t
age s of Fig. 1
4-31 t o t
he f o
rm i n F
ig. 14-31d
. T his a
ntenna
c
onsis
ts o f acir
cu lar disc w
ith a n annular slo
t between itand t he g
round
p
lane. T he ground p l
ane isd epressed b e
low the disc fo
rming a s ha
llow
c
avity
." T he radiation pattern oft he antenna at (d
) isquite sim
ilar t
o
t
he pattern for the vert
ical stub at (a
).2
1
4-17. S l
eeve A n
tennas. C a
rrying t he ground-plane mod if
icat
ion of
F
ig. 14-29b, as tep f ur
ther r e
sults i n the ver
tica
l i -wavelength sl
eeve
a
ntenna o f Fig. 1 4
-32a. H ere the ground p lane has degenerated in
to a
A
xis
(
a
)
(
c
)
FI
G. 1
4-32
. ( a) I
-wavelength s
leeve a
ntenna
, (
b
) s
l
eeve a
ntenna a
bove g
round p
lane
,
a
nd (c
) ba
lanced s
leeve an
tenna.
'
A. A
. P
isto
lko m Theo
ry o
f C
ircu
lar D
ifra
ction A
ntenna
, P
roc
. I
.R.E
., 3
6
, 5
6-60
,
J
anuary
, 1
948.
'D
. R
. Rhodes
, Flush
-moun
ted A
ntenr
.x
. f
o
r Mob
ile A
ppl
ica
tion
, E
lec
tron
ics
, 2
2
.
15-117
, March
. 1949
.
S
ac
. 1
448
23
s
leeve o r c yl
inde r waveleng th l ong. Max imum r adiation i sn ormal to
t
h ea x
iso ft his antenna .
A
no the r v ar
ie ty of s l
eeve a nt enna i si lustrated i n Fig. 1 4-32b.1 T he
a
ntenna i ssimilar to as t ub a ntenna w ith ground p lane b ut with t he feed
p
oint moved t o a pprox ima tely t he c en ter of t he stub. T his i saccom -
p
l
ished b ye nclosing t he lowe re nd o ft he s t
ub i n ac yl
ind rical s l
eeve. B y
v
a ry
ing t he cha racter
i st
ic i mpedance o f this 1 -waveleng th -
long s e
ction,
s
ome c on tro
l i sa forded o ver the i mpedance p re sented to t he c oaxia
l l i
ne
a
t the g round p lane.
Ab a
lanced s leeve dipo le an tenna c o
rre spond ing t o t
he s leeve s t
ub t ype
o
fF ig. 1 4-326 i silustrated i nF ig. 1 4-32 c
. I ti sshown w i th ac oaxia
l l i
ne
f
eed and b a
lance -to-unba lance t ran sforme r o
r b alun.1 T his a ntenna may
b
e o pera ted o ver af requency r ange o fa bout 2t o 1such t hat Li sint he
r
ange f rom a bout t o 1w aveleng th.
1
4-18. S lo
tted C yl
inder A n tennas .2 A s lotted s heet an tenna i sshown
i
nF ig. 1 4-33a. B y bending t he s hee t into a U -shape a si n (b) a nd fi
nally
(
a) I) (
c
)
Fm
. 1
4-33
. E
volut
ion o
fsl
otted c
yl
inde
rfr
om s
l
otted s
hee
t.
i
n
to a cyl
inde
r as i
n (c
), we a
r
rive a
t asl
otted c
y
linder an
tenna
. T he
i
mpedance o
f the p
ath a
round t
he c
i
rcumfe
rence o
f t
he cy
linder may b
e
'
Chap. 5b y E
. L . Bock, J.A. N elson, and A. Dome, " Very High Frequen cy T ech-
n
ique s
," R adio R esea
r ch L aboratory Staf , McGraw -Hil
, N ew
York, 1947 .
'George S inc
lair
, T he Patterns ofS l
ot ted Cy
linder An
tenna s, P
roc. I
.R
.E ., 36
, 1 487-
1
492, D ecembe r, 1948
.
A
. Alfo rd, Long Slot A n
tenna s, Proc. Nail
. Elec
tron
ics C on
f., 1
946, p
. 143.
E
. C. J ordan a nd W . E. M il
ler, Slotted C y
linder An
tenna s, E
lec
troni
cs, 2 0
, 9 0-93,
F
eb ruary , 1947.
A
. Alfo rd, Antenna f o
rF -M S tation WGHF , C ommun ica
tions
, 2 6
, 2 2, F ebruary,
1
946.
4
24 ANTE N N AS [CH
AP. 1
4
s
ufi
ciently low s
o t hat most o f t
he c urrent t end s t o f l
ow i n horizon tal
l
oopsaround the cy
linde rass uggested
. I ft he diame te rDo ft he c yl
inde r
i
s as
uficient
ly smal
lf ract
ion o f awaveleng th, say,l es st han 4w aveleng th,
t
he ver
tical s
lo
tted c y
linder radia
te s ah orizontally p olarized f i
eld w ith a
p
atte
rn i n t
he hor
izon ta
l plane w h
ich i sn early c i
rcu la r
.' A s ad i ame ter
o
ft he cylinde ri si ncrea sed, t he p at-
t
ern i nthe h orizon ta l pl ane tend st o
b
ecome mo re u nidirec tiona lw i th t he
maximum r adia tion f rom t he s ide of
t
he c y
linde rw ith t he slot. F o rr eso-
nance t he l eng th L o f t he s lot is
g
reate r than 4 w aveleng th. T his
may b ee xplained a sf ollow s
. R efer-
r
ing t o F ig. 1 4-34a , t he t wo -w ire
t
ransm ission l ine isr esonan tw hen i t
/ i
s w aveleng th l ong. Howeve r
, if
t
his l i
ne i sl oaded w ith a s erie s of
(a
) (
b
) l
oops o f diame te r D a s a t ( b), t he
F
ia. 14
-34. Slot
ted cy
linder a
s al
o
op p
hase velo city ofw ave t ransmi ssion
l
oaded t
ransm
iss
ion l
i
ne. o
nt he line can bei nc reased, s ot hat
t
he r e
sonan t f r
equency i s raised .
With a s uficient numbe r ofs hunt l oops the a rrangemen t o f (b) become s
e
quiva lent to as l
otted c y
linde r ofd iame ter D . T ypical slotted c ylinde r
d
imen sion sar eD=0 .
125 X ,L= 0 .
75 X ,and the s lotwid th a bou t0.02 X .
T h
ist ype o fantenna h as found con s
ide rable a ppl
ication forb roadc as ting
ah or
izon tal
ly p olar
ized w ave with a n o mnidire ct
iona l or circula r pat te rn
i
n the h orizontal plane. V ertical plane d ire
ctiv ity may b e i ncreased b y
u
s
ing al o ng cyl
inder w ith stacked, tha t is
,c ol
linea r, sl
ots.
14-19. T urnstile Antenna s2 C onsider t wo cr o
ssed i nf
initesima l dipo le s
e
nergized w ith currentso fe qual magn itude b uti np haseq uad rature. T his
a
rrangemen t,s hown i nplan v i
ew i nFig. 14-35a,p roduces ac i
rcu larp att e rn
i
nt he 0plane s i
nce the fi
eld pattern E a s afunction o f 0and t ime i sg
iven b y
E=s
i
n 0c
osc
o
t± c
os 0s
i
nco
t (
1
4-66
)
w
hich r
educe
sto
E=s
i
n (
0± c
o
t
) (
1
4-67
)
A
t any va
lue o
f 0t
he max
imum amp
litude ofEisu n
ity a
t s
ome i
n
stan
t
d
uring e
ach c
yc
le. Hence
, t
he r
ms f
i
eld pa
ttern i
sci
rcu
lar a
s s
hown b
y
'
George Sinc
lai
r, The Patternso
fS l
otted Cyl
inder A
ntennas
, Proc
. I
.1
.E.
, 3
6
, 1
487-
1
492
, D ecember, 1948
.
'
G. H. Brown, T he Turn
s t
ile A
ntenna, E
ledronic
s, 9
, 1
5, Apr
il
, 1936
.
SE
C
. 1
4
-19
25
t
he ci
rcle i
nF ig. 1
4-35b. A ta ny in
s tant o
ft ime the pat
tern is afi
gure of
e
ight of t
he s ame shape as f
or as ing
le inf
in
ite s
ima l d
ipole. A n instan-
t
aneous pattern isshown inF ig. 14-35b fo
r co
t = 1 35°
. A s afunction of
t
ime th
i s p
atte rn r
ota
tes, completing 1r evo
lu t
ion p e
r cycle
. I n the case
b
eing cons
ide red in F
ig. 1
4-35
, t he p att
ern rotates c
lockwise. T hus, the
p
hase ofthe fi
eld a
s afunct
ion of 0isg i
ven by 0± c u
t=c onstant
,a nd ifthe
c
onstant iszero by
c
u
t = —0 (
14
-68
)
I
ft he f
ie
ld is amaximum i nt he di
rect
ion 0 = 0 at agiven i
nstant
, t hen
a
ccording to (
14-68) the fi
e
ld i s amaximum i nthe 0 = —4 5° di
rec
tion I
p
eriod la
ter.
The above discuss
ion c oncerns the fi
e
ld i n t
he 0 p
lane (p
lane o f the
c
rossed dipo
les
). T he fi
eld int he a
xia
l direc
tion (n
ormal to t
he crossed-
i
nf
inites
ima l d
ipole
s) h a
s ac onstant magnitude g
iven b
y
I
EI = c
o
s2c
o
t+s
i
n2 c
o
t = 1 (
1
4-69
)
Thus
, t he f
ie
ld n orma l t
o the i n f
inites
ima l dipoles isc ir
cu lar
ly p o
la rized.'
I
n the c a
se being con s
idered i nF ig. 14-35 the fi
eld r otates in ac lo
ckw i
se
d
irection .
Rep lacing the inf
inites
ima l d ipo les by 4-waveleng th d ipoles re
sult s ina
p
ractica l type o f antenna w i
th a pproxima tely the s ame p attern c har-
a
cter
i stics. T his kind ofa ntenna i sc a
lled at urnst
ile a ntenna.2 S ince t he
p
attern o f a4 -wave length e lemen t iss l
igh t
ly s harpe r t han f o
r a n i n
-
f
i
nitesima l dipole, the 0-p
lane p attern of the turnstile w ith 4-wave length
e
lement s isnot q u
ite cir
cula r b ut d eparts from a cir c
le b y abou t ±5 p er
c
ent. T he r
elative p a
ttern i ss hown i nF ig. 14-35c. T he re
lative f i
eld as
afunc tion of 0a nd time ise xpres sed b y
c
o
s(9
0° c
os 0
) c
o
s(9
0° s
i
n 0
) .
E— c
o
scu
t s
mcu
t (
14
-70
)
s
in 0 c
os 0
A
lthough t he 0- p
lane p att
ern w ith 4 -wave leng th el
emen ts difer
s f r
om
t
he pattern wi
th i nf
initesimal dipoles
, t he r ad
iation i sci
rcularly po
lar
ized
i
n the axial d
irection f r
om t he 4-wave leng th elemen ts provided that the
c
urrents are e
qua l in magnitude and i np hase quad rature
.
At u
rn sti
le antenna may b e conven ien tly mount ed on av ert
ical m ast
.
The ma s
t i scoinciden t wi
th t he a x
is o f the t urnsti
le. T o in
crease the
v
ert
ical p l
ane directivity
, several turns t
ile u ni
ts c an be stacked at about
4
-waveleng th in
terva l
sa si nFig. 14-35d. T he arrangemen ta t (
d) i
scalled
'
See S
ecs
. 1
5-10 t
o 15
-17, for amore d
eta
iled d
i
scuss
ion o
fc i
rcula
rpola
riza
tion
.
'
G. H
. Brown, The Turns
tile An
tenna, E
lect
ron
ics
, 9,1
5, Apr
il, 1
936
.
4
26 ANTEN N AS (
CHAP
. 1
4
a"four-bay" t urnst
ile
. I t r
equires two bays t
o ob
tain a fi
eld in
t ens
ity
a
pproximat e
ly e qual to the maximum f i
eld fr
om a s i
ngle 4-wavelength
d
ipo
le w ith t
he s ame power i
nput.
I
no rdertha tt he c
urren
ts o
nt he 4-wave
length d
ipole
sb ei nphase quad-
r
ature
, t he dipoles may b e c
onne cted t
o sepa
rate nonresonant line
s of
• D
ipo
le 2
F
.-D
ipo
le 1 I
n
stantoneouS
p
attern
a
t (a
t= 135*
Rms p
ottern
(
a) (
b
)
H
alf-wave
V
e
a
xisr oa
fIm
t o
urns
stto
ot
e5
d
ipoles t
i
c
(
c
) (
d
)
H
olf-wave d
ipo
le
Se
ries,
r
eactance
H
alf-wave d
ipo
le 2
7
0ohms
L+90.
(
f
)
3
5ohms
(
e)
Fm
. 1
4-35
. Turn
sti
le a
ntenna a
rrangement
s.
u
nequal l e
ngth. S uppose, f o
r e xample, that the te
rm inal impedance of
e
ach dipole i
n as i
ngle-bay t urnsti
le antenna i s70 +j 0 ohm s
. T hen by
c
onnecting 70-ohm l ines (dual coaxia
l t ype
), as inthe schematic diag
ram
o
fFig. 14-35e
, w ith thel e
ng th ofo ne l
ine 90e l
ectr
ica
ld egrees lo
nger than
t
heother, the dipolesw i
llb ed riven with currents o
fe qual magnitude and
SE
C
. 1
4
-19
] LE NS AN D LO N G WI R E AN TE N N AS 4
27
i
np hase quad ratur e
. B y connec t
ing a 3 5-ohm li
ne between t
he j
unc
tion
p
oint Po f the t wo 70-ohm l i
nes and t he t
ran
sm itt
er, the e
nt
ire t
rans
-
m
ission-
line s ys
tem i s matched .
Another m e
thod o f obtaining q uad rature
c
urrents isb y introdu cing r eactance ins er
ies
w
ith one oft he d ipoles
.' S uppo se, fo
re xam -
p
le
,t hatthe length a nd diame terofthe dipoles
i
n Fig
. 14-35 f re
su lt in at e
rm inal impedance
o
f 70 —j 70 o hm s. B y in
t roducing a s er
ies
r
eactance (induc t
ive ) o f A-j70 o hms a t each
t
erminal of d ipole 1 a s in F ig. 14-35f, the
t
erminal i mpedance o f thi
s d ipo
le b ecome s
7
0 j
70 o hm s
. W ith the t wo dipoles con-
n
ected in p aral
lel, t he curren ts are
V
—
7
0 +j70
a
nd /2 — (1
4
-71
)
7
0 —j
70
w
here V = i
mp re
ssed e
mf
I
, =current a
tterm
ina
ls o
fdipo
le 1
I
, =current a
tterm
ina
ls o
fdipo
le 2
T
hus,
F
la. 1
4-36
. Six-bay s
uper
tu rn-
V s
t
ile a
ntenna
. ( Cour
tesy Radio
a
nd /2 = / A
-45° (
14
-72
) C
orpora
tion o
f Amer
ica.
)
s
othatI,a nd I
,areequa
l i
n magn
itude
, b
ut Ia l
e
adsI
,by 9
0°
. T
he t
wo
i
mpedance
s inpara
lle
lyie
ld
z
-— 1
— 1
Y [
1
/(70 -
Ij70
)] [
1
/(70 — j
70
)] —7
0 +j
0 o
hms (
14
-73
)
s
o t
ha t a70-ohm ( dual coaxial
) line wi
ll be p
rop erly mat
ched w hen c on-
n
ected tothe terminals FF.
I
n order t
oo bta
in av ery l ow SWR o ve
r ac onsiderab
le band width, the
t
urnst
ile des
cribed a bove ha s been mod if
ied to t he f
orm s hown in t he
p
hotograph ofF ig
. 14-36. I n thi
s arrangemen t
, c a
lled a "
supertu ms
tile,"
t
he simple d
ipole el
ement sar e r
eplaced by fl
at sheets o
rtheir equ
ivalen t
.'
1G
. H
. Brown a
nd J
.E pste
in, APretuned Turns
tile A
ntenna
, E
lec
tron
ics, 1
8. 1
02-107
,
J
une, 1
945
.
2R
. W. Mas
ter
s, The Super
-turns
tile An
tenna, Broad
cast N
ews
, 42
, January
, 1946
.
4
28 ANTE N N AS [
CHAp
. 1
4
Each "dipole" i sequiva lent to aslotted sheet about 0.7 Xb y 0.

5 Xa s
i
n Fig. 14-37a. T he t e
rm inals are at FF . A s in the s l
otted c y
linde r
a
ntenna, the l e
ngth o f the s l
ot for r
esonance is mo re than 4 w aveleng th
(
abou t 0
.7 X). T he dipo
le c an be mount ed on am ast as in Fig
. 1 4-37b.
To reduce wind r es
istance , the sol
id s heet isrep
laced b y ag rid o f con-
d
uctors. T ypical dimens ions f o
r the c enter f
requency o f operation a re
s
hown . T his arrangemen t gives aSWR o fabout 1.1 orl e
ss over abou t a
3
0 p er c
ent b and w idth, w h
ich make s i tconvenient as a ma st-moun ted
t
e
levision transm itt
ing a ntenna f o
r frequencies as low as a bout 5 0 Mc .
Un
like the simp le turnst
ile t here isr
ela t
ively li
tt
le radiation in the axial
S
tee
l m
ost
0
.23X
-'l
0
.08 1
5
)1
0
.65X
T
ubing
s
o
lid s
heet
(
a) (
b
) —
. O
o25X
Fm. 14-37
. S ingle d
ipo
le element o
f s
uper
turnst
ile antenna
. ( a
) S o
lid s
heet c
on-
s
truc
tion, (
b) t
ubing c
onstruc
tion s
how
ing method of mount
ing o
n m as
t.
d
irec tion ( a
long t he m ast)
, a nd o n
ly o ne b ay i sr equired t o obtain af i
eld
i
nten sity a pprox ima tely e qua l t o the m aximum f ie
ld f rom a s ingle 4-
wave leng th d ipole w i
th t he same p owe ri nput. F ord ecreas ed beam w idth
i
n t he v ertical p lane t he s uper turnstile b ay s a re stacked a t intervals of
a
bou t 1w aveleng th be tween c en te
r s
.
14-20 . O the r Omn idirec t
iona l A n
tenna s
. T he r ad iation p atte rns of
s
l
o tted c y
linde ra nd t he turnstile a n
tenna s ar
e n ear
ly c ircular int he h o
ri-
z
onta l p lane. S uch a nt ennas ar es ome time s re
fe rred t oa so mnidirec t
ional
t
ype s, i tbeing u nde rstood t hat " omn id irect
iona l" refer s only to the h or
i-
z
onta l p lane.
As s hown i n C hap . 6 , ac i
rcu lar loop w ith a u n
ifo rm c ur
ren t radiates
amax imum i nt he plane o ft he l oop p rovided t hat the d iameter Di sle
ss
t
han a bou t0 . 58 w aveleng th. T he p atter ni sd oughnu t s haped w ith an ul
l
i
n t he a xial d irection a s sugges ted b y t he v ertical p lane c ross section in
F
ig. 1 4-38a.
SE
C
. 1
4
-21
] LE NS AN D LO N G WI RE AN T E N N AS 4
29
One method ofsimula

ting t
he uni
fo rm loop isilustrated inFig
. 14-38b
.
He
re four s ma
lle
r loops are c
onnected i n p
a ra
lle
l a cross acoaxial li
ne
.
Th
is ar
rangemen t iscal
led a "
cloverleaf" antenna.' A nothe
r m ethod is
s
hown i n Fig
. 14-38c
, three f
olded d ipo
les b e
ing c onnected in para
lle
l
V
e
rtica
l
a
x
is
H
o
rizon
tal C
oax
ial
l
oop l
i
ne
V
e
rti
cal
p
l
ane E
ffe
ctive
p
at
tern d
iameter
a
) f
v0
.3X
(
b
)
C
oa
xia
l
l
i
ne
F
ia. 1
4-38
. C
I-E
f
fe
ircu
c
tive
lar l
o
d
i
ame
op a
nt
ter
enna (a
(
c
)
) a
nd a
pprox
imately equ
(
d
iva
)
lent a
rrangement
s of
"
c
lover-
leaf" t
ype (b
), "
tr
iangula
r-loop" t
ype (
c
), and s
quare l
oop, o
rAlford t
ype (d
).
a
cross ac oaxial li
ne
. ' At hird method ut
ilizing as qua re l
oop isilus
trated
i
nF ig. 1 4-38d.3 T he terminals are at FF. T he side length L may b e of
t
he o rde r of wavelength. As ingle e
qu ivalent l o
op o r bay of any o f
t
hese t ype s produce s approxima te
ly the same f i
e
ld intensity as t
he max i
-
mum f i
eld from a s ingle I-waveleng th d
ipole w ith the same p ower input
.
Fo
ri n
crea sed direct
iv i
ty int he v
e r
ticalplane,s evera
ll oops may bes t
acked,
f
orming amu lt
ibay a rrangemen t
.
1
4 -21. C ircularly P olar
ized A n
tennas. C ircular
ly p o
larized rad
ia t
ion
may b e produced w ith various antennas
. T he axia
l mode h e
lica
l antenna
11
).H. Smith, Cloverleaf An
tenna fo
r FM B roadcast
ing, P
roc
. I
.R.E
.. 3
5, 1556-1563
,
Decembe r
, 1 947
.
2A. G. Kando ian a nd R . A
. Fels
enheld, Tr
iangular High
-band TV L oop Antenna
S
y s
tem , Commun ica
tions, 29, 1
6-18
, August, 1
949.
'
A. Afo rd and A . G . Kando ian
, U l
tra-h
igh F requency Loop Ant
ennas , Trans
.
A
.I.E .E
., 5 9
, 843-848, 1 940
. .
4
30 ANTE N N AS [CH
AP. 1
4
d
ipo
les
A
xis A
xis
(
a) (
b
) (
c
)
S
lotted
c
yl
inder
C
oaxia
l
l
i
nes
(
d
)
F
ie. 1
4-39
. A
ntenna t
ype
sfo
r c
i
rcu
larp
ola
riza
tion
.
(
Fig. 1 4-39a ) is as imp le, e fec t
ive t ype o fa ntenna f or gene rating c i
rcular
p
ola riza tion . T he h e
lix i sd iscus sed i nC hap. 7. C ircu la rp o
la r
iza t
ion may
a
lso b e p roduced i nt he a xial d i
r ection f rom ap a
ir ofc rossed i -wave leng th
d
ipole s w ith e qua l c u rren ts inp ha se q uadra ture ( Fig. 1 4-39b). T his was
men tioned i n conne c tion w ith t he t u rnsti
le a ntenna . I fr adiat ion i no ne
a
xial d i re ction isr igh t c ir cularly p ola r
ized , itisl e
ft circula r
ly p olarized in
t
he o ppo site axial d irec tion .
At hird t ype o f c ircula r
ly p ola rized a n
tenna c on s
ist s of t wo i n
-pha se
c
ro s
sed d ipoles s epa rated i n s pa ce b y waveleng th a s i n F ig. 1 4
-39c.
With t his a rrangemen t t he t ype o f c ircular p o
la r
iza tion i st he s ame i n
b
o th a xia l d i
re ct
ion s.
Any o f these th ree a rrangemen ts c an s erve as ap rima ry a ntenna t hat
i
lum ina te s ap arabo l
ic r e f
lecto r
. O r t hey c an b e placed w i
th in ac i
rcular
wave g uide s o as t og ene rate ac i
r cu la r
ly p olar
ized TE ,, mode w ave. B y
f
l
aring t he g u
ide o ut i n
to a c onica l h orn, ac ircularly p o
la r
ized b eam c an
b
e p roduced .
Ano the rt echnique b yw hich ac i
rcu larly p o
larized b eam may b eo b ta
ined
w
ith ap a rabolic refle cto ro fl arge f o cal l ength with r espec tt ot he d iame ter
i
sw ith t he a id of am etal g rid o r g ra ting o fp aralle
l w ires spaced w ave-
l
ength f rom t he r eflec to r a nd o rien ted a t 45° with r espect t o t he p lane
o
f p ola riza t
ion o f t he w ave f r
om t he p r
ima ry a ntenna . T he p rima ry
a
ntenna i nthis case i sl inea rly p ola rized .
Se
c
. 1
4
.21
] LE NS AN D LO N G WI R E AN TE N N AS 4
31
T hre e a rrangemen ts f or p roduc ing a n o mn idirec t

iona l p atte rn o f ci
r-
c
ula r
ly p ola r
ized r ad ia tion a re i l u
strated b y F ig s
. 1 4-39d, ( e
), a nd ( f
).
A
t ( e
) f our s ho rt a xial mode h el
ice s oft he s ame t ype a re dispo sed a round
am e tal c y
linde r w ith a xis ver tical a nd f ed i np has e from ac en tral c oaxial
l
i
ne .' I nt he s y s
tem a t ( e
) v ertica lly p o
la rized o mnidire ctiona lr ad iation is
o
b ta ined f rom t wo v ertical 1 -wave leng th c yl
inde rs w hen f e
d a t FF a nd
h
o rizon tally p o
la r
ized omn idir e ctiona l rad iation i so btained f rom t he slots
f
eda tF 'F '. B ya dju s ting t he p owe ra nd p hasing t ot he t wo s etso ft ermi-
n
al s s o tha t t he v e rtica lly p ola rized a nd h orizon ta l
ly p olarized f i
eld s are
e
qua l i n magn itude a nd i np has e q uad ratu re, ac i
rcula rly p ola r
ized o mni-
d
ire c tionalp a ttern i sp roduced .' A t (f
)f our i n-pha se 1 -wave leng th d ipoles
a
re mounted a round t he c i
r cum ference o f a n i magina ry c ircle a bou t 1
wave leng th i nd iame te r
. ' E ach d ipole i si nclined t o the h o r
izon tal p lane
a
ss ugge sted i nt he f i
gu re .
I
n g ene ral, a ny l inea rly p ola r
ized
wave c an b et ran sfo rmed t oa ne lip - D
ielectr
ic
t
i
caly o r c i
rcu la r
ly p olar ized w ave , s
l
obs —
o
r v ice v e rsa, b y m eans o f aw ave
p
ola rizer.' F
o r e xamp le, a ssume
t
ha t al i
nea rly p olar iz ed w ave i s
t
rave ling i nt he n ega tive zd irec tion
a
nd t hat t he p lane o fp ola r
iza tion i s
a
t a4 5° a ngle w i th r espect t o t he
p
o sitive xa xi
s( F
ig. 1 4-40 ). S uppo se
t
ha tt h
is w ave i si nciden t on al arge
g
ra ting o f many d iele c tric s lab s o f FIG. 14-40
. Wave p olarizer.
d
ep th L w ith a i
rs pace sb etwe en. A
s
ect ion o f t his g ra ting i ss hown i n Fig. 1 4-40 . T he s l
ab s pacing ( in x
d
irect ion ) isa ssumed t o b e as mall p art o f aw ave leng th.
T he i nciden t ele ctric f i
eld E c an b e r esolved i nto t wo c omponen ts, one
p
a ra llel tot he x a xis ( Es)a nd t he o the r p arallel t o the ya xis ( E s)
. T hat
i
s
, E = i Es j
E w. T he x c omponen t ( Es)w ill b e r e
la t
ive ly u naf ected
b
y t he s lab s
. Howeve r, Es w i
ll b e retarded ( velo c
ity r educed ). I ft he
d
ep th L o f t he s lab s i sj u
st s uf icient t o r eta rd Es b y 9 0
° i n t ime p hase
b
eh ind E ., t he w ave e merging f rom t he b ack s ide o ft he s lab s will b e cir
-
1J.D . Kraus, H e
lical B eam A ntenna fo
r W ide-band A ppl
ica t
ion s
, P ro
c. I
.R.E., 31
3
,
1
236- 1242, October, 1948.
C
. E . Smith a
nd R . A. F outy,C ircu
larP o
larizat
ion i nF-M B roadca s
ting, E
ledronics
,
2
1, 1 03-107, September , 1948 .
'G
. H . B rown a nd 0 . M . Woodwa rd, Jr., C ir
cularly-polarized Omn id
irectiona
l
Antenna , RCA R ev
., 8,2 59-269 , June, 1
947.
4F
. B raun, "Elektrische S chw ingungen u nd d rahtlos
e T elegraph ie
," J ahrbuch der
d
rah l
lo s
en T el
egraphicu nd T e
lephon i
c, Vo
l. 4
. No . 1,1910.m 1 7.
4
32 ANTE N N AS [CH
AP. 1
4
c
ularly pola rized i f IE . I= IE . I . V iew ing t he a pp roa ch ing w ave f r
om a
p
oint o n t he n ega tive za xis, the E v e ctor r o
ta tes c lockw ise .
I
ft he d ep th o f t he s lab s isi ncreas ed t o 2 L
, t he w ave e me rg ing f r
om
t
he b ack s i
de w ill a gain b e l i
nea r
ly p ola rized s i
nce E . a nd E „ a re i n op-
p
osite phas e
, b ut Ei sa t an ega tive a ng le o f4 5°w ith r espe c tt ot he p o s
itive
xaxis
. I ncrea sing t he slab d ep th t o3 L make st he e me rging w ave c ircularly
p
olarized b ut t his t ime w i th a c oun te rclo ckw ise r ota t
ion d irec tion f or E
(
asv iewed f rom ap oin t ont he n ega tive za xis
). F ina lly, i fthe s lab d epth
i
si ncreased t o 4 L
, t he e merg ing w ave i sl i
nea rly p ola r
ized a t as l
ant
a
ngle o f4 5 ° the s ame a s t he i nciden t w ave . T he d ielec tric g rating i nt h
is
e
xamp le b ehave s s im i
la r to t he a tom ic p lane s o f au n
iax ial c ry sta l
, s uch
a
s c a
lcite o r r utile , t o the p ropaga tion o f ligh t
. F or s uch c r ys tals the
v
elocity o f p ropaga tion o f l i
gh t, linea rly p olarized p a rallel t o t he o pt
ic
a
xis, isdife ren tt han t he v elocity f o
rl i
ght ,l i
nea rly p olar ized p erpend icular
t
ot he o ptic a xi s
.
1
4-22. R ece iv ing v s
. T ransm itting C on sidera tions . A ccord ing t o the
p
rinciple o f r ec
ip roc ity t he f i
eld p at tern o f a n a ntenna i st he s ame f o
r
r
ecep t
ion a s f or t ran sm iss
ion . Howeve r, i td oe s n o t a lway s f ollow t hat
b
ecau se a p ar t
icu lar a ntenna i sd esirab le f or ag iven t ran sm itting a ppl
i-
c
ation i t i s a lso d esirable f or r ecep tion . I
n t ran sm is s
ion t he ma in
o
bjective i su sua lly t o o btain t he l arge s t fie
ld i nten s
ity p ossib le a t the
p
oint o r p o
in ts o f r ecep t
ion . T o t h
i s e nd , h igh e f
iciency a nd g a
in a re
d
esirable. I n r ecep tion, o n t he o the r h and , t he p rima ry r equ iremen t is
u
sually a l arge s igna l-to-no ise r a
tio. T hu s, a l
though h igh e f
f
i ciency a nd
a
lso gain may b ed esirable, t hey a r ei mpo rtan to nly i nso fara st hey i mp rove
t
he s i
gna l-to -no ise r atio. A s a n e xamp le, ar eceiving a ntenna w ith t he
p
a tt
ern o f F ig . 1 4-41a may b e p referab le t o ah ighe r g a in a ntenna w ith
- 0
. .
I
n
terfering D
esired
-7
,
4- * _) 7
s
igna
l si
gnal
I
n
terfer
ing D
esired
s
igna
l si
gnal
(
a) (
b
)
FI
G
. 1
4-41
. P
attern
s f
o
r d
i
scus
sion o
n r
e
ceiv
ing a
ntenna
s.
t
he mo re directional pa t
tern ofF ig
. 14-41b, ift here isan inte
rfering signal
o
rn o
ise arr
iv ing from t he back dire
ction asi ndicated. A lthough t he gain
o
ft he antenna w ith the p a
ttern at (
a) isles
s, it may p rov
ide amuch h igher
s
ignal-to
-no ise rat
io since it
s pattern has an u
ll directed toward t he source
o
ft he noise ori nter
fer ence.
Howeve r
, b y w ay ofc on t
rast suppose tha t c i
rcuit no
ise int he receiver
i
st he limit
ing f a
ctor. T hen hi gh antenna g a
in a nd e
ff
iciency w ould b e
i
mpo rtan t inorde r t
or a
ise the si
gnal-
to -noise ratio
.
S
ec
. 1
4
-23
33
T her e is as pecial c lass of r e

ceiv ing a ntenna s t hat f i
nd s a pplica tion i n
d
irection f i
nd ing. T he d irectiona l c ha racte ri
s t
ic o f t he a ntenna i se m
-
p
loyed t o det erm ine t he d i
rec t
ion o f a rr
iva l o f t he r adio w ave . I ft he
s
ignal- to-noise r atio i sh igh
, an u l
l i nt he f i
eld p attern may b eu sed t of i
nd
t
he d irec t
ion o f arriva l.' W ith a l ow s i
gna l-to-no ise r atio
, h oweve r, the
maximum o ft he ma in l obe may p rovide amo res atisfac to ry i ndica tion.'
14-23 . B and -w id th C onsidera tion s
. T he u seful b and w idth o f a n a n
-
t
enna d epend s, ing ene ral, on b o
th i ts p at te rn a nd i mpedan ce c haract er
-
i
s
tics. I n thin d ipole a ntennas t he b and w id th i su sua lly d eterm ined b y
t
he i mpedance v a
ria tion s i
nce t he p atte rn c hange sl e
ssr ap idly.' Howeve r
,
w
ith v ery thick c yl
ind rical antenna s o rb icon ical a ntenna s o fc onside rable
c
one a ngle, the i mpedance c hara cteristic s may b es at
is fac tory o vers ow ide
ab and w idth t ha t t he p attern v ar
ia tion d e term ine s o ne o r b o
th o f the
f
requency l im its. T he p attern may a lso d e term ine t he u se
fu l b and w idth
o
fh orn a ntennas , m etal-plate l ens ant enna s, o r z oned l ens a ntennas .
I
ft he a ccep tab le b and w idth f or p atte rn e xceed s t ha t for i mpedance ,
t
he b and w id th c an b e arbitra ri
ly s pecified b y t he f requency l imits F1
a
nd F 2 a t which t he SWR o n t he transm is sion l ine e x ceed s a n a ccep table
v
alue . Wha ti saccep table v ar
ie sw ide ly d ep end ing o nt he a pplication . I n
s
ome c asest he SWR mu stb ec lose tou nity. I no the rsi tmay b ea sh igh as
1
0t o 1o rh ighe r. T he f r
equency b and w idth c an b es pe cified a st he r at
io of
Fa — F1t o F0 o ri np e rc enta s
F2 F
,
X 1
00
Fo
w
here F0 = the c
enterordes
ign fr
equency
The b
and width due t
othe i
mpedance c
an a
l
so b
e spec
if
ied (
i
fthe b
and
w
idth i
ss ma
ll) int
erm s o
fit
s r
ec
iproca
l or Qa
t F0 w
here
Q—2 to
tal e
nergy s
t
ored byantenna
r
e
nergy d
iss
ipated o
rrad
iated per c
yc
le
I
nsome i
nstance
sa nattempti s made t
oobtain a
s much g
a
in asp
oss
ible
f
r
om an ant
enna o f g
iven p
hysical si
ze` o
r conve
rse
ly to o
bta
in a g
iven
'
R. K een
, "W ireless D irection F inding," Il
ifea nd Sons, Ltd
., London, 1
938.
D
. S. B ond, " Rad io D irection F inder s
," McGraw -Hill Book C ompany, Inc., New
York, 1944.
'
Chap. 9,A . Al
ford ,J .D . K raus ,a nd E. C
. Barkofsky, "Very High Frequency T ech
-
n
ique s
," Rad io R esea rch L abora tory Staf, McGraw -H il
l B ook C ompany, Inc., New
York, 1947.
'
A dipole w aveleng th l ong ha s ah a
lf-power b
eam w id th o
f7 8°
. I fthe f
requency is
r
educed s o tha
t the d ipole l ength a pproaches an i
nf
initesimal fr
act
ion of aw avelength
,
t
he beam w idth only i ncreas es fr
om 7 8°to9 0
°, wh
ile ifthe f
requency isdoubled sothat
t
he dipole is 1wave leng th lo ng the beam w idth d
ecreasesf r
om 7 8° toabout4 7°
.
'
Tha t is
, ahigh g ain-to-size ratio.
4
34 AN TE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
4
g
ain w ith a s s mall a n an tenna a s p ossible. S uch a ttemp ts g ene rally
r
educe t he b and w idth o f t he a ntenna a nd a l
so d ec rea se i t
s r adia t
ing
ef
iciency . T his e fect w asd iscu ssed i nC hap. 1 w he re i tw as p o
in ted o ut
t
ha t as pacing o fl e
s s than a bou t il yw
l aveleng th b e tween p ara l
lel o ut-of-
p
ha se 4 -wave leng th el
emen t si susually i mpra ctica lb ecau se ofr educed b and
w
id th a nd e ficiency . T he r apid ity w i th w hich t he b and w id th a nd e fi
-
c
iency f a
ll o fi ft he gain-to- s
ize r atio i si ncrea sed t oo f arh as b een e mpha -
s
i
zed b y C hu ' a nd b y T aylo r
. ' T he l imitation s i mpo sed a re p articula rly
s
eve re fora rray s that ar el a
rge i nt e
rm s oft he w ave leng th , and i t may b e
c
oncluded t ha t i tisimp ractica l toa ttemp t a ny a pp reciab le increase i nd i
-
r
ectivity w i th a l a
rge b road side a rray o r ape rtu re o ff ixed s i
ze o ver t hat
g
iven w ith au n
i form a pertu re dist r
ibu tion.
1
4-24 . Ma tch ing A rrangemen t s
. I mpedance ma tch ing b e
tween at rans-
m
is s
ion l i
ne a nd a ntenna may b e a ccomp lished i n v ariou s w ay s
.' A s
i
lust ration s
, s eve ral m ethod s f o
r ma tch ing at ran sm is sion l ine t o as imp le
4
-wave leng th d ipole w i
ll b e c onsidered . S uppos e t ha t t he a ntenna i sa
c
ylind rical d ipo le w ith al eng th d iame te r rat
io o f6 0 ( LID = 6 0) a nd t hat
t
he m easur ed t e rminal i mpedance s at 5f requenc ies a r e a sf o
llow s
:
F
requency A
ntenna l
e
ngth T
erm
ina
l i
mpedance
1
.15F0 L = 0
.53 X 10 +j
90
1
.07Fo L = 0
.49 X 8
0 +j
40
Fo = c
enter f
r
equency L = 0
.46 X 6
5 ±j
0
0
.93Fo L = 0
.43 X 5
2 —j
40
0
.85F0 L = 0
.39 X 4
0 —j
100
The center f
requency Fe co
rr e
sponds t o the re
sonant f
requency of t
he
a
ntenna. A tthis f
requency t
he terminal impedance is65 +j 0 ohms
.
The mos t d
irect ar
rangemen t fo
r obtaining a n i
mpedance match isto
f
e
ed the dipole with adual c
oaxial t
ransmi s
sion li
ne o
f65 ohm s c
haracte
r-
i
s
t
ic i mpedance asinF ig
. 14
-42a. T he variation o
fthe a
ntenna impedance
r
e
ferred to 65 o hms isshown b y the so
lid c urve i
n t
he Smith chart' o
f
IL
.J .C hu
, P hysicalLim itations of Omni-di rectionalA ntennas, J. App l
ied P hys
., 1 9
,
163- 1175, D ecembe r
, 1 948.
'
T.T . Taylor, AD iscussion o fthe Max imum D ir
ec t
ivity ofa nA ntenna , Proc
. I.R.E.,
3
6, 135 , September , 1948.
'Only arrangement s with t ransmission
-line e lem ents wil b e d escribed. Thes e are
c
onven ientath igh fr
equenc ie s
. Howeve r,atl ow o r medium f r
equenc iest he l
ength oft he
r
equired transm iss
ion -
line s ections may b e inconven iently la
rge s o tha t itist he usual
p
ractice touse ma tching circuit swith lumped e l
emen ts
. Rad io-f
r equency t r
ans fo
rmer s,
w
,T , and L sections are emp loyed i nt h
is application. S ee
, fore xamp le
, W . L. E ver
itt,
"Commun ication E ngineering ," McGraw -H il
l B ook C ompany , Inc., N ew Y ork, 1937,
Chap. 8.
4P. H . Smi th, An I mproved T ransmission L ine Ca lculator
, E lect
ron ic
s, 1 7
, 1 30,
J
anua ry, 1944.
Sa
c
. 1
4
-24
3b
F
ig. 1
4-43
. The n
orma l
ized impedances p
lotted on t
he c
hart a
re o
btained
b
y div
iding t
he antenna te
rm inal impedances by 65
. T he SWR o n the
6
5-ohm line a
s af unct
ion of frequency and antenna l
ength i
spresented
b
y the s
ol
id c
urve inFig. 1
4-44.
Cy
lindr
ical
h
al
f-wove dipole
a
ntenna
1
5
- =60 6
5-ohm
d
ual c
oax
ial
l
i
ne
(
a)
A 6
5
Dt Zo=
1
08 ,
X "
*
. Z0=
180 o
hms —a
X t
t a
- t F° 4 F
o
I
mpedance
t
ransformer 1
80
a Zo=
"
*
"-
--5
00 ohm
3
00
o
pen 2
-wire
l
i
ne
5
00
(
c) (
d) Z
,= 5
00
O
pen e
nded X/
2
C
ompensat
ing 6
5ohm dual
l
ine c
oax
ial l
ine
Matching
s
tub
Cy
lindr
ica
l
h
alt-wave d
ipo
le
6
5ohm dual
c
oax
ial l
i
ne
0
(
e
) (
f
)
FI
G
. 1
4-42
. Mat
ching a
rrangement
s f
o
r c
y
lindr
ica
l 4
-wave
leng
th d
ipo
le a
ntenna
.
The dipole a
ntenna may a
lso b
e energ
ized with atwo-wire o
pen type of
t
ran
sm ission li
ne. Since t
he c
haracte
ris
tic impedance o
fc onvenien
t sizes
o
f open t wo-w
ire li
ne isi
n the r
ange of 200 t
o 600 ohms, an impedance
t
r
ans fo
rme r i
sr equ
ired b
etween the li
ne and the antenna. A s uitable
4
36 AN TE N N AS [C
iiAr
. 1
4
H
alt-wove a
ntenna a
nd 6
5-ohm l
i
ne
H
alf-wove a
ntenna a
nd 5
00-ohm l
i
re w
ith o
ne k4t
rans
former
-- -
•— H
olf-wave a
ntenna a
nd 500-ohm l
i
ne w
ith t
wo %trans
forme
rs
Fm. 14-43
. Norma l
ized i mpedance v
aria
tion fo
r cyl
indr
ical 4
-waveleng
th dipole an-
t
enna ( LID 6
0) fed direct
ly by 65
-ohm l i
ne (s
olid
), by a5 00
-ohm line wi
th o ne
4
-wavelength transformer ( dashed
), and by a5 00
-ohm l i
ne with two 4-waveleng
th
t
rans
former s i
ns e
ries (da
sh -dot)
.
t
ran
sforme r d
esign may be d
educed a
s f
ollows
. R e
ferr
ing t
o F
ig. 1
4-42b
,
t
he impedance Z5 a
tthe t
e
rminalsof al
o
sslesstransmis
sion l
i
ne t
e
rminated
i
nan i mpedance ZAis
7O ZA iZO t
an f
i
x
Z5 = (J (
1
4-74
)
ZO iZA t
an f
i
x
w
he re f
ix = (
2r/X)x = length o
fl i
ne, r
adian
s
Zo = c
haracter
ist
ic impedance of the t
ransmiss
ion li
ne (s
ince t
he
l
ine i
sassumed to b
e loss
less
, Zo i
s apure r
es
istance
)
Equation (
14
-74) may b e r
e
expressed as
(
Z 4/
tan 04 ±i
ZO
Z5 = Go (
14
-75
)
(
Z0/t
an 13
x
) +iZa
S
ec. 1
4
-24
37
When t
he l
i
ne i
s w
ave
leng
th l
ong (
#x = 9
0°
), (
14
-75
) r
educe
sto
72
ZB =
Z
IA
o
r
=Z
AZH (
14
-76
)
o
r
= Vz
Az8 (
14
-77
)
If ZA i s t he a ntenna t erm ina l i mpedance a nd Z , i s the c haracter-

i
s
tic i mpedance o f t he tr an sm i s
s ion l i
ne we wish t o u se, the t wo c an be
ma tched w ith a I -wave leng th s ec
tion h aving a c harac teris t
ic i mped-
d
ance Zo g iven b y ( 14-77 ). T he ar-
r
angemen t i s s hown i n F ig. 1 4-42 c
. .1
At t he c ente r f requency , ZA = 6 5
.
\
.II
S
uppo s
ing t ha t t he c ha rac te ristic i m-
p
edance o f the l ine w e w ish t o u se is 4 \
5
00 o hm s ( Z, = 5 00 )
, w e h ave f r
om /
/
(
1 4-77) t hat t he c ha racter is t
ic i mped- \ /,
a
nce o fthe I-wave leng th s ec tion s hould \
I /
/•/
b
e Z , = 1 80 o hms. 3
\
1 I / /
This type o ft rans forme rg ive s ap e
r- SWR / •
\`1 / /
f
ee t ma tch ( ze ro reflection c oe f
ficient)
\\ //
a
t o nly t he c ent er f r
equency . A t a \1 /1/
.
h
i ghe r fr
equency t he a n tenna i mped-
1 / .
17
a
nce i sdif eren t, and t he l i
ne l eng th is 1 /
a
lso g reate r t han w
ave leng th. T he \ /
\ /
r
esu ltan ti mpedance v aria tion w ith f r
e- \ /
quency o n t he 5 00 -ohm l i
ne f o r the .
4
o 0
.
45 L x 0
.
50
LID = 6
t
rans forme
0-dipo
r( X
le a
/4 a
ntenna a
t Fo)i ss
nd 1
hown b
80 -ohm
ythe
0
.85 0.90 0 .
95 1 .
0 1
.
05 1 .
10 e
a
d
a shed c urve i n F ig. 1 4 -43 , a nd t he R
ela
tive frequency
SWR ( s
tand ing -wave r atio) o nt he 500- F lo. 1
4-44. SWR a s af unction ofa n
-
ohm l ine isi ndicated b y t he d ashed t enna l
ength L i n w aveleng ths and a
s
af
unct
ion o
f t
he f
r
equency (
t
he r
e
so-
c
urve inF ig. 14-44. I tisappa rentt hat n ant f
requency Fo istaken as un
ity)•
t
hi
s a rrangemen t i s more frequency - The SWR c urvesare f
o
rt he same t
hree
s
ens
itive t han t he a r
rangemen t wi th c a
sesof Fig
. 14-43
.
t
he dual c oaxial 65-ohm l i
ne.
I
nstead o f making t he t
ransfo rmation fr
om t he 5 00-ohm l i
ne t o t
he a n-
t
enna in as ing
le st ep with as ing
le-sect
ion transforme r, two sections may
b
e conne cted i n series as i
n F ig. 14-42d
. E ach i s w aveleng th long a t
t
he center f requency Fo. A t Fo t he fi
rst se
ction ( Zo = 1 08) t ransfo
rms
4
38 AN TE N N AS [CH
AP. 1
4
t
he a ntenna r e
sis tance o f 6 5 o hm s t o 1 80 o hm s. T he s econd s ect
ion
(
Z. = 3 00) t rans form s t h
is t o 5 00 o hm s. T he a ntenna a nd l i
ne a re per-
f
ectly ma tched a t o n
ly t he c en te r f requency , a s be fore. Howeve r, t h
is
t
wo -se ction a rrangemen t islessf requency -sen sitive t han t he s ingle s ection.
The n orma lized i mpedance v a ria tion w i th t he t wo -
sec tion t ransfo rme r is
i
ndica ted b y t he d ash-do t curve i n Fig. 1 4 -43 , a nd t he SWR o n t he 5 00-
o
hm l ine i ss hown b y the d ash -do t d otted c urve i nF ig. 1 4-44 .
I
f t he n umbe r o f s ect
ion s i n t he t ran sfo rme r i si ncrea sed f ur the r
, i t
s
hou ld b e p os s
ib le t o a pproa ch c l
ose r t o t he f requency s en sitivity w ith
t
he d irec t conne cted 6 5
-ohm l ine.' A s t he n umbe ro fs ect
ion s i si ncrea sed
i
ndefin itely, w ea pproa ch int he l imit at ran sm i ss
ion l i
ne tape red g radua lly
i
n c ha racte ristic i mpedance o ve r ad istance o f many w ave leng th s.' A t
o
ne e nd t he l ine h as ac hara c te ristic i mpedance e qua l to t he a ntenna r e
-
s
i
stance ( 65o hm si nt he examp le) a nd a tt he o there nd h as ac hara ct er
is t
ic
i
mpedance e qua l t othato ft he t ran sm ission l ine w ew i sh t ou se ( 500 o hm s
i
nt he e xamp le).
Ano the r mo re f requency -sen si tive m ethod o f ma tching a5 00 -ohm l i
ne to
ai-wave leng th d ipo le isw ith as t ub' a s s hown i n F ig. 1 4-42 e. T he l i
ne
b
etween t he s tub a nd t he t r an sm itter may b e n onre sonan t o r p erfectly
matched t o t he a ntenna a t o ne f requency w i th t he s t
ub a s s hown . T he
s
tub may a lso b e p laced iw ave leng th f arthe rf r
om t he ant enna a s s hown
by t he d ashed l ines.' I n this c ase, h oweve r, t he r esonan t l i
ne b etween
t
he s tub a nd a ntenna i sl onge r, a nd t h
is a rrangemen t i s mo re f requency -
s
ensitive t han w ith t he s tub c lo se r to t he a nt enna. I n g ene ral
, i ti sde-
i
The lo
garithms of the impedance rat
io s may b e made t o cor
respond to aset of
b
inom ia
l coeff
ic
ients. (
See J. C. S
later
, "M icrowave T ransmission," McGraw -Hi
lt
Book Company , Inc
., New Y ork
, 1942, P
. 6 0
.) T hus
, the lo
garithms o ft
he impedance
r
atios f
or two-
, three-
, and four
-sect
ion t ransformers w ou
ld b e as fo
llow
s:
t
wo- s
ec t
ions: 1
,2,1
t
hree-sections
: 1
,3,3
, 1
f
our-sections
: 1
,4,6
,4,1
I
n t
he t
wo-
sect
ion t
ran
sforme
rofF
ig
. 1
4-42d t
hese r
a
tio
sare f
o
llowed s
i
nce
1
08 3
00 5
00
l
og — : l
og —
1
08 : l
og — •-
, 1
:2:1
6
5 3
00
'C
. R . B urrow s, The E xponential Transmiss
ion Line, B
el
l S ys
tem T ech. J
., 17
, 5 55-
5
73, O ctober, 1 938
.
H. A . Whee ler, Transmission Lines with Exponentia
lT aper, Proc
. I.R
.E .
, 27, 65-71,
J
anua ry, 1939 .
3F
. E . T erman , "Radio E ngineers' Handbook," McGraw -H il
l B ook Company , I nc
.,
New York , 1 943, pp. 187-191. G ive
s d e
sign charts f
or open stub, cl
osed stub, a nd
r
eentrant ma tching arrangement s
.
4In general
, t he d
istance ofthe stub fr
om the antenna c
an bei n
creased byn X/2 w here
nisa n integer.
SE
C
. 1
4
-24
1 LE NS AN D LO N G WI R E AN TE N N AS 4
39
s
irab le t op l ace ma t ch ing o rc ompen sa ting n etwo rk sa sc lose t ot he a ntenna
a
sp o ssible i ffrequency s en sitiv ity i st o b e am inimum .
With t he s i
ngle s t ub a s i n F ig . 1 4-42e b oth t he le ngth o ft he s tub a nd
i
t
s d istanc e Sf rom t he a ntenna a re a d
jus tab le. T he s tub may b e o pen
o
r s ho rt-cir cuited a t t he e nd r emo te f rom t he l i
ne, t he s tub l e ng th b eing
}w ave leng th d if eren t for t he t wo c as e
s. T o a dap t t his a rrangemen t t o
ac oax ial l ine r equ ire s t ha t al i
ne s t
re tche r b e i n
serted b etwe en t he s t ub
a
nd t he a ntenna . A n a lte rna tive a rrangemen t i s ad oub le s tub t une r
which h as t wo s tub s a t f i
xed d i s
tance s f rom t he a n tenna b ut w ith t he
l
eng th s o fb oth s tub sa d
ju s tab le.'
The f requency s en sit
ivi ty 2 o f ad ipo le a ntenna may b e made l e
ss t han
f
or t he L ID = 6 0 d ipo le d i
re ct- connected t o a6 5-ohm l i
ne, a s a bove , i n
s
eve ral w ay s. Al arge r d iamet er d ipole c an b e used ( sma lle r L ID r atio)
s
ince, a s s hown i n C hap. 9 , t he i mpedance v ar
iation w ith f requency i s
i
nhe ren tly l e
s s for t hick d ipo les a s c ompa red t o thin d ipole s
. T he t hick
d
ipole i sd esirab le f or v ery w ide -band a pplica tion s
. I fs uch a d ipole i s
i
nconven ien t, the i mpedance v aria tion c an o ften b e r educed o ve r amode r-
a
te b and w id th b y m ean s o f ac omp en sating n etwo rk . F o r examp le, t he
f
requency s en si
tiv ity o f the L ID = 6 0 d ipo le w ith d irect-connec ted 6 5-
o
hm l ine c an b e r e duced o ver ac on s
ide rab le b and w id th b y connec t
ing a
c
ompensa ting l ine i np aralle l wi th t he a ntenna t erm ina ls a s i nF ig. 1 4-421
I
ft his l ine o r stub h as a n e lec trica l l eng th o f iw ave leng th a t t he c ent er
f
requency a nd h as a6 5-ohm c ha ra cte r
istic i mpedance , t he s ame a s t he
t
ran sm is sion l i
ne , t he v aria tion o f n orma lized a ntenna t erm ina l i mpe -
d
ance w ith f requency , a s r e
fe rred t o 6 5 o hm s, isshown b y the d ash -do t
c
urve i n F ig. 1 4-45a . T he v aria tion w ithou t compen sation ( a nt enna o f
F
ig. 1 4 -42a ) i sgi ven b yt he s olid c urve ( same c urve a si nF ig. 14 -43 ). T he
SWR o n a6 5 -ohm l i
ne a rec ompa red i nF ig. 1 4 -45b for t he a ntenna w ithou t
c
ompensa tion ( sol
id c urve ) a nd w ith t he c omp ensa t
ing s tub ( dash -do t
c
urve ). T he f requency s en sitivi ty o f t he c ompen sa ted a rrangemen t i s
a
ppre ciab ly l e
ss o ve r t he f requency r ange s hown . F or i nstance , t he b and
w
id th f or SWR < 2 i sa bou t 1 4 p er cen t f or the u ncompen sa ted d ipo le
b
u t i sa bou t 1 8 p erc en tf ort he c omp ensa ted d ipole.
The a ction o f t he p aral lel-connected c ompen sating l ine o r s t ub i sa s
f
ollow s
. A t t he c en te r frequency F o i ti s1 80 ° i nl e
ng th. S ince i ti so pen
1These arrangements a re di
scussed i n many t e
xts on transm iss
ion line
s. S ee
, fo
r
e
xamp le,
R
. W . P
. K ing, H. R. M imno , and A. H. Wing, "Transmission Lines
, A ntenna s
, a
nd
Wave Gu ide s
," McGraw -Hil
l B ook C ompany, Inc.
, N ew Yo rk, 1945, Chap. 1.
E. W . Kimba rk
, " Electr
ical Tran smiss
ion of Powe r a
nd S ignals
," John Wi ley a
nd
S
ons, Inc.
, N ew Y ork, 1949, C hap. 13.
2Frequency s ens
itivity as used h ere re
fer
s o n
ly to impedance . The p attern of a
n
a
ntenna a l
so v ar
ies with frequency.
4
40 AN TE N N AS [CH
AP. 1
4
e
nded
, itplaces a
n inf
ini
te i mpedance acro
ss t
he a n
t enna te
rm inals and
h
asnoeffe
ct. A t af
requency sl
ightly above Fo t
he l
ine b
ecome sc apaci
ta-
t
i
ve. Hence, itp
lace
s ap o
sit
ive suscep
tance inp a
ral
lel with the antenna
a
dmit
tance w h
ich a
t th
is frequency has anegat
ive susceptance
. ' A dmit
-
3 1
SWR ‘ /
i
%
\
‘
2 .
.
..
.
.. -
-,
. ..
0
\ • / /
•
.•
._..
/.
1
1.
. .A
0
.40 0
.45 0
.50
L
x
H
alf-wave a
ntenna a
nd 6
5ohm l
i
ne
H
alf-wave a
ntenna and 65ohm l
i
ne 0
.85 0
.90 0
.95 1
.
0 1.
05 1
.
10 1
.
15
w
ith 65ohm c ompensat
ing s
tub Fo
H
alf-wave a
ntenna and 120 o
hm li
ne R
ela
tive f
requency
w
ith 65ohm c ompensating s
tub
(
a
) (
b)
F
la. 14-45. Normalized i mpedance (a) and SWR ( b) for cyl
indr
ical 4-wave length
d
ipole (LID = 6
0) fed di
rectly with 6
5-ohm li
ne as i
n Fig
. 14-42a (
so
lid cu rve
s); with
6
5-ohm l i
ne a
nd 65
-ohm 4 -wavelength compensat
ing stub as in F
ig 14-42f (dash-dot
c
urves)
; and w
ith a 120
-ohm l i
ne and 65-ohm 4-wave
length compensating stub (dashed
c
urves)
.
t
ances i
np ara
lle
l areadd i
tive s
othis tendst oreduce the t
otal su
sceptance
a
t the a ntenna terminals
, a nd
, therefore
, t he SWR o n the li
ne. A t a
f
requency s l
ight
ly below Fo the r
esu
l t issimila
r, but inth
is case the s
tub
i
sinductive a nd t
he antenna has c
apacitative rea
ctance.
The a bove ma tch
ing a rrangemen t
s p rovide for ap er
fe c
t i mpedance
1The a
ntenna i
mpedance a
t t
h
is f
r
equency h
as ap
osit
ive r
eactance
. Hence
,
1 1
Y = =
Z R ±j
1C
where G i
st he c
onductance c
omponent a
nd B t
he s
uscep
tance c
omponent o
f t
he a
d-
mittance Y
.
SE
C
. 1
4
-24
41
mat
ch ( S WR = 1 )at the re
sonan tf requency o ft he antenna. S ome t
imes
aperfect impedance ma tch isn ot r equ
ired a t any frequency, a nd i tis
s
ufic
ien t t
o make t he SWR l ess t
han a c erta
in v alue over as wide a fre
-
q
uency b and asp oss
ible. F ore xamp le, the SWR f orthe 4-wave length di
-
p
ole (LID = 6 0) may b e made les
st han 2o ve
rn early the e
ntire frequency
b
and u nder cons
ide rat
ion ift he antenna w ith 65-ohm c ompensa t
ing stub
i
sfed with a 120-ohm l i
ne instead of a6 5 -ohm l i
ne. T he impedance a nd
SWR c urves fo
r t h
is case are shown b y t he dashed lines i
n Fig s
. 1 4
-45a
a
nd b.
A
lthough the a bove discu
ssion deals spe cif
ical
ly w ith matching a r
range-
ment
s b etween a 4 -wavelength dipole a nd a t wo -
conduc tor transm iss
ion
( B
alanced d
ipo
le a
ntenna
( B
alanced d
ipo
le a
ntenna
C
ylo-d
rico
l
s
leeve
Meta
l s
trop
C
oaxia
l
Coaxial l
i
ne -
(
b
)
- -
l
ine (
a
)
P
ie. 1
4-46
. Me
thods o
f f
e
eding ab
alanced a
ntenna w
ith as
i
ngle c
oax
ial l
i
ne.
l
i
ne, the principles a re g enera
l and can b e applied t o other t ypes ofan-
t
ennasa nd toc oaxial lines.
An
tenna i mpedance c haracter
ist
ics may a lso be c ompen sated b y s
er
ies
r
eac
tance s or b y c omb ina t
ion s o
f se
ries a nd paral
lel r e
a c
tance s
.' Many
o
fthe technique s ofi mpedance c ompen sation are di
s cussed wi th examples
b
y J.A . Nelson a nd G . S tavis
.2
I
ti soften c onven ien t to use as i
ngle coaxial cable to f e
ed a b alanced
a
ntenna. T hi
s may b ea ccomp l
ished with the a
ido f abalance -to-unbalance
t
rans
fo rmer or b a
lun .
' O ne type of b a
lun s u
itable for o peration over a
IF
. D. B
ennet t, P
. D. Co
leman , and A. S
. Meier, The D es
ign ofB roadband Aircraf
t-
a
ntenna System s, P
roc. I.R.E.,33
, 671-700, O ctober, 1945
.
I
L J. Row land, The Series Reactance in C oaxial Lines
, P roc
. I. R.E.
,3 6
, 65-69,
J
anuary, 1
948.
J
.R . Whinnery , H. W. Jamieson, a
nd T . E
. R obbins, Coaxia
l-l
ine Discont
inuities
,
P
roc. I.R.
E.,32, 695-709
, November , 1944.
'Chap
. 3, " Very High Frequency T echniques," Rad io R e
search Laboratory Staf,
McGraw -H
ill B ook Company , I
nc.
, New Yo rk
, 1 947
, p p
. 53-92.
4
42 ANTEN NAS [
CHA
P. 1
4
w
ide f r
equency b and isi lustrated inFig. 14-32c. A nother mo re c ompac t
t
yp e isshown inF ig
. 1 4-46a. T he gap s
pacing a t the center oft he dipole
i
s made s mal
l t o m inim ize u nbalance
. T he l ength L may b e a bout }
wavelength att he cente r fr
equency w ith operation o ver afrequency r ange
o
f 2t o 1o r more. W ith t his ar
rangemen t ar e a
c t
ive i mpedan ce Z = j Zo
t
an / 3
/
. a ppears i n paralle
l w ith the antenna i mpedance a t t he g ap, Zo
b
eing the c ha
rac teri
stic i mpedance o fthe t wo-conduc tor li
ne ofl ength L.
Yet another form o fb alun i sshown i nFig
. 1 4-466. T his f
orm p rovides a
b
alanced t ran
sfo rma t
ion o n
ly w hen L is Iw aveleng th and, acco rdingly, i
s
s
uitable only fo
r o peration o ver afew per cent band w id th
.
PROBLEMS
1
4 -1
. a . De sign ap iano -convex d ie
lectric l ens fo
r 5 ,
000 Mc w ith ad iame te rof
1
0w av e
l eng th s. T h el ensm aterial ist ob ep araff
in, and t he Fn umbe r
i
st o b e u n
i ty . D raw t he lens c ross sect
ion .
b. Wha tt ype o fp rima ry a ntenna p attern isr equired toproduce au niform
a
p e
r ture d istribu tion?
1
4 -2
. D e
sign a n a rtificial d iele ctric with a d ielect
ric c onstant of 1 .
4 for u se at
3
,000 Mc w hen t he a rt
ifi cial d ielec tric c
ons i
s ts of
a. copp e r sphe re s
b. copp e r discs
c. copp e rstrip s
14-3. D e
sign a n u nzoned p lano -concave E -plane typ e ofm eta
l-pla te le
ns o ft he
u
ncon s
t rained t yp ew ith a na p ertur e2 0w ave leng ths squa r
ef oru sewi th a3 ,000- Mc
l
i
ne s ou rce 2 0w aveleng th sl o ng. T he source i stob e2 0 wavelengths f r
om t he lens
(i
ll l e
n s). Make t he i n dex o fr efraction 0.6.
a. Wha t shou ld t he s pa cing b etw een t he plates be?
b. D raw t he s hap e o ft he l e
ns, and g ive dimen sions.
c
. Wha t i st he b and w id th of t he l ens ift he m aximum t o
lerable p a
th
d
ifer ence i s }w ave leng th?
14-4. G ive the a nsw erst op ar ts ba nd co fP rob. 3i fthe lensi sazoned t yp e.
14-5. D esign a max imum E t yp e rhomb ic a ntenna f o
r a n e l
eva tion a ng
le
a= 1 7
.5 °.
14-6. D esign a n a l
ignmen t t ype r homb ic a ntenna f or a n elevation a ngle
a= 1 7
.5 °. .
14-7. D esign a c omp rom is e t yp e of rhomb ic a ntenna f or an e levation a ng
le
a= 1 7
.5 ° b uta t ah eigh t above g round o f0.5 w aveleng th.
1
4 -8. De sign a c omp rom i se t yp e of rhomb ic a ntenna f or an e levation a ng
le
a= 1 7
.5 ° b ut w ith al eg l eng th o f 3w aveleng th s
.
1
4 -9. D es
ign a c omp rom i se t ype o f rhomb ic a ntenna f or an e l
eva tion a ngle
a= 1 7.5° b ut a t ah eigh t a bove g round o f0 .5 w ave
leng th a nd al eg l e
ngth o f3
w
ave leng th s
.
4-
1 1. C
0 a
l cula te ther elativ ev er t
icalp lanep atternsi nt hea x
iald i
r ection f o
rt he
LENS AND LONG WIRE ANTENNAS 4
43
r
homb ics ofP robs. 5,6 ,7 ,8 ,a nd 9. C ompa re t he pat terns with t h
e m ain l obes
a
dju s
ted t othes ame m aximum v a
lue.
1
4-11. D er
ive ( 14-55) f o
r t he re
la tive f i
eld inten s
ity o f ah o
rizontal rhomb ic
a
ntenna a bove ap erfec t
ly c onduc t
ing g round.
1
4-12. Verify (14-57), ( 14-61)
, a nd ( 14-62) for t he a l
ignmen t des
ign r homb ic
s
ntenna .
1
4-13. C a
lculate t he SWR o n a6 5-ohm l i
ne conne cted t ot he L ID = 6 0d ipole
o
fS ec. 14
-24 over a3 0p erc entb and w id th ifano p en-ended l i
ne of4 0ohm sc harac-
t
er
istic impedance i sc onne cted inp a rallel with t he ant enna t erminals. T he l i
ne
i
s1 80°l o
ng a tthe ce nte
rf r
equency Fo.
1
4-14. Prove ( 1
4-15b )
.
1
4-15. a. Wha t i st he t e
rm inal i mpedan ce of ag r ound p l ane m ounted s tub
a
ntenna f ed w ith a5 0-ohm a ir
-fi
lled c oaxial line i fthe SWR o n the
l
i
ne is2. 5a nd t hefir
st v oltag em inimum i s0 .
17 w avelength f r
om t he
t
erminals?
b
.D es
ign at ransforme rs ot ha tt he SWR = 1 .
1
4-16. C a
lculate a nd p lot the far
-fi e
ld p at
t e
rn i nt h e plane o f aloop a ntenna
c
onsist
ing o ffour4 -wav eleng th center-fed d ipolesw ith s inusoidal currentd istr
ibu -
t
i
on a rranged tof o
rm as qua re 4w aveleng th on as ide. T he dipolesa r
ea l
li np hase
a
round t hes quare.
1
4-17. C a
lculatea nd plott hef a
r-f
ield p a t
tern int hep lane of aloop antenna c on-
s
i
sting o fth
re e4-wav eleng th center-fed d ipolesw ith sinu soidalc urrentd i
stribu tion
a
rrang ed tof o
rm at riangle 4 w aveleng th o n as ide. T he dipoles are al inp hase
a
round t het r
iangle.
CHAPTER 1
5
ANTENNA MEASURE MENTS
15-1. Introduc t
ion . Mo st of t he d i
scu ssion i n the p reced ing c hap ters
d
eals w ith m ethod s of analyzing a nd c a
lcula ting a ntenna c ha racter
istics.
I
n t his chap ter m ethods a nd t echn ique s ar e di
s cussed f o
r e xpe r
imen tal
measur emen ts o n antenna s
. T here a re s e
c t
ion s o n t he m ea suremen t of
p
att ern
, g a
in, c urrent di
stribution , i mpedance a nd p ola r
ization . T he dis-
c
ussion o n polarization occupie s seve ral sections a nd i ncludes a n analysis
o
fe liptical
ly p ola r
ized w aves
. A cco rding t o the r e
cip rocity r elat
ion, t he
s
ame p attern w il
l b e m easured w he ther t he a ntenna i st ran smitting o r
r
eceiving. T he same istrue ofc e
r tain otherc haracte r
istics,s ot ha titwillb e
c
onven ient ins ome c ases tor egard t he a ntenna a s ar adiatora nd ino the r
c
ase sas ar eceiver.
15-2. P at
te rns. T he far
-o rr adia tion-f
ield p attern o fa n an tenna i so ne
o
fi ts mosti mpo rtantc haracteristics. T he fie
ld p attern i sactua lly at hree-
Z
P
olar o
r v
ert
ica
l a
xis
9=0*
Me
rid
ian of c
onstan
t
l
ong
itude
C
ircle o
f constant
l
at
itude or po
lar a
ngle
8 90
0= 90 °
0= 0°
E
qua
tor
=0
*
8
•90 •
Fm
. 1
5-1
. A
ntenna a
nd c
oord
ina
tes f
o
r p
attern measurement
s.
44
S
Ec
. 1
5
-21 AN TE N N A ME AS U RE ME NTS 4
45
d
imen sional o r s pace p a
t tern, a nd i t
s c omp let e des cription r equires fi
eld
i
ntensity m easur ement s ina l
l d ire ction s i ns pace.
As pace p at
te rn may b e m ea sur ed a cco rding t ot he f ol
low ing p rocedure.
L
et the a ntenna u nder t est b e s i
tua ted a t the origin w ith the x -y plane
h
orizontal a nd t he za xis v ertical a s in F ig. 1 5
-1. T hen o n an i maginary
s
phere ofl arge r adius w ith the o rigin a t the c enter, p atterns o ft he 0a nd
0componen ts oft he elec
t ric fie
ld ( E
, a nd E ,) are m ea sured a l
ong l a
titude
c
i
rcles ( t
hat i s
, c i
rcles o f con stan t l atitude o r p ola r a ng
le, 0 )
. T hese
p
atterns are m ea sured a s af unct ion o ft he longitude o ra zimu th a ngle 0.1
Measuring s uch p at
tern s a t 1 0° i nterva l
s i n lat
i tude f rom 0 = 0 ° to
0= 1 80° requires at otal o f3 6 p at tern s
, 1 8 for E0 a nd 18 for E ,
. A t the
p
oles the m easuremen ts r educe t o p ola rization p atte rn s at ap o
in t. F or
more detai
l, s maller i n
cremen ts a r e t aken i n the a ngle 0. I t also may
1/
4"
-
- - P
o
lar
iza
tio
n e
l
ips
es
Fm
. 1
5-2
. P
olar
izat
ion e
l
lip
ses o
n d
i
stant s
phere
.
b
e d esirable to m easure p atterns fo
r the fi
eld componen ts a
t angles be-
t
ween t he q$and 0d ire
c t
ion s
. I n f
act, i
fthe fi
eld fr
om t he ant
enna i s
, in
g
ene ral, elipt
ical
ly p o
la r
ized, i t may be useful to mea sure po
larizat
ion
p
at t
e rns fordiferentd irectionsa nd then t
od raw the co
r respond
ing p o
lari-
z
ation e l
ipses on as phe re as in Fig. 1
5-2. T he subject of el
ip t
ical
ly
p
olarized w aves and t he
ir m easurement isd i
scussed in mo re d
etail in a
l
aters ection.
'The a
ngle 0 i
sthe l
ong
itude a
ngle o
f an i
mag
ina ry s
phere w
ith t
he antenna a
t i
t
s
c
enter
. Iti sa
lso t
he a
z
imuth ang
le si
nce t
he x
-y p
lane i
staken t
obeh or
izontal
.
4
46 ANTE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
5
A
lthough c omp rehensive p at
tern s
urveys such a s o
utlined above are
s
ometime s n
eces
sa ry, iti sfr
equen t
ly p
oss
ible t
o obtain sufic
ient in
forma-
t
i
on w ith o
nly af ew p atterns
. F o
r e
xample, suppose t
hat the antenna i
s
ahorizonta
lly polarized t ype with i
t
s ma jor lo
be o f r
adiation in t
he x
d
i
rection asshown i nF ig
. 1 5
-3a. I nt
hisfigu
re the x-yplane isho
rizonta
l.
E8 (
0,0=0
) 0
=0'
E
p
i(0
,0=0
)
q
=o°
H
orizonta
lly
V
ertical
ly
0=-90
° p
o
la r
ized an
tenna
p
olarized a
ntenna
0=90 ° 0=90
°
0=90 ° , =90'
e=90'
4(0=90 0
)
E
9(8=9010
)
=
0°
0=
90 ° =0 °
0=90 °
0=
180
'
(
a
) 0=
180 (
b
)
Fm. 1
5-3
. V ert
icaland h
orizonta
lp lane p
atterns f
o
rho
rizonta
lly p
o
lar
ized a
ntenna (
a
)
a
nd vert
ica
lly p
olar
ized a
ntenna (b
).
Then t wo p atte rns may b e suf icien t. I n o ne, t he 4 ,c omponen t o f the

e
lectric f i
eld ( horizonta l) i sm ea sur ed a s af unc tion o f4 ,i nt he x -y p lane
(
0 = 9 0°)
. T h
i s p att ern ist he s o- called E -plane p attern a nd may b e
d
esigna ted E ,
,(0 = 9 0°,c p)asi nd ica t ed i nF ig. 1 5-3a . I n the otherp attern
t
he 4,c omponen t o ft he f i
eld ism ea sur ed a s af unc tion o f 0i nt he x-zp lane
(
plane o fm eridian f or4 )= 0 °). T his i st he s o-called H -plane p atte rn a nd
may b e d esigna ted EV0 , 4 ,= 0 °)
. S ince t he se p attern s b i
sect t he ma jor
l
obe o fr adiation i nt wo mu tua lly p erpend icula r p lane s, they may p rov ide
s
ufi c
ien t informa tion f o
r many a pp lica t
ion s.
I
f t he a ntenna i s av ert
ica lly p ola r
ized t yp e w i
th i t
s ma jor l obe o f
r
adia tion i nt he x d ire ct
ion , the p att e rns a re m easur ed a s af unc t
ion o f4)
a
nd 0i nt he s ame p lane s as for t he h o r
izon tally p olarized a ntenna e xcep t
t
ha t m easu remen t s are made o ft he 0c omponen t o ft he fie
ld. T hu s
, t he
p
a t
te rn s m ea sur ed a re t he E,(0 = 9 0 °, 4) a nd t he E,(0, 4 ,= 0 °
) p a tterns
a
ss ugge sted i nF ig. 1 5-3b.
A
lthough t he d om inan t r
adia tion f rom a n a ntenna may b e h or
izon tally
p
ola r
ized ,s ome o ft he m ino rlo be s may b ev ertically p ola r
ized. T oo bse rve
s
uch c r oss-pola r
iza tion i n bo th t he v ertical ( x-z
) p lane a nd h orizon tal
(
x-y) p lane s r equ ires t he m ea su remen t o f a l
l f ou r p atterns m en tioned
a
bove . T os umma rize, t hesea r e:
SE
C
. 1
3
-31 AN TE N N A ME AS U RE ME N TS 4
47
E
,(0 = 9
0°
,4 ) =p atte
rn o fq5component o
fele
ct r
ic fi
e
ld as afunc
tion
o
f4)i nx-y p
lane (
0=9 0
°)
E
,(0
,(i
t
)= 0°) =p attern of4)componen
ta s af
unc t
ion of 0i
nx-z p
lane
(
4
) =0 °
)
E
,(0 = 9
0°
,i ) = p
6 attern of 0c
omponentas afunc t
ion of4
)inx-y p
lane
(
0=9 0
°)
E
,(0
,y6 = 0°) = p
attern of 0component a
s af unct
ion of 0i
n the x-
z
p
lane (4
) =0 °)
I
n t he case of ac i
rcularly or eliptical
ly p olar
ized a ntenna , t he m ea sure-
men ts migh t consist of these fou r patterns or
, f o
rm easu remen ts in o nly
o
ne p lane, oft wo p atterns
, one f oreach f i
eld componen t ( E
, a nd E ,).
F
ield p a
ttern s are c ommon ly p lotted i n te
rm s o f r e
lative o r ab solute
f
i
eld i ntensity
. T hey may a lso b e conven iently p resen ted a s ad ecibel
r
at
io w ith the max imum f i
eld i n
ten s
ity ast he zero orr e
ference l eve
l. T h
is
t
ype o fp resentation isp art
icula r
ly v a
luab le with high -gain a ntenna sw hen
a
ccu rate informa tion a s to the l e
vel of m inor lobes i sn eeded . S ee, for
e
xamp le, F
ig. 14-16.
1
5-3. P at
tern Measu remen t A rrangemen ts
. I n p attern m ea suremen ts
i
ti su sual
ly c onven ient to op erate the a ntenna u nde r t est as ar eceiver,
p
lacing i tu nder suitable ilum ina t
ion b y at ransm itting a ntenna a s i lus-
t
rated i nFig. 15-4. T he tran
sm i
t t
ing an tenna i sfi
xed i np os
ition , and t he
T
ransmi
tting Antenna
an
tenna u
nder test
A
ntenna
s
upport s
haft
A
ntenna
T
ransm itte
r r
o
tator
o
r m
echanism
o
sci
llator
R
ece
iver
I
ndicator
no
. 1
5-4
. A
ntenna p
attern measur
ing a
rrangement
.
a
ntenna u nder te
st i srota
ted o n av ert
ical ax
is by the antenna suppo rt
s
haft
. A
s suming t hat b oth a ntennas a re l i
near
ly p o
lar
ized , t he
E
,(0 = 90°, 4) pat
te rn ism easured b y ro
tating t
he antenna support shaft
w
ith both antennash orizontalasi nF ig
. 15-4. Tom easure the E
,(0,4)= 0 )
p
attern
, the antenna s upport shafti srotated w
ith both antennas vert
ical.
I
ndicat
ion may b eo n adirectr e
ading m etercal
ibrated infi
eld in
tensity,
o
r the meter may a lway s be adjusted to ac ons
tant value by m eans ofa
4
48 ANTEN N AS [
CHAP
. 1
5
c
al
ibrat ed a
tt
,enuator. Whe re l
arge numbers o
fp atterns ar
e taken
, w o
rk
i
sfaci
litated bya n au
toma t
ic pat
tern re
corders uch ass hown inFig. 1
5-5.
1
5-3a. D i
stanc
e R equi
rement
. F or a
n accurate f ar
-fi
eld or Fraunhofer
p
attern of an antenna a fi
rst r
equirement istha t the m easurement
s b e
made at as ufic
ient
ly l a
rge di
stance
.' S uppose t hat the antenna to be
F
lo. 1
5-5. A utomatic a
ntenna p
att
ern r
e
corder
. T he pat
tern i
sdrawn b
y apen o
n
p
olar c
oord
inate paper
. C ont
rolequ
ipment i
sat t
he r
igh
t. ( An
tenna L
abo
rat
ory
, Th
e
O
hio S
tate Un
ivers
ity.
)
m
ea sured i
s abroadside ar
ray c onsi
sting o
f anumb er o
f in
-phase li
near
e
l
emen t
sassuggested inFig. 15-6. T he w
idth o
rphysica
l aper
ture o
ft he
a
rray isa. At an in
fin
ite di
s tance norma
l to t
he c
enter o
fthe array
, the
•
f
i
e
ld s from a
l
l par
ts o fthe aperture wi
ll a
rr
ive i
nthe same phase
. How -
•
•
+
i •
:
4
-Broadside
a
rray
FI
G
. 1
5
-6. G
eome
trica
l r
e
lat
ions f
o
r d
i
stance r
equ
iremen
t.
'
If t
he d
istance i
sin
suff
i
cien
t, t
he n
earfie
ld o
rFresne
l pa
tte
rn i
sm easu
red
. I
n g
en-
e
ra
l, t
his p
attern i
s af
unct
ion ofthe d
i
stance a
t w
hich i
tismeasur
ed.
S
ec
. 1
5
-3] ANTE N N A MEAS U RE ME NTS 4
49
e
ver, a
ta ny fi
nite dis
tance r,as inFig. 15
-6, the fi
eld f
rom the e
dge ofthe
a
rray mus t t
ravel ad i
stance r 6and, hence , isr
eta
rded in phase by
(
360°/X)6 wi
th r espect to t
he fi
eld from the c enter o
f the a
rray
. I f 5is
ala
rge enough f r
action of awavelength, the mea sured pat
tern w
ill d
epart
a
ppreciab
ly from t he true f
ar
-fie
ld pattern. R e fer
ring t
o Fig
. 15
-6,
a
'
r2 2
r6 6
2 = r
2 (
15
-1)
I
f 6< aa
nd 6<r
a9
— (
15
-2)
8
5
Thu
s, t
he min
imum dis
tance rd
epends o
n t
he max
imum v
alue o
f 6wh
ich
c
an be t
ole
rated. S
ome w o
rker
s' r
ecommend tha
t 6b
e e
qual t
o or l
es
s
t
han X
/16
. T hen
r> 2—
a
2 (
15
-3)
X
I
n g
ene
ral the c
ons
tan
t f
a
cto
r [
e
qua
l t
o 2i
n (
15
-3)
] may b
e r
epre
sen
ted
b
y k
. T hu
s,
(
15
-4)
T
he p
has
e d
ife
rence f
o
r 6= X
/16 i
s22
.5° s
i
nce
3
60 0
P
hase d
ife
rence = —x
I
ns ome s pecia
l case sp hase d ife rences o f more than 22.5°c an b etolerated
a
nd i n other cases l e
ss. T he t able o n p. 450 g ives the c onstant f a
cto r
k"[
Eq. ( 1
5-4)] for three v a
lue s o f to
lerab le phase diference e qual t o 10°
,
2
2.5°, and 30°.
According to (15-4) t he min imum d istance ofm easuremen t is afunction
o
f both the a ntenna a perture a a nd t he w ave
leng th X . I n t he case o f
a
ntenna s ofl a
rge p hysical a pe rtur e and s mal
l w avelength, l a
rge distances
may b e required. F or e xamp le
, c onside r a3 0,000- Mc b road s
ide b eam
a
ntenna w ith a p hy s
ical a per tu re of 1m eter
. T aking k = 2 ,w e obtain
f
ort he minimum d istance r= 2 00 m e ters
.
1
5-3b. R equiremen t o f U nif orm F i
eld . A s econd r equiremen t f o
r a n
a
ccurate fie
ld p at
tern i st hat t he transm itt
ing a ntenna p roduce a s nea r
ly
I
C. C
. C
utler
, A. P. King
, a nd W. E
. Kock
, M
icrowave A
ntenna Mea
sur
ement
s,
P
roc
. I
.R
.E.
, 35, 1
462-1471, December
, 1
947
.
4
50 ANTE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
5
Max
imum t
o
lerab
le
5 k
*
p
hase d
iference
1
0° 4
.5
3
6
2
2.5 ° 2
1
6
3
0° 1
.5
1
2
Toreduce t
he in
tera
ction o
fmicrowave a
ntenna
su ndert
est
, iti
sre
comm ended that
khave avalue a
tleastequal t
o2. See Chap
. 15 byH. Krut
ter
, "Microwave Antenna
Theo
ry and D es
ign," edit
ed by S. S
i
lver
, McGraw -Hil
l Book Company, Inc
., N ew
York
, 1
949, p.592.
a
sp oss
ible ap
lane w
ave ofu n
ifo
rm ampl
itude and pha
se over areg
ion a
t
l
ea
st as gr
eat a
s t
hat o
ccupied by t
he a
ntenna unde
r tes
t. V ar
iat
ions o
r
g
radients i
nthe f
i
eld c
ould be c
aused b
y inte
rfe
rence ofthe di
rec
t wave
T
ransm itt
ing T
est
antenna l
ocat
ion
D
irect
An
tenna
u
nder t
est
G
round
F
lo. 1
5
-7. Inter
ference o
f d
irect a
nd r
ef
lec
ted w
ave
s may p
roduce u
nde
sirab
le v
ar
ia-
t
i
ons i
nthe f
i
e
ld a t t
he t
est l
o
ca t
ion
.
w
i th w ave sr ef
lected from t he ground a si nFig. 1 5-7 o rf rom o thero bjects
.
Reflection s from w a
lls or b u
ilding s can b e avoided b y select
ing a n open
f
i
eld o r af lat roofa sthe m ea suring s i
te
.
The e fect o f the ground r ef
lection may b e m inim ized b y u s
ing a d i
-
r
ectiona l tr ansmitting a ntenna a nd p lac
ing b o th a ntenna s on t owers as
i
nF ig
. 1 5-8a o rneart he edge so fa djacentb u
ilding sa si nF ig. 15-8b. W ith
s
uch a r rangemen ts the a mp l
itude o f the re
flected w ave i sre duced s i
nce
t
he g roundwa rd radiation f r
om t he transmitting a n tenna i sr educed a nd
a
lso since t he path length oft he ref
lected wave i sapp reciab ly greatert han
t
he p ath l ength oft he direct w ave. I n atypica l case t he v a
ria t
ion o fthe
f
i
eld i nten s
ity a s af unction o f the height at t he test l ocation may b e as
S
ec
. 1
5
-3] AN TE N N A ME AS U RE ME N TS 4
51
i
nd
icated by t
he s
o
lid curve i
n Fig
. 15
-9. T he t
ransm i
tting a
ntenna is
d
ir
ect
ional a
nd isa
t afi
xed he
ight h. There i
s ac
onsiderable r
eg
ion nea
r
t
he h
eight hwi
th a r
e
lat
ively un
iform fi
e
ld. Ifthe transmitt
ing ant
enna
T
ransmitt
ing Antenna
a
ntenna u
nder t
est
00
(
a) (
b)
FI
G
. 1
5-8
. A
ntenna t
e
st s
e
tup
s.
w
e r
e nondirec
tional in the vert
ical p
lane, a much gr
ea t
er fi
e
ld v a
riat
ion
w
ou ld r
esu
lt at the t
est lo
cation as i
ndicated by t
he d
ashed curve inFig
.
1
5-9.
Somet
ime s the di
stance requirement o f (
15
-4) isso la
rge that t
he re
-
q
uired tower heigh
t may b e imprac
tical. In thi
s cas
e t he t
est a
ntenna
T
r
onsm
itt
i
a
nt
e
H
eight
G
round
R
elat
ive f i
eld
i
ntens
ity
a
t test l
ocation
F
ie. 1
5-9
. V ar
iat
ion o
f f
i
eld int
ens
ity w
ith h
e
ight a
t t
he t
e
st l
o
cat
ion w
ith t
rans
-
m
itt
ing an
tenna r
e
lat
ive
ly c
los
e.
c
an b e si
tuated in ar eg
ion o f maximum f i
eld i n
tens
ity such a s at t
he
h
eigh t h
, or h2 i
n Fig
. 15-10. T his a
rrangemen t has the l
imi
tation that
t
he h e
ight oft he t
est an
tenna mus t be adjusted for e
ach chang e in f
re
-
q
uency . T his may b e ac ons
ide
rable inconvenience w hen te
sting very
w
ide -band ant
ennas.
Othercauseso f anonuniform fi
e
ld atthe te
stl ocat
ion areani mp rope
rly
4
52 AN TE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
5
d
i
re cted t
r ansmitt
ing antenna oro ne with t
oo n
arrow abeam . In making
p
atte rn measuremen t
s, itisgood p ra
ctice t
o e
xplore t
he ent
ire v
olume to
b
e o ccup
ied b y t h
e tes
t a ntenna w i
th a 4-waveleng
th a n
tenna at each
f
r
equency o f operat
ion w hi
le o b
serving the re
ceived f
ie
ld i n
ten
sity
. A
T
est l
o
cat
ion
T
ransmitt
ing
a
ntenna
G
round
R
elat
ive fie
ld
i
ntens
ity—o.
FI
G. 1
5-10
. V a
ria
tions o
ffi
e
ld i
n
tens
ity w
ith h
e
ight a
t t
e
st l
o
cat
ion w
ith t
ransm
itt
ing
m
itenna a
t l
a
rge d
istance
.
var
iat ion o
f 4dbissometimestaken asthe max
imum t o
le rable f
i
e
ld varia-
t
ion.'
15-4. Phase Measurements
. T he pre
ced
ing sec
tions o n pa
tte
rn m eas-
u
remen ts d
ea
l on
ly wi
th the magni
tude ofthe f
i
eld in
tensity. T om ea
sur e
t
he p hase v
ar
iat
ion ofthe f
i
e
ld,a narrangementsuch asshown i nFig
. 15-11
T
ransmitt
ing v
s—P
robe
a
ntenna path
i P
robe
,
antenna
C
al
ibrated R
ece
iver
A
ttenuato
r l
i
ne stre
tcher
o
r phase s
h
ifter
T
ransm
itter I
nd
icato
r
FI
G
. 1
5-11
. S
etup f
o
r p
hase mea
surement
s.
'See C
. C. Cut
ler
, A. P. K
ing, a
nd W . E. Kock, Microwave Antenna Mea su
remen ts
,
P
roc. I.R.E
., 35
, 1462-1471
, Decembe r, 1947
. Th is refe
rence a
l
so discu
sses t
he use o
f
f
ences to r
educe g
round ref
lect
ion efects
. S ee al
so C haps. 2a
nd 10, "Very High Fre
-
q
uency T echniques
," Radio Resea
rch L aboratory S
taf , McGraw-Hil
l Book C ompany.
I
nc
., New Yo
rk, 1
947
.
SE
C
. 1
5
-6] AN TE N N A ME AS U RE ME N TS 4
53
c
an b eu sed. T he a n
tenna u nde rt e
stiso pera ted as at r
ansm i
tting antenna .
The o utpu t of ar e
ceiving a n
tenna i sc omb ined w i
th t he si
gnal conveyed
by cable f r
om t he oscil
lator. T he re
ceiving a ntenna i sthen moved s o as
t
o ma intain e i
the r am inimum o r amax imum i ndication. T he path t r
aced
o
ut i nt his w ay i s aline ofcon stant phase. T his m e
thod w as m en
t ioned
e
arl
ieri nC hap. 2 .
I
n a nother t ype ofm easuremen t t
he r eceiving a ntenna is moved a long
are
ference l i
ne. Ac alibrated li
ne stre
tche ro rpha se sh
ifte
ri sthen ad
ju sted
t
o ma in tain a max imum o r minimum i ndication. T he m easured p hase
s
hi
ftc an then b e plotted as af unction ofp o s
ition along the re
ference l i
ne.
'
1
5-5 . D irectivity. T he d
irectivity o
fa na ntenna c an bedetermined f rom
t
he m ea sured f i
eld p attern. T hus, a
s defined i n Chap . 2
,t he di
rectivity
o
fa n a ntenna i s
4
1
.
(
15
-5)
D — f f
(0
, 4
)sin 0d
0d4
)
where f
(0
, 4) = r e
lative rad
iat
ion in
tensity (
powe
r p er square r
adian) as
afunct
ion ofthe s
pace ang
les 8a
nd ( see F
ig
. 15-1)
S
ince the rad
iation intens
ity isproport
ional t
o the s quare of t
he fie
ld
i
ntens
ity, t
he di
rect
ivity expres
sion (
15-5
) can b
ew ri
tt en as
4
7
D— (
15
-6)
f P2
I (
0 4
)si
n 6
#d
od4
)
w
here F(0, 4) = re
lative fi
eld pattern
, t ha
t is
,the re
la t
ive t ota
lfie
ld in
-
t
ens
ity as afunction of 0and (
j
)(s
ee A ppend ix
, Sec
. 20
).
T
he dire
ctivi
ty isde
term ined byt he s
hap eofthe fi
e
ld p attern bygraph-
i
c
al in
tegrat
ion and i
si ndependent ofa n
tenna loss o
rm isma tch
.
1
5-6
. G ain
. T he g
ain ofa n a
ntenna o veran is
otropic source isdef
ined
i
nC hap. 3as
Go = aD (
1
5-7
)
w
her
e Go = g
a
in w ith respectt oan i
s
otrop
ic s
ource (
Gwithout asub
scr
ipt
i
ndicates the gain wi
th r
efe
rence t
o some a
ntenna o
ther t
han
a
n isotropic source
)
D =d irectivi
ty
a= efec t
ivene ss ra
tio (0 < a< 1)
C
. C . Cutle
r, A . P
. K ing, and W . E
. Kock , Microwave A ntenna Measurements
,
Proc
. I .R
.E., 35, 1462-1471, Decembe r
, 1947.
Chap. 15 by H. Kn itter, "Microwave A ntenna Theory and De sign," ed
ited b
y S
.
S
i
lver , McGraw -Hill Book C ompany , I
nc
., N ew York, 1949
, p.5 43
.
Harley I
ams , PhaseP lotte
rf o
rC entimeter Waves, RCA R ev
., 8
,2 70-275
,J une
, 1
947
.
Describes automatic device for p
lot
ting phase f
ron
ts near antennas.
4
54 ANTE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
5
The c onstan t at ake s i

nto accoun t t he radiating e f
iciency o ft he an tenna
a
nd t he e fects of a ny misma tch. I f ma tching i sp roper, ai se qual t o
t
he r adiating e f
ic
iency k o f t he a ntenna . S ince the r adia t
ing e f
iciency
o
f many v ery high -
frequency a ntenna s ish igh ( nea rly 100 p er c ent o r
r
s
-,1),w eh ave a = k t1 ,a nd the m easured g a
in c l
osely a pproxima te st he
d
irectivity D c alculated byt he m e
thod o fS ec. 15-5
. T he gain ofa na c
tua l
a
ntenna i sa lway s less t
han t he direc tivi
ty . A ssum ing p erfect ma tching ,
a
ny d iference b e
tween t he g a
in a nd d irectivity c an b e a ttributed t o
a
ntenna l o
s ses
.
15-6a. G a
in b y C omparison. G ain i salway s m easured w i
th r espect t o
s
ome r eference a ntenna. S ince a n i so
trop ic s ource i s ah ypothe tical
s
tanda rd, i tisc ommon p ractice t o make a c
tua l gain m easuremen ts w i
th
r
espect t o ai -wave length reference a n tenna. T he g ain G i sthen
G 1 = C
-L
i)2
v (
15
-8)
2 \v21
wher
e W , =powe r re
ceived with antenna undert e
st
W2 = p
owe rreceived with I-wavelength r
eference antenna
V
, =v oltage re
ceived with antenna undert es
t
V2 = v
oltage re
ceived with I-wavelength re
fer ence a
n tenna
I
t isassumed that both a ntennas are proper
ly ma tched. Mak ing the
a
ddit
ional a
ssumption that the I-wavelength ant
enna i slo
ssless
, the g
a
in
Go o
ver al
os
sles
si so
tropic source i
s
= 1
.
64G (
15
-9)
T
he c
ompa r
ison shou
ld b
e made wi
th both an
tennas i
n asuitable l
oca
-
t
i
on where t
he wave from a d
i
stan
t sour
ce i ss
ubstan
tia
lly pl
ane a nd of
c
ons
tant amp
litude
. T he r
equ
irementsofS e
cs. 1
5-3a a
nd 1
5-3b should b
e
f
u
lf
il
led
.
T
ransmitt
ing (Antenna under
a
ntenna t
est
P
lane I
nd
ica
tor
C
alibrated
a
ttenuator
w
ave R
ece
iver
O
sci
llato
r r
efe
rence
a
ntenna
FI
G
. 1
5-12
. Ga
in measu
rement b
y c
ompa
rison
.
B
oth an
tennas may be mounted s
ide by s
ide a
s i
n Fig
. 1 5
-12 and t
he
c
ompar
ison made b
ys witch
ing t
he r
eceive
rfrom one a
ntenna tothe o
ther
.
T
he ra
tio V.IV i
so bs
erved nn an o
utput i
nd
icator c
a
librated i
n re
lat
ive
S
ec
. 1
5
-61 ANTE N N A MEAS U RE ME N TS 4
55
v
o ltag e. A n a lte rna tive m e thod i st o adju st t he p owe r r ad iated b y t he
t
ran sm itting a ntenna w ith a c alibra ted a t tenua to r s o t ha t t he r eceived
i
nd ica tion i s t he s ame f or b oth a ntenna s
. T he r at
io 1 471/117, i s then
o
b tained f rom t he a ttenua tors etting s.
Moun t
ing b o th a ntennas s ide b y s i
de a s i n F ig. 1 5-12 b u t i n too c lo se
p
rox im ity may v it
ia te t he m ea su remen ts b ecau se o fc oup ling b e tween t he
a
n tenna s
. T o a void s uch c oupl ing, ad i rect s ub stitu tion may b e made
w
ith t he idle a n tenna r emoved t o s ome d i
s tance . I ft he a ntenna s ar e o f
unequa l g ain , i ti s mo r e i mpo rtant t ha t t he h igh -gain a nt enna b e t hu s
r
emoved .
I
f the g ain o f t he a ntenna u nde r test i sl arge, i ti so ften mo re c on -
v
en ien t t o u se a r eference a ntenna o fh ighe r g ain t han t ha t o f a4 -wave -
l
eng th e l
emen t. A t m icrowave f r
equenc ie s e lect romagne t
ic h orn s are f re-
quen tly e mp loyed f o
rt h
is p urpo se.'
S
hor t-wave d ire ctiona la ntenna a rray s,s uch a su sed i nt r an socean ic c om -
mun ica t
ion, a re s i
tua ted a t af i
xed h eigh t a bove t he g round . T he g a
in o f
s
u ch a ntenna s i sc u stoma rily r efe rred t o e ithe r av ertica l o r ah orizon tal
4
-wave leng th a n tenna p laced a t ah eigh te qua lt ot he a verage h eighto ft he
a
rray . T his g ain c ompar i son i sa tt he eleva tion a ng le ao ft he d owncom ing
wave . I f t he d irec tiona l a ntenna i s ah igh -ga in t yp e a nd a ny mu tua l
c
oup ling e xis ts b etween i ta nd t he 4 -wave leng th a ntenna , t he d irec t
iona l
a
n tenna c an b e r ende red c omp letely i n
ope ra tive b y l owe ring i tt o t he
g
round o rs e ctiona lizing i tse lemen ts w hen r eceiv ing w ith t he 4 -wave leng th
a
n tenna .
I
n t he a bove d iscu ssion i th a s b een a s sumed t ha t t he a ntennas a re
p
e rfec tly ma tched . I ti sn o t a lway s prac tical t o p rov ide s uch ma tching .
Thi s isp art
icu la rly t rue w ith w ide -band r ece iving a ntenna s t ha t are o nly
a
pp rox ima tely ma tched t ot he t r ansm ission l i
ne . I ng ene ra l, a no therm is-
ma tch may o ccu rb etwe en t he t ran sm ission l i
ne a nd t he r e ceive r. I ns uch
c
ase s t he m ea sured g ain i s af unc tion o ft he r eceive ri npu t i mpedance a nd
t
he l e
ng th o ft he t ran sm ission l ine.2 T od eterm ine t he r ange o ff l
uctua tion
o
fg ain o fs u ch w ide b and a nt enna s w ith ag iven r eceive r as af unction o f
t
he f requency a nd l i
ne l eng th , t he l ength o f t he l i
ne c an b e a djus ted a t
e
a ch f requency t o al eng th g iving max imum g ain a nd t hen t o al eng th
g
i v
ing m inimum g ain. T he a verage o ft his max imum a nd m inimum may
b
e c a
lled t he a ve rag e g ain .
1
5-6b. A bso lu teG a
in o fI den tica lA ntenna s. T he g ain c an a l
so b em es s-
'
Chap. 1
5b y H
. K rutter, "M icrowave Antenna
s," ed
ited byS.Si
lver
, McG raw-Hi
ll
Book Company, Inc., N ew Y o
rk, 1949, p
.543.
'
Chap. 1
0 by K rau s
, C lark, B arko
fsky, and S
tavis
, " Very H
igh Fr
equency Tech-
n
iques," Rad
io Res earch L aboratory Staf
, McGraw -Hil B ook Company
, Inc.
, New
York, 1
947
, pp
. 232 a nd 2 71.
4
56 AN TE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
5
u
red by aso
-cal
led abso
lut
e method' i
nwhich t
wo id
ent
ica
l a
ntenna
s ar
e
a
rranged i
nfre
es pace a
sinFig
. 15
-13. One a
ntenna a
ct
sas at
ransmi
tte
r
T
r
ansm
itte
r R
ece
ive
r
P
ia. 1
5-13
. Ab
solute g
a
in mea
surement
s w
ith t
wo i
dent
ica
l a
ntenna
s.
a
nd t
he o
the
r a
s ar
e
ceiver
. B
y t
he F
r
iis t
r
ansm
iss
ion f
o
rmu
la (
Chap
. 3
)
W
, A„A„
Tv , - x y (
15
-10
)
w
here W , =received p ower
W
, = transm i
tted p ower
A„, =efec tive a per
ture ofr e
ceiving antenna
A. =e f
fe c
t ive a per
ture oft r
ansm it
ting antenna
X =w ave leng th
r =d i
s tance b e tween antennas
T
he dis
tance r
equ iremen t of S
ec. 15-3a should be fu
lf
il
led
. If ri
sl a
rge
c
ompared t
othe d epth do fthe a
ntenna , t
he preci
se po
intsont
he a
ntennas
b
etween wh
ich ri sm ea sured wi
ll not be cr
itica
l. Since
A
., =G
o—x
2 (
15
-11
)
w
here Go
0 = g
ain ofan
tenna o
veran i
s
otropic s
ource
a
nd s
ince i
tisftsumed t
hat A
., =A.
,, (15
-10) become
s
W r G
g
x
2 (
1
5-12
)
T
V
, (
4r
) 2r
2
a
nd
4
-
i
rr rV,
.
Go = 7
, r :
T (
15
-13
)
T
hus, by measuring t
he ra
tio o
f the re
ceived t
o transmitted p
ower
, t
he
d
i
stance r
,a nd the wave
length X,the ga
in of e
ither an
tenna can b
e de
-
t
e
rmined. A lthough it may have been in
tended that the an
tennas b
e
1
C
. C. Cutler
, A
. P. King, and W. E. Kock, Microwave A
ntenna Measurements
,
P
roc
. I
.R.E.
, 3 6
, 1
462-1471, December
, 1947
; also Chap. 1
5 b
y H. Knit
ter, "Micro
-
w
ave An
tennas," e
di
ted b y S
. Si
lve
r, McGraw -Hil B ook C
ompany, I
nc
., New Y ork
,
1
949
, p
.5 43
.
SE
C
. 1
54] ANTE N N A ME AS U RE ME N TS 4
57
i
d
ent
ica
l, t
hey may a
ctualy d
ife
ring
a
in b
yana
ppr
eciab
le a
moun
t. T
he
g
a
in measu
red i
nthis c
ase i
s
Go = V anG
02 (
15
-14
)
w
hereG 0
1 =g a
in o fant enna 1o fthe "iden
tica
l" p a
ir
= g
a
in o fant enna 2o fthe "iden
tica
l" p a
ir
b
oth g
ains referred toa n is
otropic sour
ce. T o fi
nd G0,and G 02, t
he above
m
easurement i ss upp
lemented b y ac ompa r
ison of each o
f the a ntennas
w
ith ath
ird r e
fer ence antenna w ho
se gain need no
t bek nown
. T his gi
ves
aga
in ra
tio b e
tween " iden t
ical" antennas o
f
G
' = (
1
5-15
)
.
72
w
here G
, =g a
in o
fantenna 1o
ver r
e
ference a
ntenna
G2 = g
a
in o
fantenna 2o
ver r
e
fer
ence antenna
T
hen s
ince
G G
G'= = (
15
-16
)
G2 G O2
w
e h
ave
Go,= G
o V UI (
15
-17
)
a
nd
Go
— (
1
5-18
)
15 -7
. T erminalI mpedan ce Measu remen ts
. T he terminali mpedance o f
UHF a ntennas i sconven iently m easured b y transm is
sion-l
ine m ethod s.
The antenna t e
rm inal sarec onnected tot he end of atransmission l
ine ener-
g
ized by at ransm itt
e roro sci
llatora sshown i nFig. 1
5-14. Mea suremen to f
t
he SWR o fvoltage orc urrenta long the li
ne and ofthe distance db e
tween
e
i
ther ac urren
tm inimum o r av o
ltage m in
imum a nd the antenna termina ls
p
erm i
t s ad eterm ination oft he terminal i mpedance b y well known m e th-
o
ds.
' T his isd one s imply w ith a Sm i
th c hart
.' T he impedance v a
lue s
'F
. E. T erman , "Rad io E ngineering," 3d ed.
, McGraw -H il Book C ompany, Inc.,
New Y ork, 1947, pp
. 9 4-98 .
F. E. Terman , " Radio E ngineers
' Handbook ," McGraw -Hil Book C ompany, In c
.,
New Y ork, 1943, pp
. 1 72- 197.
Chap. 2b y N e
lson, L azaru s, Christensen, a
nd B us s
, " Very High Frequency Te ch-
n
iques," McGraw -Hill B ook C ompany , Inc.
, New Y ork, 1
947 .
Chap. 8b y J. F. R ein t
jes, " Pr
inciples of Radar," b y M .I.T. Radar School S
taf ,
McG raw -Hil
, N ew Y ork, 1946.
R
. W . P. King, H. R. M imno , a
nd A.H . Wing, " Transm iss
ion Line
s, Antennas
,a nd
Wave Gu ides," McGraw -H il B ook C ompany , I
nc., N ew Y ork, 1
945, Chap
. 1.
J
. C. Slater
, "M icrowave T ransm iss
ion," McGraw -Hi
ll B ook Company , I
nc.
, N ew
York, 1943, C hap
. 1 .
'
P. H. Sm ith, Transm ission Line C alcu
lator
, E l
ed ronics
, 1 2
, 29-31, J
anuary, 1939.
4
58 ANTE N N AS (
CHAP
. 1
5
s
o o btained a t e ach f r
equency o f m easur emen t may b e c onne c ted t o
f
orm a n imp edance -vs
. -frequency c urve . T he s hap e of t his c urve o n a
Smith c har
t i s af unction o ft he c harac ter
i stic i mpedance o ft he t r
an sm is-
s
ion line
. T oa void thi sd ependence , i ti ssome time sd es
irab le t or eplo tt he
i
mpedance v alue so n as imple R v s. Xd i agram s uch a sFig.8 - 12 o rF ig.9 - 9
.
Onb alanced a ntenna sw ith t wo-
wire t ran sm i
ssion l i
ne s t he m eas-
u
r emen t oft he SWR a nd o ft he
curren t m in imum p oint a re c on-
venien tly made w i th as ma lll oop
c
onnec ted t o ac ur r ent i ndica tor
a
s i n F ig. 1 5
-14 . T he i ndica t
ing
device may b e ac ry stal r ect
ifier
(squa re l aw) w ith c ur ren t m ete r
,
o
ri tmay b e athermo coup le m eter.
The i ndica tor c an b e c oup led t o
one w ir eoft he l i
ne a ss hown . B y
m easur ing b oth w ir es,t he amoun t
Fm. 15
-14
. B alanced a ntenna a nd trans
- o
f unb alan ce o
f t
h e t
ra nsm iss
i on
m
iss
ion li
ne fori mpedance m easuremen ts
, l
ine c an a lso be m easur ed .
O
n a n
tenna s f e d w i th u nbal-
a
nced o r c
oax ial t ransm i s
sion l ine s the i mpedance m easu remen ts c an b e
made w ith as lotted c oax ial li
ne a si nF ig. 1 5-15. U sually av oltage p robe
i
su sed tog i
ve t he SWR a nd d is
tance t o av oltage m inimum .
Measuremen ts o n b alanced a ntenna s can o ften b e c onven ien tly made
w
ith as lo
tted c oaxial l i
ne a nd g round -plane a rrangemen t ( F
ig . 1 5- 15) b y
R
ece
ive
r
G
round F O
Ind
ica
tor
p
lane (S
lot
ted l
i
ne
RF
P
robe
l
' 1
8
f
i
lter
'
( S
tub O
sci
lla
tor
a
ntenna
s ot• B
'
o
▪ Ser
th c
oti
o
ugnh
D
oub
le stub
BB
' t
uner
F
ro. 15
-15
. S tub antenna a
nd g
round (
image
) p
lane w
ith t
ypica
l c
oax
ial l
i
ne f
or
i
mpedance measurements.
measur
ing o ne
-half the antenna a nd then mu l
tip
lying t he m easured i m
-
p
edance valuesb y2 . T hu s
, in
stead o
fm easuring abalanced I -wavelength
d
ipole wi
th a t wo-wire tr ansmis
sion l
ine ( F
ig. 15-14
), m easuremen ts a
re
made ofo ne
-half the dipole as aI-waveleng th st
ub a ntenna w ith al a
rge
g
round plane ( F
ig. 15-15)
. I dea
lly t
he g round plane s hould be perfec
tly
SE
C
. 1
5
-81 AN TE N N A ME AS U RE ME NTS 4
59
c
onduc ting a nd inf
in ite i ne xt en t t o p roduce a p er fec t i mage o f t he s tub
a
ntenna . T he g round p l
ane o ff i
nit ee xten tu sed i np ra ctice s hou ld, t he re-
f
ore
, b e a s l arge a s p oss
ib le. E ven t hough t he g round p l ane i ss eve ral
waveleng th si ndiame te r
, t he m ea su red i mpedan ce o f as tub a ntenna v arie s
a
pp reciab ly a s af unc tion o ft he d iame ter.' T his v aria tion i sr educed a s
t
he g round -plane d i amet e r i si n
c rea sed . Me ier a nd S umme rs' f ound t ha t
alarge s qua re g round p lane r e
su lts i n a bou t h al
f t he v a r
ia tion o f i mpe -
d
ance o bse rved w ith a c ir cula r g round p lane o f app rox ima te ly t he s ame
s
i
ze. T he a n tennas w ere moun ted s ymme t r
ica lly o n b oth g round p lane s.
The r educed v ariat
ion w ith t he s qua re g round p lane i sp resumab ly d ue t o
t
he p a r
tia l c ancellation o fw ave s r ef
le ct ed t o t he a n tenna t erm ina ls f rom
t
he e dge o ft he ground p l ane . T he se w ave s t rave l d ife ren t d istance s o n
asqua re g round p lane , a nd , h ence , a l
l c anno t a rrive i n t he s ame p ha se.
The r at
io o ft he longe s tt ot he s ho rte std istance i st he r at
io o ft he d i agona l
o
f as qua re t ot he l eng th o fo ne s ide ( 1
.41 ). W i th ac ircu larg round p lane
a
nd s ymme trically l oca ted a ntenna , a l
l t he w ave s r e f
lec ted f rom t he e dge
r
eturn i nt he s ame p ha se.
The g round ( image ) p l ane t echn ique c an a l
so b e u sed t o a dvan tage i n
measu ring t he t ermina l i mpedance o fs lot a ntenna s. As hee t w i th a h alf
s
lot ( equa l i nl ength t o t he f ull s lot b ut o fo ne-ha lf t he w id th ) i sb utted
a
gain st a n i mage p lane p l aced p erp end icu la r t o t he s lot p lane . T he h alf
s
loti se ne rgized b y ac oax ia ll ine w ith t he i nne rc onduc to rc onnect ed t ot he
t
erm ina lo ft he slota nd t he o ut erc onduc to rt erm ina ted i nt he i mage p lane .
The t erm ina l i mpedance o ft he f ull s lot i st wice t he i mpedance o ft he h alf
s
lot
. T he i mpedance Z ./2 o ft he h alf s lot i sr e
la ted t ot he i mpedance ZeI/2
o
ft he c omp lemen ta ry s tub a ntenna o r 4d ipo le b y Z ./2 = 8, 8 6 9 / Zd/2.
Wi th h orn o r sl
ot a ntenna s t hat a re f ed w ith a w ave g u
ide , m ea sure -
ment so ft he f i
eld int he g uide c an b e made w ith as lot ted w ave g uide a nd
p
robe a rrangemen t. I n th is w ay m ea sur emen t so ft he SWR , r ef
l ection c o-
ef
ic
ien t
, a nd e quiva len t l oad i mpedance may b e o b tained i n a manner
a
nalogous t ot hat used w i th ac oax ia l l ine.2
1
5-8 . R adia t
ion R esi s
tance b y R eflec tion Me thod . T he m ethod o f
S
ec. 1 5-7 r equ ires tha t t he a ntenna t erm ina ls b e a vailab le f or t he c onnec -
t
i
on o f at r
an sm ission l i
ne . I n t he c ase o f as ho rt-ci rcui ted r esonan t
e
l
emen t ( such a s ap ara si
t ic e lemen t), h oweve r, n ot erm ina ls a r ea va i
lab le.
To m easure t he rela tive r adia tion r esistance o f s uch a n e lemen t, ar e-
f
l
ection m ethod ' c an b e e mp loyed . C on side r t ha t t he a ntenna i s a1 -
IA. S. Me
ier and W . P. Summe rs, Measur ed Impedance o f V
ertical Antennas Over
F
inite Ground Planes, Proc
. I.R.E.
, 37, 609-616, June
, 1 949
.
3 S
ee, f
orexamp le
, " Very High Frequency T echniques," Radio R esear
ch Laboratory
S
taf, McGraw -Hi
ll B ook Company , Inc
., New Yo rk, 1947, pp
. 39-46 .
3Edwin I
stvanfy, A ntenna I mpedance Mea sur
em ent b y Ref
lection W thod , Proc
.
I
.R.E .
, 37
, 604-608, June, 1949
.
4
60 AN TE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
5
wave
leng
th el
ement t
hat h
as been a
djusted i
n l
eng
th t
o re
sonance
. A s
s
hown in F
ig
. 15
-16
, the a
ntenna i
splaced i
n t
he f
ie
ld o
f atr
ansmitt
ing
(
R
ece
ive
r
A
u
nt
de
rnna
t
est
T
r
ansm
itte
r
. 1
FI
G 5
-16
. R
efl
ect
ion m
ethod f
o
rcompa
rison o
fre
sis
tanc
es.
a
ntenna and t
he r
ef
lec
ted p
owe r t
hat isre
ceived b
y anothe
r a
ntenna i
s
m
easured
. The p
ower t
he a
ntenna unde
r tes
t re
rad
iate
si s
=k 15-
( 1
9
)
R,
w
here E
, =f i
eld oft ransmitt
ing antenna at an
tenna u nder t
es
t (t
est a
n-
t
enna 1 )
/
.
, =e fec t
ive length ofre
sonant te
st antenna 1
R,= radiation res
istance ofre
sonant t
esta ntenna 1
k= con s
tan t in
volving t
he dis
tance b
e tween antenna
s
F
or ano
ther r
esonant 4 -wavelength el
ement (test ant
enna 2) of d
ife
rent
t
h
icknes
s and
, h ence
, d i
ffe
rent ef
fect
ive l
ength 1,2 b
ut ofsubs
tantia
lly t
he
s
ame pa
tte
rn, the ref
lected poweris
W2 = k (
15
-20
)
R2
w
here R2 i
sthe r
ad
iat
ion r
es
istance o
ft he r
esonan
t t
est a
ntenna 2and k
i
sthe s
ame cons
tant a
s i
n (
15-19)
. T hen div
iding (
1
5-19) by (
15
-20)
1
22
. w1 (L
2 )
2
(
15
-21
)
RI — W 2 \i
.1
A
ssuming t
hat f
o
r sma
ll changes i
n l
e
ngth t
he e
fec
tive l
e
ngth i
spro
-
p
ort
iona
l t
othe p
hys
ica
l l
ength,
1=
_
1 1
(
15
-22
)
1
2 1
.
2
w
here l = p
hys
ica
l l
e
ngth o
fte
st a
ntenna 1
=phys
ica
l l
e
ngth o
fte
stantenna 2
T
hus,
R2 WI 1
2
)9
(
15
-23
)
R1 W2 /
1
T
he ra
tio W I/W 2 c
an be conven
ien t
ly mea
sured as t
he r
at
io (V,/172)
2
w
here V
, i
sthe voltage r
ece
ived w hen t
e
st antenna 1i
sob
served and V
,
SE
C
. 1
5
-9] AN TE N N A ME AS U RE ME NTS 4
61
i
st he v o
l tage received w hen t est a ntenna 2i so bse rved . T hus
, f rom t he
r
at
io W ,/ W2 o r ( V I/V2) 2and t he leng th ratio (4// i),t he re
lative r adiation
r
es
is tance o fone r e
sonan ta ntenna w ith respec ttoa no the rcan b ee valuated.
To d ete rm ine t he a bsolute v a
lue o f the r es
istance r equires tha t the r e
-
s
i
stance o fo ne oft he a ntenna s be k nown .
15-9. C ur
ren t-distribution Measu remen ts. I n many c ases iti si mpor-
t
ant t o k now t he c ur
ren t distribu tion a long a n a ntenna . F o r examp le, if
b
oth t he magn itude a nd pha se oft he curren t isk nown a ta l
l poin ts along
a
n a ntenna , the farf ie
ld o ft he a ntenna c an be c alcu lated.
T he m easurement o fc urren td istribu t
ions i sb ased o n ac ur
ren ts amp ling
method . As mall p i
ckup l oop i sp laced c l
ose t o t he a ntenna c onduc to r
.
A cur rent i sin duced i n the l oop p roportiona l t o t he a d
ja cent a n
tenna
c
urren t. I fthe w aveleng th i ss uf iciently l ong, t he l o
op a nd i ndicating
me
te r can b e comb ined i n as ingle u n
it a s in Fig. 1 5-17a. A t v e
ry h igh
f
r
equenc ie s t
he i ndicating i nstrumen t may b e too l arge t o be placed n ear
t
he a ntenna w ithou ts er
iously d isturb ing t he fi
eld, s ot hata n arrangement
T
ore
ceiv
er
Mo
. 1
5-17
. S
amp
ling l
oop
s f
o
r c
urrent d
i
str
ibu
tion mea
surement
s.
s
uch a si lustra ted inF ig. 1 5
-17b i sre
sorted to. H ere the indicating me te
r
i
sr emote f r
om t he pickup l oop. T he l
oop isconnect ed to acrystalrect
ifier
.
Very fine i nsulated o utpu t w ires from t he rec
tif
ie r are twisted togethe r
a
nd t hen w ound a s ah el
ica l choke on ad ie
lectric rod w h
ich may a ct asa
h
and le ors uppor tf ort he l o
op p robe
. T he diamete ro fthe choke i sabout
X
/50 w ith a s pacing a bou t e qual to t
he d i
ame ter
. T he choke m inimize s
t
he c urren t in duced o n t he o utput wires b y the fie
ld n ea
r t he antenna.
Hence, t h
is r educe s the re act
ion o fthe probe o n the antenna . Ab y-pa ss
c
onden seri nt he loop preven ts ad-cshortc i
rcuito nt he crystal
. Ac urren t
d
istribution m ea sured b y al oop ofthe above c ons
truc tion isp res
ented i n
F
ig. 15-18.1
1Bhupendra N. Bhargava, "A S

tudy of C
urr
ent Dis
tribut
ion o
n L
ong Radia
tors,"
maste
r's the
sis, Department o
f Elec
trica
l Eng
ine
ering
, The Ohio S
tate Un
ivers
ity,
Co
lumbu s, Ohio, 1
947
4
62 AN TE N N AS [CH
AP. 1
5
A
nother t
ype o
f samp
ling l
oop i
sshown in F
ig
. 15-17
c. Th
is lo
op i
s
c
ons
tructed o
f sma
ll d
iamete
r coax
ial c
able
.' T he l
oop i
sof b
a
lanced
5
-
4
u
ntenna crrent
3
ive a
2
e
Rlat
5
0 1
00 1
50 2
00
D
istance a
long a
ntenna i
n cms
.
71
<
/ C
ylindrica
l
I
f an
tenna
C
oaxia
l 1
=2.36X
l
i
ne G
round p
l
ane D
=7-
6
7
5cms
FI
G
. 1 5
-18
. R
ela
tive c
urrent d
i
str
ibut
ion o
n l
ong t
h
ick c
yl
indr
ica
l a
ntenna
. (
Afte
r
B
hargava
.)
c
onstruction
. T he cab
le l
ead
ing a way from t
he loop isw
ound i
nto a
h
el
ical choke ofs ma
ll d
iame
ter (about X
/50 d
iame
ter)
.
I
n o rder to r
emove comple
tely the le
ads b
etween lo
op a
nd i
nd
icato
r
O
sci
llato
r
Matched t
erm
inat
ion
S
lotted l
i
ne A
ttenuator
S
lotted a
ntenna S
amp
ling l
oop N
End
v
iew
R
ece
ive
r
Sma
ll coax
ial
l
i
ne from
sampl
ing loop 4,
-Ground p
lane
I
nd
ica
tor
FI
G
. 1
5
-19a
. S
lott
ed a
ntenna a
nd s
amp
ling l
oop
.
'
For mic
rowave f
r
equencies
, coax
ial c
able a
s smal a
s 0.
042 i
n
. out
side d
iameter i
s
o
bta
inable fr
om P
rec
ision Tube Co
., 3
824 Ter
race S
t.
, P
hilade
lph
ia, Pa
.
S
e
c. 1
5
-9
] ANTENNA MEASUREMENTS 4
63
f
r
om the f i
eld ofthe antenna, the a
rrangemen t shown i n Fig. 1
5-19a can
b
e employed .
' I n t
his method a na r
row l ongi
tudinal s l
ot iscut in the
h
ol
low c y
lindrica
la ntenna conductor
. T he lo
op project
st hrough the s
l
ot.
T
he ou
tpu t cab
le fr
om t he loop isc
onfined within the antenna conductor
a
nd i
sb rough t ou
t through the end o
f ag rounded stub ass hown.
On b road cas t-station a r ray s t he c urren t can b e mon ito red w ith a l oop
i
nt his manne r a s shown i nF ig. 1 5
-19b . Al oop i s moun ted p ermanen tly
i
np lace o n each t owe r oft he a rray a nd t he r e
la t
ive p has e oft he o utpu ts
o
ft he l oop s mon itored i nt he s tat
ion t oe nsure t ha tthe f ie
ld p at te rn d oe s
nots hif t.
The v ariation o f c urr en t magn i
tude a s a
,—Sec t
ion
f
unc tion o f p osition o n a n a n tenna c an b e o
f tower
mea sured w ith a ny o f the t ype s o fs amp ling
l
oop ss hown i nF ig. 1 5-17 b y mov ing t he loop J
j / Loop
a
long t he a n
tenna . I fi na dd ition i ti sdesired
t
om ea sure t he p hase v ar
ia tion, ac ompa rison
mus t b e made b etween t he p hase o ft he s am -
p
led c ur ren t a nd a r eference c urren t. T his C
oaxial l
ine
may b e d one, f or e xamp le, a s i ndicated b y b
onded to leg
o
f tower
a
dd ing t he d a shed c onne c tion s s hown i n the 4
s
chema tic d i ag ram o f F ig. 1 5-19a . H e re the
s
igna l p icked u p b y t he s amp ling l oop i s
mixed w ith a s ignal o f a pp roxima te ly e qua l
amp litude e x tra cted b y ap robe o n ama tched
Fm
. 1 5-19b. C urr en t s amp -
s
lotted l i
ne . W i th the a ntenna s amp ling l oop
l
i
ngl o
op o n broad cas t
-station
f
i
xed , t he l i
ne p robe i s moved t og ive am in i- t
ower
.
mum i ndica tion . When t he a ntenna s amp ling
l
oop i sd i
sp la ced t o an ew l oca t
ion ,t he l i
ne p robe ismoved s oast o ma in tain
am in imum i ndica tion . T he p hase s h
ift b etween t he l i
ne -probe p osit
ion s
t
hen e qua ls t he p hase s hi ft b etween t he t wo a ntenna s amp ling-loop l oca -
t
ion s
. T he p ha se s h
if ti sal i
nea rf unc t
ion o fd istance o n al ine with ma tched
t
erm ina tion . A ssum ing t he p hase v elocity e qua l
s t ha t of ligh t i n f ree
s
pa ce, t he p ha se s h
ift 0a l ong t he l i
ne i nd eg reesp e ru n
i tl ength i sg iven b y
3
607X w here X i st he f ree -space w aveleng th o f t he a pplied s i
gna l. T he
phase c hange b e tween t wo p oin ts o n t he line i sthen t he d is
tance b e tween
t
he p oin ts mu ltip l
ied b y 0 .
The p ha se v elo c
ity va l ong t he a n tenna i sg iven b y v = Xof w here fi s
t
he f requency a nd Xo i s t he w ave leng th m ea sured a long t he a ntenna .
I
Mi
lton Ar
onof," Measured PhaseVeloc
ity andC urr
en tDist
ribut
ion Characte
ris
tics
o
fHel
icalBeam A ntennasR adiat
ing intheB eam M ode," maste
r'sthe
sis
, D epar
tm ent
o
fEl
ectr
icalE ng
ineering
,T heO hio S
tate Univer
sity
, 1948.
G
iorg
io Barzi
lai
, E xp
e r
im enta
l D e
termination ofthe Dist
ribut
ion ofC urrent and
C
har
geA long Cyl
indrica
lA ntennas
, Proc
. I.R.E.
, 3, 8
7 25-829
,J u
ly, 19
49.
4
64 ANTEN N AS [
C m"
. 1
5
This i st he l ength f o r a3 60 ° shi ft i np has e a long t he a ntenna . T his may

b
e d e term ined f rom a p ha se-v s.-leng th c u rve m ea sured a s a bove . O r t he
measu remen t may b e s imp lified b y m ea su ring o nly t he d istance i nte rvals
f
or a3 60 ° p hase s h
i ft. I n t his c ase t he s lot ted ma tched l i
ne c an b e d i
s-
p
ens ed w ith a nd t he r efe rence v oltage f e d d irec tly t o t he j unc tion J , as
i
ndica ted b yt he d otted l ine i nF ig. 1 5-19a . T he d istance a long t he a ntenna
b
etween s ucce ssive m inimum r ead ing s o n t he i ndicato r c orre spond s t o 1
wave leng th X0. T his m ethod i s sui tab le w hen t he c urren t a mp litude
d
istribu tion i sr ela t
ive ly u nifo rm . I ft he SWR i sv ery l arge, t hi s m ethod
i
sd if icu lt t o a pply a nd i t may b e s imp le r t o t ake Xo a s e qua l t o t wice
t
he d istance b etween s ucces sive c urr en t m in ima , e xclud ing t he m in imum
a
t t he e nd o f the a ntenna . T he p ha se -ve lo city c urve o f F ig. 7 -19 w as
measured o n as l
o tted h elix u sing t he p robe a r rangemen t o f F ig. 1 5-19a
(
withou t s lotted l ine ) a nd a c omb ina tion o f t he a bove p has e
-ve lo city
method s
. A t l ow f requenc ie s t he SWR o n t he h e
lix i sl arge , a nd t wice
t
he d istance b etween s ucce ssive c ur ren t m in ima w as t aken f o r Xo. A t
a
xial mode f r
equenc ie s t he c ur ren t amp li tude i s mo re u n
ifo rm a long t he
h
elix, a nd X0 w asm ea sured a s a3 60 ° p hase s h
i ft
.
1
5-10 . Wave P ola riza tion . W i th s ome a ntenna s i t i s o f i nte rest t o
measur e t he n atu re o f t he p ola riza tion . T hi s may b e m ea sured a t o ne
f
requency a s af unc tion o ft he s pa ce a ng le s 0a nd c k( s
ee F ig . 1 5-2 )
. O r it
may b e m ea sured a to ne a ngula r p osition ( 00,q 5o)a s af unc t
ion o ft he f r
e-
q
uency . S uch m ea suremen ts a re d e sirab le w he re t he d om inan t r adia tion
i
sc i
r cu la rly o re lip tica lly p ola rized . B efo re d e
s cribing m ethods o fm eas-
u
ring t he p olariza tion ( S ec. 1 5-17 ),t he g ene rals ub jec to fw ave p ola riza tion
w
ill b e r e viewed .
I
ti sc onven ien t t oc on side rl inear p olar iza tion a nd c ircula rp ola riza tion
a
s s pec ial c ases o fe lip tica l p ola r
iza t ion . T he e l
e ctr
ic f i
e
ld v e cto rs f or a
l
inear ly p olar ized w ave' a re s hown i n F ig. 1 5-20a . T he magn i tude a nd
d
irec tion o ft he e lec tric f i
eld E a re i ndica ted a s af unc t
ion o fd istance f o
r
ag iven i nstan t o ft ime . I n F ig. 1 5-20b t he w ave i sv iewed f rom t he d i
-
r
ection o f t he p o si
tive z a x
is ( wave a pp roa ching r eade r
). T he e lec tr
ic
f
i
eld E v a r
ie si n magn i tude b etween p osi tive a nd n egative E 2, t he d ire ction
o
fEb eing c onfined t o t he y d ire ction . I n F ig. 1 5
-20 c t he i nstantaneou s
s
pace d is tribu tion o f Ei sp res ented f ora ne l ip tically p olariz ed w avet ravel-
i
ng i n t he p ositive zd irec tion . A s v iewed f rom t he p o s
itive za xis, t he
t
ip o ft he e lectric f ield v ec to r Ea t af ixed p osition zd escribe s a n e lipse
w
ith ma jo r a nd m ino r s em iaxe s E , a nd E , a s s hown i nF ig. 1 5-20d . T he
s
pecia l c ase o f t he l i
nea rly p olar ized w ave o f F ig. 1 5-20a a nd b o ccur s
I
A li
near
ly po
la r
ized w
ave issometimes c
a
lled a "
plane-po
lar
ized" w
ave
. Howev er,
"
plane" i
sused here i
nanother s
ens
e;so toavoid c
onfus
ion the t
erm l
i
nea
rly p
ola
riz
ed
w
il be emn
loyed
.
S
e
c. 1
5
-1
1] ANTENNA MEASURE MENTS 4
65
when E,= 0 . O n t
he other h
and, when EI = E2,the e
l
ip se b e
comes a
c
i
r cle and we have another spec
ial c
ase o
f el
iptica
l po
la r
iza t
ion ca
lled
c
i
r cular p
olar
iza
tion
. T he v a
ria
tion o
f Efor ac
ircula
rly p
olarized wave i
s
i
lu stra
ted by F
ig. 1
5-20
ea nd f
.
X
L
i
nea
r p
o
l
ari
zat
ion
/ W
ove
d
i
re
ct
ion
(
a) (
b
)
L
o
cusofti
p
sof
i
n
s
tan
tan
eousE
.
,
x
E
l
ipt
ica
l p
o
la
riza
tio
n
/Wav
e
d
i
r
ect
ion
E
i
(
c
) (
d)
C
i
rcu
lar p
o
la
riza
tion
(
e
) c
n
z
R
io
. 1
5
-20
. L
i
near
,el
ipt
ica
l, a
ndc
i
rcu
larp
o
lar
iza
tion
.
Anel
liptically po
larized wave may b er egarded from two po
intso fview:
(
1
) ast he resultant oftwo li
nea r
ly p olar
ized w aves ofthe same frequency
a
nd (2) as t he re
sultant of t wo circular
ly p olar
ized w aves of the same
f
r
equency b ut having oppos
i te r o
tation directions
. B o
th p o
ints o f v
iew
w
il
l bed i
scu ssed, t
he former b e
ing t aken u p f
i
rst.
1
5-11. Ell
ip t
ical Polari
zat
ion a s P roduced b y Two L inear
ly P olar
ized
Waves.
' I n t h
is s
ection an e
l iptical
ly p o
la r
ized w ave i
sconsidered as t
he
1M
axB
orn
, "
Opt
ik," V
er
lagJ
u
liu
sSp
ring
er, B
erl
in
, 1
9
33,p
.21
.
4
66 ANTEN N AS [
CHAP
. 1
5
r
esu
ltant o
ft wo l
i
nea
rly po
lar
ized w
aves oft he same fr
equency. A s
sume
t
hatboth wavesar
etrave
ling i
nthe p
os
itive zd i
rect
ion a nd t
hatthe pl
ane
o
fpolariza
tion' o
fo ne wave i
sint he
xdi
re c
tion a nd the o
ther in t
he y
d
i
rection a s in F
ig. 1
5-21. If zi s
Ex h
orizon tal, t
he w ave with E i nthe x
d
i
rec tion may a lso be ca
lled ah or
i-
D
i
rect
ion o f propaga
tion
z
ontally p o
larized w ave a nd t he
wave w ith E i n the y d i
rec t
ion a
v
ertically polarized w ave
.
FIG
. 15-21
. L inear
ly p olarized c ompo -
L
ett he in
stan taneou selec
tric fi
eld
n
ents o
fa n el
ipt
ical
ly polarized w ave, o
ft he horizontally polar
ized w ave be
d
esigna ted E,a nd the i
nstantaneou s
e
lectr
ic fi
eld of the ver t
ica lly p olarized w ave b e des
igna ted a s E,
. T hen
a
s af unction oft ime and d istance,
= E1s
i
n (
c
o
t —O
z
) (
15
-24
)
a
nd
E
, =E
2 s
i
n(c
o
t — z+ 5
) (
15
-25
)
w
here El = amp l
itude ofhorizon ta
lly p o
larized w ave
E2 = ampl
itude ofvertically polar
ized w ave
6 = time-phase ang
le b yw hich E,l eadsE . (the hor
izon ta
lly p
o
la-
r
ized wave i
staken a st he re
ference f o
rp hase)
T
he component ofthe fi
eld int he zdirect
ion i severywhe re ze
ro ( E
. =0 )
.
T
he i n
stantaneous values of t he fi
elds may a lso b e expressed as t
he
i
maginary par
t (Im) of acomp lex function. T hus,
E
. = I
m Es = E
, I
m eu "-
P '
)= E
,si
n (
C
id — 1
34 (
1
5-26a
)
a
nd
E
, = I
mE. = E2 IM e
" ") = E2 s
i
n (
c
o
t —f
i
z 6
) (
15
-26b
)
w
here
'
E (
.
8-no (
1
5-27a
)
a
nd
= E
2e i
o
.,-
0.+
8) (
1
5-27b
)
T
he i
ns
tantaneous v
a
lue o
fthe t
o
talf
i
e
ld E r
e
sul
ting f
r
om t
he t
wo l
i
nea
rly
p
o
lar
ized waves i
s
E= i
E
, s
i
n (
c
ot — f
t
z) j
E2 s
i
n (
c
o
t —i
f
t
z+ a
) (
1
5
-28
)
'The d
irect
ion oft
he E v
ector (Eplane
) isusualy taken a
sthe d
i
r ec
tion o
fthe "p
lane
o
fp olar
ization" o
f ali
nea
rly pola
rized wave
.
'The dot C) i
nd
ica
testhat E.and E, are c
omp lex f
unct
ionsoft,z,a nd öb
u t as
calar
s
pace component ofthe t
o
talf i
e
ld vector E
. I ng ene
ral, t
he i
n
stantaneous v
alue o
ft he
f
i
eld is
E=i lm t +jIm E ,
SE
C
. 1
5
-11
] AN TE N N A ME AS U RE MEN TS 4
67
A
t z= 0
,(1
5-28
) r
educe
s t
o
E= i
E
, s
i
n c
o
t j
E2 s
i
n (
c
o
t + (
15
-29
)
Eva
luating (15-29) as afunction o f time tand plot
ting the v
alues o
f t
he
t
ota
l fi
eld E, the time v ar
iation o f Ei n t
he x-y plane isobta
ined. I
n
g
enera
l t he ti
p o f t
he vector E d es
cribes al o
cu s that i
san elipse
. I
f
E
, = E2 a nd 5= 9 0
°, t
he elip se become s aci
rcle
.
The f
ac t t
hat, in g
eneral
, t he locus isan elipse may b e s
hown in a
n-
o
ther way b y p rov
ing t hat ( 15-24) a nd (15
-25) w ith z = 0 a re t
he
p
arametric equations o
fa n el
l
ip se
. T hus, w
e have
E
, =E
, s
i
nco
t (
15
-30
)
E
, = E2 s
i
n (
c
o
t d
) (
15
-31
)
w
here c
o
t i
sthe independent va
riable
. T he p
rocedu
re used in t
he proof
w
i
ll be t
o e
liminate co
t and r
earrange the r
esu
lting e
xpress
ion into the
f
o
rm ofthe e
quation f
or an e
l
ips e
. F ir
st we e
xpand (1
5-31)
. T hat is
,
E
, = E2 (
s
in c
o
tco
s 3 c
osw
tsi
n 5
) (
15
-32
)
F
rom (
15
-30
)
s
i
nco
t = (
15
-33
)
E
,
We a
l
so c
an w
rite
c
osc
o
t = V1 — s
i
n 2c
o
t = — (
15
-34
)
S
ubst
itu
ting (
15
-33
) a
nd (
15
-34
) i
n (
15
-32
) a
nd r
ear
rang
ing a
nd s
qua
ring
y
ie
lds
,
w
2 2
E,E c
os 3 E'2 .
± =s
m2 (
15
-35
)
D
ivid
ing b
ysi
n2 6
,(1
5-35
) c
an b
e r
educed t
o
a
E: — b
E,E
, c
E: = 1 (
15
-36
)
w
here a = 1
/E;s
i
n2 5
b= 2c
os 3
/E,E 2s
i
n2
c= 1 /E:sin2 3
Equation (15-36) may be recognized as the equa
tion for an e
l
lipse in i
t
s
most general fo
rm, the axes o
ft he p o
lariza
tion e
lipse not
, in g
enera
l, co
-
i
ncid
ing w ith the x and y axes ( F
ig. 15
-22). T h
is i sthe g
enera
l case of
e
l
lipt
ica l po
la r
izat
ion. T he l
ine segmen t OA ist he semimajo
r axis
, and
t
he li
ne segmen t OB isthe semim inor ax
is ofthe e
l ip
se. T he r
at
io OA to
4
68 AN TE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
5
OB isca
lled t
he ax
ial r
a
tio (
AR) o
fth
e p
o
lar
iza
tion e
lip
se o
r s
imp
ly t
he
a
xia
l ra
tio.
' T hu
s
OA
A
xia
l r
a
tio = 0
—B (
15
-37
)
R
eturn
ing now t
o (
15-35
), t
hree spec
ial c
asesw
ill be c
onsidered.
C
ase 1. Fi
rst c
ons
ider the c
ase w here E, i
seither exact
ly i n p
hase
o
r 1
80 ° o
ut o
f p
hase w
ith E. T hen 6 = k r
, where k = 0, 1,2 ,3, •••
a
nd Eq. (
15
-35) then reduces t
o
E
: 2
E,E g.
,_
2
E
l ± E
,E, -
1 E
:
P
o
lar
iza
tion
e
l
ipse
wh
ich may b
e r
ewr
itten a
s
(
f
.,±E
92
2=0 (
15
-39
)
or
E
E
y = ±-1 E
y (
15
-40
)
E
,
E
quation (
15
-40
) ist
he e
qua
tion o
f
as
tra
ight l
i
ne o
fthe f
o
rm
FI
G
. 1
5-22
. P
ola
riza
tion e
l
lip
se.
E
, = mE
, (
15
-41
)
where m = t he s
lope equalto ±E2/Ei
When ki se ven ( 5 = 0 ,2T, 4 7
r
, e t c
.), t
he slope i sp o
sitive, and when ki s
o
dd ( 6 = 7, 3
r 7
r, 5 T
, e t
c.) the slope i snegative.
Thu s
, when t he t wo l
inearly p o
la r
ized c omponen t w aves are e
xactly i
n
p
has eo r 1
80 °o ut ofp hase, the r esultant wave i sl i
nearly polar
ized with E
,
i
n general, n ot in t he x or yd i rection. Howeve r
, if E2 = 0 ,Ei si n t
he
xdirection a nd t he r e
sultant w ave i sh or
izon taly p olarized. I fE, = 0,
Eisi n the y d irection a nd t he w ave isvertically p o
la r
ized. I fE, = Es
a
nd 5 = 0 , t hen m = +1 a nd E i sat a4 5° a ngle with r e
spect to t
he
p
osi
t ive x axis ( Fig
. 1 5-23a). I fE , = E3 a nd 5 = 7 r
,t hen m = -1 a nd
Eisa t anega tive 4 5°a ngle w
i th r espectt othe p osit
ive xa x
is (F
ig. 1
5-23b
).
The angle 7 ( Fig. 15-23a a nd 2 3b) i sre
lated tot he sl
ope m b y
7 = a
rctan m (
15
-42
)
'Th
et e
rm e liptic
ity isal
so used synonymously with axia
l rat
io. However , el
iptic
ity
a
l
so may m ean the r
atio ofthe dife
rence o
ft he majora nd minora xe
s t
ot he majo rax
is.
A
nother t
erm u sed i n connect
ion w ith e
l
lipses i
se cc
entric
ity. The e c
centric
ity of an
e
lip
se ist
he ratio of the d
istance between afocus and the cente
r to t
he sl
ant distance
b
etween afocus and the end ofthe minoraxis
.
SE
C
. 1
5
-11
1 ANTEN N A ME AS U RE MEN TS 4
69
C
ase 2
. Nex
t c
ons
ide
r t
he s
i
tua
tion w
here E
. a
nd E
. a
re i
ntime p
has
e
q
uadratu
re. T
hat i
s
,
5— 1-
I
-2k 7
(
15
-43
)
2
w
here k = 0
,1 ,2, 3...
T
hen t
he cro
ss-produc
t t
erm i
n (
15
-35
) d
i
sappea
rs a
nd (
15
-35
) r
educe
s t
o
g +g = 1 (
1
5-44
)
E
f
T
his i
sthe s
tandard f
o
rm o
fthe e
quation f
or an e
lip
se, t
hat i
s
, a
n el
ip se
w
ith i
t
s axe
s coinc
iden
t w
ith t
he c
oordina
te axes
. Th is i
s as
pec
ial case
x x
E, 1
(
c
) (
d)
F
ro. 1
5
-23
. E
xamp
leso
fli
nea
rly
, e
l
ipt
ica
lly
, a
nd c
i
rcu
lar
ly p
o
lar
ized w
ave
s.
o
fel
lip
tical po
lariza
tion. F o
re xample i
f E2 = lEit
he p
olar
iza
tion e
l
l
ipse
i
sasshown i nFig. 15
-23c.
C
ase 3
. F inally cons
ider Case 2fo
r the s
pec
ial c
ond
ition o
f E1 = E 2.
T
hen (15-44
) become s
E
: + E
: =E
! (
15
-45
)
4
70 AN TE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
5
Th
isi sthe equa tion of ac irc
le ( F
ig. 1 5
-23d ). H ence,w hen the two l i
nea rly
p
ola r
ized c omponen t w aves a re i n time p hase q uad ratu re and a lso a re
e
qua l ina mp l
i tude , the resultant w ave i scircularly p olarized.
15-12. C lockw ise a nd C oun terclockw ise C ircula r P olarizat
ion. L e
t u s
n
ow c ons
ide r t he case ofc ir
cu larp o
larization ( Cas e 3,S ec. 15
-11) i n mo re
d
etail. A cco rding t o ( 15-45) t he l o
cu s of t he t ip of t he vector Ei sa
c
i
rcle. T ha t is
,a t af i
xed p osit
ion o n t he za xis the r e
su ltante l
ectric f i
eld
v
ecto r Ei sc ons tan t in magn itude a nd r otat es un
i form ly w ith time i nt he
x
-y p lane c omp le t
ing o ne r evolution e ach c ycle
. Howeve r
, (15-45
) g ives
n
o i nforma tion a s to the direction i n w h
ich E r ota tes, t hat is
, cl
ockw ise
o
r c ounterclockw ise. T o dete rmine t he r otation d irection , l
et us r ewrite
(
15-30 ) and ( 15-31 ) for the special case w e a r
e con sidering , namely,
5= 1± 2
k 7 a
nd E
, =E
,
2
w
here k = 0
,1, 2...
T
hen, w
hen kiseven
E
. = +E
,si
nco
t (
1
5-46
)
E
. = +E
, c
osc
o
t (
1
5-47
)
a
nd w
hen ki
sodd E
. i
sthe s
ame b
ut
E
, = —E
, c
osc
u
t (
15
-48
)
Con
sider f
i
rs
t t
he c
ase w
here k i
seven (
3 = 7
/2, 5
r/2, e
t
c.)
. When
t= 0
,E . = 0,a
nd E
. = +E , s
o that Eisi
n t
he po
sit
ive y d
ire
ction
.
E
x s Ex
Z Z E
1
.
.0 t
- i T
t
.
• 0
F
la. 1
5-24
. E
xamp
leso
fcl
ockw
ise r
ota
tion o
fE(
a
) a
nd c
ounte
rclockw
iser
ota
tion (
b
).
One-quarter of acyc
le late
r E . = +E, a nd E, = 0s o that Ei si n the
p
ositive xdirec
tion
. H ence
, at afi
xed po
sition on t
he zax
is the resultant
e
l
e c
t ric f
i
eld vector E rotate
s in aclockwis e d
irec
tion as ilu
s t
ra ted in
F
ig. 1 5
-24a
.
Nex t c
onsider t
he ca
se for kodd (3 = 37/2, 77/2, e
t
c.)
. When t= 0 ,
E
. = 0 ,a nd E, = —E , so tha
t Ei sin the negat
ive y di
rection. O ne
SE
C
. 1
5
-13] ANTE N N A ME AS U RE ME N TS 4
71
quar ter c ycle l ater E . = - FE i a nd E . = 0s o t ha t Ei sint he p os

i t
ive x
d
ire ction . H ence , a t af ixed p osit
ion o n t he za xis t he r esultan t e l
ect r
ic
f
i
eld v ecto r E r ota te s i n ac oun te rclockw ise d ire ction a s i lus t
ra ted i n
F
ig . 1 5-24b. T he w ave i st rav e
ling i nt he p ositive zd i
rec t
ion ( o
u t ofp age )
i
n b o th t his c ase a nd t he o ne i lus tra ted b y F ig. 1 5-24a. T o a void a ny
uncer tain ty ast ot he w ave d irection ,w ec an c a
llt he f i
rstc ase ( F
ig . 15-24a )
"
clo ckw ise c i
rcu lar p ola r
iza tion w ave a pp roa ching" a nd t he s econd c ase
(
Fig. 1 5-24b ) " counte r
clo ckw ise c i
rcu la r p ola r
iza tion w ave a pp roach ing ."
I
f t he e l
ectric v ec tor a ppea rs t o r otate c lockw i se w ith t he w ave a p-
p
roa ch ing , the e lectric v ector o ft he s ame w ave a pp ea rst or otate c oun ter-
c
lockw ise w hen t he w ave i sv iewed f r om t he o ppo site d i
re ct
ion , t hat i s
,
w
i th t he w ave r eced ing f rom t he o bserve r. H ence , w e may s ay t hat
"
clo ckw ise cir
cu la rp o
la riza t
ion w ave a pproach ing" i st he same a s" coun te r-
c
lockw ise c i
rcu larp ola rization w ave r eced ing ."
A
cco rding t ot he u sage o fc lassica l p hy sic s, " c
lockw ise circula r pola r
iza -
t
ion w ave a pproach ing" i sc a
lled " righ t-cir cu la r p ola r
iza t
ion ." Howeve r
,
a
cco rd ing t o t he I RE S tanda rd s
' " clo ckw i se c i
r cu lar p olariza t
ion w ave
r
eceding" i scalled " righ t-circula r p ola riza tion ." Whe re the t erm s " r
igh t-
c
i
r cula r" o r "left-cir cula r" a re u sed i n t he f o
llowing d iscussion, t he I RE
d
efini t
ion w ill b e e mployed b ecau se o ft he c onven ien t r e
lation f o
r h el
ica l
b
eam a ntenna s. T hu s
, ar ight-hand ed h elica l b eam a ntenna t r
an sm its o r
r
eceive sr ight-
ci rcula rp olarization .
The t wo t ype s o f c ircula r p olariza tion a nd t he v ar
ious t erm s u sed t o
d
es cr
ib e them a res umma r
ized i nT ab le 1 5-1 .
T
ABLE 1
5-1
Type o
fh el
ica
l
C
lass
ica
l I
.R.E.
beam antenna fo
r
P
ola
riza
tion phys
ics d
e
fini
tion
g
enera
ting orre-
u
sage (
1942)
c
e
iving po
lariza
tion
C
lockw
ise wave app
roach
ing
o
r R
ight L
eft L
eft
-handed
C
ounte
rclockwise w
ave r
eced
ing
C
ounter
clockwise wave a
pproa
ching
o
r L
eft R
ight R
ight
-handed
C
lockw
ise wave re
ceding
1
5-13
. Clockw
ise and Coun
terc
lockw
ise El
lip
tical Po
lar
iza
tion. In t
he
g
enera
l si
tuat
ion whe
re the re
sul
tant wave i
se l
iptica
lly p
o
larized
, i
tis
1I
.R.E
. S
tanda
rds on Rad
io Wave Propaga
tion (
d
efin
ition o
f t
e
rms
) 1
942
, p
. 2
,
S
upplement t
oProc
. I
.R.E
., 3
0, No
. 7
,Part II.
4
72 ANTENNAS [
CHA
P. 1
5
a
l
so of i
nteres
t to know t he d
irection of r
otat
ion ofE. T h
is can be d
e-
t
e
rm ined by plo
tting E fo
r several in
stants o
ft ime a
s c
a
lculated f
rom E.
a
nd E.in( 1
5-30) and (
15-31)
. O rw ec an p
roceed i
nthe f
o
llowing manne
r.
D
ivide (
15-27b) by (
15-27a) obtain
ing
(
15
-49
)
E
quation (
15
-49
)wi
llnow b
eappl
ied t
os eve
rals
pec
ialcase
sa silu
s t
ration
s.
C
ase 1
. When E
. a
nd E
. ar
e inphase
, 8= 0. T hen (
15-49
) reduces t
o
Er_ _
E
,E2
. — 7- El
or
Er
= -
F
Pa E
(
15
-50
)
When .
k
,and E
.are 1
80° o
ut o
fphase
, 5= T. T
hen (
15
-49
) b
ecome
s
= k
E9
o
r (
15
-51
)
E
. — E1 Ei
B
oth (1
5-50) and (15
-51) a
reequa
tionsofstra
ightl
ines
,the r
e
sul
tan
tw ave
b
e
ing li
nearly po
larized.
C
ase2. N ex
tc onsidert
he s
i
tuation w
here E1l
e
ad
sE .b y90
°or 6= 7
/2.
T
hen (15-
49 ) r
educes to
(
15
-52
)
Thi
s isthe case o
f cl
ockwis
e e
lipt
ical p
olar
iza
tion (
wave app
roach
ing).1
The ax
ial r
atio o
f the po
lar
iza
tion el
ipse i
si n t
h
is i
ns
tance E2/E1. I
f
t
he ax
ial r
at
io isun
ity (E2 = E
1), t
hen
I
: +
j (
1
5-53
)
Th
is ist
he c
a se ofc
lockwis
e circu
lar pola
riza
tion (wave a
pproa
ching
). I t
s
hould b
e noted that the ra
tio E2/ E
, e qua
ls the ax
ial r
at
io on
ly w hen
5=
Cas
e 3. Finally c
on s
ider the si
tuation w re E
he „ lag
s Ea by 90° or
o= — 7/2. T hen (
15-49) be
come s
E, .E 9
— 3 (
15
-54
)
l
Acco
rding t
oth
eIRE d
ef
in
it
ion t
h
isw
ould b
eca
l
led "
l
ef
t-e
ll
ipt
ica
l p
olar
izat
ion
."
SE
C
. 1
5
-14
] ANTEN NA.ME AS U RE ME N TS 4
73
T
his i
sthe c
ase o
fcoun
tercl
ockwise e
lip
tica
l p
o
lar
iza
tion (
wave a
pproach
-
i
ng
). When E2 = E1 (15
-54
) reduce
st o
k
=—
j (
15
-55
)
Ex
Thi
si sthe ca se ofcounterclockwisecircula rpolarizat
ion ( wave approa ching).
Thus, from C ases 2a nd 3w e c
an conc lude t hat a+ j ind
icate s cl
ockw ise
r
otation w h
ile a — j indicates count erclockw ise ro
ta tion of E ( wave a p-
p
roaching )
.
1
5-14 . P o
la ri
zation a s aF unc
tion o f E2/E 1a nd S . I nthe previouss ec-
t
ions w e have s een that t he rat
io E z/E , (or E1/ E3)a nd the phase a ngle
d
eterm ine the t ype ofp olarizat
ion o ft he re
su ltant w ave produced b y t wo
l
i
nea r
ly p olarized componen t w aves (w ith their plane s o
f polar
iza t
ion a t
r
ight angles). T he polariza t
ion e l
ip ses for Eo f the resu
ltan t wave a s a
f
unction of E2/ E 1a
nd 6a re pre
sented i nF ig
. 1 5-25 for E2/ E 1va
lueso f c o,
0I I I I I I I 1 I
2 j
I
s L\
.
3
g
_2
Ei C
oun
ter C
lock-
l -
c )
N
1 N
.
..
.)
c
lockw
ise w
ise
0
-
18Cr -
135° -
90° -
45 ° 0° +
45° +
90° +
135° +
180°
8
Fm. 1
5-25. C hart o
f po
lariza
tion e
l
l
ipse
s a
s afunc
tion o
f t
he r
at
io E
2/E
1 a
nd p
hase
a
ngle 6(wave approa
ching)
2
,1 ,0 .
5, a nd 0a nd 5values o f0°, ±45 °
, ±90 °
, ±135 °, a nd ±180 °. T he
d
irection o fr otat
ion of Ei si ndicated. I ti sclockwise for p os
itive v alues
o
f 6a nd c ounte rc
lo ckw
ise forn egative va
lueso f 5( wave a pp roaching ).
R
eferring t o F ig. 1
5-25, t he resultant w ave i sli
nea r
ly p o
la r
ized a nd
v
ertical fora l
l v a
lue sof 5w hen E2/ E1 = co,thati s
,w hen E I = 0 . Wh en
E2/ E1 = 0 ,t hat is
,w hen E 2 = 0 ,t he wave islinear
ly p olarized a nd h or
i-
z
ontal for a l
l v a
lue s o
fS. T he w ave isal
so l i
nearly polar
ized w hen 5 = 0
o
r ±180 °
, t he p lane of pola r
ization (horizontal, sl
an t
, o r v ert
ica l) de-
p
end ing o nt he ratio E2/E l. Circularp o
larization occurso n
ly f o
rt he case
where E2/ E
, = 1a nd 6 = ±90 °. When 6 = +90 °
, the rotation di rection
4
74 ANTE N N AS (
CHAP
. 1
5
i
sclo
ckw ise (wave approaching)
, and w hen ö = —9 0 °,the r
otat
ion direc-
t
i
on i s counterc
lockwise ( wave approaching
). A l
l t he se s
ituat
ions a re
s
pec
iall imit
ing cases o
fthe genera
ls i
tua t
ion inwhich t he wave ise l
ip t
i-
c
a
lly polarized
. I n F
ig. 15
-25 there a
r e 1
6cases o
felip tica
l polar
ization.
I
n Fig. 15-25 w e n
ote that f
or ag iven va
lue o
f E2/E1 a ll po
larization
8
0
6
0
5
0
4
0
3
0
.
2
0
1
0
8
6
5
4
3
2
E2
E
l 0.
8
0
.
6
0
.
5
0
.
4
0
.
3
0
.
2
0
.
1
0
.
08
0
.
06
0
.
05
0
.
04
0
.
03
0
.
02
0
.
01
-
1
50 -
1
20*-
9
0° -
60
'-30
' 0
' +
30
' 4
60* +
90
' +
1
20'+
1
50*+
1
90'
a
FI
G
. 1
5-26
. Wave p
olar
iza
tion c
har
t.
e
lipse
s ar e c
ontained w i
thin ar ectangle (dashed l
ines
) ofhe
igh t
- to -width
r
at
io equa l t
o E2/ E i. For E2/E, = 0o r c
ot he r
ectang
le degene ra te
s to
ali
ne
.
Two linear
ly p o
larized antennas oriented at r
ight ang
les and ene rgized
w
ith equal voltages inp hase quadrature are sometimes emp
loyed t o pro
-
d
uce cir
cu la
r p o
larizat
ion. I ft he vo
l tages a
re unequal o
r t
he p ha se re
la-
SE
C
. 1
5
-15
] ANTE N N A MEAS U RE ME N TS 4
75
t
ion i sn ot9 0°, t he p o
la r
iza tion b ecome s elip tica
l. B y m ean s ofp ola r
iza-
t
ion m easur emen ts o f the r adia ted w ave ( Sec. 15-17 ) i ti sp os s
ib le to
d
et erm ine w hat a djustment s s hou ld b e made o n t he a ntenna t o o btain
c
i
r cula r p ola rization . F or e xamp le , s uppo se t hat o ne o f t he l i
nearly
p
ola riz ed a ntenna s i sv ertical a nd t he o the r i shorizon tal. T hen i fthe
p
ola riza tion i se lip tical
, w ith t he ma jo r a xis o f the p ola r
iza t
ion e lipse
e
i
the rv e rticalo rh orizontal, t he p ha s
ing i s ±90 °b utt he t wo a ntenna sa re
r
adia ting u nequa l p ower s ( see F ig . 1 5-25) . I f the ma jo r a xis o f the
p
ola riza tion e lip se i sa t r = ±4 5 °
, i ti ndica tes tha t the t wo a ntennas
a
re r adiat ing t he s ame p owe r b ut t he p ha se i sn ot ±90 °. F or o ther
e
lip se s
, t he p owe r divis
ion a nd p has ing c an b e e
st
ima ted w ith t he a id of
F
ig. 1 5 -25 .
To p re s ent w ave p olar
iza tion d ata , ac ha rt w ith c oordina tes s im ilar to
t
ho se i nF ig. 1 5-25 i su se
fu l
. Ac har to ft his t ype i spre sented i nF ig. 1 5-26.
The o rd ina te i st he r at
io E2/ E 1,a nd t he a b sc
issa i st he p ha se a ngle 6 .
Ap o
in t o n t he c ha rt define s the p ola r
iza t
ion u n
ique ly. T hu s
, t he p oint
E2/ E, = 1a nd 8 = +90 ° c orre spond s t o c lockw i
se c i
rcula r p olariza t
ion
(
wave a pp roa ching )
. I f t he p olar iza tion o f a n an tenna i so bserved t o
c
hange a s af unc t
ion o ff r
equency , t his v ar
ia t
ion c an b e plotted a s al i
ne
o
nt he c har to fF ig. 1 5-26
. T he v a
l-
u
es o f E2/ E, a nd 6c an also b e c on- P
o
int
v
en ien tly p re sen ted o nthe c ha rtso f I(
x,y
)
F
ig. 1 5-33 d is cussed i nSe c
. 1 5-17 .
1
5-15 . O r
ien ta tion o fP olarization
E
llipse w ith R espec tt oC oord ina tes.
I
t i so ften o f i nte rest to k now t he Polarization
l
a
ng le o ft i
lt 7o ft he ma jora xiso ft he eipse s
inr
p
ola
rization el
ipse with r e
spec
t to
t
he r
eference a
xis
. T he a
ngle 7 w
i
ll
b
ecalled the t
i
l
ta ng
le. It may b
ede-, i
e
c
osT cs
nr
i
t
ermined graphical
ly f
rom the po
lar
-
i
za
tion elip se a s e
valuated from
(
15-30
) and ( 15-31
) a
s af unc
tion of F
la. 1
5
-27
. C
ons
truc
tion f
o
r f
i
nding t
he
t
ime. Or Tc an be o
btained exp
lic
- a
ngle 7 b
etween t
he x a
x
is and t
he majo
r
i
t
ly as afunction ofE„ E2,a nd 6in o
r minor a
xis o
fthe p
olar
iza
tion e
l
lip
se
t
he f
ol
lowing manne r
.
T
he re
ference axe
s are X
, Ya s s
hown i
n F
ig. 1
5
-27. Let anew se
t of
a
xesX', Y
'a lso becons
truc
ted. The c
oord
ina
tesofany p
o
in t P may t
hen
b
e e
xpres
sed i nthe n
ew coord
ina
tes a
s
x= c
os r — y/ s
in r (
15-56
)
y= x
'si
n 7+ y
' c
o
s 7 1 S-
( 57)
4
76 AN TE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
5
T
herefo
re, t
he e
lec
tric f
i
e
ld component
s (E
. and E.
) can b
e e
xpr
essed i
n
t
e
rm s o
fn ew f
i
e
ld component
s (E.
, and Es.
)asf
ol
low s
,
E
. = E. c
os r— E
., s
i
n (
15
-58
)
E
. =E
. s
i
n T± E
.
, c
os 7 (
15
-59
)
Now s
ubs
titu
ting (
1
5-58
) a
nd (
15
-59
) i
n
to (
15
-35
) y
ie
lds
1
— 5(
E:
. c
os2 7 — 2
E..E
., s
i
n 7c
os T+ E: • s
i
n2 7
)
E
,
2cos 5[
(
E.,— 4
.) s
i
n2 r c
os r+ E
..E
..(co
s2 r— s
i
n2 7
)
] (
15
-60
)
E
,E2
±
1
-- 2
E 2
" (
2
E ,s
'
i
• 2
n2 7 -
I
-2E
.,E
., s
i
n 7c
os r± E. c
o
s
2 7
-)= s
in 2 8
Equa t
ion (1 5
-60) ist he g eneral relat
ion fo
r an ellipse invo
lving t
he fi
eld
c
omponen ts in the direct
ion o f t he new coord
ina te a xe
s and the a
ngle 7
b
etween t he o ld and n ew x a xes
. I f 7isadjusted s o tha
t the new co-
o
rdina te a
xe s co
incide w ith the ma jo
r and minor a xes ofthe po
lar
ization
e
l
lipse, asinF ig. 15-27
, then t he sum o fthe c
ross
-p roduc ttermsin (
15-60)
i
sz ero
. T his rela
tion c an t hen b e so
lved for T
. T hus
, se
tting t
he sum
o
ft he cro
ss-p roduct term s equa l to z
ero
,
2
E..E
., s
i
n 7 cos 7 2
E..E
., s
in r c
os r
E
: E
:
c
os 5 (cos2 in 2 r
7— s ) =0 (
15
-61
)
EIE2
S
olv
ing (
15
-61
) f
o
rthe t
i
lt a
ngle 7y
i
eld
s'
2
E,E 2 c
os 5
t
an 2
7 — Ef - E: (
15
-62
)
or
1 4 2E
,E2 c
os 5
T= 2
- a
r
c
o
nE: _ E : (
15
-63
)
By m eans of (15
-63) t he t
i
l t a
ngle 7 between the majo
r o r m
ino r ax
is of
t
he p o
larizat
ion e l
l
ip se and the posit
ive x axis can b
e c a
lcu
lated from a
knowledge of the p hase angle 8a nd the amplitudes E
, a nd E2 in the x
a
nd y d i
rections
. T he angle 7 a
s given by ( 1
5-63) i
st he a
ngle betwe en
t
he x a x
is and ei
ther t he major or minor ax
is of the e
l
lipse si
nce (15-61)
i
strue w hetherthe e l
lipse i
sass hown i nFig
. 15-27 orturned through 90°
s
o that it
s major axis isint he y
'direction
.
1Max B
orn
, "
Opt
ik," V
erlag J
ul
ius S
pringer
, B
erl
in, 1
933
, p
.23
.
SE
C
. 1
5
-16
] ANTE N N A MEAS U RE MENTS 4
77
Con s
ide r an e xamp le. F or equa l i n
-pha se componen t f i
elds ô = 0a nd
= E2,w e find f rom ( 15-63) t hat T= 4 5°
. T his ist he c ase o fl i
nea r
p
olarization a t as lan t ( 45°
) a ngle. F rom ( 15
-63) iti salso a ppa rent tha t
r= ±45 °w hen E1 = E2 f o
ra l
lv alue sof 6( s
ee Fig. 15-25,r ow forE 2/E , =
1
)
. A s a nother e xamp le, take t he c ase for a= 4 5° and E2 = 2 E,. T hen
T = — 21. 7 . T
° his i st he angle b etween t he x a x
is and t he m ino r ax
i s of
t
he e l
ip se ( s
ee e l
lip se a t 6= 4 5° a nd E 2/E , = 2i n Fig . 1 5
-25 ). T he
a
ngle tot he majo ra x
i si s9 0° —2 1
.7 ° = +68 .3°.
1
5-16 . E l
lipt
ica l P ola ri
zation a s P rodu ced b y Two C ircu lar
ly P olarized
Waves. I nthiss ection a neliptica l
ly p olarized w ave wil
lb er ega rded f rom
t
he pointo fview t hati tist he resultan to ft wo circu
la r
ly p olar
ized w ave s.
The ci
rcu larly p o
la rized w aves a re oft he o pposite rotat
ion d ire c
tion a nd,
i
ng eneral, ofu nequa l amp litude.
When t he a mplitude s a re equal, t he resultant w ave isl inearly p olarized
(
Fig
. 1 5-28a ). T he p lane o f pola r
iza t
ion d epend s on the p ha se r e
lation
C
i
rcu
lar
ly p
o
lar
ized
c
omponen
t w
ove R
esu
ltan
t
w
ave
(
a)
Ecw =
3 E CC w 2ECW
(
b
)
•
(
0
)
Ec.
,
•0
Fm. 15
-28
. Circu
lar
ly p
ola
rized c
omponent
s o
f l
i
nea
rly
, e
l
l
ipt
ica
lly
, a
nd c
i
rcu
lar
ly
p
olar
ized w
ave
s.
b
etwe
en the two c
i
rcularly p
ola
rized w ave
s. Inthe e xample o
fFig. 1
5-28a
t
he E v
ecto
rsf o
rb oth component w aves a
re i
nt he pos
itive y d
i
rect
ion at
t
he s
ame in
stant
. H ence, t
he r
esul
tan t wave i
sv er
tica
lly po
lar
ized.
4
78 ANTE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
5
When t he amp l
itude s a r
e u nequa l, t he r e
sultan t wave i se l
ip tica l
ly
p
olarized . I f
, f o
r e xamp le, the c ount erc
lo ckwise rotat
ing w ave h as t w
ice
t
he amp li
tude o ft he c lockw ise rotating w ave ( E„„ = 2 E , )
. the resu ltant
wave i se liptical
ly p olarized a s i lustrated i n Fig. 15-28b. S ince t he E
v
ecto r o f bo
th w ave s i si n the p ositive y d i
rection at the s ame i nstan t
,
t
he ma jo ra x
iso ft he p olarization e lipse i sv er
tical
. T he rotation direc tion
i
scoun terclockwise, t he s ame a sf ort he l argerc omponen tw ave
I
fo ne o ft he componen t w aves b ecome s zero, w e have a l imit
ing c ase
a
nd t he resul
tan tw ave i se qualt ot he o the rc omponen tw ave ( F
ig. 1 5-28 c)
.
The f acttha tt he resu l
tan to ft wo circula rly po
larized w aves (ofo ppo s
ite
r
otat
ion d irection) i s
, i n gene ral, a n elip tical
ly p olar
ized w ave c an a l
so
b
e demons tra ted ana lytically a sf o
llow s.
Le
t t he E v ector o ft he c oun terclockw i se rotating component w ave b e
e
xpres sed b y
E„
. = Ee l" (
1
5-64
)
a
nd f
o
rthe c
l
ockw
ise c
omponen
t b
y
Ec. = E
.e -"" +" (
1
5-65
)
T
he i
n
stan
taneou
s xa
nd yc
omponen
ts o
fthe r
e
sul
tan
twave a
ret
hen
E
. = R
e (
E„. + E
..) (
1
5-66
)
a
nd
E
. = I
m (
E„. + E
..) (
15
-67
)
T
here
for
e,
= E3 c
osw
t E4 c
os (
C
i
d + (
1
5-68
)
a
nd
E
. = E3 s
i
n c
o
t —E
. s
i
n (
w
t a
'
) (
15
-69
)
E
quations (1
5-68
) and (
15
-69
) ar
e the parame
tric e
qua
tions o
fan e
l
ipse
s
i
nce by el
iminat
ing c
o
tthey c
an b
e reduced t
o an e
qua
tion f
or a
n e
l
ipse
o
fthe fo
rm
q
E! p
E.E
. r
E: = 1 (
15
-70
)
where q,p,a nd ra r
e f unctions o
f E3,E ., and 5 .
The el
ectric vec to ro f ac i
rcular
ly p o
larized w ave r
otate
sw ith au n
ifo rm
a
ngula r ve
locity. F or a l i
nearly po
la r
ized w ave, Ei sin af ixed direction
f
or one half cycle a nd t hen isin the oppo site direct
ion for t he next h al
f
c
ycle
. T he s i
tua tion f or elipt
ical polar
iza t
ion i sb e
tween t he se ext
reme s
.
The angular veloci ty of Ef ora neliptical
ly p olarized wave iss ma
llerw hen
Eisi nthe direction o fthe ma jora x
is oft he p o
la r
izat
ion elipse a nd larger
when itisint he d irec t
ion o fthe mino raxis. T he angularv elo c
ity iss uch
t
hatt he ra
te ofs weep ing o utthe a
rea oft he p o
larizat
ion elipse i sconstan t
.
SE
C
. 1
5
-17
] ANTE N N A MEAS U RE ME N TS 4
79
1
5-17
. Polar
izat
ion Measu
rements
. Three me
thodsb
ywh
ich t
he p
o
lar
-
i
z
ation c
haract
eri
stics o
f aw
ave c
an bem
easured a
re
:
1
.B ym easu r
ing t he polar
ization pattern wi
th ali
nea rantenna a nd a lso
o
bserving t he d i
rection of rotation of E. T his wil be c al
led t he
p
olar
ization-pattern m e
thod.
2
. By m easuring t he amp litudes ( E1 and E3) o f two pe rpendicu lar
l
i
nearly p olar
ized c omponen t
s o f the wave and the p ha se angle 5
b
etween t hem. T h
is wil
l be cal
led the li
nea
r-componentm ethod
.
3
. By m easuring t he amp litudes C E, and E4) of the two c i
rcula rly
p
olar
ized c omponen ts (
ofo pposi
te rotat
ion d
irection
) oft he wave a nd
t
he phase a ngle (S'between t hem. T h
is wi
ll be cal
led t he ci
rcu lar-
c
omponen tm ethod.
1
5-17a
. Polar
iza
tion-pa
ttern Me
thod. I nt
hism ethod ar
ota
table l
inear
ly
p
ola
rized an
tenna, such as the I-wave
leng
th a ntenna i
n Fig
. 15-29, is
c
onnected t
o ar e
ceiver c
alib
rated to r
ead re
lat
ive fie
ld i
nt
ensity
.' L et
P
ola
rizat
ion
a
ntenna p
atte
rn
P
olar
izat
ion
e
ll
ipse
(
a)
P
olar
ization
p
attern
R
ece
iver
P
olar
ization
e
ll
ipse
I
ndicator (
l
inear polar
izat
ion
)
(
6
)
Fm. 15
-29. S chemat
ic arrange
- F
lo 15
-30
. R e
lation of p o
lar
izat
ion
ment o
f rota
table l
i
nearly po
lar
- e
l
ipse t
op o
lar
iza
tion pa
tte
rn forel
lip
tica
l
i
z
ed antenna fo
r mea
suring po
lar
- p
ola
riza
tion (
a
)and li
nearpola
rizat
ion (
6)
.
i
zat
ion pa
ttern.
1I
np ra
ctice ali
near
ly p
olar
ized antenna ofcons
iderab
le d
irec
tiv
ity wou
ld bepr
efer
r ed
t
o a4-wavelength typ
e. Precaution
s mu s
ta l
so betaken t
hatthe tr
ansmiss
ion l
i
ne does
n
ot afect the a
ntenna p
olar
ization cha
racter
istic
s.
4
80 ANTE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
5
t
he w ave b e a pp roa ch ing ( o ut ofp age). T hen a s t he a n tenna i sr otated
i
nt he p lane o f t he p age, t he f i
eld i n
ten s
ity o bserved a t e ach p os
i t
ion i s
p
ropor tiona l t o the max imum c omponen t o f Ei nt he d irection o ft he a n
-
t
enna . S uch m ea sur emen t s oft he i n
ciden tw ave w ith ar ota table l i
nea rly
p
olarized a ntenna d o n ot y i
eld t he p olari zat ion e lip se o f t he w ave b ut
r
athe r it
s p olarizat ion p attern ( Fig. 1 5
-30a )
. T hus, i ft he t ipo ft he electric
v
ecto r Ed escribe s t he p olarization e lipse s hown i n F ig. 1 5-30a ( dashed
c
urve )
, t he v ar
ia tion m easu red w i th al i
nea rly p ola r
ized r e
ce iving a ntenna
i
sgiven b yt he p olariza tion p attern i nFig. 1 5-30a ( solid l ine). F o r ag iven
o
r
ien ta t
ion OP o f t he l i
nea rly p olarized a ntenna , t he r e
spons e isp ro-
p
ortiona l to t he g r eate s
t e lip se d imen s
ion mea su red n o rma lly t o OP . A s
s
hown i n F ig. 1 5
-30a , t his i st he l ength OP '. I f t he l inea rly p olarized
a
ntenna o rien tation i s OQ , the r espon se isp ropor tiona l tot he l ength OQ '.
F
o r the c ase o fl inea r p olariza t
ion , t he p ola riza tion e lip se d egene rates t o
astraigh t l i
ne a nd t he c orr e
spond ing p ola riza t
ion p att ern i s af igure o f
e
ight a s indica ted i n F ig. 1 5
-30b . B y graph ica l c on struc tion a s in F ig.
1
5-30,t he p ola r
iza tion e lipse c an b ec onstructed i ft he p o
la riza tion p attern
i
sk nown o r vice v er
sa .' T o d eterm ine the d irection o f rota tion o f Ea n
a
uxil
ia ry m ea su remen t i s n ecessa ry. F or e xamp le, t he o utpu t o f t wo
c
i
rcu larly p ola r
ized a ntenna s cou ld b e c ompa red, o ne r e
spon sive t o c l
ock -
w
ise a nd t he o the r to c oun te rclockw ise ro ta tion . T he r ota tion d irection
o
f Et hen c o rrespond s t o the p ola riza t
ion o ft he a ntenna w i th t he l a
rge r
r
espon se.
V
ert
ica
lly p
o
lar
ized a
ntenna
s
H
orizon
tal
ly p
o
lar
ized a
ntennas
j R
ece
iver
A
ttenuato
R
ece
r
ive
r
S
lotted
l
ine
I
n
dica
tor I
nd
ica
tor i
l Matched
t
erm
inat
ion
(
a
) (
b
)
FI
G
. 1
5-31
. S chematic a
rrangement o
fl i
nea
rly p
olarized a
ntenna
sf o
rm easu
ring r
at
io
E,
/E,(
a) and f
or m
ea sur
ing phase a
ngle 5i
nli
near-componen t m
ethod (
b)
.
'See, f
or e
xample, C
hap . 6by G
. Stavis and A. Do m
e, "Ve
ry High Frequency
T
echn iques
," R ad
io Research L
abo
ratory Sta
ff, McGraw-Hi
ll Book C
o., I
nc.
, New
Yo
rk , 1947
, p. 1
58
.
SE
C
. 1
5 47] ANTEN N A MEAS U RE ME N TS 4
81
Thu s
, b y this m ethod t he po
la r
ization e lipse can be d rawn a nd the
r
otation direction indicated (s
ee Figs
. 1 5-30 a nd 1
5-25)
. A lthough s uch a
d
iagram c omp letely d e
scribes t
he polarization character
istics of aw ave, it
i
ssimp ler to m easure m ere
ly the max imum amp l
itude A /2 a nd the m in
i-
mum amp litude B /2 a nd take the rat
io o ft he two amplitudes w hich, as
i
ndicated inS ec. 15-11, isca
lled the axialr a
tio ofth
e polarization e
lip s
e or
s
imply t he axial ra
tio ( AR). T he axial ratio isusual
ly e xpressed so that
i
ti sequa l to or greater than unity
. T he axial ra
tio of the p o
larization
e
lipse ofF ig. 15-30a is
A
AR = —
B
T hu s,b ys peci fying AR , 7 ,a nd t he r ota t

ion d irection o f Et he p ola riza tion
c
ha ract erist ics a re c omp le tely d escr ibed.
1
5-17b . L
inea r -componen t Me thod .
I
n t his m ethod t wo f i
xed l inearly p o- 1 Wave
d
irection
l
arized a ntennas c an b e moun ted a t
r
ight a ng les, l ike t he t wo i -wave leng th
a
a
nt
pp
enna
roa
s i
ch
n F
ing n
ig
o
. 1
rma
5
l
-31a
ly o
. T
ut o
he w
ft
ave i
he p age.
s
Left- I
C D P
:ght-
p
handed ran de d
By c onnec ting t he r eceive r fi
rst t o t he hel
ix he n
t
erm ina ls o fo ne a ntenna a nd t hen t he
o
ther , a si nF ig. 1 5 -31a , t he r at
io E, /E,
c
an b e m ea su red . T hen, b y c onnec t - G
round (
S .
p
lane
i
n gb oth a ntenna st o ap ha se c ompa ra- Rotary
t
or,t he a ngle ôc an b em easu red . T his j
o
int
may b e d one a si nF ig. 1 5-31b , using a Coaxial 3- p

osition
l
ine sw
itch
ma tched s lotted l i
ne . F rom a k now l-
e
dge o f E, , E, ,a nd 6t he p olariza tion
e
lips e c an b e c a
lcu lated f rom ( 15-35 )
o
r f rom ( 15-30 ) a nd ( 15-31 ) a nd t he I
ndicator
d
irec tion o fr ota tion E d ete rm ined f rom
no . 1 5
-32. A rrangement f orm ea su r
-
(
1 5-30 ) a nd ( 15-31 ) ( see F ig . 1 5-25 ). i ng l e
f t a
nd r i
gh t ci
rcula rc omponent s
The v alue s o f E2/E,( or E1/E2)a nd 5 o f w ave a nd p hase a ngle a 'b etwe en
c
an b e p l o
t ted o n t he c hart s of F ig. them i ncircular component m ethod .
1
5-26 o r 1 5
-33 .
15-17c. C i rcu lar- componen t Me th od. I nt hism e
thod t wo circu la rly p o
la -
r
ized a ntenna s o f o ppo site r o
ta tion d irection a re c onnected s u cces sive ly
t
o t he r eceive r a nd t he amp litudes E,a nd E4 o ft he c i
r cula rly p o
la r
iz ed
c
omponen tw ave sm ea sur ed. T he a ntenna sc an v ery c onven ien t
ly c ons ist
o
ft wo l ong h elica l b eam a ntenna s' o ne w ound l e
ft -handed a nd t he o the r
wound r igh t-handed a s in F ig. 1 5-32 . T he l eft-handed h e
lix r espond s t o
1
J.D
. K
raus
,Thl H
elica
lAn
tenna
, P
roc I.
R
.E.
,37
,263-272
, Ma
rch
, 1
949
.
4
82 ANTE N N AS [
CHAP
. 1
5
l
e
ft-ci
r cular p
olar
ization a nd the right-handed h e
lix t o ri
gh t
-cir
cu la
r pola-
r
i
zation ( IRE defin
ition ). T he le
ft-ci
r cu
la r componen t EL o fthe wave is
measured with the swi tch to t
he left as i
nF ig. 15-32 s o that the r
ece
ive r
i
sconne c
ted to the left-handed h el
ix. T he righ
t- c
i r
cula r componen t ER
o
ft he w ave i
sm ea
su red w i
th t he switch thrown t o the right s o t
hat the
r
ece
ive r isconnected t o the ri
gh t
-handed h e
lix. T he axial ra
tio ( AR) of
t
he received wave ist hen given by
ER + EL
AR — (
15
-71
)
ER — EL
According to ( 15-71
) t he a xial r
atio may h ave v a
lues b e
tween +1 a nd
±C Oa nd between — 1 a nd — c o
. F or p os
itive v a
lues of AR t he w ave i s
r
ight-el
lipt
ical a nd for n egative values i sleft-el
lipt
ica
l. T he t i
lt angle 7
o
f the p o
larization e lipse may b e m ea sured b y find
ing t he d irect
ion o f
maximum E w i
th a r otab le li
near
ly p olarized a ntenna. O r 7 may b e d e
-
t
erm ined with the h e
lical a n
tenna s ofF ig. 1 5-32 by ro
ta t
ing o ne helix on
i
t
s a xis with b oth h e
lices c onnected i n paralle
l to the r eceiver ( switch
s
egmen tu p inFig. 15-32). A ssuming t ha t the axes o
ft he h e
lice s a
re i na
h
o r
izon ta
lp lane,l e
tt he h e
lix ro
tation a ngle be (5
'and le
ti t
sr e
fer ence p o
int
(
4
3' =0 )b et aken w hen t he r
eceiver outpu ti s am in
imum f o
r ah orizon ta
lly
L
eft- h
anded w
aves R
io h
t-honded w
aves
+
2
F
.'s
' 7
=
0 '
3 r
•15. --
---
--
--,
d
'. 6
0'
6=30
+
I
A
I t Ll
i S:4
I" 95
0
Al 7
. 6
4
:
1. M i l 1.
0r 7
5
.
-
.
:
por
,
K
0
.
1 0
A IV f
: 7 411 M il
f f
u
m
i
7
.
0 r
. 3..
0
4%44
I
'
, 0
i
r
.le
o
L.
ite
lir
:', -
-
LS
l 7
1
FA 2
.
0
,.
1 1 1 r4
TV
1 7
8 9
0 :* 3
I
6
.
- 7
.
-
15
*
6
'
•
-
6 5A
0A
R
-R
•
4 6
.
-
-W_
.
-
-
-
'
7
= -W
i,
2
-3 -2 0 4
1 4
2 +
3
P
,
Fm
. 1
5-33a
. I
tumsev a
nd T
ine t
ype o
fwave p
olar
iza
tion c
har
t.
Se
c
. 1
5
.17] A N T E N N A M E AS U R E M E N TS 4
83
p
olarized i nciden t wave. T hen f o
r a ny type of p o
la r
iza t
ion w ith the
p
olarization elip se a
t ati
lta ngle rtothe hor
izontal
, r= 3 '/2. T hu s
,t h
ree
measuremen ts EL,ER,a nd 5 'w i
th t he hel
ical antenna s d etermine the
p
olarization c ha racter
ist
ics oft he r
eceived wave comp letely.
The circular- componen tm ethod using h
eli
calb eam a ntenna si sprobably
t
he mo st pra ctica l o
fthe three method s
, espec
ial
ly f o
rm ea suremen ts o
ver
aconside rable f requency range. T he accuracy depend s o n the c
ir
cu lar
ity
o
f polarization o f t
he he
lices. T h
is isi mproved ( AR n earer un
i ty) by
making t he helices long si
nce b y (
7-48)
2
n + 1
AR — (
15
-72
)
2
n
w
here n = t
he n
umber o
fturn
soft
he h
e
lix
Ax
ia
l r=45.
r
at
io b
'=90°
,46S
I
tta
r
i
6
0° 3
0°
1
206
I
S'
0° i
1
5 te W W I
N eael
I. ' W e r ? Ann
i, 3
0'
l i d a Vi e
d
l
t tt
I
NS°
8
' r
9
0
° : -
' 0
2 " 1
111 4
: 4
1
1r
it # V
ilet t
, o
°
19
11. " 1 1
6
121
11 0
1
1 1 0 $ 0 0 " 0 8 0 4
1 11
IP .01
100
1 1$1
10 0
1 4 4 PO R O V
Iti
r
it SPv * 4 0
1 0 4
, VS ata r i
s#• \i pl
ia"0 4 e*b A P*
• M ital Nr..
1
6
1 .-
w0
4 L4
1
P ga
r art rIk-Ab * '44.
r
-
75° 4 4,7 M
I ft tai r
l 14 , #12?
5°
.
_
z
i
waw
l
a
w
q
ms
i
,
o
n m
a w
'-
90°
FI
G
. 1
5-33b
. Rumsey a
nd T
ice t
ype o
f wave p
olar
izat
ion c
har
t.
4
84 AN TE N N A S [
CHAP
. 1
5
Rum sey a nd Tice have d evised t he v ery c onvenient p resentation f o

r
wave -polarization data shown i nFig. 1 5-33a. T his pr
esenta tion e mploys
ac ha rt similar to ab ipolar impedance c hart except t ha
t AR t akes the
p
lace o f SWR a nd the t i
lt angle r o f t he polarizat
ion e lip se takes the
p
lace o fl i
ne l e
ngth. T he r i
ght hal
fo ft he cha
rt i sfo
rr ight-handed w aves
a
nd t he left half isfor le
ft-handed w aves. T he rectangula r coordinates
P1 a nd P , a re the rea
l a nd i mag
ina ry p arts of ac omplex p o
la r
ization
p
arame ter Pt hatisrelated tot he l
inea rly polar
ized componen ts E1a nd E2
o
f t he w ave a nd the p hase angle 6 b etwe en them ( s
ee S ec. 15-14) b y
t
he e quation
.E
,
P=P
1 +i
P2 =
.7 (
15
-73
)
Acirc
le d i
ag ram s imilart o aSm ith chart can a lso beused f ort histype o f
p
resentation a s shown i nF ig. 15-33b. H e
re t he chart islimited t oe ither
l
e
ft- or to right-handed w aves, u n
less some c onv ention isa dop ted as
, f or
e
xamp le, tha t m easu r
emen ts of le
ft-handed w ave s be plotted a s circles
a
nd right-handed a sc rosses
. E i
ther o fthe chartsi nF ig
. 15-33 i sespecially
c
onven ient f o
r pl o
tting p olar
iza t
ion d a
ta m easu red by the c i
r cular-
com -
p
onen tm e
thod .
1
5-18 . An tenna R o
tation E xperimen ts
. C onsider the r adio c ircuit
s
hown i n Fig. 15-34a i n w hi
ch b oth the t ransm itt
ing a nd r eceiving a n-
A
ntenna__
'am
(
a)
A
ntenna
o
x's
(
h
)
Fm
. 1
5
-34
. A
rrangemen
ts f
o
r a
ntenna r
ota
tion e
xpe
riment
s.
SE
C
. 1
549
1 AN TE N N A ME AS U RE ME N TS 4
85
t
enna s ar e linearly p olarized . I fe i
the r oft he a nt enna s i srota ted a bou t
i
ts a xi s at af r
equency f ( rps), t he r eceived s igna l i sa mplitud e m odu lated
a
tt hi sf requen cy. T he d irec tion o fr otation i si mma teria l.
C
on s
ider n extt he r adio c ircu its hown i nF ig. 1 5 -34b i nw hich o ne a n tenna
i
sc i
rcu la rly p o
larized a nd t he o the r i sl i
nea rly p o larized . I fo ne o f the
a
n tenna si sr otated a bou ti tsa xis a t af r
equen cy f( r ps), t he r e
ceived s ignal
i
ss h
if ted t o F ±f , w here Fi st he t r an smi t
te rf r
equen cy. T h
is e xper imen t
may a lso b e c ondu c ted w ith t wo c ircu larly p ola rized a ntennas o ft he s ame
t
ype . T he f requen cy f i sa dded o r s ubtracted f rom F d epend ing o n t he
d
irec tion o fa ntenna r otation r e
la tive t ot he ro tation d irec tion o fE .
15-19 . Mode l Measu remen ts . P attern a nd i mpedance m easuremen ts
o
f a ctua l a ntenna s a r e often d ificu lt o r i mpra ctica l b ecau se of t he l arge
s
ize o f t he a n tenna s ystem . I n s u ch c a
ses a s c ale mode l o ft he a n tenna
s
ys tem may b eb uilt t o ac onven ien t s i
ze a nd t h
en m ea su remen ts made o n
t
he p rope rties o ft he mode l
. ' T his t echnique i se spe cia lly u seful i nm eas-
u
ring p att erns o f a ntenna s moun ted o n a i
rcra f
t. A lthough t he a ntenna
p
roper may b e s ma ll
, i t may e xc ite c urrents o ver much o f the a irplane
s
urfa ce s ot hatt he e ntire a i
rp lane b ecomes p arto ft he a n tenna s ystem ,a nd,
h
ence , t he m easur emen ts mu s t b e made o f t he a i
rp lane w ith a ntenna .
Ano the r a dvan tage i st ha t t he p att ern s o f a ntenna s o n a ircraft i n f l
ight
(
remo t e from t he g round ) c an b ee asily s imu la ted b y t he mode l t echn ique
b
y p l a c
ing t he mode l on as uitab le t owe r
. T o m ea sur e s uch p a ttern s o n
a
ctua la ircra ft isb o th ted iou sa nd e xpen sive.
Let t he s ca
le f acto rf ort he mode l b e p. T hen a ny l ength d imen sion L ,,
o
n t he mode l i srela ted t o the c o rre spond ing d imen sion L o n t he a ctua l
a
ntenna b y
L = (
1
5-74
)
" P
T
hen the f
r
equency fa.u
sed t
o measur
e t
he mode
l mu
st b
e r
e
lated t
o t
h
e
f
r
equency fused w
ith t
he a
ctua
la n
tenna b
y
f
. =p
f (
1
5-75
)
Afurther r
equi
rement of a
n accura
te model f
o
r patt
ern a
nd impedance
m
easu remen
ts istha
t the conduc
tivity o
f t
he an
tenna me
tal be sc
aled
a
cco
rd ing t
othe r
e
lat
ion
c
r
. =P
u (
15
-76
)
'
Geo
rge S
inc
lair
, Theo
ry o
f Mode
ls o
f E
lect
romagne
tic S
ystems
, P
roc
. I
.R.E
., 3
6
,
1
364-1370
, Novembe
r, 1
948.
G. H
. Brown a
nd Rono
ld King
, H
igh
-frequency Mode
ls i
n A
ntenna I
nve
stiga
tions
,
P
roc
. I
.R.E
., 2
2
. 4
57-480
, A
pri
l, 1
934
.
4
86 ANTENNAS [
CHAP
. 1
5
where a
,
. = c
onduct
ivi
ty o
f me
tal i
n mode
l
a= c
onduc
tiv
ity o
f me
tal i
n a
ctua
l a
ntenna
However
, i
f ai
sla
rge e
nough
, t
he me
tal c
an b
e c
ons
idered t
obe a"
per
fect
c
onducto
r" (
a =c
o
) a
nd t
he c
onduct
ivi
ty n
eed n
ot b
e mode
led
. Thus
,
a
ctua
l a
ntenna
s o
fcopper c
an u
sua
lly b
e mode
led i
ncopper
. I
tisa
ssumed
t
hat f
e
rromagne
tic ma
ter
ials a
re e
xcluded f
rom b
oth a
ctua
l a
ntenna a
nd
mode
l a
nd tha
t t
he model i
s measured i
nai
r. Ad
eta
iled d
iscuss
ion o
fthe
mode
l p
rob
lem isgiven b
y S
inclair
.'
P
ROBLEMS
1
5-1
. A wave t
r
ave
ling norma
lly o
ut o
f t
he p
age (
t
owa
rd r
eade
r) h
as t
wo
l
i
near
ly p
o
lar
ized c
omponent
s
E
. = 2c
osc
o
t
E
. = 3c
os (
c
o
t ± 9
0 °)
a
. What isthe ax
ial r
atio o
fthe re
sul
tan t w
ave?
b
. Whatist heti
lta ng
le rofthe majoraxisofthe po
larizat
ion e
l
ipse?
c
. Doe
s Er otate cl
ockwise o
rcounterc
lockwise?
1
5-2
. Awave tr
aveling normally o
utward fr
om the page (t
owa rd r
e
ader) i
sth
e
r
e
sul
tanto
ftwo el
iptical
ly pola
rized w
aves
,o ne wi
th E-vecto
rc omponentsgiv
en b
y
E
: = 2c
osc
u
t
E
: = 6c
os (
c
ot ±
a
nd t
he o
the
r w
ith c
omponen
tsg
iven b
y
= 1c
osc
o
t
.
67 .
= 3c
os (
c
ot — 1
-)
2
a
. What isthe axial r at
io o fthe r
esu
ltant w ave?
b
. Does Erotate clockw ise orcounte
rclockwise?
1
5-3. An elipt
ical
ly p olarized p l
ane wave travel
ing n ormal
ly out o
f t
he page
(
toward re
ader) has li
nea
rly p olarized components E. and E . G iv
en that E
. =
E
. = 1v olt/metera nd t
ha t E . leads E. by 7
2°.
a
. C a
lculate and sket ch t he po
lar
izat
ion elipse.
b. What isthe ax
ial r a t
io?
c
. Wha t isthe angle rb etwe en t
he majora x
i s a
nd the xax
is?
1
5-4. Answert h
es ame q ue stion sasi nProb
. 3f o
rt he ca
se wher
e E.lead
sE . by
7
2° a
sb e
for e b
ut E. = 2v o
lt s/me ter a
nd E. = 1v olt/meter
.
1G
eorge S
i
ncla
ir
, Theo
ry of Mod
els o
fEl
ect
romagn
eti
c S
ystem
s, P
roc
. I
.R
.E.
, 3
6
,
1
364-1370
, Novembe
r, 1
948
.
ANTENNA MEASURE MENTS 4
87
1
5-5. V erify ther e
lation (15-63 )f ort hea ngle rbetween t h
e xa x
isa nd t hed irec-
t
i
on o f am a
jo r orm ino r ax
is o ft he polar
i zation elips
e b y exp ress
ing ( 15
-35 ) in
p
olarc o o
rdina tes( r
,0 )
. T hati s
,l etE .=E ,c os 0and E.=E ,s i
n 0. T hen app ly
t
hec ond it
ion t hatd E
,/ de = 0f or am ax imum o rm inimum v alue ofE ,.
1
5-6. Two c ir
cu larly po
la r
ized w aves intersect att h
e origin. O ne ( yw ave) is
t
raveling int he posit
ive yd irec tion with E r ota
ting cl
ockw ise a so bserved f rom a
p
ointo nth ep os
itiv e yaxis
. T he other( xw ave )istrav
eling int hep ositive xd irec-
t
i
on w ith E r otat
ing c l
ockwisea so b
served f rom ap o
into nt hep os
itive xa x
is. A t
t
heo rigin, Ef ort he yw ave isi nth ep o
sitive zd ire
c t
ion att hes ame i n
s tantt hatE
f
or the xw ave i si nt he n
egat ive zd ir
ec t
ion . Wha t isthe locu s oft he r e
sultan t
Eve ctora tt heo rigin?
1
5-7. P rove tha tth eins
tan taneou sP oyn ting vectorof aplane t r
aveling w ave i sa
c
onstan tw hen thew ave iscir
cu larly polari
zed .
1
5-8. P rove t hat the averag e P oyn t
ing v e
c tor of aci
rcularly p o
larized w ave is
t
wice t hato f al i
nea r
ly polarized w ave i fthem aximum f i
eld i nt
en s
ity i st h
es ame
f
orb oth w ave s
.
BOOKS FOR REFERENCE
BOOKS ON E
LECTROMAGNET
IC THEORY AND ON T
RANSM
ISS
ION L
INES
,
WAVE GU
IDES
, AND A
NTENNAS
ABRAHAM , M ., and R . B ECKER : " E

lec tricity a nd Magne tism ," G . E . Ste chert
Company , N ew Y ork, 1 932 .
AHARON I, J.
, " Ant enna e
," O x
fo rd U nive r si
ty P ress, L ondon , 1 946 .
"A. R. R. L.A ntenna B ook ," 1 949 e d., Ame r
ican R adio R elay L eague , Inc ., We st
H a
rtford, C onn. , 1 949.
Arrwoon , S.S ., " Ele ctric a nd Magne tic F ield s
," 3 d ed., John W iley & S on s
, Inc.,
New Y ork, 1949 .
BOAST, W . B .
, " P rinciple s o fE le ct r
ic a nd Magne t
ic F ields." H arp er SrB ro ther s
,
New Y ork, 1948 .
BRAINERD , J.G ., G . KOEHLER , H . J.R EICH , and L . F. WOODRUFF , " U
l tra-high -
f
requency T echn ique s," D . V an No strand C ompany , I nc.
, N ew Y ork, 1 942.
BRONWELL , A. B ., a nd R . E . B EAM , " Theo ry a nd A pplication o f Microwave s,"
McG raw -H il
l B ook C ompany , I nc.
, N ew Y ork, 1947 .
Bni
icxmA rns
r
, H ., " An tennen , i hr e T heo r
ie u nd T echn ik," S .H irzel, Le
ip zig, 1 939.
C y , W . M .
, M . B . KAREL ITZ, a nd L . A . TURNER , " Rada r S canne rs a nd R a-
dome s
," McG raw -H il
l B ook C ompany , I nc., N ew Y ork, 1948 .
CuLLw icx, E . G ., " The F undamen tals o f Electro-magne tism ," T he Ma cm ilan
Company , N ew Y ork, 1 939 .
EvEarr r
, W . L .
, " Commun ication E ng ine ering," McO raw -H ill B ook C ompany ,
I
nc., N ew Y ork, 1 937.
FARADAY , M ichae l, " Exp erimen ta l R es earche s i n E lectricity," B . Q uaritch,
London, 1 839, 1 855 .
HALLEN , E rik, " Teo retisk E lec tricitetela ra," S krivby ran S tanda rd, Sto ckho lm ,
1
945.
HARNWELL ,G . P., " Principle so fE le c
trici ty a nd Electromagne ti
sm ," McG raw -H i
ll
Book C ompany , I nc ., N ew Y o rk, 1 938.
HARPER , A. E .
, "Rhomb ic A nt enna D esign ," D . V an N o
strand C ompany , Inc.,
New Y o rk
, 1 941 .
HEAVISIDE , 0., " Elec tromagne tic T heo ry," E rnest B enn, L td., L ondon , 1 893.
HENNEY , K ., " Rad io E nginee r
ing H andbook ," 4 th e d
., McG raw -Hill B ook
Company , Inc., N ew Y ork , 1 950.
HERT Z
, H. R ., " Ele c
t ric Wave s
," Ma cm illan S eC o.
, L td., L ondon , 1 900.
HOLLMANN , H . E., " Phy sik u nd T echn ik d eru ltraku rzen Welen ," v ol
. 2 ,l i
tho re-
p
rint b y E dwa rd s B ros., I nc.
, A nn A rbo r
, M ich., 1943.
HOUSTON , W .V. ," Pr
in ciple so f Ma thema tical P hysics," McG raw -H il
l B ook C om -
pany, Inc.
, N ew Y o rk, 1 948.
4
89
4
90 ANTEN NAS
JEANS , Sir J ame s, " The Ma thema tica l T heory o f E lec t ricity a nd Magne ti
sm ,"
Camb ridge U nive rs ity P res s
, L ondon , 1 933.
KIMBARK , E . W ., " Ele ctrical T ran sm i ssion o fP ow er a nd S igna ls
," J ohn W i
ley &
Sons, Inc.
, N ew Y ork, 1 949 .
KING , R. W . P., " E
le ct romagne tic E ngine ering ," McG raw -H il B ook C ompany ,
I
nc., N ew Y o rk, 1 945 .
KING , R. W . P., H . R . Mn imo , a nd A . H . W ING , " Tran sm is s
ion L ine s, A ntenna s
,
a
nd Wave G uide s," McG raw -H ill B ook C ompany , I nc., N ew Y ork, 1 945 .
LAnto r
rr, R . L
., "Wave G uide s," Me thuen & C o.
, L td., L ondon , 1 942 .
LOEB , L.B ., "Fundamen talso fE lect rici ty a nd Magne tism ," J ohn W iley a nd Son s
,
I
nc., N ew Y o rk, 1 947 .
MARCHAND , N .
, "U lt rah igh F r equency T ran sm i ss
ion a nd R adia tion," J ohn W iley
&S ons, Inc., N ew Y ork, 1 947 .
MAXWELL , J.C ., " A T r eati
se o n Ele ct ricity a nd Magne tism ," O xfo rd Un ivers ity
P
re ss
, N ew Y ork , 2v ols.
, 1 873, 3 d e d. 1 904.
PAGE , L., a nd N . I .A DAMS , J r.
, " P r
inc iples o f Elec t r
ic ity," D . V an No s t
rand
Company , Inc., N ew Y ork, 1 931.
PAGE , L.
, a nd N . I .A DAMS , J r., " Ele ct rodynam ics," D . V an N ostrand C ompany ,
I
nc., New Y ork , 1 940 .
P
IDDUCK , F . B ., " Cur ren ts i n A er
ia l s a nd H igh-frequency N etwo rk s
," O xfo rd
University Pr ess, N ew Y ork, 1 946 .
POOR , V. C .
, " Ele ctri c
i ty a nd Magne tism ," J ohn W iley & S on s, I nc
., N ew Y o rk,
1
93 1
.
PoyNT ING, J .H ., a nd S ir J.J . THOMSON , " Tex tbook o f P hy sics, E lec tricity a nd
Magne t
i sm," C ha rle s G rif en & C o., L td., L ondon , 1 932 .
"Principles o f R ada r" b y M .I .T. R ada r S choo l S taf , J . F . R e
in tjes, e d
i tor,
McG raw -H i
ll B ook C ompany , I nc., N ew Y ork, 1946 .
"Rad io H andbook ," E dito rs a nd E ngine ers, Ltd., San ta B arba ra , C alif
., 1 948.
RAMO , S.
,a nd J.R . WH INNERY , " Field sa nd Wave si n Mode rn R ad io," J ohn W iley
&S ons, Inc., N ew Y ork, 1 946 .
S
ARBACHER , R . I.
, a nd W . A. E DSON , "Hyp e
ra nd U lt rah igh F r equency E ngine er-
i
ng," John W iley & S ons, I nc., N ew Y ork, 1 943.
S
CHELKUNOFF , S.A .
, " Ele ctromagne tic Wave s
," D . V an N ostrand C ompany , I nc.,
New Y o rk, 1943.
S
CHUMANN , W . 0 ., " Elek t
rische WeBen ," C ar
l H anserV erlag , Mun ich , 1 948.
S
ILVER , S., "M ic rowave A ntenna T heory a nd D esign," McG raw -H ill B ook C om -
p
any , Inc., New Y ork, 1 949 .
S
KILL ING , H. H ., " Fundamen ta l s ofE lec tric Wave s," 2 d e d
., J ohn W iley & S on s,
I
nc., New Y ork , 1 948 .
S
LATER , J. C., "M ic rowave T ran sm i ssion ," McG raw -H ill B ook C ompany , I nc.,
New Y o rk, 1942.
SMITH , C. E .
, "D i re ctiona l A n tenna s," C leveland I nsti tute o f R adio E lec tron ics,
C
leveland , O hio, 1 946 .
SMITH , C. E., " Theo ry a nd D e sign o fD ire ct
iona l A nt enna S y stem s
," N atl. As sn.
B
roadca sters
, 1 949 .
BOO KS FOR REFERENCE 4
91
SMITH, W . W .
, " An tenna Manua l
," E d
i tor s and E ng
ine ers
, Ltd., Santa Barba ra
,
Ca
lif
., 1948.
S
hfYTHE , W . R
., " Static a nd Dynam ic Ele ctric
ity," McG raw-H il
l B ook Company ,
I
nc.
, N ew Y ork, 1 939.
S
TARL ING , S. G., " E
le c
t ri
c ity a nd Magne tism," L ongman s
, G reen & C o.
, I nc.
,
New Y ork, 1937.
S
TRA VrON, J.A .
, " E
le ctromagne tic T heo ry," McG raw-H il
,
New Y ork, 1941.
TERMAN ,F .E .
, " Rad io E ngine e
rs'H andbook ," McG raw-H il
lB ook C ompany,I nc.
,
New Y ork, 1943.
TERMAN , F. E., " Rad io E ngine ering ," 3d e d
., McG raw -H i
ll Book C ompany, Inc.
,
New Y ork, 1947.
"Very H igh Frequency T echn iques" b y R adio Research L aboratory Staf, vo
l. 1 ,
H
. J.R eich, editor, McG raw -H i
ll B ook C ompany , I
nc., N ew Y ork, 1
947.
V
ILH IG, F., and J . Z ENNECK , e ditors, " Fortschri
tt e der H ochfrequenztechnik,"
l
i
thoreprintb y Edwa rd s B ros.
, I nc.
, A nn A rbor, Mich., 1945.
WATSON , W . H .
, " The P hy s
ical P r
incip les o f Wave G u
ide T ran smis
sion a nd
Ant
enna S ystem s
," O xford U nive rs
ity P ress
, N ew Y ork, 1947.
B
OOKS ON MATHEMAT
ICS
BYERLY , W . E .
, " An E lemen tary T r ea ti
se o n F ou rie
r S eries," G inn & C ompany ,
Boston, 1 893.
COFF IN, J.G ., " Vec to r A nalysis
," J ohn W iley d rS ons, I nc
., N ew Y ork, 1911.
COHEN , A., " An Elementa ry T reatise o nD if eren t
ial E qua tion s
," D .C . H eath and
Company , B oston , 1 906 .
CHURCH ILL , R. V., " Fou rie r Ser
ies a nd B ounda ry V a
lue P rob lem s," McG raw-H il
l
Book C ompany , I nc., N ew Y o
rk, 1 94 1
.
CHURCH ILL , R.V .
, "Modern O p e
rationa l Ma thema tics inE ngine ering," McG raw-
H
ill B ook C ompany , I nc., N ew Y ork , 1944.
FRANKL IN, P ., " Dif er entia l E quation s for E lectrical E ngine ers
," J ohn W i
ley &
S
on s, Inc.
, 1 933.
FRANK a nd v on M ISES ,e d
i to r
s, "Dif e ren t
ialu nd In tegralgleichung en der Mechan ik
u
nd P hysil
c," F ried rich V ieweg & S ohn , Brun sw ick, 1 935.
Lovr rr, W . V .
, " Linea r I ntegral E qua tions," McG raw -H ill B ook C ompany , Inc.
,
New Y ork, 1924 .
MCLACHLAN , N. W ., " Be ssel Func tion s f o
r E ngine er
s," O xford U nivers
ity P ress
,
New Y ork, 1934.
MARGENAU , H., a nd G . M . MURPHY , " The Ma thema tics o fP hysics and C hemis-
t
ry," D . V an N o strand C ompany , I nc.
, N ew Y o rk, 1943.
MELLon , J .W .
, "H ighe r Ma thema tics f or Studen ts ofC hem istry a nd P hys
ics,"
4
th e d. Longman s, G reen & C o., I nc., N ew Y ork , 1931. L ithor eprint by D over
Publication s
, Inc., N ew Y ork, 1947 .
PHILL IPS, H. B .
, " Ve cto r A nalysis
," J ohn W iley & S ons, I nc.
, N ew Y ork, 1933.
4
92 ANTEN NAS
REDDICK, H . W., and F . H. M ILLER , "Advan ced Ma thematics f

or Engineers
,"
J
ohn W iley d
rS ons, Inc.
, New Y ork, 1
947.
S
CHELKUNOFF , S
.A .
, " Applied Ma thema t
icsf o
rE ng
ineersa nd Sc
ient
ist
s," D. V an
Nostrand Company , Inc., New Y ork
, 1948.
S
OKOLN IKOFF, I.S., and E. S.S OKOLN IKOFF, "H igher Ma thema t
ics f
or Engineers
a
nd P hysic
ist
s," McG raw -Hi
ll B ook Company , I nc
., N ew York, 1
941.
Wurr rAxEn,E .T.,and G . N. WATSON , "
AC ourseo f Mode rn Ana
lysi
s," The Mac -
mi
llan C ompany, N ew Y ork
, 1 944.
W
itLsori
,E .B.," Gibbs
'V ectorA nalysis
," Yale Un ivers
ity Pres
s,N ew Haven, 1901.
A
PPEND
IX
An umbe r o f useful t able s

, f ormu las, a nd c harts a re given o n t he f o
l-
l
owing p age s
.
1
.T able o fU ni
ts. I n t his b ook t he r at
iona lized m ks system o fu ni
t s i
s
u
sed .
' T he r a
tiona l
ized s ystem h ast he a dvan tage t hatt he f acto r4 7 d oes
n
o ta ppea ri n Maxwe ll's e qua tions a l
though i td oesa ppea ri nc ertain o ther
r
elation s
.
I
n t he f olow ing t able t he u nits t hat a re c ommon ly u sed i n electro-
magne tics a re li
sted. I n t he f i
rs
t c olumn t he n ame o f the d imen sion o r
q
uan t
ity i s given a nd i n t he s econd c o
lumn t he c ommon s ymbo l f or
d
esigna ting i t. I n t he t hird c o
lumn ( De scrip tion) t he d imen s
ion i sd e-
s
cribed i nt erms o ft he f undamen tal d imen sion s (ma ss
, l eng th, time , a nd
e
lectric c harge) o r other s e
conda ry d imen s
ion s
. T he f ourth c o
lumn l i
sts
t
he r ationalized mk s u nit f or t he d imens ion, a nd t he f i
f
th c olumn g ives
e
qu ivalen t u n
its. T he l ast c olumn i ndica t
es t he fundamen tal d imen s
ions
b
y m ean s oft he s ymbo ls M ( mass), L( l
eng th ), T( t
ime )
, a nd Q ( e
lectric
c
ha rge). Q uotation ma rk s a re a pplied t os evera l magne tic q uantities, for
e
xamp le, "magne t
ic c harge" a nd "magne tic c ur rent
," t oi nd icate t ha t the
q
uan tities ar efic
titiou s
,i .
e
.,t hey h ave n op hy sica lre a
lity. S uch q uan tities
a
re c onven ien t
, h owever, i ns ome t heo retical a naly ses.
1T obe more exp
lic
it, the r
at
ionalized i
nksc (me
ter-kilog
ram -
second-coulomb
) sy
stem
i
se mployed. Howeve r, the c
hoice ofthe coulomb i
nstead ofthe ampereo rohm a
sthe
f
our
th f undamental unit does no
t a f
ec t t
he si
ze o
f the unit
s. H ence
, the s
yst
em wil
l
u
sually berefe
rred tos imply a
st he r
ational
ized i
nks system.
4
92
Name o
fdimen
sion Mks F
undam en
tal
S
ymbo
l D
escr
ipt
ion E
quiva
len
tun
its
o
r q
uant
ity u
nit dimens
ions
L
eng
th
L m
eter 1
00 c
ent
ime
ters L
Ma
ss
M k
i
log
ram 1
000 g
rams M
T
ime
s
e
cond 1 1 1
T
,t — m
inu
te = h
our = d
ay T
6
0 3
,
600 8
6
,400
F
requency
c
yc
les/
second c
ps 1
_
_
I
(
her
tz) T
SV N N3 I N V
A
rea L2
m
ete
r2
A
TO W M8
T me
ter
s L3
V
eloc
ity L
V
l
e
ngth m
ete
r _
t
ime s
e
cond T
A
cce
lera
tion L
v
e
loc
ity l
e
ngth m
ete
r
a
t
ime t
ime
' s
e
cond
' T2
F
orce
k
i
log
ram
-me
ter j
ou
le ML
F m
ass x a
cce
lera
tion n
ewton = 1
02d
yne
s
s
e
cond
' m
ete
r T2
Momentum
m
ass xv
elo
city n
ewton
- k
i
log
ram
-me
ter .
.jou
le-
second ML
_
=f
o
rce X t
ime s
e
cond
s s
econd m
ete
r T
m
e
nergy
v
e
loc
ity
Name o
fdimens
ion S
ymbo
l D
escr
ipt
ion Mks F
undamenta
l
tw
it E
quiva
lent u
nit
s
o
rquant
ity d
imens
ions
E
nergy o
r w
ork f
o
rce X l
e
ngth j
oule n
ewton
-me
ter =w
att
-second ML
'
=p
owe
r Xt
ime =v
olt
-cou
lomb = 1
0 7e
rgs T
°
= 1
07d
yne c
ent
ime
ter
E
nergy d
ens
ity j
ou
le
e
nergy M
v
o
lume m
ete
r' LT 2
P
owe
r f
o
rce X l
e
ngth w
att j
ou
le n
ewton
-me
ter Mi
.°
t
ime s
econd s
e
cond T
°
I
e
nergy k
i
log
ram m
ete
r'
Iadd V
=
.
t
ime s
e
cond
s
C
harge c
urr
ent Xt
ime c
oulomb 6
.25 X 1
0" e
l
ect
roncha
rge
s Q
IN
XIC
o
r = ampe
re-
second = 3 X 1
0
°cg
sesu'
Q
,q
f(
cu
rren
t) d
t =0
.
1 c
gs emut
E
lec
tric f
l
ux f D •d
s c
oulomb
s ampe
re-
second
‘
1
, Q
C
urr
ent c
harge ampe
re c
oulomb
— 3X 1
0
' c
gs em —
Q
t
ime s
econd T
I
,i
=0
.
1 c
gs emu
C
urr
ent d
ens
ity c
urren
t ampe
re
J c
oulomb Q
a
rea me
ter
' s
econd mete
r' TL
°
c
gs em = c
entimeter
-gram-
second e
le
ctros
tat
ic un
it (
s
tatu n
it)
.
tc
gse mu = c
entimeter
-gram-
second e
le
ctromagne
tic u
nit (
abunit
).
Name o
fdimens
ion Mks F
undam enta
l
S
ymbo
l D
escr
ipt
ion E
quiva
lent u
ni
ts
o
rquant
ity u
nit dimens
ions
L
inear c
harge d
ens
ity PL c
harg
e c
oulomb
s ampe
re-
second Q
l
e
ngth m
ete
r m
eter L
S
urface c
harge d
ens
ity p8
c
harg
e c
oulomb amp
ere
-se
cond
—
Q
a
rea m
eter
s m
ete
r' L2
Dv
ector (d
isp
lacement
) (
f
lux D
d
ensity
)
c
harge c
oulomb amp
ere
-se
cond
.
a
mper
e Q
a
rea m
ete
r' m
ete
r' m
ete
/4/
second L
I
C
harge (
vo
lume
) d
ens
ity P
c
harge c
oulomb ampe
re-
second Q
SV MNRI NV
v
olume m
ete
r' m
ete
r' L8
E
lec
tric (
s
calar
) p
otent
ial V
w
ork v
olt j
ou
le n
ewton
-me
ter ML
'
.
c
harge c
oulomb c
oulomb T2(
1
w
att
-se
cond w
att w
eber
.
. .
c
oulomb amp
ere s
econd
1
=— cg
sesu = 1
08 c
g
semu
3
00
Em
f V
fE.c
il v
olt ML
'
744
2
Ev
ector (
e
lect
ric f
i
e
ld i
n
tens
ity
) E
p
otent
ial f
o
rce v
olt n
ewton j
ou
le ML
l
e
ngth c
harge m
ete
r c
oulomb c
oulomb
-me
ter 74(
2
= 4X 1
0-4 c
g
scan = 1
08 c
gs emu
Name o
fdimens
ion S
ymbo
l Mks F
undamental
D
escr
ipt
ion E
quiva
lent u
nita
o
rquant
ity u
nit dimens
ion
s
E
lect
ric d
ipo
le moment
c
oulomb
- LQ
91 c
harg
e Xl
e
ngth ampe
re-
second
-me
ter
m
eter
E
lec
tric p
o
lar
iza
tion
P
d
ipo
le moment c
ou
lomb ampe
re-
second Q
v
olume m
eter
' m
ete
r' 1
,1
D
ielectr
ic cons
tant(permitt
ivity
)
(
for v
acuum ,e o=8.85 X 10-1 ' e TV
'
c
apa
citance f
a
rad c
oulomb
=10 -°
/
36r farad/meter
) ML 3
l
e
ngth m
ete
r v
oltm
ete
r
l add V
R
elat
ive d
ie
lect
ric c
ons
tant e D
imen
-
(
r
elat
ive p
ermit
tiv
ity) e
, R
atio
e
o s
i
onle
ss
s
XI GI
C
apac
itance C c
harge f
a
rad c
oulomb c
oulomb
' TV
s
p
oten
tia
l v
olt j
ou
le MI
,'
= 9X 1
01 c
m (
c
gse
su)
amp
ere
-se
cond
v
olt
R
esis
tance R p
oten
tia
l o
hm v
olt j
ou
le-
second MI"
c
urr
ent amper
e c
oulomb
' TQ
'
1
=9
-X 1
0- " c
gse
au
= 1
0-4 c
gs emu
Name o
fdimens
ion Mks F
undamenta
l
S
ymbo
l D
esc
rip
tion E
quiva
len
t u
ni
ts d
imens
ions
o
rquant
ity u
nit
C
onduc
tance G mho TQ
'
1 amp
ere c
oulomb
'
r
e
sis
tanc
e (
s
iemen
s) v
ol
t j
ou
le-
second ML
'
R
eac
tance X v
ol
t ML
'
p
oten
tia
l o
hm
c
urr
ent amp
ere TQ
'
S
uscep
tance B mho amp
ere T
(22
1
r
ea
ctance v
ol
t ML
'
I
mpedanc
e Z p
oten
tia
l o
hm v
olt ML
'
SVN M3I N V
c
urren
t ampe
re TQ
'
A
dmi
ttance Y mho amp
ere TQ
'
1
i
mpedance v
o
lt ML
'
R
esi
stiv
ity (
s
pec
ifi
c r
e
sis
tance
) S ML
'
r
e
sis
tance Xl
e
ngth o
hm m
ete
r v
olt
-me
ter
ampe
re TQ
'
C
onduc
tiv
ity o
1 mho 1 1 TQ2
= mho/
cen
time
ter
r
e
sis
tiv
ity m
ete
r o
hm m
eter 1
00 MI
,'
"Magne
tic c
harge"
m "magne
tic c
urren
t" w
eber v
olt
-second =
. 1
08 m
axw
ell (
c
gsemu
) MLA
Xt
ime TQ
=p
oles
t
reng
th
Xp
erm
eab
ili
ty
"Magne
tic c
urrent"
/
8
1 "magn
etic c
harg
e" v
ol
t w
ebe
r ML
'
t
ime s
e
cond TV
N
ame o
fdimen
sion Mks Fun damenta l
S
ymbo
l D
esc
rip
tion E
quiva
lent u
nit
s
o
rquant
ity u
nit d
imen sion s
"Magne
tic c
urr
entd
ens
ity"
J"
. "magne
tic c
urren
t" v
olt w
ebe
r M
a
rea m
ete
r' s
econd m
ete
r' TV
"Magnet
ic c
harge v
olume
P" "magne
tic c
harg
e" w
ebe
r v
olt
-se
cond M
d
ens
ity"
v
o
lume m
ete
r' m
ete
r TQL
Magne
tic p
o
le s
t
reng
th
2"
( q
" e
l
ect
ric c
urr
ent amper
e- c
oulomb-me
ter QL
Xl
e
ngth m
ete
r s
econd T
Magne
tic f
l
ux 1
,
=
ffB •d
s w
ebe
r v
ol
t-se
cond .
.10
' maxwe
ll (
c
gs emu
) ML
'
Id V
TQ
XI G N3c
Bv
ecto
r (
magne
tic f
l
ux d
ens
ity
) B
magne
tic f
l
ux w
ebe
r v
olt
-second M
.
=
.10 4g
aus
s (
e
gse
mu)
area m
ete
r' m
ete
r' —
TQ
f
o
rce n
ewton
. =
p
ole ampe
re-m
ete
r
Magne
tic s
c
ala
rpo
tent
ial(
f
orH
) E
lk
w
ork ampe
re j
ou
le w
att c
oulomb Q
_
"magne
tic c
harge" (
ampe
ret
urn
) w
ebe
r v
o
lt s
e
cond T
4
Tgi
lber
ts (
c
gs emu
)
Magne
tic s
ca
lar p
otent
ial(
f
or B) Ub
w
ork w
eber j
ou
les ML
(Ub P
O UA
)
p
ole m
ete
r ampe
re-me
ter TQ
c
.
n
c
z
Name o
fdimens
ion Mks F
undamental c'
S
ymbo
l D
esc
rip
tion E
quiva
lent u
n
its
o
rquant
ity u
nit dimens
ions
Mm
f U
f H •d
l amp
ere Q
(
amp
eret
urn
) T
Hv
ecto
r (magne
tic f
i
e
ld H
i
n
tens
ity
)
mm
f amp
ere n
ewton
ME
w
att Q
l
e
ngth m
ete
r w
ebe
r v
ol
t-m
ete
r TL I
1
1
f
o
rce (
amp
eret
urn
) .
=4r X 1
0-8 o
er
ste
ds (
cg
s emu
) I
"magn
etic c
harge" 1 m
ete
r j
=4
i
r X 1
00 g
amma
s
IV
Magnet
ic (
d
ipo
le) moment magn
etic p
o
le amp
ere
- QV
SV M W3IN
s
t
reng
th x l
e
ngth m
ete
r' T
Magnetiza
tion (
magne
tic M
p
olar
ization
)
magne
tic mom
ent amp
ere Q
v
o
lume m
ete
r TL
P
ermeab il
ity ( magne
tic induc
- A
i
ndu
ctance h
enry w
ebe
r v
ol
t-se
cond ML
t
ive c apac
ity
) f or vacuum, =
pc,= 4 r X 10-7 = 1.
257 X l
e
ngth m
ete
r ampe
re-me
ter ampe
re-me
ter Qz
1
0- 1 h
enry/meter
R
ela
tive p
ermeab
il
ity 1
2,
D
imen
-
R
atio —
A
/
J
o s
i
onle
ss
I
nduc
tance L
magne
tic f
l
ux h
enry w
ebe
r j
ou
le .
•1 MI
.'
= X1
0-1 c
1 gse
su
c
urr
ent ampe
re amp
ere
' 9 Q
'
= 1
09c
ent
ime
ter
s (
c
gse
mu)
Name o
fdimens
ion Mks F
undam en
tal
S
ymbo
l D
esc
rip
tion Equ
iva
lentu
nits
o
rquant
ity u
nit dimens
ions
R
eluc
tance mm
f 1 ampe
re Q
'
magne
tic f
l
ux h
enry w
eber ML
'
I N3ddV
P
ermeance magne
ticf
l
ux h
enry w
ebe
r ML
'
mm
f amp
ere Q2
XIC
V
ecto
rpo
tent
ial A w
ebe
r ML
e
l
ect
ric c
urr
ent
Xp
ermeab
il
ity m
ete
r TQ
P
oynting ve
cto
r (
power s
ur
face /
'
p
owe
r w
atts M
d
ensity
) _
a
rea m
ete
r' T3
APP E N DI X 5
03
2
.T ables of Maxwe ll's E quations. Maxwe ll
'se quationsa resumma r
ized
i
nthet ables. T he fi
rstt able gives Maxwe ll
'sequa tionsi ndif e
rentia
lf orm
a
nd thes econd t
ab le i
ni nteg ra
lf orm. T he equat
ion sa restated forthe g
en-
e
ra
lc ase
,f r
ee-
spa ce ca
se ,h armon ic-variat
ion case
,s t
eady c a
se (sta
ticf i
e
lds
b
ut with c onduction cu rrent s
), and stat
ic case (s
ta t
ic f i
e
lds w ith no cur
-
r
ent
s). I n the t ab
le g iving t h
e i n
tegral fo
rm, t he equivalence isa l
so
i
nd
icated b etween t he v a
riou s equations and the elec
tric potentia
l ore m
f
V
, the m agnetic p o
ten tial o r mm f U, the el
ectr
ic c urrent I,t he el
ectr
ic
f
l
ux 1Y
,a nd them agnetic f ux 0
l .
MAXWELL
'S EQUAT
IONS I
N Da ERENTIAL FORM
F
rom Amp
ere F
rom F
araday F
rom G
aus
s F
rom G
aus
s
-
- \ L
ii
_n
_en
sions E
lec
tric c
ur
ren
t E
lec
tric p
oten
tia
l E
lec
tri
cfl
ux Magnet
ic f
l
ux
C
ase -
--_
__.
.
.„
. a
r
ea a
r
ea v
o
lume v
o
lume
I N3 I N V
aD dB
V •B = 0
G
ene
ral V X H = J-F w V X E = —, V •D = p
aD a
B
N
SVI
F
ree s
pac
e V X H = -T V X E= — V •D = 0 V •B = 0
H
armon
ic v
ar
iat
ion V X H = (
a±j
c
at
)E V X E = —j
co
ldi V •D = p V •B = 0
S
t
eady V X H =J V XE =0 V •D = p V •B = 0
S
ta
tic V X H =0 V XE =0 V •D = p V •B = 0
MAX WELL
'S EQUATIONS IN INTEGRAL FOR M
F
rom Ampe
re F
rom F
araday F
rom Gaus
s F
rom Gaus
s
D
imens
ions
Magne
tic p
otent
ial E
lec
tric p
oten
tia
l E
lect
ricf
l
ux Magne
tic f
l
ux
Mks
u
nit
s ampe
res v
ol
ts c
oulomb
s w
ebe
rs
6
.
i
f f
D
•d—f
s f
p
XI U Madd V
G
ene
ral U= fH
•d1= ff(J-F a—
D )
.ds=/
a
t
,,
,,„L v. 1d
i _
Ja
t
a
B
.
ds 4,— d
r Om = f
i
B •ds =0
F
ree s
pace U= iH •
d
aD
l —ff —•d
s —/d
a
t
i .
, V= /
I
•d1=— i
f— •ds
a
tB 0— L
T
D •ds =0 0
.
.= f
i
B •ds =0
Ha
v
a
rmon
r
iat
ic
ion
U= fH• dl =(cr+/we) flit •ds =/to w V =if
l•d
l= —
jwa ffH •d
s 0= D •ds = f
f fpd
r 0
.= f
B •ds =0
S
teady U =j
6H •
d
l =if j
•ds =/
.
..d V =
5CE
•dl =0 4
,= D •ds =i
f
i f
,dr 0
.= f
i
B •ds =0
S
tat
ic U=9
61.
1•d
1=0 V= 6
E
•dl =0 V
,= ) •ds = f
i
f
] i
t-
,d
r #
.= f
i
B •ds =0
5
06 ANTENNAS
3
. F
ormu
las f
o
r I
npu
t I
mpedance o
f T
erm
ina
ted T
ransm
iss
ion L
ine
.
F
ormu
las f
o
r t
he i mpedance Z
nput i . a
ppea
ring a
t ad
i
stance x f
om a
r
l
o
ad or te
rmina
ting impedance Z on atr
ansmiss
ion l
i
ne of c
hara
cte
rist
ic
i
mpedance Z
. a
s shown inthe f
igu
re ar
e li
sted i
nthe t
ab
le fo
r th
ree
-load
c
onditions
: ( 1
) any v a
lue of impedance Z, (2
) Z = 0o r s
hort-c
ircuited
l
i
ne, and (3
) Z = C° o ropen-c
ircuited l
ine
. F oreach l
oad c
ondit
ion there
a
re column s fo
r t wo c
ase
s: (1
) t he g
eneral case i
n which a
ttentuaion i
t s
p
resent on the li
ne (a 0 0)
, and (2) t
he lo
ssle
s s c
ase whe
re t
he li
ne lo
sses
a
re negl
igible (a =0 )
.
L
oad G
enera
l c
ase L
oss
les
s c
ase
c
ond
ition (
a0 0) (
a=0 )
Z j
Zo t
an f
l
x
Z Z0 t
anh -
y
x Z
. = Zo
A
ny v
a
lue Z Z
. — Zo Z
o j
Ztan /
I
x
Zo Ztanhy
x
Z
, = Z
*
= Zo t
anh .
y
x
Z= 0
S
hort
-ci
rcu
ited
„ tanh ax jtan f
lx
= ho j
Zo t
an f
3
x
l
i
ne 1 j.t
anh a
x tan /
3
x
. = Z0 c
Z o
th a
x*
Z
, = Z0 c
oth -
y
x
Z= c o
„ 1 jt anh a
xt an I
3
x
O
pen-c
ircu
ited = ho = —j
Zo c
o
tOx
l
i
ne t
anh a
x jtan I
3
x
= Zo t
anh a
x*
•When f
i
x nr/2 w
here n= 1
,3,5
, ...
I
nthe t
ab
le 7 = a + j
0whe
re a= a
t
tenua
tion c
o
nstan
tand 1
3=t 2
r/X
.
4
. Reflect
ion and T ransm iss
ion C oeff
ic
ients and SWR . F or at r
ans
-
m
iss
ion l ine of cha
rac ter
istic i mpedance Zo t erminated i n al oad im
-
p
edance Z, the r
ef
lect
ion c oeff
ic
ien tfo rvol
tage p.
, the re
flect
ion coeff
i
cien
t
f
orcurrent pi,t
he tr
ansm ission coeff
icientforvoltage o
rr e
lative v
ol
tage at
t
he lo
ad T , t
ohe t
ransm is
sion coef f
ic
ien t f
or c
urrent or relat
ive cur
rent at
t
he l
oad r., and t
he SWR a reg iven b y
APPE N DI X 5
07
Z—Z
Pg Z °— r
ef
lec
tion c
oef
f
i
cien
t f
o
rvo
ltage
Zo — Z
Z Z —r
ef
lec
tion c
oef
f
ic
ien
tfo
rcur
ren
t
P
i — 0
2
Z
- 1+ = t
r
ansm
iss
ion c
oef
f
i
cien
tfo
rvo
ltage
Z
2
Z0
Z Z — 1 p
, = t
r
ansm
iss
ion c
oef
f
ic
ien
tfo
rcur
ren
t
T
i - 0
+ P
.1 ± IP
. —
SWR — 1
1 Ip
. — 1
1 s
t
and
ing w
ave r
a
tio
P
. I
5
. Fo
rmu las fo
r t he Characteristic I mpedance o f Transm iss
ion Lines.
I
n the f
ol
lowing t ab
le the cha racterist
ic i mpedance Zo o f at r
ansmission
l
i
ne isgiven for three cases
: ( 1) g eneral case where l o
sses are p
resen t
,
(
2
) spec
ial case where l
osses are s mall
, a nd (3
) lo
ssles
s c ase
. I n t
he table
Zo = c
haracter
istic impedance, ohms
= c
haracter
istic re
sis
tance, ohm s
Z= s
er
iesi mpedance , ohms pe
rm eter
R= s
er
ies re
sistance, ohms perm eter
L= s
er
ies inductance, henry
s perm ete
r
Y= s
hunt adm ittance
, mho s p
erm eter
G= s
hunt conduc tance
, mho s pe
rm eter
C= s
hunt capacitance, fa
radsp erm eter
Z= R j
c
oL
Y= G j
ae
z
o = NI
R j
c
oL
G
ene
ral c
a
se
Y G j
wC
Sma
ll l
o
sse
s z
o=•
[1+i
(
L-
L
oss
les
s c
a
se*
Zo = • = Ro
R= 0,G= 0
•A
lso h
olds a
pprox
ima
tely f
o
rcas
e w
here l
o
sses a
ren
otz
ero b
utc
o
l.>
> Ra
nd we >
>G.
6
.Tr
igonome
tric R
ela
tions
s
i
n (
x± y
) =s
i
n xc
o
s y± c
o
s xs
i
ny
c
os(
x± y
) = c
o
s xc
o
sy s
i
n xs
i
ny
s
i
n (
x y
) ±s
i
n (
x —y
) = 2s
i
n xc
osy
5
08 ANTEN N AS
c
os (
x y
) + c
os (
x — y
) = 2c
os xc
o
sy
s
i
n (
x y
) —s
i
n (
x — y
) = 2c
o
s xs
i
n y
c
os (
x y
) — c
os (
x — y
) = —2 s
i
n xs
i
n y
s
i
n 2
x = 2s
i
n xc
osx
c
os2
x = c
os
' x— s
i
n' x = 2c
os
' x — 1 = 1— 2s
i
n' x
c
os x = 2c
os
' x — 1 = 1— 2s
i
n' i
x
s
i
n x = 2s
i
n i
x c
os i
x
s
i
n' x c
os
' x= 1
t
an x± t
an y
t
an (
x y
) —
1— t
an xt
an y
t
an x — t
an y
t
an (
x — y
) —
1 tan xtan y
2t
an x
t
an 2
x —
1— t
an x 2
r= 3
.
1416
7
1
"2 = 9
.8696
1r
ad = 5
7
.296
°
7
. Hype
rbo
lic R
ela
tions
-
. x'
s
i
nh x — e—e x± —
3 !± —
! -
5 1
-—! + •
7 ••
2
X 2 X 4 X 6 j
_
c
osh x 2 A -
1- 2
! 1
- 4
! -
I 6
! -
1 •••
s
i
nh x
t
anh x
c
osh x
c
osh x 1
c
oth x
s
i
nh x t
anh x
s
i
nh (
x±j
y
) =s
i
nh x c
o
s y ± jc
o
sh xs
i
n y
c
osh (
x j
y
) = c
osh x c
osy ± js
i
nh xs
i
n y
c
osh (
j
x) = i(
e+' = c
osx
s
i
nh (jx
) = — = js
in x d
e Mo
ivre
's t
heo
rem
= cos x jsin x
c
osh x = c
osj
x
js
i
nh x = s
i
njx
s
i
nh 2
x s
in 2
y
t
anh (
x ±j
y
) — ±j
c
o
sh 2
x + c
os 2
y c
osh 2
x + co
s2y
s
i
nh 2
x s
in 2
y
c
oth (
x ±jy
) —
c
osh 2
x — c
os 2
y ± c
osh 2
x — co
s2y
APPENDIX 5
09
8
. L
oga
rithm
ic R
ela
tions
x= l
o
gx
l
o
g. x= l
nx
l
o
g 0x = 0
.4343 l
o
g, x= 0
.4343 i
nx
I
n x= l
o
g, x= 2
.
3026 l
o
g, 0x
e= 2
.7183
9
. A
pprox
ima
tion F
ormu
las f
o
r Sma
ll Quan
tit
ies
(
Sis as
mal
l q
uan
tity c
ompa
red t
oun
ity
)
(
1 ± S
)2 = 1± 2
S
(
1 ± 8
)
" = 1± n
o
-
Vi + 8= 1+ i
s
1 1
— 1—
N
/1 4
-
= 1 S
I
n(1 + 8
)=
(
f
or ISI<
< 1
)
J"
(
s
) =n
!2 ;
w
her
e J
, i
sBe
sse
l f
unc
tion o
forde
rn
T
hus
, J
,
(S) = —
6
2
1
0
. S
eries
_ n
(n — 1
) „_
B
inom
ial
: (
x y
)
" = x
* n
x" ty + 2
1 x 9y9
n
(n — 1
)
(n — 2
)x( „
_31
y3
3
!
T
aylo
r's
: f
(x y
) = f
(x
) 1
(x) f
"(x
) f" (
x
) Y
;
.!
1
. S
olu
tion o
f Quad
rat
ic E
qua
tion
I
fax2 ± c = 0t
hen
— b± Vb 2 — 4
ae
x—
2a
1
2
. Pasca
l's Triangle
. The c oe
ffi
cien
ts of t
he binomia
l ser
ies fo
r
(
a ± V' areconvenient
ly D
resen
ted bythe r
owso
fPascal
'str
iang
le. Any
5
10 ANTENNAS
i
ns
ide n
umbe rint
he t
r
iang
le i
sequa
ltot
he s
um o
fthe a
djacen
tnumbe
rsi
n
t
he r
ow above
.
n= 1
: 1
n= 2
: 1 1
n= 3
: 1 2 1
n= 4
: 1 3 3 1
n= 5
: 1 4 6 4 1
n= 6
: 1 5 1
0 1
0 5 1
n= 7
: 1 6 1
5 2
0 1
5 6 1
n= 8
: 1 7 2
1 3
5 3
5 2
1 7 1
n= 9
: 1 8 2
8 5
6 7
0 5
6 2
8 8 1
n= 1
0
: 1 9 3
6 8
4 1
26 1
26 8
4 3
6 9 1
1
3. Vec
tor I
den
tit
ies (
f a
nd g a
re s
ca
lar f
unc
tion
s; F
, G
, a
nd H a
re
v
ector
s)
V •(
V X F
) = 0
V •Vf = V 21
V X Vf = 0
V
(f g
) = V f-
1
- Vg
V •(
F G
) = V• F + V• G
V X (
F G
) = V XF + V XG
Vf
g = gV f fVg
••
V •f
G = G •(
Vf) f
(V •G
)
V X f
G = Vf X G f
(V X G
)
V X (
V X F
) = V
( V •F
) — V 2F
V •(
F XG
) = G •(
V X F
) — F •(
V XG
)
F •(
G XH
) = •(
H X F
) = H •(
F XG
)
1
4
. Gradient, Divergence
, C u
rl, a
nd Laplacian i
n Rec
tangu
lar, Cy
lin
-
d
rical
, and S pheri
cal Coord
inates (f i
s ascalar f
unct
ion; Fis avecto
r
f
unction
)
a. Rectangular Coord
inates (
unit v
ecto
rs are i,j
,k ; t
he v
ector F =
i
F, j
F, kF
.)
V f = la
•
M
x ± •?
I
a
y ka
z
a
F a
F a
F
V •F = a
x O
z
APPENDIX 5
11
a
F a
F„1 .
(
aF, a
F,1 a
F a
F
V XF =i ,— —
z )
a — ) k
( -1 —
c
y a
x a
y
i j k
a a a
a
x a
y a
z
F
. F
„ F
.
v 2 2
_ 24 a 2f (
7
.2
f
a
x a
y2 a
z2
v 2F = i
v 2F
. +i
v 2F
, +1
67 2F
,
b
. Cyl
indri
cal C
oordinate
s (un
it vectors a
re a„ af,a
,
; the vec
to r F=
a
,F, a
.F 0 a,F
,) (r
elated t
orectangula
rc oo
rdinat
esb y x = rco
s0 ,y =
rs
in 0
, z= z)
V f= a
, + a
, 12
1
. + a
, a
l
a
r ra
e a
z
a 1O
F, a
F.
v
r •F = ± —
a3 -
7 —
T
z
a
r (
1O F
, O
F
,,\ , O
F, a
F,) C a
(
rF,)
v X F= —a
e — a
z - r a
,
(— w — a r a0
r a
r
V2 = (
7
*-Yr)+ ±
C
. S
pherica
l Coord
ina
tes (
unit v
ecto
rs ar
e a„ ao,a
.; t
he v
ecto
r F =
a
,F, a
.F. a.F4,
)(r
ela
ted t
o re
ctangu
lar c
oord
inates b
y x = rs
i
n 0
c
os0 , y = rsi
n 0si
n0, z= rco
s0 )
i
3
1 12
(
i 1
Vf = a'a
r a
e + ar
• rs
i
n 04
V •F = — 2 (
1 rF
,
) + 1, (
F si
n 0
) -
I 1
. a
F
rar rs
i
n 0ae r a
o
V X F=a
, 1 (a (
F
,,s
i
n 0
) — g—
2)
'
rs
i
n a
e
a(
s .1 a
F
m 0a
i
6
, _
O
r
(
rF
,
.))
l
a a
F,)
+ (
rF
a a 1 a 0 1 el
V 2f =
Y
r (7
2 l
. a
r a
e(\
s
in a
e) ± r2s
i
n 2 ea
o2
1
5
. Radians, Deg
rees
, a
nd Turns
. I n t
hi
s b
ook t
he a
rguments o
ftr
ig-
o
nomet
ric funct
ions a
re g
ene
rally e
xpre
ssed i
n r
ad
ians or d
egree
s as i
s
5
12 ANTE N N AS
t
he u
sual c
ustom. Much time a
nd efo
rt may o
f
ten b
esaved, howeve
r, b
y
e
xpre
ssing t
he a
rgumen
ti ntu
rnsins
tead ofi
nrad
ian
sord egree
s. R ad
ians
,
d
egree
s, a
nd turn
sare r
ela
ted a
sf o
llows
:
2
- r
ad = 3
60° = 1t
urn
T
he symbo
l risu
sed t
ode
signa
te t
urn
s i
nthe s
ame w
ay t
hat °d
es
igna
tes
d
egree
s. Thu
s,
2
7rad = 3
60° = lr
T
o t ake advantage of the s
implif
ication a forded b y u
sing turn s
, atable
o
ftrigonome tr
ic functions o
fa rgumen ts expressed indec imal f
r act
ion
s of
atu
rn i sneeded. At able o
fthis kind wi
th a rgumen t increment s o
f0.005
o
f at u
rn (1.8
°) isgiven inSec
. 16. F o
rs mal
leri ncr
emen ts, r
eference may
b
e made t o 'R ae
's' table i
n which the argumen t i
ncremen t is0.001 o
fa
t
urn (0.36
°).
I 1
0
.25 015 075 1
.0 T
urns
L
7 1
T Fr 2r R
odion
s
I
) 9
0 I
BO 227
0 3
60 D
egrees
T
oconve
rt a
n a
rgumen
t f
r
om r
ad
ian
s t
odeg
ree
s, w
ele
t
r r
2 ad = 3
60°
T
o c
onve
rta
n a
rgumen
tfr
om r
ad
ian
stot
urn
s, w
ele
t
w r
2 ad = 1r
1F
.To
lke, "
Prakt
ische F
unk
tion
lehre
," l
i
thorepr
int b
y E
dwa
rds B
ros
., I
nc
., A
nn
A
rbor
, Mich
., 1
945
.
APPE N DI X 5
13
That i
s
, the conver
sion from r ad
ians to tu
rns is made by dropp
ing the
f
actor27
.*
Tr
igonometr
ic quantit
iesa s afunc
tion ofturn
s, r
adians, a
nd deg
reesare
s
hown graph
ically i
nt he fi
gure
.
Toilus
trate acasew here itisan advan
tage touse tu
rns, l
et u
sfind t
he
v
alue o
f
.2
7
y= a 4.
/
m 71 L
w
here L = 0
.615 X
b
y us
ing t
urn
sa nd a
lso b
yu sing r
ad
ians o
rdeg
ree
s.
B
yt h
e t
urn me
thod
, we fi
nd fr
om the t
ab
le b
e
low tha
t
y= s
i
n (L
'
/
)T = s
4
1 i
n0.
615 r = —0
.6613
'
B
y t
he r
ad
ian o
rde
gre
eme
thod
, w
ewr
ite
y= s
i
n (
27 X0
.615
)
S
ince t
ab
les oftr
igonome
tric f
unc
tion
s indeg
rees a
re mo
re c
ommon t
han
t
able
sinr ad
ians
, we u
sual
ly c
onvert t
odeg
rees
. T hus
,
y= s
i
n (
360 X 0
.
615
) =s
i
n 21
.4°
S
ince t
ab
les g
eneraly do n
ot g
ive f
unction
s fo
ra rgumen
tsexceed
ing 9
0°
,
we mu
stconver
t the a
rgument t
o avalue l
ess t
han 90
°. Thus
,
2
21
.4° — 1
80° =4
1
.4°
T
hen
, f
r
om at
r
igonome
tric t
ab
le
s
i
n41
.4° =0
.
6613
Howeve
r, we mus
t note t
hat 2
21
.4° i
sin t
he t
h
ird q
uad
ran
t s
o t
hat t
he
s
i
ne isnega
tive a
nd t
he r
esu
lt i
s
y = —0
.6613
W
ith the tu
rn m e
thod t he resu
lt i so b
tained i n asi
ng le s
t
ep, w hereas
w
ith t
he rad
ian or d
eg ree method s evera
l s t
eps a
r e r
equired. E ach extra
s
t
ep not on
ly take
s time b ut a
lso increases the p
robabil
i ty ofint
roduc ing
a
n e
rror
.
T
he tr
igonometr
ic function o
fa n a rgumen t isunchanged b ysubtrac
t ing
o
radding an in
tegra
l n umber oft urn s
. T hus, a
ny argumen t can be con-
I
ne xpress
ing an ang
le int urn
sit may b
esaid t
hatthe a
ngle i
sra
tional
zed
, t
hatis
,
t
he f
actor 2i
r doe
s notapp ea
r.
'
Note that (L/X)r i
sn umerical
ly e
qualto L
A, t
he l
e
ngth i
nw ave
lengths (
Lk = L
/X)
.
5
14 ANTE N N AS
v
erted t
o avalue between 0and +1,asinthe t
ab
le, b
ys ub
tra c
ting o
radd-
i
ng the a
ppropriate in
teger t
othe a
rgumen
t. F or a
ny pos
itive number o
f
t
urns we c
an disregard the n
umber t
othe le
ft o
fthe de
cima l i
nusing t
he
t
able
. T hus,
s
i
n 7
.
615 7 = s
i
n0.
615 T = —0
.
6613
A
lthough in th
is book t
he arguments of t
r
igonome
tric funct
ion s ar
e
u
sual
ly expre
ssed inrad
ians
, itshou
ld be kep
t inmind that ca
lculation
s
w
il
l often b
e fa
cil
ita
ted by d
iv
iding the a
rgument b
y 27 to c
onver t itto
t
urns
.
APPE N DI X 5
15
1
6
. T
able o
f T
rigonome
tric F
unc
tions f
o
r D
ecima
l F
rac
tions o
f aT
urn
Turn
s S
in C
os Tan Ca
0
.00 0
.0000 1
.0000 0
.0000 c
o
0
.005 0
.0314 0
.9995 0
.0314 3
1.8214
0
.010 0
.0628 0
.9980 0
.0629 1
5.8947
0
.015 0
.0941 0
.9956 0
.0945 1
0.5787
0
.020 0
.1253 0
.9921 0
.1263 7
.9160
0
.025 0
.1564 0
.9877 0
.1584 6
.3139
0
.030 0
.1874 0
.9823 0
.1908 5
.2422
0
.035 0
.2181 0
.9759 0
.2235 4
.4738
0
.040 0
.2487 0
.9686 0
.2568 3
.8947
0
.045 0
.2790 0
.9603 0
.2905 3
.4420
0
.050 0
.3090 0
.9511 0
.3249 3
.0777
0
.055 0
.3387 0
.9409 0
.3600 2
.7776
0
.060 0
.3681 0
.9298 0
.3959 2
.5256
0
.065 0
.3972 0
.9178 0
.4327 2
.3108
0
.070 0
.4258 0
.9048 0
.4706 2
.1251
0
.075 0
.4540 0
.8910 0
.5095 1
.9626
0
.080 0
.4818 0
.8763 0
.5498 1
.8190
0
.085 0
.5090 0
.8607 0
.5914 1
.6909
0
.090 0
.5358 0
.8443 0
.6346 1
.5757
0
.095 0
.5621 0
.8271 0
.6796 1
.4715
0
.100 0
.5878 0
.8090 0
.7266 1
.3764
0
.105 0
.6129 0
.7902 0
.7757 1
.2892
0
.110 0
.6374 0
.7705 0
.8273 1
.2088
0
.115 0
.6613 0
.7501 0
.88 16 1
.1343
0
.120 0
.6846 0
.7290 0
.9391 1
.0649
0
.125 0
.7071 0
.7071 1
.0000 1
.0000
0
.130 0
.7290 0
.6846 1
.0649 0
.9391
0
.135 0
.7501 0
.6613 1
.1343 0
.8816
0
.140 0
.7705 0
.6374 1
.2088 0
.8273
0
.145 0
.7902 0
.6129 1
.2892 0
.7757
0
.150 0
.8090 0
.5878 1
.3764 0
.7266
0
.155 0
.8271 0
.5621 1.4715 0
.6796
0
.160 0
.8443 0
.5358 1.5757 0
.6346
0
.165 0
.8607 0
.5090 1.6909 0
.5914
0
.170 0
.8763 0
.48 18 1.8190 0
.5498
0
.175 0
.8910 0
.4540 1.9626 0
.5092
0
.180 0
.9048 0
.4258 2
.1251 0
.4706
0
.185 0
.9187 0
.3972 2
.3108 0
.4327
0
.190 0
.9298 0
.368 1 2.5258 0
.3959
0
.195 0
.9409 0
.3387 2.7776 0
.3600
0
.200 0
.9511 0
.3090 3.0777 0
.3249
0
.205 0
.9603 0
.2790 3.4420 0
.2905
0
.210 0
.9686 0
.2487 3.8947 0.2568
0.215 0
.9759 0
.2181 4.4738 0
.2235
0.220 0
.9823 0
.1874 5.2422 0.1908
0.225 0.9877 0.1564 6.3139 0.1584
5
16 AN TE N N AS
Tur
ns S
in C
oe T
an C
ol
l
0
.230 0
.9921 0
.1253 7
.9160 0
.1263
0
.235 0
.9956 0
.0941 1
0.5787 0
.0945
0
.240 0
.9980 0
.0628 1
5.8947 0
.0629
0
.245 0
.9995 0
.0314 3
1.8214 0
.0314
0
.250 1
.0000 0
.0000 :
i
:co 0
.0000
0
.255 0
.9995 -0
.0314 -31.8214 -0
.0314
0
.260 0
.9980 -0
.0628 -15.8947 -0
.0629
0
.265 0
.9956 -0
.0941 -10.5787 -0
.0945
0
.270 0
.9921 -0
.1253 -7.9160 -0
.1263
0
.275 0
.9877 -0
.1564 -6.3139 -0
.1584
0
.280 0
.9823 -0
.1874 -5.2422 -0
.1908
0
.285 0
.9759 -0
.2 181 -4.4738 -0
.2235
0
.290 0
.9686 -0
.2487 -3.8947 -0
.2568
0
.295 0
.9603 -0
.2790 -3.4420 -0
.2905
0
.300 0
.9511 -0
.3090 -3.0777 -0
.3249
0
.305 0
.9409 -0
.3387 -2.7776 -0
.3600
0
.310 0
.9298 -0
.3681 -2.5258 -0
.3959
0
.315 0
.9178 -
A3
.3972 -2.3108 -0
.4327
0
.320 0
.9048 -0
.4258 -2.1251 -0
.4706
0
.325 0
.8910 -0
.4540 -1.9626 -0
.5095
0
.330 0
.8763 -0
.4818 -1.8190 -0
.5498
0
.335 0
.8607 -0
.5090 -1.6909 -0
.5914
0
.340 0
.8443 -0
.5358 -1.5757 -0
.6346
0
.345 0
.8271 -0
.5621 -1.4715 -0
.6796
0
.350 0
.8090 -0
.5878 -1.3764 -0
.7266
0
.355 0
.7902 -0
.6129 -1.2892 -0
.7757
0
.360 0
.7705 -0
.6374 -1.2088 -0
.8273
0
.365 0
.7501 -0
.66 13 -1.1343 -0
.8816
0
.370 0
.7290 -0.6846 -1.0649 -0
.9391
0
.375 0
.7071 -0.7071 -1.0000 -1.0000
0
.380 0
.6846 -0.7290 -0.9391 -1
.0649
0
.385 0
.6613 -0.7501 -0.8816 -1
.1343
0
.390 0
.6374 -0.7705 -0.8273 -1
.2088
0
.395 0
.6129 -0.7902 -0.7757 -1
.2892
0
.400 0
.5878 -0
.8090 -0.7266 -1.3764
0
.405 0
.5621 -0
.8271 -0.6796 -1
.4715
0
.410 0
.5358 -0
.8443 -0.6346 -1
.5757
0
.415 0
.5090 -0.8607 -0.5914 -1.6909
0
.420 0
.4818 -0.8763 -0.5498 -1.8190
0
.425 0
.4340 -0.8910 -0.5095 -1.9626
0
.430 0
.4258 -0.9048 -0.4706 -2.1251
0
.435 0
.3972 -0.9178 -0.4327 -2.3108
0
.440 0
.3681 -0.9298 -0.3959 -2.5258
0
.445 0
.3387 -0.9409 -0.3600 -2.7776
0
.450 0
.3090 -0.9511 -0.3249 -3.0777
0
.455 0
.2790 -0.9603 -0.2905 -3.4420
0
.460 0
.2487 -0.9686 -0.2568 -3.8947
0
.465 0
.2181 -0.9759 -0.2235 -4.4738
AP P E N DI X 5
17
Turns S
in C
os Tan C
ot
0
.470 0
.1874 -0
.9823 -0
.1908 -5
.2422
0
.475 0
.1564 -0
.9877 -0
.1584 -6
.3139
0
.480 0
.1253 -0
.9921 -0
.1263 -7
.9160
0
.485 0
.0941 -0
.9956 -0
.0945 -10
.5787
0
.490 0
.0628 -0
.9980 -0
.0629 -15
.8947
0
.495 0
.0314 -0.9995 -0
.0314 -31.8214
0
.500 0
.0000 -1.0000 0
.0000 T c
o
0
.505 -0
.0314 -0
.9995 +0
.0314 +31.8214
0
.510 -0
.0628 -0
.9980 0
.0629 1
5.8947
0
.515 -0
.0941 -0
.9956 0
.0945 1
0.5787
0
.520 -0
.1253 -0
.9921 0
.1263 7
.9160
0
.525 -0
.1564 -0
.9877 0
.1584 6
.3139
0
.530 -0
.1874 -0
.9823 0
.1908 5
.2422
0
.535 -0
.2181 -0
.9759 0
.2235 4
.4738
0
.540 -0
.2487 -0
.9686 0
.2568 3
.8947
0
.545 -0
.2790 -0
.9603 0
.2905 3
.4420
0
.550 -0
.3090 -0
.9510 0
.3249 3
.0777
0
.555 -0
.3387 -0
.9408 0
.3600 2
.7776
0
.560 -0
.3681 -0
.9298 0
.3959 2
.5258
0
.565 -0
.3972 -0
.9178 0
.4327 2
.3108
0
.570 -0
.4258 -0
.9048 0
.4706 2
.1251
0
.575 -0
.4540 -0
.8910 0
.5095 1
.9626
0
.580 -0
.4818 -0
.8763 0
.5498 1
.8190
0
.585 -0
.5090 -0
.8607 0
.5914 1
.6909
0
.590 -0
.5358 -0
.8443 0
.6346 1
.5757
0
.595 -0
.5621 -0
.8271 0
.6796 1
.4715
0
.600 -0
.5878 -0
.8090 0
.7266 1
.3764
0
.605 -0
.6129 -0
.7902 0
.7757 1
.2892
0
.610 -0
.6374 -0
.7705 0
.8273 1
.2088
0
.615 -0
.6613 -0
.7501 0
.8816 1
.1343
0
.620 -0
.6846 -0
.7290 0
.9391 1
.0649
0
.625 -0
.7071 -0
.7071 1
.0000 1
.0000
0
.630 -0
.7290 -0
.6846 1
.0649 0
.9391
0
.635 -0
.7501 -0
.6613 1
.1343 0
.8816
0
.640 -0
.7705 -0
.6374 1
.2088 0
.8273
0
.645 -0
.7902 -0
.6129 1
.2892 0
.7757
0
.650 -0
.8090 -0
.5878 1
.3764 0
.7266
0
.655 -0
.8271 -0
.5621 1
.4715 0
.6796
0
.660 -0
.8443 -0
.5358 1
.5757 0
.6346
0
.665 -0
.8607 -0
.5090 1
.6909 0
.5914
0
.670 -0
.8763 -0
.4818 1
.8190 0
.5498
0
.675 -0
.8910 -0
.4540 1
.9626 0
.5095
0
.680 -0
.9048 -0
.4258 2
.1251 0
.4706
0
.685 -0.9178 -0
.3972 2
.3108 0
.4327
0
.690 -0.9298 -0.3681 2
.5258 0
.3959
0
.695 -0
.9409 -0
.3388 2
.7776 0
.3600
0
.700 -0
.9511 -0
.3090 3
.0777 0
.3249
0
.705 -0
.9603 -0
.2790 3
.4420 0
.2905
5
18 AN TE N N A S
Tu
rns Si
n CO
S Ta
n C
ot
0
.710 -0.9686 -0
.2487 3
.8947 0
.2568
0
.715 -0.9759 -0
.2181 4
.4738 0
.2235
0
.720 -0.9823 -
43
.1874 5
.2422 0
.1908
0
.725 -0.9877 -0
.1564 6
.3139 0
.1584
0
.730 -0.9921 -0
.1253 7
.9160 0
.1263
0
.735 -0.9956 -0
.0941 1
0.5787 0
.0945
0
.740 -0.9980 -
43
.0628 1
5.8947 0
.0629
0
.745 -0.9995 -0
.0314 3
1.8214 0
.0314
0
.750 -1.0000 0
.0000 :
i
:, 0
.0000
0
.755 -0.9995 0
.0314 -31.8214 -0.0314
0
.760 -0.9980 0
.0628 -15.8947 -4
3.0629
0
.765 -0.9956 0
.0941 -10.5787 -4
3.0945
0
.770 -0.9921 0
.1253 -7.9160 -0.1263
0
.775 -
4).9877 0
.1564 -6.3139 -0.1584
0
.780 -0.9823 0
.1874 -5.2422 -0.1908
0
.785 -0.9759 0
.2181 -4.4738 -0.2235
0
.790 -0.9686 0
.2487 -3.8947 -0.2568
0
.795 -0.9603 0
.2790 -3.4420 -0.2905
0
.800 -0.9510 0
.3090 -3.0777 -0.3249
0
.805 -0.9409 0
.3387 -2.7776 -0.3600
0
.810 -0.9298 0
.3681 -2.5256 -4
3.3959
0
.815 -0.9178 0
.3972 -2.3108 -4
).4327
0
.820 -0.9048 0
.4258 -2.1251 -0.4706
0
.825 -0.8910 0
.4540 -1.9626 -A 3
.5095
0
.830 -0.8763 0
.4818 -1.8190 -A 3
.5498
0
.835 -0.8607 0
.5090 -1.6909 -4
3.5914
0
.840 -
43.8443 0
.5358 -1.5757 -0.6346
0
.845 -0.8271 0
.5621 -1.4717 -0.6796
0
.850 -0.8090 0
.5878 -1.3764 -0.7266
0
.855 -0.7902 0
.6129 -1.2892 -0.7759
0
.860 -0.7705 0.6374 -1.2088 -A3.8273
0
.865 -0.7501 0.6613 -1.1343 -0.88 16
0
.870 -0.7290 0.6846 -1.0649 -0.9391
0
.875 -0.7071 0.7071 -1.0000 -1.0000
0
.880 -0.6846 0.7290 -0.9391 -1.0649
0
.885 -0.6613 0.7501 -0.8816 -1.1343
0
.890 -A3
.6374 0.7705 -0.8273 -1.2088
0
.895 -0.6129 0.7902 -0.7757 -1.2892
0
.900 -0.5878 0.8090 -
43.7266 -1.3764
0
.905 -0.5621 0
.8271 -0.6796 -1.4715
0
.910 -0.5358 0.8443 -0.8346 -1.5757
0
.915 -0.5090 0
.8607 -0.5914 -1.6909
0
.920 -0.4818 0
.8763 -
43.5498 -1.8190
0
.925 -0.4540 0
.8910 -
43.5095 -1.9626
0
.930 -0.4258 0
.9048 -0.4706 -2.1251
0
.935 -0.3972 0
.9178 -0.4327 -2.3108
0
.940 -
4).3681 0
.9298 -0.3959 -2.5258
0
.945 -
43.3387 0
.9409 -0.3600 -2.7776
APPE N DI X 5
19
Turns S
in C
os T
an C
ot
0
.950 -0
.3090 0
.9511 -0
.3249 -3.0777
0
.955 -0
.2790 0
.9603 -0
.2905 -3.4420
0
.960 -0
.2487 0
.9686 -0
.2568 -3.8947
0
.965 -0
.2181 0
.9759 -0
.2235 -4.4738
0
.970 -0
.1874 0
.9823 -0
.1908 -5.2422
0
.975 -0
.1664 0
.9877 -0
.1584 -6.3139
0
.980 -0
.1253 0
.9921 -0
.1263 -7.9160
0
.985 -0
.0941 0
.9956 -0
.0945 -10.5787
0
.990 -0
.0628 0
.9980 -0
.0629 -15.8947
0
.995 -0
.0314 0
.9995 -0
.0314 -31.8214
1
.000 0
.0000 1
.0000 0
.0000 c
o
1
7. U n
ive rsalP a t
tern C harts. Au niversalf i
e
ld p attern chartf o
rl inea r
a
rray s of ni s
otropic p oin t source s ofe qua
l a mplitude a nd spacing i sp re-
s
ented i nFig. 4-20 f or n= 1 ,2,3 ,4,5 ,10
, a nd 20. T he fo
llowing c ha rts
g
ive nf ora l
li nteg ral value sf rom 1t hrough 24.' T he absci
ssa isg iven i n
b
oth t u
rn sa nd d egrees. T he array f actorisn ormalized f o
ra l
lp atternsf or
which the range o ft f
,inc
lude s z ero.
I
tiss ome times a dvan tageou s toe mploy ag raphical m ethod with t he se
c
ha rt
si no rdert ob ea ble too bserve a t agl
ance t he r
ange o f4.
,as afunc tion
o
f4 )
. T h
ism ethod may b ei lust rated b ythe fol
lowing e xamp le. Al inea r
a
rray consistso ff i
ve isotropic p o
in ts ourcesofe quala mpl
itude a nd spacing .
The spacing d b etween s ources i s0.25 X ,and the phase d iference is ST =
-0.3. T he a ngle b etwe en t he r adius vector to ad i
stant p o
in t and t he
a
rray a x
is is0 ( see Fig. 4-18). T hen the value of 0i nt urns is
o r= d
k c
os 0 + or
o
r
-O r = 0
.
3 -0
.
25 c
os4
)
The v a
lue Or i sl a
id ofa long the a bsc
i ssa oft he u n
ive r
sal p attern chart
f
or n = 5a nd ac ircle ofradius dk construc ted ass hown i nt he figure. F or
4
)= 3 0° the value o fd k co
sq $ist hen t he p roject
ion o ft he r ad
iu s on the
a
bscissa asi nthe f i
gure o n p
.5 20. C ontinu ing the projection t othe n = 5
c
urve g ives the a rray facto r Ea t 4 )= 3 0° as equal t o 0.75. T o h ave
s
uff
icients pace for mak ing t he g
raph ical c onstruction it may b e mostc on-
v
enien t to fi
rs
t t race the n = 5c urve a nd a s much o ft he c oordinates as
r
equired o n as heet oft rac
ing p aperw i
th l a
rge ma rgins.
Inexten sive pattern calculat
ions t hatd on ote mp loy the above g raphical
method i ti sdesirable, as inc a
lcula t
ions o fa ny t ype
, t o systema tize the
'
Thes
e c
urve
s w
ere f
urn
ished b
y J
.C. W
ill
iamson
.
5
20 A N T E N N AS
90'
c
a
lcu
lation b
y tabulating the w
ork. T his b
oth f
ac
ili
tate
s the c
alcu
lat
ion
a
nd r
educe
sthe probabil
ity ofin
troduc
ing an e
rro
r. F ore
xample, asample
c
a
lcu
lation o
fthe array fa
ctor f
or t
he above e
xample isg
iven b
elow:
(
1
) (
2
) (
3
) (
4
) (
6
) (
6
) (
7
)
0 c
os (
1) dx (
3
) X (
2
) e (
5
) — (4
) E
or
c
os 0
0 1
.000 0
.25 0
.250 0
.30 —0
.050 0
.902
1
0 0
.985 0
.25 0
.246 0
.30 —0
.054 0
.885
20 0
.940 0
.25 0
.235 0
.30 —0
.065 0
.84
30 0
.866 0
.25 0
.217 0
.30 —0
.083 0
.75
E
tc.
C
olumn (
7
) i
seva
lua
ted b
y r
e
ferr
ing t
othe umversa
lpa
ttern c
har
tfo
rn 5
.
1
0
0
9
5
.
9
0
.
8
5
.
8
0
.
7
5
.
7
0
.
6
5
0 .
c 6
0
.
5
q
c n
.5
iadil V
I
A 5
0
_ .
.
4
5
.
4
0
It
n
.3
.
3
5
XIC
.
3
0
.
2
5
n
.5
.
2
0
.
1
5
.
1
0
.
0
5
00 .
0
2 .
0
4 .
0
6 .
0
8 .
1
0 .
1
2 .
1
4 .
1
6 .
1
8 .
2
0 .
2 .
2
4 .
2
6 .
28 .
3
0 .32 .3
4 .
3
6 .3
8 .40 .
4
2 .4 .4
6 .4
8 .
5
0
1
.
00 .
9
8 .
9
6 .
9
4 .
9
2 .
9
0 .
8 .
8
6 .
8
4 .
F
2 .
8
0 .
7
8 .
7
6 .
7
4 .
72 .
7
0 .68 .6 .
6
4 .6
2 .60 .
5
8 .5
6 .5
4 .5
2 0 T
.
5 URNS
I t I I I I I I I 1
0 1
0 2
0 3
0 4
0 5
0 6
0 7
0 8
0 9
0 1
00 1
0 12
0 1
30 1
40 1
5
0 1
6
0 1
7
0 1
8
0
I
g
o DEGREES
3
6
0 3
5
0 3
4
0 3
0 3
2
0 3
1
0 3
0
0 2
9
0 2
8
0 2
7
0 2
60 2
5
0 2
40 2
30 20 2
1
0 20
0 1
9
0
C
J
1
I
s
Q
1
.
00 C
•
J
.
9
5
.
9
0
.
8
5
.
8
0
.
7
5
.
7
0
6
5
c 6
0
,5
r
,
0 n
=6
IV
gV N M3IN
>
-
c
c
.
4
0
.
3
5
.
3
0
n
=10 n
=6
.
2
5
n
=10
2
0
n
=6
n
=8
.
1
5
n
=10
.
1
0
.
0
5
00 .
0
2 0
4 0
6 O
A 1
0 .
1
2 .
1
4 .
1
6 .
18 2
0 2 .2
4 . 26 .
2
8 3
0 3
2 .
3
4 .
3
6 3
8 4
0 .
4
2 4 .
4
6 4
8 .
5
0
1
.
00 9
8 9
6 .
9
4 9
2 9
0 8 .
8
6 .
8
4 .8
2 80 7
8 .7
6 . 74 .
7
2 7
0 6
8 .
6 .
6
4 6
2 .
6
0 .
5
8 5
6 .
5
4 5
2 .
5
0 T
URNS
I I t i
0 1
0 2
0 3
0 4
0 5
0 6
0 7
0 8
0 9
0 1
0
0 1
0 1
2
0 1
3
0 1
4
0 1
5
0 1
6
0 1
7
0 1
80
3
6
0 3
5
0 3
4
0 3
0 3
2
0 3
1
0 3
0
0 2
9
0 2
8
0 2
70 2
6
0 2
5
0 2
4
0 2
3
0 2
0 2
1
0 2
0
0 1
9
0 18
0 D
EGREES
±;f
r
.
9
5
.
9
0
.
8
5
.
8
0
.
7
5
.
7
0
.
6
5
c .
6
0
0
t
5 .
5
n
=7
INdd V
"
- 50
>
-
c .
l 4
5
c
r n
=9
<.40
IN
.
3
5
XIC
n
=1
1
.
3
0
n
=9
.
2
5
n
=7
.
2
0
n
=9 n
=7 n
=7
.
1
5
n
=9 n
=9
.
1
0
n=1
1
.
0
5
n
=11
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2 .
1
4 .1
6 1
8 2
0 2 .2
4 26 .
2
8 .
3
0 .
3
2 .
3
4 3
6 .
3
8 .
4
0 4
2 .
4 .
4
6 .
4
8 .
5
0
1
.
09 9
8 .
9
6 .
9
4 .
9
2 9
0 .
8 8
6 84 8
2 .
80 .
7
8 .7
6 .7
4 .
7
2 .
7
0 6
8 6 .
6
1 .
6
2 .
6
0 .
5
8 .
5
6 .
5
4 .
5
2 .
5
0 T
URNS
I I I I I I I I I I I I 1
0 1
0 2
0 3
0 4
0 5
0 6
1
3 7
0 8
0 9
0 1
0
0 1
0 1
2
0 1
3
0 1
4
0 1
5
0 1
6
0 1
7
0
3
6
0 3
5
0 3
4
0 3
0 3
2
0 3
1
0 3
0
0 2
9
0 2
8
0 2
7
0 2
6
0 2
5
0 2
4
0 2
3
0 2
0 2
1
0 2
0
0 1
9
0 1
8
°8
0 D
EGREES
p
APPE N DI X 5
35
1
8
. S
ine
, C
osine
, a
nd E
xponen
tia
l I
n
teg
ral R
ela
tions
C
i(x
) = c
os
u u d
u =c
X2
os
ine i
n
teg
ral
X4 X6
C i( X) = l
n-y
x —
2
!2 4
!4 6
!6
w
her
e 7 = è = 1
.
781
I
n y= C = 0
.577 = E
ule
r's c
ons
tan
t
X 2 X4 X6
C l( X) = 0
.577 + i
n x— • • •
2
!2 6
!6
When x < 0
.2
, C
i(x
) 0
.577 + i
nx
When x>
> 1
, C
i(x
) s
i
n x
r- 1— c
osu
C
in(x
) = d
u
J
o U
C
in(x
) -
=In — C i( x)
2 x 4 x 6
C
in(x
) = • • •
2
x!
2 4
!4 6
!6
C
i(x
) = i
n-y
x —C
in(x
)
C
urve
sfo
r C
i (
x
), i
n-y
x
, a
nd C
in (
x
) a
re c
ompa
red i
nthe g
raph
.
C
i
(x), n T
i, a
nd C
in(x) a
s of
unc
tion o
f x
+3
C
in
(
nT
x
I
n T
x
C
i
(x)
2 3 4 5 6
S
i
(
x
)=f
: s
i
nu d
u = s
i
ne i
n
teg
ral
x° x7
S
i
(x) = x— ± — + •••
5
36 AN TEN N AS
When x < 0
.5
, S
i(x
) x
i
r c
os x
When x>
> 1
, S
i
(x/ 2 X
f
: 1 — e—
Em
(z) = d
u =e
xponen
tia
l i
n
teg
ral
whe
re z = x j
y
E
in(jy
) =
J
o u
r
i
y1
d-
u
E
in(jy
) =C
in(y
) jS
i
(y)
E
i(±iY
) =C
i(Y
) S
i
(y)
1
9. Tables of S
ine a nd C osine Integra
ls. T he f o
llowing table
s give
v
alues fo
r the s
ine i
ntegral Si
(x), the co
sine in
tegralCi (x)
, and f
orCin
(x )
f
or values of xfrom 0 t o 50. Mo st of the en
trie
s i n t
he tab
les h
ave
b
een comp i
led f
rom v ar
ious sources
' b u
t ac ons
iderable n umber
, nottob e
f
ound el
sewhere, we
re calculated.
1F
. E. Terman , "Radio E ng inee rs
' Handbook ," McG raw -Hil
l B ook C ompany, Inc
.,
New Y ork, 1943, pp
. 16-17 . G ive s Si
(x) and Cin(x) [l
i
sted asS i(x)]
.
E
. Jahnke a nd F
. Emde , " Tab leso fFunctions," li
thoreprint by Dove rP ub
licat
ions,
New Y ork, 1943, pp
. 6-9. G ive sS i(x) and Ci
(x )
.
K. Tani
, " Tables o
fs i
(x) a nd c i
(x )
," Nava l Experimen tal and R esea
rch Establ
ish-
ment, Tokyo, 1931. [ s
i(x) S
i(x) —7 /2, a
nd c i
(x) C
i(x)
].
"Tables o
fS ine
, C o
sine, a nd E xponential I
ntegrals
," v o
l. 2,F ederal Works Agency,
Work sP ro
jects Adm in
istra t
ion, f ort he C
ity ofN ew Y ork, 1940
. G ivesSi(x
)a nd Ci(x)
i
ni ncrements of0.001 b ut only u p tox 1
0
.
APPE N DI X 5
37
TABLE OF S
i
(x)
x S
i
(x) x S
i
(x) x S
i
(x) x S
i
(x)
0
.0 0
.0000 8
.0 1
.5742 1
6.0 1
.6313 2
4.0 1
.5547
0
.2 0
.1996 8
.2 1
.5981 1
6.2 1
.6266 2
4.2 1
.5476
0
.4 0
.3965 8
.4 1
.6198 1
6.4 1
.6197 2
4.4 1
.5415
0
.6 0
.5881 8
.6 1
.6386 1
6.6 1
.6111 2
4.6 1
.5367
0
.8 0
.7721 8
.8 1
.6538 1
6.8 1
.6011 2
4.8 1
.5333
1
.0 0
.9461 9
.0 1
.6650 1
7.0 1
.5901 2
5.0 1
.5315
1
.2 1
.1081 9
.2 1
.6721 1
7.2 1
.5787 2
6.0 1
.5449
1
.4 1
.2562 9
.4 1
.6747 1
7.4 1
.5671 2
7.0 1
.5803
1
.6 1
.3892 9
.6 1
.6732 1
7.6 1
.5560 2
8.0 1
.6047
1
.8 1
.5058 9
.8 1
.6676 1
7.8 1
.5457 2
9.0 1
.5973
2
.0 1
.6054 1
0
.0 1
.6584 1
8
.0 1
.5366 3
0.0 1
.5668
2
.2 1
.6876 1
0
.2 1
.6460 1
8
.2 1
.5291 3
1.0 1
.5418
2
.4 1
.7525 1
0
.4 1
.6311 1
8
.4 1
.5234 3
2.0 1
.5442
2
.6 1
.8004 1
0.6 1
.6144 1
8
.6 1
.5197 3
3.0 1
.5703
2
.8 1
.8321 1
0.8 1
.5965 1
8
.8 1
.5181 3
4.0 1
.5953
3
.0 1
.8487 1.0 1
.5783 1
9.0 1
.5186 3
5.0 1
.5969
3
.2 1
.8514 1.2 1
.5604 1
9.2 1
.5212 3
6.0 1
.5751
3
.4 1
.8419 1.4 1
.5436 1
9.4 1
.5257 3
7.0 1
.5506
3
.6 1
.8220 1.6 1
.5284 1
9.6 1
.5319 3
8.0 1
.5455
3
.8 1
.7933 1.8 1
.5154 1
9.8 1
.5395 3
9.0 1
.5633
4
.0 1
.7582 1
2
.0 1
.5050 2
0.0 1
.5482 4
0.0 1
.5870
4
.2 1
.7184 1
2
.2 1
.4976 2
0.2 1
.5577 4
1.0 1
.5949
4
.4 1
.6758 1
2
.4 1
.4933 2
0.4 1
.5674 4
2.0 1
.5808
4
.6 1
.6325 1
2.6 1
.4922 2
0.6 1
.5771 4
3.0 1
.5583
4
.8 1
.5900 1
2.8 1
.4943 2
0.8 1
.5864 4
4.0 1
.5481
5
.0 1
.5499 1
3
.0 1
.4994 2
1.0 1
.5949 4
5.0 1
.5587
5
.2 1
.5137 1
3
.2 1
.5071 2
1.2 1
.6023 4
6.0 1
.5798
5
.4 1
.4823 1
3.4 1
.5172 2
1.4 1
.6082 4
7.0 1
.5918
5
.6 1
.4567 1
3.6 1
.5291 2
1.6 1
.6126 4
8.0 1
.5845
5
.8 1
.4374 1
3.8 1
.5423 2
1.8 1
.6153 4
9.0 1
.5651
6
.0 1
.4247 1
4
.0 1
.5562 2
2.0 1
.6161 5
0.0 1
.5516
6
.2 1
.4187 1
4.2 1
.5704 2
2.2 1
.6151
6
.4 1
.4192 1
4.4 1
.5841 2
2.4 1
.6124
6
.6 1
.4258 1
4.6 1
.5970 2
2.6 1
.6081
6
.8 1
.4379 1
4.8 1
.6085 2
2.8 1
.6023
7
.0 1
.4546 1
5.0 1
.6182 2
3.0 1
.5955
7
.2 1
.4751 1
5.2 1
.6258 2
3.2 1
.5877
7
.4 1
.4983 1
5.4 1
.6309 2
3.4 1
.5795
7
.6 1
.5233 1
5.6 1
.6336 2
3.6 1
.5710
7
.8 1
.5489 1
5.8 1
.6337 2
3.8 1
.5626
TABLE O
F C
i
(x)
x C
i(x
) x a(x
) x a(x
) x a(x
)
0
.01 -4
.0280 5
.40 -0
.1544 1
4
.40 0
.0677 2
3.40 -0.0417
0
.02 -3
.3349 5
.60 -0
.1287 1
4
.60 0
.0628 2
3.60 -0.0423
0
.03 -2
.9296 5
.80 -0
.0994 1
4
.80 0
.0555 2
3.80 -0.0411
0
.04 -2
.6421 6
.00 -0
.0681 1
5
.00 0
.0463 2
4.00 -0.0383
0
.05 -2
.4191 6
.20 -
43
.0359 1
5
.20 0
.0354 2
4.20 -
-0.0341
0
.10 -1.7279 6
.40 -0
.0042 1
5
.40 0
.0234 2
4.40 -
43
.0286
0
.15 -1.3255 6
.60 0
.0258 1
5
.60 0
.0108 2
4.60 -0
.0220
0
.20 -1.0422 6
.80 0
.0531 1
5
.80 -0
.0019 2
4.80 -0
.0147
0
.25 -0.8247 7
.00 0
.0767 1
6
.00 -0
.0142 2
5.00 -0
.0068
0
.30 -
43.6492 7
.20 0
.0960 1
6.20 -0
.0257 2
6.00 -0
.0283
0
.35 -0
.5031 7
.40 0
.1104 1
6
.40 -0
.0358 2
7.00 0
.0357
0
.40 -0
.3788 7
.60 0
.1196 1
6
.60 -0
.0443 2
8.00 0
.0109
0
.45 -0
.2715 7
.80 0
.1236 1
6
.80 -0
.0509 2
9.00 -0
.0219
0
.50 -0
.1778 8
.00 0
.1224 1
7.00 -0
.0552 3
0.00 -0
.0330
0
.55 -0
.0953 8
.20 0
.1164 1
7.20 -
43
.0573 3
1.00 -0
.0140
0
.60 -0
.0223 8
.40 0
.1061 1
7
.40 -0
.0571 3
2.00 0
.0164
0
.65 0
.0427 8
.60 0
.0919 1
7
.60 -
43
.0546 3
3.00 0
.0303
0
.70 0
.1005 8
.80 0
.0747 1
7
.80 -
43
.0500 3
4.00 0
.0163
0
.75 0
.1522 9
.00 0
.0553 1
8
.00 -0
.0435 3
5.00 -0
.0115
0
.80 0
.1983 9
.20 0
.0345 1
8
.20 -0
.0354 3
6.00 -0
.0274
0
.85 0
.2394 9
.40 0
.0133 1
8
.40 -0
.0261 3
7.00 -
43
.0 179
0
.90 0
.2761 9
.60 -0
.0077 1
8
.60 -0
.0160 3
8.00 0.0071
0
.95 0
.3086 9
.80 -0
.0275 1
8
.80 -0
.0054 3
9.00 0.0245
1
.00 0
.3374 1
0
.00 -0
.0455 1
9.00 0
.0052 4
0.00 0.0190
1
.20 0
.4205 1
0.20 -0
.0609 1
9.20 0.0
153 4
1.00 -0.0033
1
.40 0
.4620 1
0
.40 -0
.0733 1
9.40 0
.0246 4
2.00 -0
.02 16
1
.60 0
.4717 1
0
.60 -0
.0824 1
9.60 0
.0327 4
3.00 -
43
.0196
1
.80 0
.4568 1
0
.80 -0
.0878 1
9.80 0
.0394 4
4.00 -
A3
.0001
2
.00 0
.4230 1
.00 -0
.0896 2
0.00 0
.0444 4
5.00 0.0186
2
.20 0
.3751 1.20 -0
.0877 2
0.20 0
.0476 4
6.00 0.0198
240 0
.3173 1
.40 -0
.0824 2
0.40 0
.0487 4
7.00 0
.0031
2
.60 0
.2533 1
.60 -0
.0740 2
0.60 0
.0480 4
8.00 -0
.0157
280 0
.1865 1
.80 -0
.0630 2
0.80 0
.0453 4
9.00 -
43
.0196
3
.00 0
.1196 1
2.00 -0
.0498 2
1.00 0
.0409 5
0.00 -0
.0056
3
.20 0
.0553 1
2.20 -0
.0350 2
1.20 0
.0349
3
.40 -
43
.0045 1
2
.40 -0
.0194 2
1.40 0
.0277
3
.60 -0
.0580 1
2
.60 -0
.0034 2
1.60 0
.0195
3
.80 -0
.1038 1
2
.80 0
.0121 2
1.80 0
.0107
4
.00 -
43.1410 1
3.00 0
.0268 2
2.00 0
.0016
4
.20 -0.1690 1
3.20 0
.0399 2
2.20 -0
.0073
4
.40 -0
.1877 1
3
.40 0
.0510 2
2.40 -0
.0159
4
.60 -0
.1970 1
3.60 0
.0598 2
2.60 -0
.0236
4
.80 -0
.1976 1
3.80 0
.0660 2
2.80 -0
.0303
5
.00 -
43
.1900 1
4
.00 0
.0694 2
3.00 -0
.0357
520 -0
.1753 1
4.20 0
.0699 2
3.20 -0
.0395
5
38
APPE N DI X 5
39
TABLE OF C
i
n(x
)
x C
in(x
) x an
(x) x an
(x) x an(x
)
0
.0 0
.0000 8
.0 2
.5342 1
6
.0 3
.3640 2
4.0 3
.7936
0
.2 0
.0100 8
.2 2
.5649 1
6
.2 3
.3879 2
4.2 3
.7977
0
.4 0
.0397 8
.4 2
.5994 1
6.4 3
.4103 2
4.4 3
.8004
0
.6 0
.0887 8
.6 2
.6370 1
6
.6 3
.4310 2
4.6 3
.8020
0
.8 0
.1558 8
.8 2
.6772 1
6.8 3
.4495 2
4.8 3
.8027
1
.0 0
.2398 9
.0 2
.7191 1
7
.0 3
.4657 2
5.0 3
.8030
1
.2 0
.3391 9
.2 2
.7619 1
7
.2 3
.4795 2
6.0 3
.8070
1
.4 0
.4517 9
.4 2
.8047 1
7
.4 3
.4908 2
7.0 3
.8373
1
.6 0
.5755 9
.6 2
.8467 1
7.6 3
.4997 2
8.0 3
.8985
1
.8 0
.7082 9
.8 2
.8871 1
7.8 3
.5064 2
9.0 3
.9664
2
.0 0
.8474 1
0.0 2
.9253 1
8
.0 3
.5111 3
0.0 4
.0118
2
.2 0
.9906 1
0.2 2
.9605 1
8
.2 3
.5140 3
1.0 4
.0252
2
.4 1
.1354 1
0.4 2
.9923 1
8.4 3
.5157 3
2.0 4
.0265
2
.6 1
.2794 1
0.6 3
.0205 1
8.6 3
.5163 3
3.0 4
.0434
2
.8 1
.4204 1
0.8 3
.0446 1
8.8 3
.5165 3
4.0 4
.0873
3
.0 1
.5562 1
.0 3
.0647 1
9
.0 3
.5166 3
5.0 4
.1441
3
.2 1
.6851 1
.2 3
.0808 1
9.2 3
.5169 3
6.0 4
.1881
3
.4 1
.8055 1
.4 3
.0932 1
9.4 3
.5179 3
7.0 4
.2060
3
.6 1
.9161 1
.6 3
.1023 1
9.6 3
.5200 3
8.0 4
.2077
3
.8 2
.0160 1
.8 3
.1083 1
9.8 3
.5235 3
9.0 4
.2163
4
.0 2
.1045 1
2
.0 3
.1119 2
0.0 3
.5285 4
0.0 4
.2471
4
.2 2
.1813 1
2
.2 3
.1137 2
0.2 3
.5354 4
1.0 4
.2941
4
.4 2
.2465 1
2
.4 3
.1143 2
0.4 3
.5440 4
2.0 4
.3365
4
.6 2
.3003 1
2.6 3
.1144 2
0.6 3
.5546 4
3.0 4
.3580
4
.8 2
.3434 1
2.8 3
.1145 2
0.8 3
.5669 4
4.0 4
.3615
5
.0 2
.3767 1
3
.0 3
.1154 2
1.0 3
.5809 4
5.0 4
.3653
5
.2 2
.4011 1
3.2 3
.1175 2
1.2 3
.5963 4
6.0 4
.3860
5
.4 2
.4180 1
3.4 3
.1214 2
1.4 3
.6129 4
7.0 4
.4243
5
.6 2
.4287 1
3.6 3
.1275 2
1.6 3
.6304 4
8.0 4
.4641
5
.8 2
.4345 1
3.8 3
.1358 2
1.8 3
.6484 4
9.0 4
.4886
6
.0 2
.4370 1
4
.0 3
.1469 2
2.0 3
.6666 5
0.0 4
.4948
6
.2 2
.4376 1
4.2 3
.1605 2
2.2 3
.6847
6
.4 2
.4377 1
4.4 3
.1768 2
2.4 3
.7022
6
.6 2
.4385 1
4.6 3
.1955 2
2.6 3
.7188
6
.8 2
.4411 1
4.8 3
.2163 2
2.8 3
.7343
7
.0 2
.4464 1
5
.0 3
.2390 2
3.0 3
.7484
7
.2 2
.4553 1
5
.2 3
.2631 2
3.2 3
.7609
7
.4 2
.4683 1
5
.4 3
.2881 2
3.4 3
.7717
7
.6 2
.4858 1
5
.6 3
.3136 2
3.6 3
.7807
7
.8 2
.5078 1
5
.8 3
.3391 2
3.8 3
.7880
5
40 ANTENNAS
2
0. GeneralP oyn t
ing Vectorand Direct
ivity Formulas
. T he d
er
ivation
o
f anumbe r ofs pe
cial P
oyn ting v
ector re
lationsused inthe te
xt f
rom the
mo
re genera
lr ela
tionsisgiven inth
is s
ection. T he
ira ppl
icat
ion torad
iated
p
owe rand direct
ivity f
ormu las i
salso c
onsidered.
The i
ns
tan taneousP oynting vec
to rP, isg i
ven by
Pi = E X H (
1
)
I
nthe f
a
rfi
eld
,the f
i
e
ld c
omponen
tsa
ret
r
ansver
se s
otha
t (
s
ee c
oord
ina
tes
o
fFig
. 2
-16
)
E=1
4E. -
I
- aoE
, = 4E0 c
o
sco
t -
I-1
4ER,c
o
s(c
o
t -
I
- (
3
) (
2
)
a
nd
H = —a
,ll = —a
eHo
o c
o
s (
w
t E
) 1
4
.
140 c
o
s(c
o
t-I
- +E
) (
3
)
T
he i
n
stantaneou
s P
oyn
ting v
ecto
rist
hen
Pi = —a
, X1
441 a
o Xg
t
.E,H# = a
,
( 41-
1
. (
4
)
a
nd i
t
s r
ad
ial c
omponen
tis
P
,, = EX
, Eol
, (
5
)
T
he ave
rage v
a
lue P
. i
sob
tained b
y t
he i
n
teg
rat
ion o
f (
5
) o
ver o
ne c
yc
le
a
sgi
ven by
P
. = f " EJ
-
1,) d
(
co
t) (
6
)
f
r
om w
hich
P
. = 14
0H r
oco
sE l
E•ol
io c
osE (
7
)
T
he magn
itude
s o
fthe f
a
r-f
ie
ld c
omponen
tsa
re r
e
lated b
y
_E
, _ z
(
8
)
Ho H
,
s
o (
7
) c
an b
ewr
itt
en
P
, = i
1
1:0Z c
o
sE 1
1:oZ c
osE (
9
)
B
ut Z c
os E= Re Z
. I
n f
r
ee s
pace Z = Zo = 1
207
, w
hich i
sre
al, s
o
R
e Z = Zo a
nd
2 MO
)
Z 2
P = (
Ho HO )= 6 07 (1 4 0 + (
1
0)
2
o
r
p r E.2
0 E:
0 E•20 E:
0
2
Z0 2
407
APPE N DI X 5
41
T
he a
bove d
er
ivat
ion may al
so be made u
s
ing c
omp
lex n
ota
tion a
s f
o
l-
l
ows
. The c
omplex Poyn
ting v
ecto
ri s
=A
E X H* (
12
)
I
n t
he f
a
rfi
e
ld, t
he f
i
e
ld c
omponen
tsa
re t
r
ansve
rse s
otha
t
E = a4,
E0 = ad,
E4,
0
el"
' a
i
lE0
06' +
a
) (
1
3)
H
* = —ael
f
: a#H
: = —
141
-
1,0
e-i
("+
t) a
s Ho
e -
i(.
1+a
+e) (
14
)
T
he a
verage P
oyn
ting v
ecto
r (
t
ime a
verag
e) i
sgi
ven b
y
P= R
e (
E XH
*) = i
a
,Re (
E.Ht E
erl:
)
= i
a
,(E0 He
o c
ost E
00H
,
40 c
ost
) (
15
)
T
he r
ad
ial c
omponen
t o
fthe a
verage P
oyn
ting v
ecto
rist
hen
Pr = l
Eo He
o c
ost i
Eeo H0 c
o
st (
16
)
a
sin( 7
)a nd,hence
,inf
ree spa
ce P.reduce
st othe s
ame f
orm a
sin(
1
0) a
nd
(
11
).
The t
otal p
ower W r
adiated t
hrough alarge s
phe
re i
sthen
W = i
f P
. a
s =4
r
2 1
2
1. f r R
e (
E#1
-
1
7 E
.1
-4)s
i
n 0c
1
0cl
A
k
d
o 0
(
7 )
1
2r f r
R
e (
E4,
1: E
,H:
) c
/
1
2
0 0
w
here d
O =s
i
n 0c
1
0(1
4
) =e
l
emen
t o
fsol
id a
ngle
F
rom (1
7)
W = i
r
2
zod
1. f
2
o d
'(
o
H
7
,
0 +H: )dn 0 = f
"d
J
o o
(
E
:
0 +EL) dl (
18
)
I
ngene
ral 4 0a
nd El
m may b
edife
ren
tfunc
tion
sof 0a
nd 0
. T
hus
,
E
,0 = EiFi(
0
, c
p
) (
1
9)
a
nd
E
.0 = E
2F2
(0, (
b
) (
20
)
T
he d
i
rec
tiv
ity D o
fan a
ntenna i
sgi
ven b
y
U 4
TU 4
Tr2P
,„
,
(
2
1)
Uo 4
i
r Uo W
w
here Pr„
,ist
he v
alue o
f t
he r
ad
ial c
omponen
t o
fthe a
verage P
oyn
ting
5
42 ANTENNAS
v
ecto
r i
nthe d
i
rec
tion f
r
om t
he s
our
ce i
nwh
ich i
tis amax
imum
. F
rom
(
11
)
P
,
,,
, — [
EL ± EL] . [
gi ne
, (
1
) ± E
IF:
(0, 4
,)
].
.. (
22
)
2Z0 2Z0
F
rom (
18
) a
nd (
19
)
r
f
r
2 1
r
w r
[
E no
, c
s
) + E no
, 0
)
] d
i
l (
23
)
- = 2
Z0 0
I
ntroduc
ing (
22) a
nd (
23
) i
n (
2
1), t
he d
i
rec
tiv
ity o
f a
n a
ntenna o
f a
ny
p
olar
izat
ion i
s
4
r 4
r
D — jo 2
1r jo 7
(
24
)
[El F1( 0
, CO ± E ne
, 0
)
] d
u — B
[
E
;Ff
(o, 4
) ± EV
:(e
, 0
)
] .
w
here B = beam a
rea
E
quation (
24
) may al
so b
e e
xpre
ssed
4
r
D — (
24a
)
.
10
. 0 F2(
0
, 4
)c/
(
1
F2(
0
, 4
)
,
,,
,„
w
her
e F(o
, 4) = t
ota
l f
ie
ld pattern
F
or F
(0, y
6
)
„. = 1,(24a
) reducesto (
15
-6)
. I
fbo
th f
i
e
ld c
omponen
ts h
ave
i
d
ent
ical p
atte
rns
F
,
(0, 4
1
) = F
2(0
, (
1
) (
25
)
s
o t
hat
4
r
D — (
26
)
f0 0 F
;(0
, 4
)do
n0
,(6
)m
..
Whenever (
25
) isfu
lf
illed
, the d
i
rect
ivity o
f as
our
ce o
fa ny p
ola
riza
tion i
s
afunc
tion o
ft he s
pace pat
tern of o
nly as
ing
le f
i
eld c
omponent. Ifalso
F1(
0
, q
5
)..
. = 1
,(2
6) r
educe
s t
o
D — .
12
.I.
, 4
7
(
27
)
J
o f
qno,0
)dO
APPEN DI X 5
43
I
n the d enominator o f (
24
) t he i
ntegrand div
ided b y t he denominator i
s
e
qual tot he r
e
lat
ive r ad
iat
ion i n
tensity pa
ttern [f
(0, 0)/ f
(0, 0
)..] sothat
(
24
) r edu cesto(2-39).
The a bove exp
r e
ssions apply to fi
e
ld s o
fa ny polarization. Iti sto be
n
oted t hat the re
lations ar
e i nd
ep endent of th
e t ime-pha se d
if
ference 5
b
etw e
en E# a nd E,.
I
ft he f i
e
ld isli
nearly po
larized
, f o
r example, l
et itb e everywhere ho
ri-
z
ontal
ly p o
lar
ized
, E •0 = Ho = E 2 = 0 ,and (2
4) redu cest o(26
).
I
I
NDEX
A i
ncreased d i
rec tivity, 81-83
o
rdinary , 7 9-81
Abraham , M ., 2 30, 2 73 o
fl i
near a ntenna s, 2 79
-323
Abramow itz , M .
, 1 68 o
fp oint sou rce s
, 5 7-110
Abso lut e g a
in , 4 55 s
tacked, 312 , 4 24-431
Adams , N . I .
, 2 50, 2 73 wave-guide t ype , 3 56
Adm ittance p er squa re, 3 64 A
rtif
icial d
iele ctrics, 3 90-394
Aharon i, J .
, 1 27, 2 54, 2 73 A
shmead , J
., 3 25
A
lber t, G . E ., 2 30 A
xial mode , 1 75, 1 82
A
lfo rd , A ., 8 ,1 27 , 1 49, 167 , 3
60, 4
12, 4
23, A
xial rat
io, 1 81, 2 03, 4 68
429, 4 33 A
zimuth , geode t
ic, 7 1
A
lfo rd l oop, 4 29
Ant enna ( see s pecifi c type ) B
d
efin ition o f
, 1 ,S
Antenna a dju stment s of p o
lar
izat
ion, 474 B
ab inet's p rincip le, 3 61-364
Antenna r egion , 5 -8 B
agby , C. K ., 1 91
Aper tu re, b eam w id ths of, 380 B
ake r, B. B ., 15
c
ircu la r
, 3 43 B
allen t
ine , S .
, 2 52
c
ollec ting , 4 8 B
aluns , 4 23, 4 41
ofd ipo le, 4 9 Band w id th, 2 08, 4 33-439
efe ct ive , 4 2 o
fl e
ns a ntennas , 3 97
o
fi sotrop ic s our ce , 5 3 B
a rkofsky , E . C .
, 4 1, 412, 4
33, 455
l
oss, 4 8 B
a rrow, W . L ., 3 75-381 , 395
max imum e fec t
ive , 42 B
a rzi
lai, G ., 4 63
max imum s catte ring , 47 B
eam a rea , 2 4, 5 42
p
hys ica l, 4 8 B
eam w id ths , 8 3
, 8 7, 95
r
ectangu la r, 15 , 3 44 f
or he
lice s, 2 13
r
ela tion o f
, t od i rec tivity, 52 f
or horns, 3 80
t
o g ain, 5 2 B
e chmann , I t
., 2 54 , 2 74
s
ca tte ring , 4 5 B
e ck, A. C ., 4 08-412
s
qua re, 3 45 B
enne tt
, F . D ., 4 41
t
ab le, 5 4 B
e sse) func tions , 1 62- 170, 3
78
o
f i -wave leng th a ntenna , 5
1 B
eve rage , H . H ., 4 12
Aper ture d is tribut ions , 3 43-3.
50 B
eve rage a ntenna , 1 49, 412
Ape rtu re p at tern s
, 1 20, 350 Bhargava , B . N ., 4 61, 462
Aper tu re p lane , 337 B
icon ical a ntenna , 4 -7, 217-229
App rox ima tion f o
rmu las, 509 c
haracter i stic i mpedance o f
, 217
Arbi tra ry s hape , 2 28 e
quiva lent l ine f or, 224
Aronof , M ., 1 85, 4 63 f
i
nite, 2 23
Array s
, b roads ide, 5 7
, 7 9, 93-110
, 279 i
nf
inite, 2 23
c
lo sely s paced , 2 95 i
nput i mpedance o f
, 222
d
riven , 2 92 , 3 00 p
attern o f, 2 28
end -fire, 6 2, 2 88 B
icon ical h orn, 3 72, 3 81
5
45
5
46 AN T EN N AS
B
illboard a n
tenna , 18 , 327 Clark , H . K ., 4 1 , 455
B
inom ial coefficient s, 5
10 Cleckne r, D . C .
, 3 21
B
inom ial distr
ibut ion, 9 3-97 Closely s paced a rray, 2 95-300
B
inom ial ser
ie s
, 5 09 Clove r-lea f a nt enna , 4 29
Bock, E. L.
, 4 23 Coleman , P . D .
, 4 41
Bond, D . S
., 433 Collec ting a pe rture , 4 8
Booker, H. G .
, 3 54-369 Compensa ting l ine, 4 39
Born, M., 15 , 3 61, 465, 476 Comp lementa ry a ntennas , 356-371
Bounda ry sphe re, 4 impedance o f, 3 67-371
Boundary -value me thod, 230, 272 Comp lementa ry s creen s, 3 61-367
Boxed-in sl
ot a n tenna , 354-359 impedance o f, 3 64-367
Braun, F., 431 Comp lex p ola riza t
ion p a rame ter
, 484
Broad-band a nt ennas , 8,2 08 Comp lex P oynt ing v ecto r, 541
Broadside array, 5 7
, 7 9
, 9 0
, 18, 279 Con ica l h orn , 3 72 , 381
B
rown , G . H., 71 , 243, 266, 268
, 282
, 2
84, Con ica l i nput s ections , 2 49
292-295, 3 14-320 , 326, 420-427
, 4
31, Con st rained l ens, 3 96
4
85 Cont inuou s a rray , 10- 121
B
ruce, E .
, 408-411 Corne r r ef
lecto r
, p assive , 324-325
B
ruce a ntenna , 4 14 Corner -r ef
l ecto r a ntenna , 3 24, 3 28-336
,
Bri
ickmann , H ., 4 13 338
Burgess, R. E., 2 72 Cop son , E . T ., 15
Burrows, C. R., 4 38 Cosine d i stribut ion , 3 50
Buss
, R . R.
, 4 57 Cosine i nteg ral, 1 45, 2 60, 2 65
r
ela tion s o f, 5 35
C t
able o f, 5 38
Cosine s qua red d istribut ion , 350
Carson , J .R . , 252 Cox, C . R ., 2 70
Carte r
, P . S .
, 2 54, 2 69-274 , 302 Curl, 5 10
Cha ract eristic i mpedance , o
fb icon
ical an- Cur rent d ist r
ibu tion, o n c y
lindrical an
-
t
ennas , 2 17 t
enna s, 2 39-241 , 4 62
o
ft r ansm ission l ine s
, 5 07 o
n h elice s, 1 83
Char ts, p atte rn, 7 8
, 5 19-534 measurement o f, 4 61-464
p
ola riza t
ion , 4 73, 4 74, 482, 483 Current moment , 1 62
Chireix, H ., 1 79
, 4 14 Curta in a rray s
, 4 13
Chireix - Me sny a r ray , 4 14 Cutle r, C . C ., 1 77, 193 , 3 39, 449-456
Christ ensen , J .W ., 4 57 Cyl
indr ical a ntenna , 2 30-250
Chu, L . J .
, 1 77
, 1 93, 2 50, 273
, 3 75-381
, c
onica l i nput o f, 249
3
95 , 434 c
ur rent d is tribut ion o f
, 2 39-241, 462
C
in f unc t
ion , 1 44, 2 60 inpu t i mpedance o f, 2 41
r
e
la tion s o f, 535 pa tte rn s o f
, 2 47
t
able o f
, 5 39 t
hin , 2 47
C
ircu la r a per ture, 3 44 Cylind rical p arabo l
ic r eflector, 346
C
ircu la r h orn , 372, 3 81
C
ircu la r lo op s
, 155-170 D
C
ircu la r p ola r
ization , 2 03, 464-484
C
ircu la r reflec tor
, 3 25 Db (dec
ibe l) di
rect
ivity
, 27
C
ir cula rly p olarized a ntennas,d ipo
le type
, Db gain
, 2 7
4
24 , 430 Debye, P.
, 4 04
h
elica l type , 173-216 , 4 30 Degrees
, 5 11
s
lanted d ipo le t ype , 4 30 De
lay l e
ns es
, 383
s
lotted c yl
inde r t ype , 430 d
e Mo ivre's theorem, 5
08
IN DE X 5
47
D
ielec t r
ic c ons tant , 3 84
, 3 85, 497 Electromagne tic spe ctrum, 3
D
ielec tric l e ns a ntenna s, 382-394 E
leva tion a ngle , 3
03-318
D
imens ions , 4 93-501 E
l l
ip soida l antenna , 2 30
, 249
D
ipo le , s hort, a pe rture o f, 49 E
l l
iptica l p o
la rizat
ion , 464-484
f
i
elds o f, 1 27-135 , 1 37-139 E
l l
iptica l ref
le ctor, 325
magne t
ic , 1 57 E
lliptic ity, 468
r
ad ia tion r e s
i stance o f, 1 36 Emde , F .
, 168, 5 36
t
ab le o ff i
e
ld f ormu las for, 135 Emp irica l me thod , 276
D
ire ction -f
ind ing a n
tenna s, 4 33 End -
fi re array, 6 2
, 7 9-81, 187
, 288
Dire ctions , o fp at tern max ima , 90 E-plane l en
s, 3 82, 394-403
o
fp a ttern n ulls, 8 3 Epstein , J.
, 4 27
Direc tiv ity, a pp rox imat e formu las fo
r, 25 Equal ity o fp ath l ength, 336
defin ition o f, 2 3
, 4 53 Equiva lent loop , 429
gene ral f ormu las f or
, 5 40-543 Equiva lent radiu s
, 2 38
o
fh elice s, 1 97 , 2 13 Euler
's c onstan t, 535
o
fh o rns , 3 79, 3 80 Everit t
, W . L., 4 34
o
fl oop s, 1 69 Exponen tial h orn, 371
r
ela tion o f, t oa pertu re, 52 Exponen tial i ntegral r e
lat
ions, 260
, 2
65,
Direct iv i ty c a
lcu la t
ion s, 23-26 536
g
raph ica l, 4 0 ( Prob . 2-5) Exponen tial line, 438
Dire ct rix , 337
Disc a n tenna , 4 21
Discone a ntenna , 4 20
Distance r equ irement , 4 48 Fn umbe r, 3 40 , 385
Distribu tions , b inom ial, 93-97 Far f i
eld, 6
c
osine , 3 50 Feed p o
in t, e fect of, 414
c
osine s qua red , 3 50 Fe
ldman , C . B .
, 4 12
Dolph -Tchebys chef , 9 3-110 Fe
lsenhe ld , G . A ., 420, 429
e
dge , 9 3-97 F
ield , L. M ., 1 77
f
or l e n s antenna s, 387 F
ield d i
s tr
ibut ion ( see Distributions
)
o
p timum , 9 3-110 F
ield i n
t ensity a t one m i
le, 3 17
f
or p arabo lic r eflecto r
s, 342 , 343 F
ield p atte rn s, 27-32
t
ape red , 3 39 , 3 47 a
zimu tha l, 3 08
t
r
iangu la r
, 3 50 F
ields , c ompa r
ison o f, l oop a nd dipole
,
u
ni fo rm , 15 , 3 39, 3 49 1
60- 161
D
ive rgence , 5 10 d
ipole, 1 27-139
Dolph , C . L., 9 6 t
able o f, 1 35
Dolph -Tcheby schef d istribu tion, 93-110 o
fl inea r a ntenna , 139-153
Dome , A ., 2 28 , 2 43, 2 45, 3 25, 348, 356- l
oop, 1 55- 172
360, 3 75, 3 81, 4 08, 4 23, 4 80 magne tic d ipole, 158
Driven a r
ray , 2 92 , 3 00 (
Se ea l
so s pec ifica ntenna ,f i
elds o
rp att
erns
Driving -po int i mpedance , 282, 290 o
f
)
F
la t shee t r ef
l ecto r
, 325-328
F
la t-top b eam a ntenna , 297-300
a
bove g round , 309
Eccentricity, 468 t
i
lt, 312
Edge d i
st r
ibu t
ion, 9
3-97 F
lush d isc a n tenna , 421
Efec t
ive a perture
, 42 F
lush s lot a nt enna , 355
maximum , 44 Fo
lded d ipole s, 4 15-419
Efec t
ive h eight, 4
4 F
o ster, D ., 1 61- 170, 408
Efectivene ss rat
io, 4
5 Four ier s e
rie s, 99
5
48 AN TE N N AS
F
ourier t
rans form , 3
48 pa tterns o f, 1 94-203
F
outy, R. A., 4 31 tab le o ff ormu las o f
, 2 13
F
rank, N. H. , 15 , 3
44 tapered , 2 13
F
raunhofer p attern, 16 veloc ity o fp ropaga tion o n
, 187
F
raunhofer r egion, 6 wide -band p rop ertie s of
, 208
F
requency s ensitiv
ity
, 4 33-439 Hel
ico ida l cylindr ical c oordinates
, 191
F
resne
l integ rals
, 379 Helmho l tz, R ay leigh -He lmho ltz t
heorem,
F
resne
l patte rn, 16 252
F
resne
l region , 6 Hem isphere p atte rn , 1 6
F
ri
is. H
. T .
, 4 1, 54
, 339, 348
, 402
, 4
12 Hertz v ecto r
, 1 37
F
riist
ransm is s
ion formula, 54 Hondro s, D ., 4 04
F
ull
-wave a nt enna pattern, 1
42 Horizonta l a ntenna , a bove ground, 303
Horn a ntennas , 3 71-381
G beam w id ths , 3 80
b
i con ica l
, 3 72 , 3 81
c
ircu la r, 3 72, 3 81
Gain, by compa rison , 454
con ica l, 3 72, 3 81
d
b, 27
exponent ial, 3 71
d
efin
ition of
, 2 6
opt imum , 3 73-377
i
nf i
e
ld i n
tensity, 2 6
, 283, 284
, 2
91
pyram idal, 3 72
r
e
la t
ion of, toa perture, 52
r
e ctangu la r, 3 71 , 3 75
G
la sser
, 0. J., 1
73 , 186
s
e ctors !, E -p lane , 3 71-381
G
linsk i
, G., 161
H-p lane , 3 71-381
Gradient, 510
t
ape red , 3 71
Greene, F. M .
, 3 79
Horton , C . W ., 4 06
Grid ref
lector, 3
35
H-p
lane h orn, 3 71-381
Grosskop f
, J.
, 149
H-p
lane l ens, 4 03
Ground , efect o
f, 3 03-318
Huygens ' princ ip le, 15 , 379
Ground p lane ant enna s
, 420
Hyp e rbo lic r efle cto r, 3 25
d
imensions of, 4 59
Hype rbo lic r ela tions , 5 08
H I
Half
-wave leng th antenna , aperture o
f, 5
1 l
ams , H., 4 53
f
ie
ld of, 142 I
lum ina tion o fa pertur e
, 343
r
adiation resistance o f
, 143-147 Image element s
, 3 03-3 18, 329
Ha
!len, E., 230-245 , 2 73 Image-plane t echn ique , 458
, 459
Ha
lien's integral equa tion, 233 Images, 3 03-318
f
i
rst-order solution, 2 35 Impedance , cha ract er
istic
, 217, 5
07
Hankel functions, 3 78 dr
iving -po int, 2 82, 290
Hansen, W . W ., 81
, 8 6, 92
, 190 empirical, 2 76
Hansen and Woodya rd condition
, 81
, 190
, measu rement s o f
, 4 57
406 method s ofc alcu lat
ing , 2
72
Harper, A. E., 408, 4 09 mutua l
, 2 51-278
Harr
ison, C . W .
, Jr.
, 2 32-239, 266 s
elf
-, 2 41, 251-278
He
lical antenna s, 173-2 16 Impedance r atios, 4 38
a
xial mode o f, 182 I
ncreased d i
rec t
iv ity, end-fi
re, 7
9-81
a
xial rat
io of, 203 I
ndex o fr efrac t
ion , 384
c
urrent d i
stribution o f, 1
83 I
sotropic s ource, 1 5
impedance o f, 186 I
sotropic a pe r
ture , 5 3
normal mode o f
, 1 79 l
etvanfy , E ., 469
IN DE X 5
49
L
inea r a rray s
, 7 6-118, 3 00
c
har ts f or
, 7 8, 519-534
J
ackson, J
.D ., 177
, 193 L
inea r p o
la riza t
ion , 464-484
J
ahnke, E.
, 168, 536 Loga r
i thm ic relations, 509
J
amieson, H. W., 441 Long w ire a ntenna s
, 1 48
, 407-413
J
ansen, J
.J .
, 381 L
oop a ntenna s
, 1 55-172
J
eans
, SirJ ames, 328 Alfo rd, 4 29
J
ordan, E
. C., 423 clover -
lea f, 4 29
direc t
iv ity o f
, 1 69
feed p oint o f, 415
fi
elds o f, 1 55-172
Kando ian, A. G., 1
67 , 4
20 , 42
1 , 4
29
radia t
ion r esistance o f
, 166
Keary, T. J.
, 348
s mall
, 1 55
Keen, R., 433
squa re, 1 70, 4 15, 419, 429, 4
43
Kel
logg , E
. W .
, 4 12
t
ab le o ff ormu las for
, 1 71
K
imba rk, E. W.• 439
t
riangu la r
, 4 29
King, A. P.
, 381, 449-453 , 456
vertica l
, 4 19
King, D. D., 243
L
oop s
, s amp ling, 4 61-464
K
ing, L . V.
, 230
L
o s
s a perture , 4 8
K
ing, R . W . P., 232-239 , 252, 266, 2
68,
L
o s
s r esistance , 2 95, 297, 331
4
16, 439, 457, 485
L
owan , A . N ., 1 68
Kock, W . E.
, 390-397 , 403, 449-453, 4
56
L
ow ry, L . R ., 408-412
Kom fner, R.
, 177
L
ucite , 3 85
Kraus, J. D., 41, 149, 173-210 , 2
95, 3
09,
3
12, 328, 4
12 , 418, 431, 455, 4
81
Krutter, H.
, 450 , 4
53, 455, 456
Magnet ic cur rent , 1 59, 498
Magne t
ic dipo le, 1 57-160
L
abu s
, J .
, 3 14, 3 15 Magne t
ic dipo le moment , 500
L
apla cian , 510 Mar chand , N ., 1 47
L
azaru s, D ., 3 56-360 , 457 Mar sh, J.A ., 1 85, 1 92
L
eng th c har t, 3 Maste rs, R. W ., 4 27
L
ens a ntenna s, 3 82-404 Match ing a rrangement s, 434-442
a
rtific
ia l dielect r
ic, 390-394 Mat ching s tub s
, 4 38
b
and -w idth, 3 97 Mat ching t ransfo rme rs, 434-442
c
onst rained , 3 96 Mat tress array, 3 27
d
elay , 3 83 Max ima , directions o f, 90
d
ielectr ic, 382-394 Maxwe ll
's e quation s, table of
, 503-505
metal-p late, E -plane , 3
82, 394-403 Mea surement s, 4 44-486
H-plane , 4 03 o
fc urrent, 4 61-464
n
onme tall
ic d ielectric
, 383-390 o
f mode ls, 485
t
i
l t
, 3 89, 4 02 o
f p o
lariza t
ion , 4 79- 481
t
olerance s
, 4 00-404 Meie r
, A . S.
, 4 41, 4 59
z
oned , 3 88-402 Mello r
, J.W ., 2 33
L
ew is, F. D ., 3 75. 402 Meta l-plate l e
nse s, E -plane, 3 82
, 394-403
L
ew is W . D ., 3 39, 348 H-p lane, 4 03
L
indenb lad , N. E . 8 . 182 Method o fi mage s, 3 03-318
L
inea r a ntenna s
, array s of
, 279-318 Mil
le r, W . E., 4 23
f
i
elds o f
, 1 39- 143 Mimno , H. R ., 4 16, 4 39, 457
r
ad iation r esistance o f
, 143-148 Mino r lobe max ima , 92
t
r aveling -wave t ype, 148-153 Mode l mea suremen ts, 485
5
50 AN TE N N AS
Muel
le r
, G. E., 4 04-406 Phase patterns, 32-37
Mult
iplication o fp a
tterns, 66-74 Phase sh
ift, along a ntenna, 4
63
Murray, F. H., 2 71 measurement o f
, 4 63
Mutual impedance , 251-278 Phase ve
loc ity, 150
, 1 87-194
o
fp aral
lel an tennas, 262 Physica
l a perture
, 4 8
c
oll
inea r
, 2 69 P
idduck , F. B., 271
e
chelon, 2 69 P
ierce, J
.R ., 177
, 1 93
s
ide by side, 265 P
ippa rd
, A . B., 325
s
kew , 271 P
istolkors
, A . A., 254, 274
, 422
Mutual res
istance , 267, 271 P
lane s hee t r ef
le c
to r, 325-328
Point s ource s, 1-40
N a
r ray s o f, 5 7-110
i
so trop ic, 5 7-110
Natura
l resi
stance, 277 n
,5 7-66
Near f
i
eld
, 6 non iso t rop ic , 66
Nel
son, J
., 423, 441, 4
57 two , 5 7-66
Neumann f unct
ions , 3
78 Po
la riza t
ion , a ntenna a djustment so f, 4
74
Nonmetal
lic dielectr
ic, 3
83-390 c
ha rts o f, 4 73 , 474, 4 82, 483
Normal mode , 175, 1
79 c
ircu la r, 4 64-484
Nul
l di
rections, 83-88 l
e
f t, 4 71
t
able o
f
, 8 7 righ t, 4 71
c
lockw is e, 4 70
0 c
ount e rclockw ise, 4 70
e
l
lip se, 4 68
Observat
ion circle
, 1 e
l
lip tica l, 4 64-484
Omn id
irect
iona l antennas, 4
28-430 ci
rcu la rly p o
la rized c omponen ts of
,
Optimum d i
stribution, 93-110 477
Optimum h el
ix, 210 li
nea rly p olarized c omponen ts of, 4
65
Optimum h orn, 373-377 l
inea r, 4 64-484
Ordinary e
nd f i
re, 79-81 measuremen ts o f
, 479-481
c
ircu la r- component m ethod, 481
P l
inea r-component me thod, 481
pola riza tion -pa ttern m e thod
, 4 79
P
age, L ., 250 , 2 73 pa ramet er, 4 84
P
arabo lic reflecto r
, 336-346 pa tt ern , 4 79
P
arabo loida l r ef
lector, 339 plane , 4 64
P
araffin, 385 P
olye thy lene , 3 85
P
arasitic elemen ts, 318-321 P
olyg las s, 3 85
P
ascal's triang le, 9 5, 509 P
olynom ial, T cheby schef , 1 02
P
attern c ha rt s
, 7 8, 519-534 P
oly rod a ntenna s, 404-407
P
attern mea suremen ts
, 444-452 P
oly s ty rene , 3 85
P
attern s ynthe sis, 69-74 P
owe r f ac to r
, 3 85
P
attern s, fi
eld , 2 7-32 P
owe r g ain , 2 6, 284
p
ha se, 32-39 P
owe r p att ern s, 1 3-23
p
owe r
, 1 3-23 P
owe r -trans fe r ratio, 5 5
o
ft wo ver tical e l
emen ts, 2
94 P
oynt ing v ec to r
, 1 3
, 1 36, 540
(
See a l
so s pec ific antenna, p
atte
rns o
f
). g
ene ral f ormu las f or
, 5 40-543
P
ermeabil
ity, 5
00 P
oyn ting v ector me thod , 274
P
ermit
tivity, 4
97 P
rima ry p attern , 339
P
hase e
rror, 3
48 P
rola te s phe ro id , 249-250
P
hase measurement
s, 4
52 P
yram ida l h orn , 372
IN DE X 5
51
Reta rded v ecto r potential
, 128
Rhode s
, D. R ., 375, 3 76
, 4 22
Q
, 2
99, 433 Rhomb ic an tennas , 148, 408-412
Q
uadrat
ic equa
tion
, s
o
lut
ion o
f
, 5
09 a
lignment -type, 4 09
c
omp romi se-type, 4 09
des
ign formu las for, 411
maximum -E t ype, 409
Riblet, H. J .
, 9 6
, 10
Rad ians , 5 11 Rice, C. W., 4 12
Rad iated p owe r,g ene ralf ormu las,540-543 R
i sser, J.R. , 375, 3 78, 383, 3
86, 3
97, 400
Rad ia t
ing ef i c
iency , 2 95-300 Robb ins, T. E .
, 4 41
Rad ia t
ion f i
eld , 2 79 Robe rts
, W . V . B .
, 4 16
Rad ia t
ion i ntens ity, 1 5 Rota t
ion e xperimen ts, 484
Rad ia t
ion r esistance , o fd ipole, short
, 136 Row land , H. J., 441
o
fl i
nea r a nt enna s, 1 43-148 Rumsey , V
. H .
, 3 67, 482, 483
o
fl oops, 1 66- 169 Rumsey a nd T ice p o
la r
iza t
ion cha
rts
, 482,
mea surement o f, 4 57
, 4 59 483
Rad ius, e fec tive , 4 29 Rutile, 385
equ ivalent , 2 38
Ramo , S., 1 27 , 1 39
Ramsay , J .F ., 3 49
Rationa lized a ngle s
, 5 13 Samp ling l oops, 4 61-464
Rationa lized u nits, 4 93 Scatte r
ing a per ture , 4 5
Rayle igh, L ord , 2 52 Scattering r at
io , 4 6
Rayle igh -He lmho ltz r ecip rocity theorem, Schelkunof , S.A ., 4 ,7 6
, 8 4, 2
17, 2
23, 2
26,
2
52 2
48, 2 74, 3 65 , 3 79, 4 04, 4
06
Receiv ing a ntennas , 4 32 Seconda ry p atte rn , 3 39, 3 40
Recip rocity t heo rem , 2 52 S
ecto ral h o rns
, 3 71-381
Ref
lect ion c oef f
icient , 506 S
elf-impedance , 2 51-278
Ref
l ection method , 459 empirica l
, 2 76
Ref
l ector s, 3 24-350 t
hin l i
nea r-an tenna , 2 54
circula r
, 3 25 S
elf-rea ctance , 2 51 , 2 72
corne r, 3 24, 3 28-336 , 3 38 S
elf-re s
i s
tance , 2 51, 2 72
cylindr ica l p arabo lic, 346 Shape -impedance r elation , 8
e
llip t
ica l, 3 25 Short d ipole ( s
e e D ipole, s hort
)
g
r id, 3 35 S
ichak , W ., 420
hyp erbo l ic, 3 25 S
ide l eng th, 334
pa rabolic , 3 36-346 S
i
lve r, S .
,3 39,3 44-349 ,3 75 ,378,383,386,
parabo lo ida l, 3 39 397, 4 00, 4 50-456
p
l ane s hee t, 3 25-328 S
inclair, G ., 423 , 4 24, 4 85, 4 86
s
qua re c o rner , 3 28 S
ine i nteg ral, 146 , 2 60, 2 65
Re
in tje s
, J .F .
, 4 57 S
ine i nteg ral re
la tion s, 5 35
Re
la tive d ielec tric c on stant , 497 t
able o f
, 5 37
Re
la tive p ermeab il
ity , 500 S
ingle -turn p atte rn s, 197
Re
la tive p e rm it t
iv ity, 4 97 S
late r
, J .C ., 41, 15 , 3 39, 3 44, 438
, 457
Re
la tive p ha se v elocity, 1 50, 1 87-194 S
leeve a ntenna s
, 9 ,4 22
Res
i stance , c ha ra cteristic, 222 S
lot a ntenna s, 3 53-371
l
os s, 297 a
rray o f, 356
r
ad ia t
ion ( see Rad ia t
ion r e
sistance) i
mpedance o f, 3 67-371
Re
sonator
, 1
,7 p
atte rns o f
, 3 56-361
Re
tarded s
ca
lar p
oten
tia
l, 1
29 S
lotted a ntenna , 4 62
52 ANTE N N AS
S
lo tted c y
l inde r antennas , 423, 430 Maxwe l
l's e qua tions , 5 03-505
Smith , C . E ., 71, 316, 4 31 m ino r l obe max ima , 9 2
Smith , P . D . P., 2 26 mutua l r es
i stance , 2 67, 271
Smith , P . H ., 429, 4 34, 457 phase v e
lo city, 1 94
Smith c ha rt, 457, 4 84 p
ola riza tion t yp es, 4 71
Snell's l aw s, 3 86 powe r f actor , 3 85
S
omme rfeld , A., 15 rhomb ic a ntenna d esign f ormu las, 411
S
ou rce s
, i d entical, 6 6 se
l f-rea ctance , 2 72
po
int , 1-37 , 5 7- 110 se
l f-re s
is tance , 2 72
s
im ila r, 6 6 sine i nteg ra l, 5 37
S
outhwor th, G . C .
, 8 9
, 3 81 tole rance s o n l ense s a nd ref
lecto rs
, 4 02
S
pa cing - c
i rcum ference c hart, 176 transm is sion -
line f ormu las, 5 06, 507
Spencer , R . C ., 15 , 3 49 tr
igonome tric f unct ions o ft urn,5 15-519
S
phe ro ida l a ntenna , 2 49 tr
igonome tric r e
la t
ions , 5 07
S
qua re c orne r reflector, 3 28 un its, 4 93-501
S
qua re l oop , 170, 415 , 419, 429
, 4 43 vec tor i d ent itie s
, 5 10
S
tav i s
, G ., 41,3 25 ,3 48,3 75,3 8
1 , 4
41,4
55, Tai, C . T .
, 2 26 , 2 66
480 Tan i, K ., 5 36
S
t e
rba , E . J .
, 4 14 Tapered d istribu tions , 3 39, 347
S
terba c ur tain a rray, 4 14 Tape red h elice s
, 2 13
S
tone , J .S ., 94 Tap ered h orns , 3 71
S
tra tton , J .A .
, 7 6, 15 , 2 50
, 273 Tape red l i
ne , 4 38
S
turgeon , S .S., 419 Tay lor , T . T ., 3 47 , 4 34
S
umme rs, W . P .
, 4 59 Tay lo r's s erie s, 5 09
S
uper turns ti
le a ntenna , 4 27 Tcheby schef p olynom ia l
, 102
S
u rfa ce a dm ittance , 364 Terman , F . E ., 7 1 , 2 65, 3 75, 4 38, 4
57 , 530
S
ymbo l s, 4 93-501 Term ina l-impedance measu remen ts
, 4 57
S
ynge , J .L ., 230 T
ice , T . E ., 1 73, 1 87 , 4 82, 483
S
yn the sis o fp at
te rns, 6 9-74 T
ilt a ng le , o ff l
at-top b eam a nt enna, 312
ofh elix p a tt ern, 2 00
ofl ense s, 3 89, 4 02
o
fl ong w ire p atte rn , 1 52
, 4 07
T
able o f
, a pe rtu re b eam w idths, 3
80 ofp ola r
iza t ion e l
lips e
, 4 75
a
pe rture p attern s, 3 50 T
itan ium d iox ide, 3 85
a
per tures, 5 4 Thin l i
nea r a ntenna , 1 39-153 , 2 54
a
rtifi
cial d ielec tric ma ter
ials
, 393 Th ree -e lement a r ray , 3 20
b
eam w id ths , 8 3, 8 7
, 9 5 T-mat ch a ntenna , 4 18
b
inom ia l coe ff
ic ien ts
, 5 10 Tolke , F ., 5 12
c
ha racteris t
ic -
impedance f ormulas
, 5
07 Tole rance s, o n l ense s, 4 00-404
C
in f unct ion, 5 39 on r eflecto r s, 4 02
c
orne r-reflecto r f ormu las
, 330 t
ab le o f
, 4 02
c
osine i nteg ral, 5 38 Top l o aded a ntenna , 4 21
d
ie
le ctric c onstan ts, 3 85 Trans form , F our ie r
, 3 48
d
imens ions , 4 39-501 Transm is s
ion c oef f
i cient , 506
d
ipole f i
elds, 1 35 Transm is s
ion f ormu la , 5 4
h
el
ix f ormu la s
, 2 13 Transm is s
ion l i
ne s, b icon ical, 4 ,217-229
h
orn b eam w id ths , 3 80 cha ra cter i stic i mpedance o f
, 5 07
h
ype rbo l
ic r e
la tions , 5 08 c
ompensa ting -type , 4 39
i
ndex o fr e
frac tion , 3 85 defin ition o f
, 1
l
oop a nd d ipo le f i
e
ld s, 161 f
o rmu las f o r
, 5 06, 5 07
l
oop f o
rmu las , 1 71 i
nput i mpedance o f
, 5 06
IN D E X 5
53
match ing ar rangement s
, 283
, 291
, 434-
442
mea su remen ts on
, 4 57 Watson , G . N ., 1 67
me thod o fc onnec tion, 414 Wat son, R . B ., 406
tapered , 8 Watson , W . H ., 356
term inated, 4 ,506 Wave a ntenna , 149, 412
tuning , 438 Wave e qua tion, 2 32
Traveling w ave a n
tenna , 148-153 Wave g uide, b roads ide-array, 356
Tr
iangu lar antenna , 4 29
, 443 definition o f, 1
Tr
iangu lar distribution, 350 horns f ed b y
, 3 71-381
Tr
igonome tr
ic f unction s o
fturn, 5
15-519 mea surement s i n
, 459
Tr
igonome tr
ic r ela
tions , 5
07 s
ec toral, 3 78
Turns, 5 7, 5
11 s
lot f ed b y, 3 55
Turnstile a n
tenna s
, 4 24-428 Wave p olariza tion, 464-484
Tyrrell
, W . A.
, 4 04-406 Wave p olarize r
, 4 31
Whee ler, H. A .
, 1 73, 181, 328, 438
Whinne ry, J.R ., 127, 139, 441
Whitmer , R. M ., 404
Wide-band c ha racteristics(seeB and w
idth
)
Un
iform array s
, charts f
or
, 78, 519-534
o
fh el
ical a ntennas , 208
Un
iform di
s tribut
ion ,93-97
, 15 , 339
,3 49
Wi
lke s, G .
, 4 05
Un
iform fi
e
ld r equirement, 449
Wi
lliamson , J .C ., 149, 173, 184, 5
19
Un
its
, 493-501
Wing, A . H., 4 16 , 439, 457
Un
iversa
l p attern char
ts, 7
8, 519-534
Winte rnitz
, T . W ., 252
Wolf, I .
, 99
V Woodwa rd
, 0 . M ., Jr
., 243, 431
Woodya rd, J .R ., 81, 8 6
, 92
, 1 90
Va nt ennas
, 4 07
VanA tta, L. C., 3
48
Vector identit
ies, 5
10
Vector potential, 1
28, 130
, 159 Y
agi
, H
., 3
21
Vertex, 336
Vertical an
tenna , above g
round, 3
14
Voltage gain (see Gain
, infi
e
ld in
tens
ity
)
V
olume a
rray
s, 8
9 Z
oned l
e
nse
s, 3
88-402
/
i

Antennas Terman McGraw Hill Engineering 1953

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Antennas Terman McGraw Hill Engineering 1953

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NE W YOR K TORO NTO LO NDO N

B AILEY AND GAtair •Alternating-current M achinery

CAGE •Theory and A pplicat

E AST MA N •F unda mentals of V acuu m T ubes

E VA NS • Control-syste m D yna mics

FITZGERALD AND HIGGI NBOT HA M •B asic Electr

FITZGERALD AND KI NGSLEY • Electric M achinery

G EPPERT • Basic Electron T ubes

G LASFORD •F unda mentals o

H APPELL AND H ESSELBERT H • E ng

H ESSLER AND CAREY •F unda mentals of Electrical E ng

JO H NSO N • Trans mission Lines and Net works

LE PAGE •A nalysis of Alternating

LE PAGE AND SEELY •General Net work A nalysis

MILL MA N AND SEELY • Electronics

MILL MA N AND TA UB •P ulse and Digital Circuits

SEELY • Electronic E ngineering

SEELY • Electron-tube Circuits

SEELY •R adio Electron

SISKI ND • Direct-current M achinery

SPA NGENBERG • F unda mentals of Electron D evices

SPA NGE NBERG • V acuu m T ubes

STEVENSO N • Ele ments of Po wer Syste m A nalysis

TER MA N AND PETTIT • Electronic M easure ments

T HALER • Ele ments of Servo mechanis m Theory

T HALER AND B RO W N • Servo mechanis m A na

1-1. D efinitions . A r adio a ntenna ' may b e d efined a s t he s tructure

where U : =p owe rp ers quare d egree

The ratio ofU .

The power pattern i

2-12. S ource w ith U nidirec t

The Poynting vectora nd the e

where = max i mum va f E

Thus, t he elec tromagne tic h o

The e fectivene ssr a

Ont he otherh and,itmay b etha twes hou ld l

The w ave isa ssumed t o be l i

Equa tion ( 3-35) i ndicate s t hat t he maximum e fective aperture o f as hort

Go1_ a1D1 a1A•

which ispicked up and d el

The magn itude v ar

For k= 0 , = ±60 °, ±120 °

Taking s ource 1 as the re

where . 5isthe p ha se d iference of

On Fig. 4-20 i,completes two cyc

As a n examp le, the f

Case 4 .A rray w ith max

Fm. 4-28. Graphs o

The c ond i tion 2K + 1= ni se xactly f u

We have shown t hat co

Hence, at 0 = —90 ° we star

Ma. 4-35. R elative fi

T he Do lph-T cheby schef o ptimum amp l

which i si den tical with t he v a

whe re I P = ( 22-a/X ) sin 0a nd w here 0 i si n t he x -y p l ane ( F

Howeve r, ifthe aperture i ssuff

The s pa cing db etw een each s ource a nd t he cent e

The shap e oft he far-f

The p attern for this c ase i spresen ted i n Fig. 5 -9c

In some c ases it may b e i mpo ss

When x = 0 ,R , = Ro;b ut w hen x = X

Equations ( 6-15) a nd ( 6-16) relate a