Professional Documents
Culture Documents
REED'S
\SIC ELECTROTECHNOLOGY
FOR
ENGINEERS
C
BY
E D M U N D G. R. KRAAL
C E n g . . D F . H . (Hons.), M.I.E.E., M.1.Mar.E.
.
.K e.-,
..- . f -
. Elecrrlcal Engmeering ond Radio Depvrtment
-T:-.c S;:~eldcMarme and Technical College
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Reprinted - I l i ~ : ~
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PREFACE
F IRST E DITION
This book is intended to cover the basic theoretical work in the
syllabuses for Electrotechnology in Part B of the Department of
Trade and Industry Examinations for Second and First Class
Engineers and also Principles of Electricity and Electrical
Engineering for Marine Engineer Cadets of the Alternative
Training Scheme for Marine Engineers.
It follows a similar pattern a s the previous yoiumes in this series
which has already proved so successful, giving emphasis on first
principles, referring to numerous illustrations. providing worked
examples within the text, and supplying many problems for the
student t o attempt on his own. The subject matter has been treated
in the order and in the manner in which it would be taught at a
college and the book is thuscomplementary to lecture notes taken
at such a college.
The typical examination questions at the end provide the
student with the opportunity of'fin;illy testing himself thoroughly
hcl'orc;~~lcrnplinp r h c c x ; ~ m ~ n ; ~ t 1:ullyworkctl-or11
ion. slcp-by-step
solutions are given to cvcry p1.0blc111.t11115 \ ) C I I I ~I ~ I I . I I C I I I ; I I . I ~ , I I S C -
ful to the engineer at sea without a college tutor a t hand.
The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance given by h ~ s
College colleagues, M r . J . W . Powell for drawing the diagrams
and Mr. T . E. Fox for assisting with the proof reading. Acknow-
ledgement is also made to the Controller of Her Majesty's
Stationery Office for permission to reproduce and use the speci-
men questions from "Examination of Engineers in the Mer-
cantile Marine" as are made available by the Department of
Trade and Industry.
E. G. R. KRAAL
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PREFACE
E. G. R. KRAAL
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CONTENTS
~I{APTF!W I---THE ELECTRIC CIRC(JIT. EI~ECTRICAI PAC;I.
'TERMS
Circuit conditions, Ohm's I ~ I w . Scsic:,
and parallcl circui~s.Kirchhull's laws.
Internal resistance of supply source.
Electromotive force and terminal p.d.
or voltage. The series-parallel circuit.
Ammeters and voltmeters. Range ex-
tension of ammeters and voltmeters 1-1 7
CHAPTER 2-THEELECTRIC CIRCUIT (CONTINUED).
ELECTRICAL UNITS
The SI system. Mechanical units of
force, work and energy, power. Elec-
trical units of current, quantity, volt-
age and resistance. Examples relating
mechanical and elecirical eneigy. Effi-
ciency. Grouping of e l l s .. .. 18-36
CHAPTER 3- CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS
Resistance of a conductor,-variation
with dimensions and material. Varia-
tion of conductor resistance with tem-
perature. Temperature coefficient of
resistance. Resistance of an insulator.
--variation with dimensions and
material. Variation 01' insulation re-
sistance with temperature. Resistance
of a semi-conductor,-variation with
temperature. Heat and electrical
energy. Relations between mechanical
and heat energy. Relation between
electrical and heat energy . .
37-57 ..
C H A PT E R LELECTROCHEMISTRY
Electrolysis. Electrolytic cells. Volt-
ammeters (water,and copper). Quanti-
tative laws of electrolysis ( ~ a r a d a ~ ' ~ ) .
The electro-chemical equivalent, chem-
ical equivalent, valency and atomic
weight. Back e.m.f. of electrolysis.
Resistance of electrolytes. Power ex-
pended during electrolysis. Primary
and secondary cells. The simple voltaic
cell,--cell e.m.f. Electromotive series.
Polarisation. The primary cell,-
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CHAPTER L C o n t inued PAGE
Daniell (energy and e.m.f.). The Le-
clanche cell (wet and dry types). The
secondary cell,--capacity and effici-
ency. Charging procedure . . .. 58-86
CHAPTER %MAGNETISM. ELECTROMAGNETISM
Natural and artificial magnets. The
magnetic field.-flux and flux-density .
Molecular theory of magnetism Elec-
tromagnetism. Fields due to long,
straight, current-carrying conductor,
loop and solen~id,-introduction of
itn iron core. Force on a current-
carrylrtg conductor in a magnetic field,
units of ampere, flux-density and flux.
The magnetic circuit, magnetising
force or magnetic field strength. Mag-
netising force of a current-carrying
conductor. Permeability of free space
(Po>. . . .. .. .. .. 87-110
CHAPTER ~ E L E C T R O M A G N E ~INDUCTION
C
Flux-linkages. Faraday's and Lenz's
laws of electromagnetic induction.
Static induction,+.m.f. of self and
mutual induction. Dynamic induction,
-magnitude of e.m.f. The weber.
Direction of induced e.m.f.-Flem-
ing's right-hand rule. The simple
magneto-dynamo. The simple d.c.
generator, commutation, and practical
requirements,-windings. A.C. and
d.c. theory,-introduction . . . . 111-137
CHAPTER 7- BASICA.C. THEORY
The a.c. waveform. Representati'on
o f sinusoidal alternating quantities,-
trigonometrical and phasor represen-
t:ttion. Addition ilnd subtraction of i l l -
ternating quantities,-graphical and
m:~thcm;~tic;~l mcthotls R o o t mc;ln
square and average values. 1;orlil
factor. Peak factor . . .. . . 138--158
CHAPTER 8-THE D.C. GENERATOR
D.C. machine construction,-field sys-
tem and armature. D.C. armature
winding :\rr:lngcmcnts. The d.c. gcn-
erator,-4.rn.f. equation, no-load
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characteristics. Associated rnuynctic PAGE
circuit effects. Generator characteris-
tics. Types of d.c, generator,-per-
IllilYldIlt mayscl ul~dscpurutcly-cxcitcd
types. The shunt-connected generator,
-theory of sclf-excitation, 7'he mag-
netisation curve or O.C.C. and crhical
resistance. Load characteristic. The
series-connected generator, self-exci-
tation and load characteristic. The
compound-connected generator.Types
of connection. Load characteristic . . 158-1 9 1
CHAPTER 9-THEA.C. CIRCUIT (CONTINUED)
Impedance, inductance, inductive re-
actance. Circuits with pure resistance,
pure inductance and resistance and in-
ductance in series,-power factor,--
true and apparent power. C a p ~ i t a n c e ,
capacitive reactance. Circuits with pure
capacitance, and resistance and capa-
citance in series. The series circuit,-
inductive impedances in series and in-
ductive and capacitive impedances in
series. The general series circuit,-
resonance .. .. .. . . 192-222
('lIAPT1:R 10 TFIE D.C. MOTOR
I>ircctinn of f;>rc.c, -l'lclil~rig's Icft-
hand rule. Magnitude of force. Back
e.m.f. of a motor. Voltage, current
and speed equations. Specd control-
ling factors. Types of d.c. motor,-
shunt, series and compound. The
power and torque equations. Torque
controlling factors. Motor characteris-
tics. The shunt motor,--electrical
characteristics (speed and torque),
mechanical characteristic. The series
motor, - electrical characteristics
(speed and torque), mechanical charac-
teristic. The compound motor,-xlec-
trical characteristics (speed and
torque), mechanical characteristics.
Cumulative and differential connec-
tion of fields,--strength of shunt and
series fields. Motor starters. Speed
control,-field and voltage control . . 2 2 L 2 4 6
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CHAPTER
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1 ~ A . C . C ' I K C ~ I T S ( C O N T I N L E D ) A N I ~ S Y S T E M S PAGE
Power in the a.c. circuit. Act~veand
reactive components. The parallel cir-
cuit. Inductive impedances in parallel.
Inductive and capacitive impedances
in parallel. Parallel resonance. Power-
factor improvement, advantages of p.f.
improvement. k W , k V A and kVAr.
Power-factor improvement ( kV A
method). Polyphase working,-three-
phase systems. Star or Y connectiqn,
-use of the neutral. Balanced and un-
balanced loads. Delta or A (mesh) con-
nection. Three-phase power Three-
phase k V A , k W and k VAr . . . . 247-275
I I I A I - I I I( I2 (CONTINLJI~)
I,I-I;(,I ROMAC~NI~I.ISM
Permeability of free space 01,). Mag-
netising force due to a long, straight,
current-carrying conductor, inside a
solenoid and inside a toroid. Ferro-
magnetism. Relative permeability 01,).
The B-H or magnetisation curve. Ab-
solute permeability 01). Relilctance
(S). The composite magnetic circuit,-
series and parallel arrangement. Mag-
netic fringing and leakage. Iron iosses,
-the hysteresis loop. hysteresis and
eddy-current losses. Pull of an elec-
tremagnet .. .. .. . . 276- 300
CHAPTER 1 3-THE ELECTRON THEORY, BASIC
ELECTRONICS AND ELECTROSTATICS
Constitution of matter. The structure
of the atom. Current flow as electron
movement, ionisation. Electric field.
The electroscope. Potential difference.
Electrostatic charging,-induction.
Distribution 01' charge. Electrostatic
fields o f force. Electrostatic flux. Elec-
I ri(, lv)lrt\!i:~I 'l'lir (,:I p ; ~ ( . i t o r ( ' ; I ~ ; I ( . I
tor jystcn1s.- \crle\ ; ~ n dpar:~llcl corl-
ncction. c;\p:~citor currcnr Encrg!
stored in an electr~cfield or dielectric
Relative and absolute permittivity
(s, and s). Permittivity of free space (e,,).
<';~p:~cit;~ncc ol'pnr:~llcl-plnlcc:~pacito~-\ O 1 173
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C H A P T ER I LMISCELLANE~US
C IR C U I T C O N D IT IO N S
AND METHODS 01- SOLUTION. SPECIAL
APPLICATIONS
D.C. rrctwork s. Applic~tionuor Kircli-
hoffs laws. Maxwell's circulating cur-
rent theorem. Thc super-position of
current theorem. Conductance, suscep-
tance and admittance,-- the series and
parallel circuit. The Wheatstone
bridge. Measurement of resistance.
Temperature measurement. The po-
tentiometer. The thermocouple. Tem-
perature measurement, compensating
leads or cables, instrumentation ..
C H A PT E R 1 5--ELECTRONI(.S
Thermionic devices. Electron emission.
The vacuum diode. static characteris-
tic, dynamic characteristic,-load line,
diode as a rectifier. Ionisation. Dis-
charge lamps, The fluorescent lamp
(low-pressure). The fluorescent lamp
(high-pressure). Cold-cathode lamps.
The cathode-ray oscilloscope. The
cathode-ray tube (C.R.T.), operation,
focussing, deflection. Time-base. Solid-
state devices. Semiconductors. Basic
tllcory, co-v;~lcrit13onding. ~ ' o n d i ~ c t i o t ~
control, in11insic conductivity, im-
purity (extrinsic) conductivity, N-type
germanium. P-type germanium, ioni-
sation. The P-N junction. The junction
diode, forward bias, reverse bias,
diode characteristic. Rectifier opera-
tion, static and dynamic operation . .
SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE EXAMPLES . .
SECOND CLASS EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
SOLUTIONS TO S1:COND CLASS QUESTIONS
F I R S T C L A SS E X A MI N A TI O N Q U E S T IO N S
SOLUTIONS TO FIRST CLASS QUESTIONS
INDEX .. .. ~. .. ..
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THE S.I. SYSTEM
PREFIXES, SYMBOLS, MULTIPLES
A N D SUB-MULTIPLES
PREFIX SYMBOL UNITS MULTIPLYING FACTOR
tetra T x 1012
gigs G x 109
mega M x lo6
kilo k lo3
milli m
micro C1 x
nano n
pica P x 10- "
Examples 1 megawatt (MW) = I x lo3 kilowatts (kW)
1 x lo6 watts (W)
1 kilovolt (kV) = 1 x lo3 volts (V)
1 milliampere (mA) = 1 x ampere (A)
1 microfarad (pF) = 1 x farad (F)
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ABBREVI-
ATION OF
QUANTITY SYMBOL UNIT UNIT A R F R
NUMERICAL.
VALUE
Electromotive form E volt v
(e.m.f.)
Current I awpre A
Resistance R ohm R (omega)
Resistivity (specific p (rho) ohm metre Rm
resistance)
Conductance G siemens
Magnetomotive force F ampere-tun)
(m.m.0
Magnetic field H ampere-turn Atlm
strength per metre or
ampere per
metre
Magnetic flux @ (phi) weber *
Magnetic flux B tesla
density
Reluctance S ampere-turn or
ampere per
weber
Absolute permea- p, (mu) henry per metre
Lility of free space
Absolute permea-
bility P henry per metre
Relative Pk
-
permeability
Self inductance L henry
Mutual inductance M henry
Reactance X o h
Impedance Z ohm
Frequency f hertz
Capacitance C farad
Absolute permittivity 6, farad per metre
of free space (epsilon)
Absolute permittivity E farad per metre
Relative permittivity E , -
(dielectric constant,
specific inductive
capacity)
Electric field strength, I volt per metre
electric force
Electric flux ' (psi)
P coulomb
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CHAPTER 1
THE ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
ELECTRICAL TERMS
A circuit can be defined as the path taken by an electric
current. Such a current will flow through a circuit if (i) a source
of electrical energy such as a battery or generator is connected
and (ii) the circuit is continuous or conducting throughout its
whole length. The diagram (Fig 1) represents a simple circuit in
which current is flowing. It shows the source, from which energy
is transmitted through the medium of the current, the conducting
path or cables along which the current flows and the 'load'. The
load is the point at which the energy is required to be released o r
work is to be done through the agency of the current flowing.
CABLE
I
-CURRENT-+
I
: t LO*.
I 4-CURRtNT -
CABLE
I
Fig 1 '
The conditions of Fig 1 are better represented by a circuit
diagram as in Fig 2, which illustrates the energy source as a
chemical cell, the conducting path as the leads or wires and the
load as a heating element. A switch is shown as a pivoted link
which, when opened, interrupts the corUinuity of the circuit and
thus stops current flowing.
SWITCH
t
-
CELL
I-'-\ HEATING
ELEMENT
-AIROW S H O W S D I REC TI O N
Of C U R R E N T F L O W W H E N
S W I T C H I S CLOSED
Fig 2
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CIRCUIT LAWS
1. For any circuit, current strength is found to be proportional
to the voltage appfied-%iosS its- ends. Current strength- is
d ~ Y i h - e ~ S j r i i i 7 i a n measured
d~s in Ainperes. The ampere
will be defined later by consideration of the electromagnetic
effect of current Row, but uny currcnt valuc can bc rcprcscntcd
by the letter A appended to the numerical value. Thus 200A
mcllnri two hundred nrnpcrcs.
Any electrical circuit is found to oll'er opposition to lhe Ilow
of curmit. This opposition is termed the rc,.vistrrrtc~t1of the circuit
and is denoted by the symbol R. The priictical unit of resistance
is the Ohm, but any value is rcprcsentcd by thc Grcck Icttcr
cirpit;rl fJ(omega) appended to the numeric;il viill~e.Thus 10000
rncans one thousand ohms. The ohni can ht. dcfinetl in terms of
~ I I C volt i111cl i1111l~r'c
I~IUS: il 1csi51ot I\.\\ CI L;II\IC' 01' O I I C 011111
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1
APPLIED P D
VVOLTS
1 I AMPS
-
Fig 3
The diagram (Fig 4) shows a Parallel Circuit. Here the main
current is made up of a number of branch currents, but the
;~pplicdp.d. 1s tllc s;\rnc o r common l o r all branches. It will bc
noted that at an), junction point there is no accumulation 01'
current. ir the tot;~lcurrent entering that point is the same as the
lotitI currcrll I C ~ I V I I I K I ~ I Cpotrll. S I I I ~li~ws
~ ~hitscd
C o n lhc v o l l i ~ ~ c
conditions for the series circuit and the current conditions 1'0s
the parallel circuit have been evolved which allow the solution of
associated problems for these simple circuits, and also for those
of the more complicated series-parallel arrangements and
electrical networks.
-*
Fig 4
KIRCHHOFF'S L A W S
1. VOLTAGE L AW .The sum of the potential or voltage drops
taken round a circuit must be equal to the applied potential
difference.
Thus for Fig 3 C', + V , + V:, = V
2. The current flowing away from a junction
C U RRE N T L A W .
point in circuit must C ~ L I ; I Itllc curscnl flowing into that point.
ii
Thus Ibr Fig 4 I , + I 2 -t l3 = I
'1'11~above I;Iw\ '11 c ~ 1 x 1 1L O C I C C I L I C C \ ~ I I I ~ T I C S ~ I . I I ~ L I1'~01. ~ I1C1 1 ~ '
series and parallel circuits in tcrms of' the equivalent resistances
of the circuits.
THE S ERIES C IR C U I T . For Flg 3. let I amperes be the common
current 'flowing round the clrcult. Then from Ohm's law, the
voltage dropped across resistor- R , is C', volts = I R , . Similarly
the voltage dropptxi :tc.~.orsK , is C', = I/?, and so on. It' R I S
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THE ELECTRIC ( IKC I I I T . L : F; TKIC A L rL.KMS 5
- -
-
1 -
- -1+ . - +
1 1
R R, Rz R,
N o r t , . 'l'hc reciprocal ol' rrsis~ancci \ I ' ~ ~ c q u c r ~ ~ly
rcl'crrccl 10 :t\
I
Conducranc,e. Symbol G = -
R
The unit is the Sirtncns and the symbol used is S
So for a parallel circuit G = G , 4 G , + G , ere.
Example 3. Three resistors of values 2, 4 and 8 ohms are con-
nected in series across a supply of 42 volts. Find the current
taken from the supply and the voltage dropped across each
resistor.
Here R = R , + R , + R , = 2 t 4 + 8 = 14R
42
So supply current = - = 3A
14
Voltage dropped across 2R resistor = 3 x 2 = 6V
Voltage ,, ), 4Q , = 3 x 4 = 12V
Voltage ,, , 8R = 3 x 8 = 24V
7
+
Check. 6V + 12V 24V = 4 2 i (the applied voltage).
Example 4. The above resistor: are connected In parallel
across the same supply voltage, fit1 the total current and the
current in each branch.
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X 42
or H 1.1452and I = -- = 36.75A
= - =
7 1.14
The current in Branch I = = 21A 7
The ,, ,. 2 = -4: = 1 0 . 5 ~
The ,, . 3 = = 5.25A
Chcck. 21A + 10.5A +
5.25A = 36.75A (the total supply
current).
.K
Fig 5
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THE ELECTRIC CIRCUIT : 1II.IiC:THIC:AL. TliKMS 7
- -- - - ---. - ..-
-.. - .
Fig 6
External resistance of the circuit = 2 4 + +
8 = 14R
Battery resistance = 7R
Total resistance of circuit = 14 + 7 = 2 1 R
Circuit current = = 2A
Terminal voltage = 14 x 2 7 28V
Voltage drop in cell = 7 x 2 = 14V
So terminal voltage = 42 - 14 = 28V
Cell voltage 'sits down' 14 volts.
THE S ERIES - PAR ALLEL CI'.CUIT. A S the ritle implies, circu~tsmay
be built up from series end parallel grouping of resistors. The
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Fig 7a
' I llc crrcurt I:, si~l~plilicd
by linclrng tlic cquivi~lentresistance
\slues R , and R B of the parallel banks from
OnCr. K,, and K,,h;~vcheen found the total supply current can
hc ohtnined sincc. :IS 1s shdwn in the diagram (Fig 7b). thc
C L I U I V ~ I I ~ ~i,~rc~rit
I~I is I I O W c ~ i!Ilr
' sin~plcseries typc. 'Thus st~pply
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'IHE ELECTRIC CIR(.IJI I I:L.I:('I~KI(.,'AL rEKMS 9
current i.; I -
v and the volt;~gcdrop.; ;+crowg r o t r p A
ftA 1
and B are
C', - I R A and L',, - IK,,
-I SUPPLY VOLTAGE
Fig 7b
VVOLTS
rLT-'--j
whilst resistors of 3R and 6 0 are connected in parallel to form
I 6 OHMS
C--r
6 OHMS
8 OHMS
B
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-1 - VOLTS
-
- - - - - -+
I-
+ 70HMS
2 OHMS " I
I,
7-
4O W
8 0tIHS
Fig 9
AMMETERS A N D VOLTMETERS
These are the primary instruments used for electrical work and
the diagram (Fig lo), shows how they are connected into the
circuit. Ammeters are used for measuring current and volt-
meters for measuring potential difference o r voltage. Both
instruments operate on the same principle, but ammeters must
Fig 10
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be of very low resistance since they are in series with the load
and must be responsible for negligble voltage drop. Voltmeters
on the other hand must be of high resistance, since they may be
connected across points which may be at a high potential
difference. For most circuit purposes, the ammeter is considered
to have negligible resistance and the voltmeter to have infinite
resistance, ie to take n o current.
In Fig 10 a generator is shown as the energy source, S may
be a singk-pole or double-pole switch, as is shown here, and R
is the load resistance. .As ;I practical example, the generator may
li:ivc ;III 111tcr11:)lI . ~ ~ I S ~ ; I I I 01'C C 0 , 0 2 f l , t l ~ c c;~l)lcI C ; I ~ S I I L I )
have a total resistance of 0.03R and K may have a value of'
Sf2 I f ttlc gcllcr;~toris .;ct ((7 320V o n opcn-circuit. icz with
tllc switch open, then when the switcll I S closed a current 01'
220 - 220 = 43.56A would flow round the circuit.
--
5 + 0.02 + 0.03 5.05
The terminal voltage of the generator would 'sit down' to
220 - (43.56 x 0.02) volts = 220 - 0.87 = 219.13V. T h s
would be shown by the voltmeter, while the ammeter would
show 43.56A. If the voltmeter w a s disconnected and then con-
nected directly across R it would indicate 219.13 - (43.56 x
0-03) volts = 219.13 - 1.3 = 217.83V. The voltage drop in the
cables would be 1.3V. It will be seen that the example of a simple
lstribution system has been worked as a simple series circuit
and that the instrume~ltsperform their required functions. The
ammeter show2 the series circuit current, whilst the vollmeter
indicates the potential drop across any particular portion of the
circuit. I t also can record the e.m.f. built up by the generator
when the switch is open, since this is the only condition when the
e.m.f. appears at the terminals of the energy source.
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Fig I I
Example 8 . Calculate the reslstance of' a shunt r e q u ~ r e dto
operate with a milliammeter. ivh~chp i e s full-scale deflection for
a current of 15mA and which has a reslstance of 512. (,Vorc.. 5 R
can be taken to include the resistance of the c o n n e c t ~ n gleads.
since n o specific mcntion of lead I-eb~stanceh;is been made ) TI-ie
cornbin;ltion ot'mctcr ;lnd sI111ntis rcquirrcl 1 0 rc;lcl c l t r r c n l , ~1 1 1 1
to IOOA.
Voltage d r o p across instrument when g i ~ , i n gfull-scale det1c.c-
tion = current causing full-scale deflection x resistance 01'
instrument circuit
= I, R, = ( 1 5 5 = 75
= 0.075V o r 751nV
Now the voltage d r a p across the instru~nentis tlie hame a s the
voltage d r o p across the shunt o r Is, x R,, = 0.075 volta.
But the shunt current I,, would be 100 - meter current
= 100 - 0.015 = 99.985A
= 0.000 75112
I t is important to note the low resistance u l u e of the shunt
which is designed to carry the cur r ent without 'heating up' The
shunt I S usually mounted on the switchboard, behind the a n i -
meter and in the main current circuit. Tlie 'light' calibrated le;ldj
are coiled to take u p any 'slack' and then brought out to tllc
instrument. Thus the ammeter may be marked 0-100 arnyxrcs.
but in actual fact only a minute current, some 15mA. passes
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t7Y2. ---j
VOLTAGE TO @E
Fig 12
Example 9. Calculate the resistance of the range resistor
required to be placed in series with the instrument of Example 8
to make it into a voltmeter reading 0-250V.(The instrument has
a resistance of 5Q and gives full-scale deflection with a current
o f I5mA).
T h e current through the complete voltmeter circuit must be
limited to 15mA, otherwise the instrument will be 'burnt out'.
Thus resistance R of voltmeter circuit must be
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CHAPTER 1
PRACTICE EXAMPLES
1. A circuit is made up from four resistors of value 2R, 4R,
5R and 10R connected in parallel. If the current is 8.6A, find
the voltage drop across the arrangement and the current in
each resistor.
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CHAPTER 2
THE ELECTRIC CIRCUIT (CONTINUED):
ELECTRICAL UNITS
All engineering studies stress theneed for units and an intro-
duction to some of these will have been made when the subjects
of mechanics and heat were being covered. Units allow measure-
ments to be taken and calculations to be made. They are essential
to the derivation of formulae from the basics of theory and
enable presentations of related principles to be evolved. Thus
for electrical engineering, even at the Chapter 1 stage, the
ampere, volt and ohm were considered, and although these units
have yet to be defined, their importance in rel~tionto the basic
electric circuit will have been appreciated. The student will also
recognise these units as being amongst those in common
every-day usage. If, however, the impression has been given that
the study of electrotechnology will involve the knowledge of an
entire range of new units, then it is stressed that this is not the
case. The whole modern concept of engineering technology is
based on the universal adoption of SI units and, since some of
these have been encountered in earlier work, it will not be long
before, in this study of electrical engineering, common ground
is being covered and the relevant relationships with associated
units, already treated from the mechanical engineering aspect,
are being stressed.
Before proceeding with any further study of units of the S1
system, it w o u l d a e useful to introduce a historical note and
consider the situation in engineering as it has developed.
Towards the end of the last century two systems of units began
to be employed in engineering; the British or foot-pound-
second (fps) system and a metric or centirnetre-gramme-second
(cgs) system. The British or Imperial system had no merits since
all units of the same kind, such as those of length, area, volume
ther. indeed-there were also
ric and horsepower which were
ntly defined. The metric system
t to industry and commerce but
tages and it was adopted prior
ical circles. In 1873 the British
nt of Science selected the centi-
units of !ength and mass for
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h;~sc-unit of rime and the tio option of the second. for this
purpose, gave the c e n t i m e t r e - g r a n i ~ ~ ~ c - s e c(cgb)
o ~ ~ dsystrln.
The metric system, in the cgs form, was adopted to a Iiirpt'
cxtcnt li)s electrical cngiuccsing in thc curly dirys 01' dcvclop-
ment. The system had the advantage that all the same kind of
quantities are multiples of ten and it was also international. The
sizes of the absolute unit of the centimetre and the gramme were
found to give rise to difficulties for the desired electrical units
which became either too large or too small for practical work-
ing. The use of these absolute units for essential formulae in
engineering work also proved difficult and thus more workable
or practical units had to be devised. Such practical units were to
include the volt, ampere and ohm. In about 1900 practical
measurement in metric units began to be based on the metre.
kilogramme and the second and the aforementioned electrical
practical units.These constituted the unrationalised MKS system.
The next developmeqt came from a fact, which was re-
peatedly pointed out over the first half of the present century,
that a system of units could be devised to make the practical
units of the volt, ampere and ohm the absolute units of such a
system. If, in addition, suitable adjustments of certain constants
encountered in electromagnetism and electrostatics are accepted,
then a more workable system of units would result. This system
was known as the rationalised MKS system and its adoption
W A S ~.ccommcndcdby tllc Internation:~l L i l ~ ~ t r ~ t ~ Ci)111- cl~~~i~i~
mission of 1950. The change to the MKS caused some little
inconvenience to the older electrical engineer and necessitated
the revision of many of the better known works of reference and
text-books. The student was required to appreciate however.
that the new system did not upszt the course of learning in any
way and that, if anything, the 11nits introduced made matters
easier and formulae more manalr,eable.
Prior to 1970, conditions d;3 exist when both the older
Imperial and the newer MKS sydems of units were in use. The
latest extension of.metric units .nto all branches of commerce
and industry has enabled enginiering to evolve the SI system,
the units of which are used throc ghout this book. Thus from the
electrical viewpoint, it can be faid that the SI system is the
rationalised M K S system with :nits in all the other fields of
measurement being fully metrica..cd.
T H E SI S 'STEM
All measurement consists in cc mparison with some standard
or unit. The three fundamental un ts are those of length, of mas.-
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UNIT O F FORCE
T H E N EWTON . This is theforce required to accelerate a mass of'
one kilogramme at the rate of one metre/second 2 . It has been
fbund that the force of gravity acting on a mass of I kg is 9.81
ncwtons ; ~ n d ,since thc force on ;I body due to tlic ciirth's
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THE ELECTRIC CIRCUIT FLFCTKICAI, ONIT? 21
-- -- - -- - - - --- . - -- -
ELECTRICAL UNITS
The same fundamental units are used as for the mechanical
units namely: the metre, kilogramme and s e ~ o n d The. primary
derived unit is the ampere, which has been adopted as the basic
electrical unit of current and ;IS a I'ourth fundamental unit.
Before considering the definition for the ampere, it is necessary
at this stage, to describe two associated effects, which would be
observed when a current flowed in a circuit.
(1) If the resistance of the circu~twas concentrated in a short
length of conductor, then a temperature rise of the wire in this
region would t x noted, showing a conversion of energy into heat.
(2) If the circuit was supplied through two wires laid to-
gether, then especially if the current is large and the wires
flexible, a mechanical effect would be noted. When the current is
switched on, the wires would be observed to move and this
electromagnetic effict, as it is called, has been used to define the
ampere for the SI system. The factors governing the magnitude
and direction of the force on the wires will be described in the
chapter on Electromagnetism.
UNIT OF CURRENT
THE AMPERE. This is that current which, when maintained in
each of two infinitely long, straight, parallel conductors situated
in a vacuum and separated by a distance of one metre between
centres, produces on each conductor a force of 2 x lo-' newton
per metre length of conductor.
As stated in Chapter 1, the symbol for current is I and any
value in amperes is represented by the letter A after the nwneri-
cal value. The reader is reminded that practical circuit currents
may rilngc from thousands of amperes to minute values of'
milli-amperes and attention is drawn to the Table of Prefixes of'
Magnitudes as given at the front of this book. Full consideration
must be given to the correct use of the abbreviation which
follows the numerical value.
When a current flows for n given tir~le,a quantity of electricity
is said to be conveyed round the circuit. The quantity which
passes ciin bc sliown to be related to thc work done in the circuit,
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THE ELECTRIC CIRCUIT : ELECTRICAL UNITS 23
- - - -- -- -
UNIT 0 1 . QUANTIT)'
T HE COULOMB. The usual unit-sometimes called the ampere
second. For practical purposes a larger unit, for everyday
electrical engineering is used. This is the Ampere hour as used in
connection with the capacity of batteries and for accumulator
charging.
The symbol for quantity of electricity is Q and any value in
coulombs can be represented by the letter C after the numerical
value. Any value in ampere hours is represented by the letters
A h. after the numerical value. Since the quantity ~f electricity
which is conveyed round a circuit would vary with the strength
of the flow of electricity and with time, a simple definition for the
coulomb can be deduced thus:
, A coulomb is the quantity of electricity cdnveyed by a steady
current of one ampere flowing for a time of one second.
Thus Q (coulombs) = I (amperes) x 1 (seconds)
or Q (ampere hours) = I (amperes) x t (hours)
From the above, the following can be deduced:
1 ampere hour = 1 ampere x 1 hour = 1 ampere x 3600
seconds = 3600 ampere seconds = 3600 coulombs. Thus
1A h = 3600C.
Ex:~mplc I I . C'onsidct. I~?c:~mplr 5, w l ~ c ~:I ch:~ttcr.vof' c 1 n . f
42V and ~nternalresistance 752 is used to supply a clrcult of'
three resistors 2, 4 and 8 0 in series. If the current is switched on
for 30 minutes, find the quantity of electricity which would have
been conveyed.
Total resistance of circuit = 7 + 2 + 4 + 8 = 2152
42
Circuit Current = -- = 2A
;1
Quantity of Electricity = current x time in seconds
= 2 x 30 2 60 = 3600C
or Quantity of Electricity = current x time in hours
- 2 x + = 1Ah.
-
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and resistance in terms of the coulomb and the joule which have
already been defined.
UNIT OF VOLTAGE
THE VOLT. This is the unit of electromotive force and potential
difference and can be defined as the potential difference required
between two points in a circuit, if one joule of work is to be
done when passing one coulomb of electricity between the points.
As stated in Chapter 1 , the symbol for voltage or e.m.f. is V
and any value in volts is represented by the letter V after the
numerical value. In accord with the remarks made concerning
the representation of current, the reader's attention is drawn to
the Table of Prefixes of Magnitudes, and to the correct use of
the Abbreviations.
From tho dofinition set out tibovc it is stated that the work
done by part of an electrical circuit = quantity of electricity
conveyed x voltage applied across that part of the circuit.
Thus : fl Goules) = Q (coulombs) x V (volts)
or W (joules7 = Z (amperes) x t (seconds) x V (volts).
v2t
Other forms are W =
or W = It(IR) = 1 2 ~ t
Example 12. Consider Example 1 1 . A battery of e.m.f. 42V
- $
and internal resistance 7 0 is used to supply a circuit of three
resistors, 2, 4 and 8 0 in series. If the current is switched on for 30
minutes, find the energy converted (as heat) by each resistor and
inside the battery &self.
Circuit current was found to be 2 amperes
Using form W = 12Rt then energy converted in
2 ohm resistor = 22 x 2 x ' 30 x 60 = 14400 joules
4 ohm resistor = 22 x 4 x 30 x 60 = 28 800joules
8 ohm resistor = 2* x 8 x 30 x 60 = 57 600joules
7 ohm battery = 2' x 7 x 30 x 60 = 50400 joules
Total energy converted by the circuit =
14 400 + 78 800 + 57 600 + 50 400 = 151 200 joules
( ' l / t ~ X The
. total energy converted by the entire circuit may be
Ii)utltl 1'1 orll Cj' =- I.'// joulcs
= 42 x 2 x 30 x 60 = 151 200 joules.
The definitions of' Power and Energy have already been con-
\~dered,but i t would be as well to summarise the points of'
Importance, n:rnlely t h a t power is the rate at which work is done
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1,'ro111 c i ~ * ( I i ~ ~ - t iqct
o r ~ 0111
~ : I \ N T \ C 11' - 1'11 : I I I ~ I 1 1 l o l l o \ ~ ~
! I \I . I I
P = VI or P (watts) = V (volts) x I (amperes).
The iibove is a most importi~nt reli~tinnship.I t c i ~ n;11so k
expressed in the following f'orms:
P
12R or P = - =
vZ
R
The attention of the reader is drawn to the following which
must also be known.
W
Since P = - or W = Pt itfollows that
t
joules = watts x seconds and that a joule is one watt
second.
Now a joule is a small unit of energy and for practical purposes a
much larger electrical unit of energy is used. This is the kilort,irtr
holrr, abbreviated to k W h and is also know^ as the commerci:il
unit of electricity or more commonly as 'a unit'.
Since one kilowatt hour = one kilowatt x one hour
= lO!N watts x 3600 seconds
So one kilowatt hour = 3 600 000 joules.
Example 13. A 220V electric fire is rated at 2kW. Find the
current taken when the fire is switched on and also how much it
would cost to use the fire for 5 hours with electricity being
charged at 0 . 6 per
~ unit.
X I OOU
Current taken = L 7 = Y4YA
220
Electricity used = 2 x 5 = 10 kW h = 10 units
Cost = 10 x 0.6 = 6p.
UNIT OF RESISTANCE
THE O H M . This was defined in Chapter 1 as the unit of' sesisl-
ance and in terms of the volt and ampere thus:-a resistor has a
value of one ohm resistance, if one ampere passes through i t
when a potential difference of one volt is applied across ~ t ends
s
Now that the relations between the ampere, volt, joule and watt
have been defined. i t is possible to give a l'ust1ie1-definition t'or
the ohm which is associated with power or energy dissipation
Thus the ohm can be defined as:--that resistance which when
one ampere passes thrclugh it produces power at the rate. of one
watt. Alternatively, the ohm is that resistance in which a current
of one ampere flowing 'or one second generates a joule of energy.
For a resistor the ensrgy produced by current flow appears a
heat. and the followin: is of' importance.
Since P = F I and I/ = I R then P = ( 1 R ) I
or P = I'R as , leveloped earlier.
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EFFICIENCY
The symbol usually used is q-the Greek letter eta. In all
apparatus and machines, losses of energy occur due to bearing
and brush friction, air turbulence, unwanted electrical currents.
escape of heat, etc. These losses result in the output of such
apparatus o r machines, when measured as work, being always
less than the input when this is measured in th'e same work units.
The ratio of the output to the input is termed the efficiency. Thus :
Efficiency = -
output
input
or =
input - losses
input
- output
0r
output + losses
3 3
= 5610W
5610
Number of lamp.; = - - = 93-5 say 93
60
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28 REED'S BASIC ELECTROTECHNOLOG'I'
93 x 60 - -558
Load current =
110 - 11
= 50.73A say 51A
or alternatively ;
5610
Load current = - = 51A.
110
Example 16. A pump is required to lift 12 tonnes of' water
through lorn in 2 minutes. Calculate the power required to drive
the pump, the current taken if driven by a 220V motor and the
cost of pumping at I p per unit. Assume the efficiency of the
pump to be 60 per cent and the efficiency of the driving motor is
85 per cent.
Work to be done = Force opposing gravity x distance lifted
Note 1 tonne = 103kg
Thus work to bc done = (12 x lo3 x 9.81) x lonewton
metres
= 117.72 x 10 4 Nm
Also 1 177 200Nm = 1177.2kJ
This is the oiltput of the pump. The input would be greater, ie
100
1 177.2 x - = 1962kJ
60
Since the pumping is to be accomplished in 2 minutes or 120
seconds, the power input during thls time = 1 962 000
120
= 16 350W
Thus power required to drive the pump is 16.35kW
The output power rating of the motor must be 16.35kW and
.L
100
the input power would'be 16.35 x ---- = 19.24kW
85
19 240 - 962
Current taken by motor = ---- - -= 87.45A
220 11
2
Energy used = 19.24 x - = - 19.24 = 0.641kw h
60 30
Cost = 0.641 x 1 = 0 . 6 4 ~ .
Example 17. The electric motor used to drive a ship's winch
has an efficiency of 86 per cent. The winch can lift a mass of'0.5
tonnec through ;I distance of 22m in 22 seconds. The winding
gear ol' ~ l winch~ e has an efliciency o!' 60 per cent. Calculate the
power rating of the motor and also the current taken from the
220V ship's mains.
Work done by the winch = 500 x 9.81 x 22 newton metres
= 107 910Nm or 107 910J
'This 1s tllc output 01' t11c winch or the output of the winding
gcnr. T l i c input to the winding gear woi~ldbe
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The input to the winding gear would also be the motor output
= 179 8505
Since the lifting is done In 2 2 seconds, the motor would give
out power during this time.
- 179 850 = 8 1 7 5 ~
22
For a motor output of 8175W. the input power would be
G R O U P I N G O F CELLS
Ohm's law stales that the current in n circuit can be ~ncreased
tlie C ~ I - C ' U oI ~r
by raising the potential difference a ~ p l i e d3c1.c)~~'
by decreasing the circuit resistance. I!' the supply source is a
generator. the applied p.d. can be vari :d by controlling tiie e.m.f.
being generated in the machine. but i.' a battery is the source ot'
energ! then tiie applied voltage cann 11 be varied eabilk. Since a
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battery consists of a group of cells and since the e.m.f. of any cell
is fixed, being decided by its chemical composition, then a larger
e.m.f. or a greater current can only be obtained by appropriate
arrangement of the cells. The cells can be connected in series,
parallel or series-parallel arrangements.
SERIES CONNECTION. For this arrangement the -ve terminal of
a cell is connected to the +ve terminal of the adjacent cell as
shown in the diagram (Fig 13a). The arrangement is more
simply depicted by Fig 13b. .4 battery of 3 cells in series is shown.
-44-F
Fig 13(b)
Fig 13(a)
From Kirchhoff s voltage law, the e.m.f.-of the source is equal
to the sum of the e.m.f.s taken round the circuit and thus for a
battery of n e l l s in series, the e.m.f. = e.m.f. of 1 cell x n. Also
since this is a series circuit, then the current in any 1 cell is the
circuit current. The internal resistances of the cells are also in
series and should be treated in accordance with the deductions
already made for the resistance of a series circuit. These points
are illustrated by the example.
Example 19. A battery consists of 4 cells in series, each of e.m.f.
1.5V and internal resistance 0.6R. Find the current flowing, if
bVoLTs 2.4 onns
JPltlrt---t.
Fig 14
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Fig 15
- - ,.---'
From Kirchhoff's current law, the i-3tal current 1s the sum of
the currents in each branch. Thus tti\: total current from the
battery is equal to the sum of the curr.:nts available from each
cell. For correct working, the e.m.f. o each cell should be the
same. So also should the internal resist.ince although this is not
essential. If n cells are in parallel, the toial current is n times that
given by one cell, but the battery e.m.1'. is that of any one cell.
This latter point can be reasoned from the fact that li' the r v e
terminal of A is 3V abo1.e its -- ve ter-mi 131and t h c + \ e ter-rninal
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L 1
Fig 16
I
,-. - 6
-1 1>01li I I ~ C I ~ C ; I ~\.011:1gc
C(~ ~ :I circ\~it.Tlic cells in
; ~ n dc t ~ r r c n1.01.
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Fig 17
The procedure for solving problems fhllows the reasoning
already covered for the series and paralIe1 arrangements. but
should be taken step by step.
Example 21. Ten cells each of internal resistance 3Q and e.m.f.
2V are connected in two banks of 5 cells per bank. They are then
connected to an external load resistance of 2851. Find the load
current and the p.d. across the battery terminals. The arrange-
ment is shown in the diagram (Fig 18a).
TWO
BANKS
5 CELLS
1 VOLTS
3 OHMS
PtR CELL
-L
L -
Fig I 8 ( a )
E . m . f . of a bank = 5 x 2 = 10V = battery e.m.f
Resistance of 1 bank = 5 x 3 = 1552
Resistance of battery =
15
= 7,551 -,
Total c l r c u ~ tresistance = 7 5 + 20 = 27.551
10
Clrcult o r load current = --- = 0,364A
27 5
P.d. o r termlnal voltage = 0,364 x 20 = 7.3YV
0.364
Current per cell = current of 1 bank = ---- = 0.182A
2
Example 21 (continued). I f the battery 1s rearranged with 5
banks of'? cells in each. find the new current and voltage. The
arrangement is shown in the diagram (Fig 18b).
E . m . f .of a bank = 2 x 3 = 4V = battery e.m.f.
Internal resistance o f a 1 bank = 3 x 3 = 6 R
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3 CfLLS
20
3 OHMS OHMS
PLO CfU
Fig 18(b)
6
Internal resistance of battery = -5 = 1.m
Total circuit resistance = 20 + 1.2= 2 1 . m
4
Circuit or load current = -= 0.188A
- 21.2
Terminal voltrtgc 20 x 0.188 = 3.77V
or 4 - 1.2 x 0.188 = 4 - 0.23 = 3.77V
0.188 = 0.0376A.
Currentlcell = current of 1 bank = ----
5
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THE ELECTRIC CIRCUIT. ELECTRICAL UNITS 35
-- - -
C'lIAPTER 2
PRACTICE EXAMPLES
1. An electric hoist is required to lif't a load of'2 tonnes to a
height of 30m. The cage has a mass of 0.25 tonnes and the
lifting operation is timed to be completed in 1; minutes. If
the 220V motor is metered to take a current of 50A, find the
efficiency of the installation.
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( I I A I r I I I< 1
RESISTANCE O F A CONDUCTOR
\.ARIATION O F C O N D U C T O R R E S I S T A N C E LVITH * D I ~ I ~ N S I O S SA N L )
MATERIAL
The resistance or 'ohmic‘ value of n conductor. \uch a i a c o ~ l
of'wire, can be altered in different ways. Thus if'co~lsof'different
lengths of' the same wire. lr jame material and same cross-
sectional area. are measured for resistrince. their ohmic ~ a l u e s
would be fbund to varq in d ~ i e c tproportion to their lengths.
Again if coils of wire of the same materia! and length, but o f
tlifycrcnt cro\\-ccc~ior; ;Ire r n c ; ~ \ ~ ~ r ~hcir.
r d . rc\isl,lnc.c L ; I ~ I I C \
would be I'ound to vary In inverse propcrrtlnn to tlie areas of' the
wires with which they are wound.
A similar series of comparative measurements witti coils 01'
wire of the same length and cross-sectional area but different
material, would show that the resistance value varied with the
conductor material.
The elementary tests described above, indicate that the resist-
ance of a conductor or resistor can be altered by varying its
dimensions or the nature of material used, and the relation of'
these factors to the actual conductor resistance will now be
examined in detail.
l(a) DIME N S I O N S . Resistance of' a conductor is proportion,~lto
its length or, more simply and using an example, i t can be said
that the conductor resistance of a lOOm length of cable will be
double that of a 50m length of the same cable. This can be
readily shown as follows:
Let Rq ohms = the resistance of a 50m length. Then two 5Om
sections in series would have a resistance of R ohms
Hence R = RA RA = 2RA +
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CONDUCTORS A N D INSULA-rOKS
Fig 19 ..
I t should be noted that the temperature of' the material
is measured at the time the test is made and is f'requently
specified with the resistivity figure. Thus p f h r copper is given as
1.725 x l o - ' ohm-metre at 20°C. The reasons for specifying the
temperature in connection with the resistivity figure will be
explained in due course.
It has been seen that R c/_ I and R r _ -.1 Therefore R T -I o r
it = k '
A
W I I C I ~ Ck is Li consti~nt.I I ' i~b
A
~ ; I A C I I;ih , 1 1 1 5L
A
~ ~ I I ~I,, ~ : I I ] ~
then the foregoing can be written as:
= 17.44m.
Occasionally a problem involving the formula R = - P 1 can be
A
worked by a method of' proportion.
This makes for easier working than finding the resistivity
values and resubstituting in the formula to obtain the answer.
This is illustrated by the example.
Example 24. If the resistance of 1.6km of copper wire of'
0.5mm diameter is 1700. calculate the resistance of I km of iron
wire of 1.Ornrn diameter, assuming that the resistivity of iron is
7 times that of copper.
Resistance of 1600m of copper wire 0.5mm diameter is 170
ohms, then resistance of' lOOOm of copper wire 0.5mm diameter
0 20 40 M, 80 100
TEHPERATURE OC
Fig 20
TEMPERATURE C O EF FIC IENT O F KESISTANCE. Because of' the
straight-line relationship between resistance a n d temperature.
illustrated in Fig 20, a simple law 1s evident iind :in equation
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RESISTANCE OF AN INSULATOR
VARIATION O F INSULATION RESISTANCE W I T H DIMENSIONS A N D
MATERIAL
All insul;\tnl. h;is Iwcn dofincd as ii substance which will not
allow the I'ree flow of' electricity. In electrical apparatus,
~n:l(.liil~r\ :111(1 C : I ~ ~ C Sinsi11:itiori
, i s used to confine the flow o f
t.lec11.1c.ltyIo tile ~.cquilcclclrcuil iilld to plevclll llle c u ~I Z I 11.0111
~ ~
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CONDUCTORS A N D INSULATORS 45
-- - -- - - - .- -
\ t
Fig 22
T o summarise the foregoing, it is panted out that insulat~on
resistance of cable would be measured between core and sheath.
or 'earth' and would be glven by the formula F: Here p i'1
= -.
A
would have an extremely high value; for vulcanised rubber it 1s
iO'SRm or 1O9MRm. 1 would be the insulation thickness t and
surface area A would be proportional to the length of the cable.
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0 20 40
TEMPERATURE 7 80
r
Fig 23
and the power rating of an appliance is in accordance with
accepted specification. For example. BS Specifications or
Lloyd's Regulations may specify a working temperature rise of
50°C for a particular motor when performing a certain duty.
This would be when it was developing its rated output in an
ambient or room temperature of'30"C. T h u ~;I total t e m p e r ; ~ t ~ l r c
01' 80°C' would Ix allowccl. I ' l i l s lig~rrcvat.lcs 101. t l ~ c~ y p co l
insulation with which the machine is constructed, but for the
example, if the same motor is to work in an ambient of N°C,
then the allowable temperature rise will be reduced t o 30°C. The
motor would now only be capable of giving a reduced output
and would have to be derated. Alternatively a larger machine
must be used, if the full original power output was still required.
Derating of equipment is necessary to ensure a maximum
safe working temperature for the insulation and for this con-
dition, the insulation resistance will reach an acceptable
minimum value.
Since the insulation-resistance value alters as the temperature
of the equipment alters, and it is also affected by other factors
already considered earlier such as, size of installation, humidity,
cleanliness, age and site conditions, then a true indication as to
the state of the installation o r machine can only be gained by
reference to a record o r log of readings, built up over a period of'
time. Reference to iuch practice has already been made earlier
and it should be accepted that the keeping of such a log is
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RESISTANCE OF A SEMICONDUCTOR
Llt.ctronic dcviccs utilisiny semiconductor materials arc intro-
duced latcr- but studied in depth in Volume 7. It is necessary, at
this stage, to make a reference to the important relationship
between the resistance of a semiconductor and its temperature.
A semiconductor can be described as a material which, for given
dimensions, has a resistance value midway between that of' a
conductor and an insulator of the same dimensions. The main
usage of semiconductor materials is in connection with -s olid-
state devices such as re6tifier diodes and transistors, but here we
consider the resistance-temperature property in relation to
l l ~ ~ ~ r l-~ l l ~ .
P
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CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS 51
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85
Heating time =-= 11.7 = 12 min (approximately).
7.3
RELATION BETWEEN ELECTRICAL AND HEAT ENERGY
In Chapter 2 mention was made of an associated effect which
would be noted when current flowed in a circuit. This effect
would be a temperature rise in any part of the circuit, where
resistance was concentrated and one definition of the ohm
relates the unit of resistance to a joule of energy beinggenerated,
when,a.current of 1 ampere is flowing. Since this energy cannot
be destroyed, this is obviously another instance of energy
conversion from one form to another, and a simple test can be
ma'de to deduce the relation between heat and electrical energy.
Such a test w h l d determine the specific heat capacity of a
material by an electrical method and, since water is the most
convenient substance, an appropriate rig-up is described.
The experimental apparatus consists of a glass flow-tube
which is surrounded by a glass water-jacket-spaced some little
distance from it. The whole is sealed so that jhe space between
flow-tube and jacket can consist of a vacuum. A heating wire
runs centrally along the tube and thermometers are placed at
either end of the tube. The water, the specific heat capacity of
which is to be found, is arranged to flow steadily through the
ruhc i~nd is Ilci~tctl clccr:ici~lly by il known current passing
through the wire. Af'ter a period the inlet and outlet tempera-
tures of the water become constant and this difference in
temperature is noted. The constant rate of flow of the water is
mctcrcd and t h u s the mass of liquid being hcatcd per sccond is
known. The volt;tpe drop :\cross thc hc;~tcris ;rlso mc;\surctl ; \ n d
wc Ilavc tlic fin:~l~.cl:~tionsllip:
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CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS 53
-
V / = rncT
It1 I5 tI1c IllilS5 0 1 ' I I ~ U ~ L I(., tI1c 5 [ ~ ~ ~ 1 11c:11
l i C C:lpilclly :111d '1' t11c
temperature rise.
Tlic vi~lucol' 1. would Ix II'ou~ldto tx. 4.2k.l/kp"C'. I r will hc
noted that the specific heat capacity of' water, when determined
either by mechanical or electrical means, is found to be the same.
Different forms of apparatus have been developed to find the c
values of various materials, the electrical method being usuall~.
favoured because of the accuracy with which control of the test
can be effected and measurements taken.
The following examples show how the specific heat capacity
value is used in electrical problems.
Example 28. A brass calorimeter was found to have a mass of'
67 grammes. It was filled with water when the new mass was
131.7 grammes. The temperature of water and container waa
18°C. A heater coil was next immersed in ths calorimeter, which
was suitably lagged to minimise heat loss. Find the time taken
to heat the water and calorimeter to a temperature of 33'C, if
the heating was done by passing a current of 2A through the
coil, the voltage drop across which was 7.5V. Take the specific
heat capacity of brass as 0.39kJlkg°C and that of water as
4.2kJ/kg0C.
Mass of water = 131.7 - 67 = 64.7g or 0.0647kg
Mass of calorimeter = 67g = 0.067kg
'l'c111~~11.:1lurc
I ~ S Co I ' w : ~ t c:III(I
~ c : ~ l o l . i l n r ~-c ~7 7 I U -- 17°C
Heat required by water ( ! ? I ( , ? ] = 0.0617 x 4 . 7 x 15
kilojoules
., calorimeter = 0,067 x 0.39 x 15
kilojoules
Total amount of heat required
= 15 [(0,0647 x 4.2) + (0.067 x 0.39)]
= 15 (0.2717 + 0,0261) = 15 x 0.2978 kilojoules
= 15 x 0.2978 x l o 3 joules
Input power = 2 x 7.5 = 15%:
:. Time taken to procruce the,temperature rlse
- 297'8
- 4-96 -= 5 min (approximately).
60
Example 29. A 220V clectr~ckettle has an effic~encyof 90 per
cent. Calculate the, resi.;tance of the heater-coil and the current
necessary to raise the temperature of 1 litre of water from 15°C
to boiling point in 9 ml Utes. Take a l ~ t r eof water to have a mass
of 1 kilogramme and he specific heat capacity as 4.2kJlkg C
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735 36.75-3.34A
Heater current = - = --
220 11
220
Heater resistana = - = 65.9R.
3.34
Example 30. A 120W electric soldering-iron is plugged into the
120V ship's mains for five minutes, the ambient temperature
being 15°C. The mass of the copper bit is 133g and 50 per cent
of the heat generated can be assumed to be lost in radiation and
heating the other parts of the iron. Find whether the iron has
reached working temperature in the time specified. .Take the
specific heat capacity of copper as 0.39kJ/kg°C and the tempera-
ture of melting solder as 310°C.
Heat required by the iron = 0.133 x 0.39 x (310 - 15)
= 0.133 x 0.39 x 295
= 15.34kJ
*I
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CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS 55
.---.-...-.-----.--..--p.. ~-
-
4
106 x 13 x lo-' x 4 -
- 10.6 x 13 x 4
o r R,, =
rr x 0.25 x n x 0.25
Also since
R = R, ( 1 + aT) or 1.02 = l ( 1 + a100)
a n d a = 1.02 - 1 = 0.0002
100
Similarly R, = R, (1 + aT,)
a n d R, = R, (1 + aT,) o r R, = R , 11 f aT2)
(1 + aT,)
where R , = 702R a t 15°C.
Giving R, = 702
1 + (300 x 0.0002) - -
702(1 0.06) +
1 + ( 1 5 x 0 ~ 0 0 0 2 ) (1+0.003)
- 702 x 1.06 = 742G
-
1,003
250
Current taken = --- = 0.337'A
742
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CHAPTER 3
PRACTICE EXAMPLES
1. Ten thousand cubic millimetres of copper are (a) drawn
into a wlre 100 metres long, (b) rolled into a square sheet of'
lOOmm side. Find the resistance of the wire and the resist-
ance between opposite faces cf the plate, if the resistance of
the copper is 17pRmm or 1.7 x ohm-metres.
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CHAPTER 4
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Mention has already been made of the three main effects of
current flow, namely those producing heat, magnetism, and
chemical action. In Chapter 3 the heating effect was discussed in
some length, whilst the magnetic effects will be covered in
Chapter 5. This chapter will be devoted to electrochemistry,
which was the subject of many basic investigations concerned
with the science of electricity. Such studies soon revealed the
chemical action associated with current flow and the reversi-
bility of this action and the electric cell was the principal source
of electrical energy before the principles of electrodynamic
induction were discovered and the electric generator was
developed.
The existence of static electricity, namely electricity at a high
potential and exhibiting itself as a stationary charge, had been
known for centuries, but this was associated with the lightning
flash and friction effects such as the attraction of paper by a
piece of amber when the latter was rubbed. The early and if
somewhat accidental experiments of men like Galvani and Volta
showed that electricity could be produced and controlled by
chemical meajs and led to the first 'voltaic piles' or batteries
being constructed. These consisted of a number of plates of zinc
and copper alternated by absorbent material such as felt, soaked
with an acid or salt solution.
At the commencement of the nineteenth century the only
practical means of producing electricity was by chemical means
and, it is therefore not surprising that, this somewhat separate,
self-contained and special branch of electrical engineering
science was the first to be thoroughly investigated and developed.
'l'l\c luws (/'cloc*trolysis,first propounded by Faraday in 1834,
summarise the basics of theory sufficiently well, to allow modern
ideas on the relation between electrical and chemical action to be
accepted without upsetting earlier, well known and hard won
knowledge.
The conversion of' electrical energy into chemical energy and
the reverse action is an important example of the principle of the
conservation of energy. The theory involved is best studied from
thc first action, namely, the relation between electrical and
chemical energy. This process is called electrolysis.
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I:l E('THOI.YSIS
'l'lie passage ot'curren[ [l~rougliii ~ I U [ I O I Iul ,111 Lic~cl, i ~ l l i ~il )i ~
salt produces a chemical change, explained by the theory of dis-
sociation. The solution is called the c~lrc~rrol~,cc~ i\nd the process
is termed electrolysis. The general theory involved is as follows.
When an eFc-irolyte is first made up, as would result from dis-
solving copper sulphate crystals in water, some molecules split
Into two, independent of any external assistance, to hrrn rot^.\,
carrying +ve and - ve charges. Up to now, no work has been
done on the nature of electricity and the introduction of'the term
'charge' may cause some concern to the reader. He can be re-
assured as to this, since the study of the nature of electricity and
the modern conception of the atom will be fully dealt with in
Chapter 13. Most up-to-date textbooks commence their study of
electricity with this very important part of the subject, but the
author feels that the practical engineer is b e g guided along the
lines developed in this book and that supplementary knowledge
can best be acquired at relevant points in the treatment of the
subject. It is sufficient for him to know, at this stage, that from
earliest times the presence of electricity was known because of its
simple attraction and repulsion effects. Thus a piece of amber
when rubbed, will attract light bodies such as pieces of cork or
paper. The amber is said to be electrified o r charged wit11
electricity. Further experiments would show a glass rod. when
I.uI>I>cLI ~ ' i l 1 1h i l l , , to l>cL ~ I L ~ L ~ I I ~ :IINI
I I ~ ~ c1 0I ; I ~ I I ; I Cpicc,cs
~ 01' ~ ; I ~ , C I
but if 3 similarly treated glass rod was buspendcd b a thread
and brought near the original charged glass rod. a repulsion
effect would be noted. Similarly an ebonite rod rubbed with f'ur.
would be found to be charged and if'brought near the suspended
charged glass rod, attraction would be noted.
Summarising we can say that the electric charges acquired can
be of two types, termed positive ( + v e ) and negative ( - v e )
charges and that like charges repel whereas unlike charges
attract. The allocation of the designation +ve charge to the glass
rod and - ve charge to the ebonite is purely arbitrary, but the
general theory is that all uncharged bodies consist of +ve and
- ve charges which neutralise each other. I!' these charges art.
separated by some applied effort then their presence becomes
detectable, and if they are caused to move from one body to
another or through a circuit then t h e ~ rmovement is explained b\
the passage of' current.
Returning to the subject of' this chapter. we see that for an
electrolyte the molecules split up into charged ions which are
extremely mobile. If two plates, termed the c.lec,trodrs, are
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60 RFED'S BASIC ELECTROTECHNOLOGY
ELECTROLYTIC CELLS
The whole arrangement consisting of electrodes and electro-
lyte as described above, is frequently called an electrolytic cell to
distinguish it from a voltaic cell which will be described later in
this chapter. Electrolysis does not occur with solids o r gases and
is only possible for certain liquids Some, like oils, are non-
conductors, whereas others, like mercury, conduct without
decomposition. The remaining liquids are electrolytes, which
can therefore be defined as liquids which decompose when
current is passed through them. The electrolytic cell can be
constructed to enable experiments and measurements to be made
with great accuracy. In this form it is frequently referred to as a
Voltalneter
(Sulphuric acid solution)
THE W A TER V O L T A MET E R
The diagram (Fig 24) shows the construction of the apparatus
which is made of glass, with platinum electrode plates placed at
A and C. The lead-in wires, passed through rubber corks, are
not exposed to the solution to prevent corrosion, The voltameter
is filled with acidulated water and the platinum electrodes are
connected to a battery. Current passes from the anode to the
cathode and bubbles of gas are given off which rise into the
graduated tubes
If care had been taken before passing current, to fill both
tubes with the acidulated water by opening the taps and then
closing them after all air had been expelled, then certain deduc-
tions can be made from the experiment. After a period of time,
the gas collected would be found to be Hydrogen at the cathode
and Oxvpcn : ~ tthe anode. The ratio of the volumes of H to 0
would be 2 : l and the amount 01' gas collected would be pro-
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ELECTROCHEMISTRY 61
Fig 24
portional to the strength of the current and the time for which it
flowed or more generally to the quantity of electricity passed.
In the acidulated water there are considered to be sulphunc
acid molecules which divide into three ions, two of hydrogen
+
carrying ve charges H + , H + and one with - ve charge repre-
-
sented by SO, - . Note the total + ve hydrogen charge equals
the - ve sulphate or sulphion charge, but the ions migrate under
the influence of the electric field. Thus the H + ions give up their '
charges at the cathode and are liberated as hydrogen gas. The
sulphions proceed to the anode, but as they cannot exist in a
free state they combine with two hydrogen H + H + ions or atoms
from the water thus liberating oxygen as in the equation. Thus:
2S04 + 2 H 2 0 = 2 H , S 0 4 + 0,. The oxygen rises from the
anode and collects in the tube above it. The H , S 0 4 goes into
solution and thus the electrolyte is decomposed in that the water
appears to be used up, but the acid content remains the same and
the solution gets stronger; that is, its specific gravity rises.
THE C O P PER VO LT AMET ER(Copper sulphate solution)
The diagram (Fig 25) shows the usual arrangement. A copper
sulphate solution, made from crystals dissolved in pure water, is
contained in a glass or glazed earthenware tank. The electrodes
are made from pure copper sheet. The CuSO, molecule is con-
sidered to split into two ions, C u + and SO4--. When a p.d. is
+
Fig 25
their charges. The sulphions give up their charges at the anode
and combine with the copper from this electrode to reform
copper sulphate. Thus copper appears to be taken from one
electrode and deposited on the other.
The chemical equations for the electrodes are:
(1) Cathode. CuSO, = Cu + SO,.
(2) Anode. Cu + SO, = CuSO,.
During electrolysis a certain amount of gassing may be noted
at the plates. This would be due to decomposition of water in
the solution as described for the water voltameter. Furthermore
some complex action may occur in the electrolyte due to sul-
phions combining with hydrogen in the water to form H2S04.
Oxygen from the water is then released to combine with anode
copper to give copper oxide. This oxide will then dissolve in the
H2S04 to give CuSO,. Irrespective of the action the final result
is a simple'one, in that the loss in,mass of the anode equals the
gain in mass of the cathode.
Various forms of voltameter can be constructed to allow
research into electrolysis. Thus a silver voltameter may be used
consisting of silver (Ag) plates and a silver nitrate (AgNO,)
solution. The cxumples described could be connected in series
and the same quantity of electricity passed through all volta-
meters. If the electrodes were washed and carefully weighed
bel'ore electrolysis LInd then washed and weighed again at'tcr
electrolysis, certain conclusions would be reached which were
first enunciated by Faraday in 1834 by his laws-of electrolysis.
Q U A N I,ITATIVE L AW S O F EL E C TR O LYS IS (Farada y's Laws)
1 , The mHss of an element liberated from or deposited on an
clcctrodc is proportional to the quantity of electricity which has
pil sbccf.
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ELECTROCHEMISTRY 63
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64 REED'S BASIC ELECTROTECHNOLOGY
m
Since m = zit then t = -
Iz
= 2.88 x lo3
o r t = 2880 seconds = 48 minutes.
-
CHEMICAL EQUIVALENT, VALENCY, ATOMIC WEIGHT
The second law of electrolysis can also be deduced by examin-
Ing the results of tests made with a number of different volta-
meters in series, having been subjected to the passage of the
same quantity of electricity. The results of the experiment would
show that the mass of' the substances deposited o r liberated at
the electrodes would be proportional to the chemical equivalent
of tlic S L I ~ ~ I ; I I I C C I\ t. w ~ t l l d;IISO hc concluded that if thc i~tomic
weight of any substance is known, its E.C.E. can be found pro-
vided the valency is known and the E.C.E. of hydrogen is
assumed. Thus if the chemical equivalents of hydrogen, oxygen,
copper and silver were 1, 8, 3 1.8 and 107 respectively, the masses
of H, 0, Cu a n d A g liberated by the same quantity of electricity
would be in the same proportion and therefore the E.C.E. of a
substance is the E.C.E. of hydrogen multiplied by the chemical
equivalent of the substance. Thus taking the E.C.E. of hydrogen
as 0.0104mg/C, that of silver would be 0.0104 x 107 = 1.1 18
mg/C.
To conclude our deductions from the second law, it would be
well to define the following terms.
VALENCY. This can be described as the combining ratio of'a sub-
stance. As an example that of oxygen is 2, whereas that of
hydrogen is 1, so water is represented by the symbol H,O. The
valency of an elemental substance can also be defined as the
number of atoms of' hydrogcn with which one atom of' the
element can combine. Thus the valency of a sulphate is 2 since,
for example, in sulphuric acid H,S04, 2 atoms of hydrogen are
required to combine with the sulphate.
ATOMIC' wuc;t{.r. Atomb arc extremely small and determination
of their absolute masses present considerable difficulties. The
Inass of' a n atorn of' hydrogcn is bclicvcd to bc 1.67 x 10- 14g
and i t is still therefore customary, even in SI units, to refer to the
relative weights of the atoms of various substances in terms of
the atom of hydrogen. Thus the term atomic weight is still used
and is the weight of an atom of the substance in relation to the
rnnss 01' a n atom of hydrogen. Thus the value'for oxygen is 16, re
i t has 16 times the weight of an atom of hydrogen.
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ELEC TRO C HEMIS T RY 65
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Also zzN = z ,
At wt of Zn
Valency of Zn
-)
and zo = z, (Valency
AtWt
ofO0)
- At Lt of 0 / A t 'wt of Zn
50 -0 =
zZN Valency o f 1 Valency of'Zn
= At wr ol' 0 x Vatency
-...-- ol'Zn
Valency 01'0 At wt of'. Z;
A t w t o l ' o = 338 16
Thus z , = 10-9
'ZN ~t wt of ~n 65.38
338 x
-
4.086
or 2, = 82.5 x 10-9kg/C o r 82.5 x 10-6g/C
and ,no = 82.5 x x 3.5 x 3600
= 8.25 x x 126 x 10' = 8.25 x 1.26 x l o - '
= 1.05 grammes.
Fig 26
be well below this value, and if the experiment is repeated by
removing another voltaic cell so as to make the supply e.m.f. of4
the original, then the final current value will be well below that of
1 ampere, the value expected by an application of Ohm's law.
The experiment shows that an extra current controlling factor
is present in a circuit involving an electrolytic cell and the
results can be explained by considering that a back e.mlf. is
produced by the cell, so that the following equation represents
the conditions :
v = 5' , + I/<,
Here V represents the voltage applied to the cell, E, is the back
e.m.f, of the cell, I the current causing electrolysis and R, the
internal resistance of the cell.
The magnitude of the back e.m.f., for any electrolytic cell, can
be found by further experiment and is important, in that, it is
Fig 27
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value for the electrolyte much greater than the true figure and
would be erroneous because of neglecting the existence of Eb.
P OWER EX PE N DE D D U RI N G ELECTROLYSIS. If the voltage equation
for an electrolytic cell is V = Eb + IRi then for a current flow o f
I amperes the power equation would become VI = EbI 12Ri. +
Here the VI represents the power applied to the cell, EbI
represents the power required to produce chemical dissociation
and 1 2 ~represents
, the heat energy produced in the cell which
results in a temperature rise.
Example 35. Find the voltage required to pass a current of'
4 anlprrcs tlirougli a copper voltameter which has an internal
resistance of 0.014 ohms and a back e.m.f. of 0.25 volts. Find the
power utilised to produce the electrolysis and that wilslcd i n
I ~ c i ~ ~ illlc
n g cleclrolyte. Find also the overall efficiency of' the
voltameter as a plating vat.
Since V = E, + I R , = 0.25 + (4 x 0.014) = 0.25 + 0.056
= 0.306 V
Power utilised for electrolysis = 0.25 x 4 = 1W
Power wasted = 12Ri = 26 x 0.014 = 0.224W
1
Efficiency of the cell for electrolysis = -= 0.82 o r 82%
1.224
Hycmcm
BUBBLES
w: .- - -
- - Has04
Fig 28
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74 REED ' S BASIC ELECTROTECHNOLOGY
Materials well spaced apart in the table are usually used for
practical cells. For the torch battery the e.m.f, is about 1.5 volts
per cell.
Aluminium Hydrogen
Zinc Copper
Iron Carbon
Nickel Mercury
Lead Silver
Tin Platinum
Hydrogen Gold
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ELECTROCHEMISTRY 75
I
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POROUS
. -. ---- COPPf R
.-.
...
-- -- -- - . CONTAINER
-
COPPER
SULPHATL
.
.
-.
.-
- .. . :1-..
.. ~-~ U
--
L P
ACID ~ U R K
Fig 29
1.1 volts, and the example set out below shows how the energy
available and e.m.f. of a cell can be deduced. Of interest also are
the chemical formulae which explain the action in the cell.
Action at negative plate Zn + H,SO, = ZnSO, + H,
Action at positive plate H, + CuSO, = H,SO, Cu +
ENERGY AN D E . M . F . O F A D A N I E LL CELL. Any chemical action re-
sults in an e.m.f. For example that resulting in the formation of
ZnSO, (zinc sulphate) by dissolving zinc in sulphuric acid gives
rise to an e.m.f.which is exactly the same in value as the back
e.m.f. produced when the compound is electrolysed. The same is
true for any other metal such as copper dissolved in sulphuric
acid. Now when I coulomb of electricity passes through the
electrolyte 0400 338 gramme of zinc is dissolved or deposited.
Also whcn 1 grarnme of Zn is dissolvcd in sulphuric acid 6846
joules 01' heat are liberated. This inl'ormation can bc obtiiincd
from the appropriate chemical tables. Similarly 1 coulomb pass-
ing through Lllc clcclrolyle dcpositb or dissolves 0400 329 5
gramme of copper, and when 1 gramme of Cu is dissolved in
sulplluric i~cid3700 j o u l ~of~ hci~t; ~ r cliheri~lcd.
Thus the energy released during the passage ol' I coulomb
which dissolves the zinc in a Daniell cell = 0.000 338 x 6846 =
2.32 joules. Similarly the energy utilised during the passage of I
wulornb which deposits the copper in a Daniell cell =
0,000 329 5 x 3700 = 1.12 Joules.
Therct'ore the energy avniliiblc 1.01. driving 1 coulomb through
rtlc cell1 2.32 - 1.22 :~- 1 . I ioulcs.
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Fig 31
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1. CHASCE
2, DISCHAhCE = ot- CHARGING
SUPPLY
-
A I-
!
-- -- -- -
Fig 32
The simple accumulator consists of' two lead (Pb) plates Im-
mersed in dilute sulphuric a d d , the whole assembly being
contained in a glass or moulded ebonite container. The cell has
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EL EC TRO C HEMIS TRY 81
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ELECTROCHEMISTRY 83
Efficiency = l 6 lo =
12.20 x 16 x 11 1342
1162 _ 0.867 or 86.7%.
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ELECTROCHEMISTRY 85
CHAPTER 4
PRACTICE EXAMPLES
1. An accumulator is charged at the rate of 6 amperes for
18 hours and then discharged at the rate of 3.5 amperes for
28 hours. Find the ampere hour efficiency.
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CHAPTER 5
MAGNETISM ELECTROMAGNETISM
NATURAL MAGNETS
From very early times it was known to ancient civilisations,
such as those of the Greeks and Chinese, that pieces of certain
types of iron ore have magnetic properties. Pieces of the ore were
known, not only to be capable of attracting and repelling other
such pieces but could also pass on this property of magnetism.
One further known fundamental property of a piece of the ore,
called Magnetite or Lodestone, was that if it is freely suspended,
as shown in the diagram (Fig 33), then it would come to rest in
an approximate geographic North-South direction. The end
pointing north is called a north-seeking or simply a North Pole,
whilst the other end is a South Pole. The piece of ore constitutes
a natural magnet and if brought into contact with a quantity of
iron filings, these would be found to adhere mainly to its ends
or poles.
Fig 33
Further simple investigations made with pieces of the magnetic
ore would show that, if two such magnets are each suspended as
described above and their polarities are determined and marked,
then when the N pole of one suspended magnet is brought near
the N pole of the other suspended magnet, repulsion of the poles
will result. Two S poles brought near each other would behave
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! ARTIFICIAL MAGNETS
! A piece of iron can be converted into a magnet and made to
exhibit properties similar to that of the iron ore described above.
, Such a piece of iron is an artificial magnet and is said to be
rnagnetised. A simple method of magnetising a specimen is by
stroking it in one direction from end to end with one pole of an
existing magnet, but the most effective method is by electro-
magnetism, which will be considered later in the chapter.
Ccrltlin mi~tcrii~ls such us copper, aluminium, Icad, brass,
wood, glass, rubber, etc cannot be magnetised. Thus all known
materials can be classified under the heading of magnetic o r
nonmagnetic substances. Some metals such as nickel, cobalt and
magnesium exhibit very slight magnetic properties, but it is of'
interest to record that, when alloyed with iron very strong
magnetic properties result.
An artificial magnet is usually made in bar o r horse-shoe form.
When tested, the tips are found to constitute poles of opposite
pojarity andjif suspended, a bar magnet will lie on an approxi-
ma,re N-S line. The magnetic compass makes use ofthis principle
and ,consists of a short highly magnetised bar magnet which is
pivoted at its centre. A card, calibrated in degrees and/or
geogrdphic points, is mounted below and is used with the magnet
to obtain a 'bearing'. It is necessary to mention here that the
N-S direction as indicated by such a compass is not exactly
geographic N and S. The angle between the lines of magnetic
and geographic N- S, is called the 'variation' and varies for
different parts of the world. If' the magnetic compass is being
used, due allowance must be made for the variation, bef'ore a
map can be truly oriented and used correctly.
Ikl;rrr. o~*r.ccli~lg will\ I'UI.IIICI' s[udy 01' magnetism, i t would
be as well to explain why a compass needle lies in the N-S
dircction. Thc c;lrth itscll' hcl~;~vcs ;IS tl~oi~gli
i l conl;lins ;I rnilgncl
having 11sS pole in the region ol'the geographic north and its N
pole near the geographic south. A compass needle placed on the
earth's surface will lie so that its N pole will be attracted to the
magnetic south (geographic north) pole of' the earth and its S
pole will be attracted lo the magnetic north (geographic south).
I:u~.ll~cs ~ ~ i e ~ i t01'i oI I~I C l ~ ; ~ l . t l l ' 111;1gnclisrn
~v will bc m;~dclater o n
111 t l i i x c~Ii;~ptcr
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I
M A G N E T I S M , ELEC T RO MAG N ETIS M 89
L -2
PATHS Of LlNtS Of FLUX 7RACkD
OUT 81 IRON F I L I N G S
Fig 34
The field can also be plotted by using a small compass needle
as shown in the diagram (Fig 35).
Fig 3 i
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MAGNETISM, ELECTKOMAGNETISM 91
4. Lines of' flux which are parallel ; ~ n din the same directton\
repel each other. 'This deduction is clearly seen tor the condition
where two magnets are brought together, with like poles adjacent
to each other. There would be a force of repulsion between the
magnets and if the field is plotted between two like poles a
neutral point would be found where the effects of the two
repulsion forces balance each other and the total effect is as
shown by the absence of control on a compass needle placed at
this neutral point.
The strength of the magnetic field around a magnet will vary
from point to point,. but before this can' be measured and
methods devised for making such measurements, a system of
magnetic units and terms must be introduced. Faraday con-
ceived the idea of the line of flux, as already introduced, and
further suggested the use of these lines to depict the strength of
the magnetic field. p
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area of 1 square metre, then for the plane being considered, the
magnetic flux is 50 Webers. The symbol for flux density is B and
the unit is the Tesla. Thus for any point P in the plane being
considered, the flux density is 50 teslas.
Note. The tesla is a new name introduced for the SI system.
The original unit was the weber per square metre ie Wb/m 2 .
We now have Flux = Flux Density x Area
or @ (Webers) = B (teslas) x A. (square metres).
The above relationship will be used continually when the
study of electromagnetism and magnetic circuits is made and
should be considered a basic and important formula. It is well to
stress here the obvious, namely that lines of flux d o not exist but
the properties of magnets and magnetic fields can best be
assessed by assuming their existence and their having definite
physical properties. It should also be remembered that the field
of a magnet exists in all directions and is not confined to one
plane. A fuller understanding of magnetic theory is rewarding
to the engineer, but there is little space here for a more complete
treatment of the subject. The basics however are summarjsed a s
follows.
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MAGNETISM, ELECTROMAGNETISM 93
ELECTROMAGNETISM
Earlier theory has referred to an association between magne-
tism and electricity and this was more specifically mentioned in
Chapter 2 when the electrical units were defined. The discovery
of a relation between an electric current and magnetism was made
in 1820 by the scientist Oersted, when he accidentally noted that
a wire arranged above and parallel to a compass needle, caused
deflection of the latter when a current was passed through the
wire. Reversal of the current caused a reversal of the deflection.
Further experiments on the shape, direction and strength of the
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MAGNETISM, ELECTROMAGNETISM 95
FIELD
Fig 40
A
CURRENT
Fig 39
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,
bar magnet will'be recognised. Thus the loop can be considered
to set up a magnetic polarity which can be determined from first
principles.
AXIS
U U
4 f t *
CURRENT
AWAY FROM
OBSERVER
(b)
Fig 41
.L
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MAGNETISM, ELECTROMAGNETISM 97
straight field up the centre which comes out at the ends, opens
and spreads out to return to the othcr cnd, giving the surnc
distribution of lines of flux as would be obtained from a bar
magnet.
L_
J -3
Y U
t
9 =,l,,oh~A'?
-
attributed to the solenoid
when carrying current. The polarity can be detemined by finding
the direction of the lines for any one turn by applying the Right-
Hand Screw Rule but additional aids are useful, the easiest of
which being the Right-Hand Rule. This is explained as follows,
and is shown in the diagram (Fig 43). Place the right hand on the
coil with the fingers pointing in the direction in which current
flows. Then the thumb will point in the direction of the N pole.
RIGHT HAND
Fig 43
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air paths are kept as short as possible and good examples are
found in the electromagnetic paths for the flux in the electric
bell and the electric motor or generator, as illustrated by the
diagram (Figs 44a and 44b).
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MAGNETISM, ELECTROMAGNETISM 99
NEUTRAL
AREA
Fig 45
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MAGNETISM, ELECTROMAGNETISM 101
UNIT OF FLUX
The terms fiux and flux density were introduced earlier in
this chapter when it was mentioned that the expression flux
density was determined by dividing the total flux by the area
through which it passed. Thus:
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1 04 REED 'S BAS IC ELEC TROT EC HNO LOG Y
--
.I'IIc I ) ; I \ \ ; I G C 01' ~ I I L . I1t1x I I ~ I ~ O L I -~ ,-(lie
\~deredto be rebtrlctcd by the rc,llrc,furrc,c,of the circuit. lieluc-
I I -.I I I ; I ~.-I T c.irc\l$
. --
~- -
I ~ I S con-
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MAGNETISM, ELECTROMAGNETISM 105
- -
Electric
Force ( 8 )
Volts/metre
/ Magnetising
Force ( H )
/
. ,
Amp-turns/
metre
-
--
E F
- -
1 1
Current Ampere] Flux Tesla
Density (J) metre 2 Denslty (B)
-
- -
I - @
-
A A
- ./- - - _ ._I_. I
F F
be the m.m.f./metre length of flux path or H = - = -
I 2xr
I
whence H = -- ampere-turnstmetre o r amperes/metre.
2xr
The above result can now be used to find the flux density
resulting from a certain magnetising force and the permeability
( p ) of the medium in which the field is established can . b e
deduced. Briefly at this stage permeability can be defined as the
ratio of the flux density in a m e d ~ u m the~ mxnetising force
fhducing i t . The value o f t h e permeability for freespace @,)is
iicxt deduced but ~t is found that there is no appreciable differ-
ence for this value whether it be for a vacuum: air o r any other
non-magnetic material.
(a) Fig 48
--
(b)
- /
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MAGNETISM, ELECTROMAGNETISM 107
-
Flux density at point P- --
4
B -
-. ~ -X I O - '
MagnetisingforceatpointP H 1 /2n-
= 4x x 10-' SI units
of free space-symbol I(,
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F = BIl newtons
= 0.25 x 2 x x 120 x 2 x 25 x
= 0.25 x 2 x 2 x x 120 x 25 x
= 30.0 x = 3 x 10-3N
Torque = F x radius of' coil
=3 10-3 9 10-3
= 27 x l o v 6 newton metres = 27pN m.
The subject matter covered in this chapter has dealt with
sufficient basic theory, terms and relationships to allow the
general study of Electrotechnology to proceed. Regarding the
magnetic circuit, u p to riow, only nir o r non-magnetic material
has been considered for the medium of the magnetic field
~ I ~ nccd
c l nn C ~ ~ C I ~ O I I I The
i ~ s s o c i i ~ l ~witti ~ C ~ .for introducing il
magnetic material into thc circuit to providc a well defined flux
path, will require extensions of' our investigations into the
magnetic circuit, which can be made more conveniently at a
later stage. Chapter 12 will be found to cover the more chmposite
magnetic circuit and the further aspects of ferromagnetism.
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M A G N E T I S M . E L E C T R O M A G N E TIS M 109
PRACTICE EXAMPLES
1. A conductor carrying a current of 100A is situated in and
lying a t right angles to a magnetic field having a flux density
of 0.25T. Calculate the force in newtonslmetre length
exerted on the conductor.
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density in the air-gap under the poles is 0.5T, calculate the
force in newtons exerted on the conductor.
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CHAf''1'EK 6
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
U p to now, the only method considered' for producing an
electromotive force has been that due to chemical action. In the
progression of electrical knowledge, history shows that this also
was the pattern followed and that electrochemistry was the first
branch of the science which was developed and was to play its
fhll part in subsequent electrical investigations of' the early
nineteenth century. At that time electricity was a subject of
interest to the scientist only and had not as yet been accepted as a
medium which could be put to use for engineering processes.
I The -chemical cells as were then known, could not produce
I sufficient energy for practical purposes, nor kad any electro-
magnetic devices been evolved which could be put to engineering
I
I
applications. As was mentioned in Chapter 5, it was only after
the relation between current and magnetism was discove'red that
attention was turned to various associated findings. These
1 inevitably disclosed the related phenomena of electromagnetic
induction and led to the development of machines which were
subsequently to interest the engineer as means of producing
either electrical o r mechanical energy.
The initial electrotnagnctic ' i t r c l r ~ c - ~ i o t rinvcstiyntions i ~ r c
attributed to Michael Faraday, who in 1821 showed that when
, the magnetic flux linked or associated with ;In electricnl circuit
is changing, an e.m.f. is induced in the circuit. This e.m.f. is
shown to last only whilst the change of flux is taking place and
the faster the change the greater the e.m.f.
The flux linked with a circuit, which invariably consists of a
coil of insulated wire, may be changed in different yays. Thus:
(a) A magnet could be moved in the vicinity of a coil of wire.
This principle is used for the Alternator-a particular for12
of electrical generator.
(b) A coil of wire could be moved in the vicinity of a magnet.
This principle is used for the d.c. Dynamo o r Generator-
the more accepted modem term.
(c) The flux could be changed by varying the cuirent in the
j
energising coil of wire. The ampere-turns are thus varied and
the flux produced varies accordingly. This principle is made
use of in the operation o f t h e Transformer o r the Spark-coil
of a petrol-engine ignition system.
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CURRENT
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r
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EL E C T R O M A G N ETI C I N D U C T I O N 113
LENZ'S L AW
This identifies a phenomenon always noted for the e.m.f, pro-
duced by induction. The law can be stated as:-the direction of'
the current due to the induced e.m.f. will always set up an effect
tending to oppose the change which is causing it.
This can be further explained in terms of the magnetic field
which wo'uld be set up by the current caused by the induced
e.m.f. Thus if the flux-linkages tend to increase, then the field
produced by the induced current. resulting from the induced
C.m.f., will tend to oppose this effect, ie it would tend to oppose
the flux-linkage build up. Similarly, if the flux-linkages tended to
be reduced, as when the current in a coil is switched off, then the
induced e.m.f, will induce a .current which, if allowed to flow,
would tend to keep up the,flux-linkages to their original value.
It is stressed that the action of the induced current does not
succeed in preventing the change, but would try to do so during
the period when the change is occurring. *
Faraday's law is capable of being expressed in mathematical
form and thus formulae can be deduced for both static and
dynamic electromagnetic induction. These will be considered
under each appropriate heading.
STATIC INDUCTION
The generation of an e.m.f. by static induction is considered
first, because it can be briefly dealt with here and then left to a
more appropriate stage in our studies. It is of purticular jntcrcst
in connection with ~nductanceand the theory of the a.c. circuit.
The study of dynamic induction is however, of immediate
importance, to allow electrical machines to be introduced as
soon as possible and will be given most of the attention in this
and subsequent chapters.
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/--
I - -
Fig 50
of coil B by the flux of A, results in an e.m.f. being induced, its
magnitude and direction being governed by Faraday's and
Lenz's laws. The flux-linkages, ie flux linking with the turns
( N , ) of coil B increase and if the linking flux grows to a value of
@ webers from its original zero value, then the rate of change of
flux-linkages will be the flux-linkages divided by the time ( t , )
taken for them to grow, ie the time taken for the current to
reachrits final value I amperes in coil A. Thus if the resistance of
.,
coil A is RA ohms and V,, is the applied voltage to coil A then
Y
I= --A amperes.
RA y.
flux-linkages - NB@volts.
and the e.m.f. induced in coil B =
time tl
For this equation NB = turns of coil B, @ is the flux in webers
linking with it and t , is thc time taken for the energising current
to reach its final value I. It could be assumed that value I is
reached immediately the switch is closed;'because the flow of
electricity is considered to be instantaneous, but here we have a
condition wherc thc current takes an nppreciable time to reach
its full value--due to the inductance of the arrangement. This
action will hc considcrcd in detail later, but to revert to the
lnit~uleflkcts being observed; it will be seen that when the switch
for the primary coil A is closed, the voltmeter pointer gives a
'kick', say to the left, showing an e.m.f. to be induced in coil B-
the secondary circuit. The value of e.m.f. EB = !+!&and the volt-
11
meter will show the polarity of coil B to be such that the current,
which flowcd through the instrument, was in such a direction
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ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 115
for 'switching off. It can be noted here that t , need not neces-
sarily equal t,. If the switch is opened quickly, the current of A
will be interrupted very quickly and EBcan be larger at switching
off than at switching on; when the rate of growth of the flux is
controlled by the inductance and resistance of the circuit.
Up to now we have only considered the induced e.m.f. in coil B
and this is said to be due to Mutuul Induction, ie the mutual action
of cail A on 0. Wc now turn our rlttcntion to Sc~lflttrlriction, icv
the conditions appertaining to coil A itself. At the instant of'
switching on, the flux grows outwards and in so doing, cuts the
turns of coil A-the primary circuit. An e.m.f. is thus induced
given by EA = -A. N 0 Here N A is the turns ofcoil A, 0 is the linked
t,
flux and 1 , the t&e taken for the current to reach its full value.
As before, the direction of the Self-induced-e.m.f. EA will be such
as to cause a current to flow in the opposirgdirection through the
battery and will produce a flux which will try to oppose the
build-up of flux @. We can now see the reason for the opposition
to the growth of current in coil A at the instant of switching on
and why the current I takes some little time to reach its full value.
As before when the switch is opened, the flux collapses and in
doing so, again cuts the turns of coil A, inducing a voltage of
reversed polarity, which tries to keep the current flowing.
Appreciable arcing will be observed at the switch contacts, but
if the latter is operated quickly, the circuit will be interrupted
quickly in spite of this and EA will be ineffective. It is stressed
however, that this self-induced e.m.f. at 'switching off, can be
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ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCnON 117
DYNAMIC INDUCTION
As was mentioned earlier, this condition covers the cases
where there is relative movement between a magnetic field and a
conductor. Obviously this concerns either a stationary con-
ductor and a moving field or a stationary field and a moving
conductor. To avoid repetition of basic theory, the immediate
explanations and diagrams will refer to a fixed field and moving
conductor.
The diagrams (Fig 51) show a field as produced by two
permanent magnets and a conductor which is moved so as to cut
the field, thus altering the flux-linkages. The reasoning can be
seen as in interpretation of Faraday's and Lenz's laws and three
cases are shown.
For case (a) there is seen to be no change of flux-linkages, ie
no cutting of the field. The conductor is merely moved at a
velocity of v metreslsecond in the same direction of the lines of
flux and no e.m.f. is recorded on the voltmeter. For case (b) the
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Fig 51
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! ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUC~ON 119
!
i which reverses if the conductor is moved from right to left.
Alternatively, if the field is reversed so that the flux lines are
considered to pass from a bottom N pole to a S pole a t the top
f of the diagram, and the conductor is moved from left to right,
then a reversed polarity will again be indicated. The investigation
will show further deductions. Thus:
The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. varies with the speed of
cutting the field or rate of change of flux-linkages. Hence
E a V . Again, if the field being cut is varied by altering the
density of the flux, then the e.m.f. will vary as B or E a B.
Obviously also, the longer the conductor cutting a field, the
greater will be the magnitude of the e.m.f. and E a I. Sum-
marising these three conditions we see that E a Blv. Here 1 is
the length of the conductor in metres.
Case (c) of the diagram shows the conductor cutting the field
at an angle 8. It is an intermediate condition between cases (a)
and (b) and is best treated by resolving v iflo two component
velocities at right angles to each other. Consider v cos 8 to be
the component velocity in the direction of the flux lines, then
I v sin 8 will be the other component velocity a t right angles to the
1
I field. In accordance with the reasoning for cases (a) and (b) we
see that velocity v cos 8 will be responsible for no induced e.m.f.
whereas velocity v sin 0 will be responsible for such an e.m.f. and
E K v sin 8.
E w Rlv qin 0 will be A more general expression than those
already deduced since i t will cover all conditions.
For instance for the condition of case (a) 8 = 0" and
since sin 0" = 0 :. Blv sin 0" = 0 or E = 0 as already stated
Again for case (b). If 8 = 90" then sin 90" = 1 and
Blv sin 90" = Blv giving E a Blv.
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Fig 52
8
.
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ELeCIROXAGNETIC INDUCTION 12 1
E = -Blv then E = B x a r e a = -
0
t t t
t time
way of stating Faraday's law, which can now be expressed as:
The e.m.f. generated in a conductor is proportional to the rate of
cutting lines of flux or is proportional to the flux cutlsecond.'
The abo,ve form of Faraday's law is more applicable to
dynamic induction and will be uscd scpeutcdly in connection
with the Generator, Motor and Alternator.
1
Time of 1 revolution of the armature = -minutes
900
Fig 53
the conductor is assumed as shown, ie the polarity is such that,
if the ends of' the conductor are joined externally through an
ammeter, current will flow as indicated. Its direction in the
conductor is 5ccn :~ntlif' :tttcntion i s ylvcn to Fig 53b, it will be
deduced that the field due to the conductor current is clockwise,
to strengthen the field at the top and weaken the field at the
bottom. Thus according to Lcnl's law, opposition is o f i r c d t o
the motion of the conductor as one imagines the field lines
concentrating or massing bef'ore the conductor, stretching and
then snapping. A force of opposition to the direction of move-
ment is apparent and the assumed polarity must be correct to
confirm the action which takes place in practice. If a reversed
polarity was assumed, the current would be in the opposite
direction and field weakening would occur above the conductor
and strengthening below. This would result in a driving force
behind the conductor which would be a motoring rather than a
generating condition. There is no opposition to moving the
conductor and since such a condition is not possible, this
alternative e.m.f. polarity assumption must be incorrect.
Since the' original assumption actually is confirmed by practi-
cal conditions, the right hand can be drawn and used to find the
direction of the induced current and therefore the induced
polarity. This is shown in the diagram (Fig 54).
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Fig 54
To use the rule, place the thumb, index finger and second finger
of the right hand at right angles to each other. Point the index
linger in the direction of' the flux lines and the thumb in the
direction of moving the conductor. The current in the conductor,
due to the induced e.m.f. would be in the direction indicated by
the second finger. For the example being considered (Fig 53),
current would be into the paper as deduced from first principles.
T H E SIMPLE MAGNETO-DYNAMO
Once the principles of electromagnetic induction were dis-
covered, it soon became evident that the way was open to
constructing a machine, in the true sense of the word, which
could convert mechanical energy into electrical energy and thus
generate electricity as a result of being driven by a prime-mover,
such as a steam engine or water turbine. The idea of making
insulated condu?tors move through a stationary magnetic field
presented no difficulties for a small machine and so the basic
construction of such a magneto-dynamo followed fundamental
requirements. A typical machine is therefore, illustrated in the
diagram (Fig 5 9 , and consists of permanent magnets to provide
the field and a simple coil which is mounted on but insulated
from a shaft which can be rotated. In order to allow contact to
be made with the moving conductors, they are connected to
slip-rings which are mountcd on but insulated from the shaft.
Fixed 'brushes' in turn, contact the slip-rings to make sliding
connections and allow an external circuit to be enexgised.
It will be seen that the coil consists of two 'active' conductors
which have been designated AB and CD. These are connected
in series by the connection BC wbich, together with the front
connections to the slip-rings, plays no part in the generation of
e.m.f. but merely serves as a means of carqhng current to the
external circuit. The load resistance of the external circuit has
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Fig 55
been shown as concentrated in R and is connected to the
terminals X, Y of the machine.
Consider the operation of the machine as follows:
As one conductor AB moves down through the field, the other
CD moves up and the induced e.m.fs. will be such that A is +ve
relative to B and C is + vc rclutivc to D. Thc induced currcnt, if
allowed to flow, would be as shown by the arrows and, since it is
from terminal Y to terminal X through the external circuit, Y is
+ve with respect to X. It would be well for the student at this
point to try the right-hand rule for himself and satisfy himself as
to the polarity of the terminals for the half-revolution being con-
sidered. It should be noted that the right-hand rule as described,
can be applied here to conductor AB, the condition being that
AB is moving from the top vertical position round past the
centre of the magnet pole and then onto the bottom vertical
position. The position where it moves past the pole at right
angles is of particular importance, being a condition of maxi-
mum e.m.f.
After the coil has rotated a half revolution, conductor DC
begins to move downwards and AB upwards. The polarity
induced is now in reverse to that for the 1st half revolution, D
being +ve relative to C and B is +ve relative to A. Terminal X
is now the +ve terminal and Y is the negative. An alternating
e.m.f. is generated, as shown in the diagram (Fig 56), which also
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illustrates four positions of the coil viewed from the slip-ring end.
For position 1, A and D are moving horizontally along the field
and no e.m.f. is being generated. A sirnilar.condition exists for
Fig 56 '
position 3 , but for positions 2 and 4 maximum e.m.f. is being
generated, since field-cutting at right-angles is taking place. For
intermediate positions, the general condition of e.m.f. genera-
tion, ;IS rcprcscntcd by E a Blv sin 0, is followed, since ttlc
conductors are cutting a uniform field at an angle but are moving
a t a uniform velocity. Thus the e,m.f. generated a t a n y instant is
not constant but varies and it is customary to use a small letter
for what is termed the instantaneous value.
The expression e = Blv sin 0 volts gives the magnitude of the
voltage being generated, provided the correct units are used
when substl.uting. If the voltage is plotted to a base of' revolu-
tions, degrees or radians, a waveform such as:that illustrated will
be obtained.
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ELECTROMAGNETIC IN D U C T IO N 127
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Fig 57
e.m.f. waveform is now as shown in the diagram (Fig 57), ie it is
proportional to the flux density through which it passes.
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Fig 59
A+
Position 2
7
1+
Position A
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130 REED'S BASIC ELECTROTECHNOLOGY
-
larger number of coils. Each coil can consist of a number of
turns to give a larger output voltage.
The example shown in the diagram (Fig 60) is an armature
/-.
Fig 60
with two coils at right clngles. It follows thl~tfor this arrangcmcnt
when coil A develops maximum e.m.f., coil B generates nq e.m.f.
and whc11 tllc Irrmi\turc rot;~tcsIlirot~gli;I rlui~rtcro f ;I revolution,
the conditions would be vice-versa. The accompanying diagram
(Fig 61) shows the waveforms of the generated e.m.fs. The
generator terminal voltage ncver falls to zero but it is obvious
that two distinct disadvantages are still evident. Firstly, all the
~ x ~ ~ l d u c tarc
o r s not used to mnximum ndvantage since only one
coil ; ~ t;I time is being ernployed for supplying the external
circuit. Secondly, but or prime importance is the new condition
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ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 131
A B A A 6
EM.WE ' \ r
I I
0 COILS \ I
AL 0 I I
I f
I I
::
n 2 ~i
C
Fig 61
of commutation. Since the brushes must be placed in a position
to contact the coil in which e.m.f. is being generated, it follows
that if the generator is on load, ie supplying current, then at the
instant when the connected segments leave the brush, since an
e.m.f. still exists and current is flowing, arcing will take place at
the brushes. If coil A is bcing considered : ~ n dFigs 60 and 61 :ire
noted, it will be seen that at the instant when the gap between
segments is being bridged by the brushes, coil A.is still cutting
the field and coil B has only just entered the field. Thus coil A
tends to be short-circuited by a coil in which the e.m.f. may not
have risen to the required value and current will flow in the coil
B. This current is diverted from the !oad current and also
adversely affecting the commutation. If the number of coils is
increased, the tendency would be to give a smoother output
voltage but continued arcing at the brushes would persist. This
arrangement Is obviously not satisfactory.
In the early period of development of a satisfactory arrange-
ment for the armature conductors many ideas were introduced.
One such arrangement was incorporated in the Gramme-Ring
Armature, which involved a special construction, in that the
armature iron q c u i t was built up as a ring and the conductors
were connected in series, with tappings being brought out to the
commutator segments. The conductors were thus part of a
continuous winding, but it will be noted that only the conductors
on the outside of the ring are active, whereas that part of the
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132 REED'SBASIC ELECIROTECHNOUXiY
winding which is on the inside and at the ends of the ring, cuts
no flux, and is thus responsible for no e.m.f. This was a most
uneconomical arrangement since it wasted conductor material.
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E L E C TR O M A G N E T I C I N D U C T I O N 133 i
Fig 63
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C ' I 1Al''I'Iil~0
(Electromagnetic Induction)
CHAPTER 8 CHAPTER 7
(The D.C. Generator) (Basic A.C. Theory)
I
CHAPTER 10 CHAPTER 9
(The D.C. Motor) (The A.C. Circuit)
CHAPTER 12 CHAPTER 1 1
(Electromagnetism) (.4.C Circuits and Systems)
CHAPTER 14 CHAPTER I?
(Miscellaneous Clrcult (The Electron The01 !,
Cond1tlon5 dnd Method\ B'isic electronic^ ,rnd
of Solut~on,Spec~,il Electroctat~cs)
,4pplicCitlon\)
CHAPTER 15
(Electron~c\)
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CHAPTER 6
PRACTICE EXAMPLES
10. Two coils A and B having 1000 and 500 turns respectively
are magnetically coupled. When a current of 2A is flowing in
coil A it produces a flux of 18mWb, of which 80 per cent is
linked with coil B. If the current of 2A is reversed uniformly
in O.ls, what will be the average e.m.f. in each coil?
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CHAPTER 7
BASIC A.C. THEORY
Introduction is made by quickly revising the relevant funda-
mentals of Chapter 6. The diagrams (Fig 64a and b) show an
elementary form of a.c. generator in which a coil is rotated in a
uniform magnetic field. The sides of the mil, ie the conductors,
cut the magnetic flux and thus, an e.m.f. is induced which, from
first principles is e = Blv volts. The letter e, for the value of in-
duced e.m.f., has been introduced here because this value is not
constunt but, as will be seen, vi~siesfrom instilnt to instent. Thus
even though the w i l is rotated at a uniform velocity v, the rate
of cutting i s not constant, but depends upon the angle at which
the conductors cut flux. The velocity can be resolved into a cut-
ting component ( v sin 8) and a noncutting component ( v cos 8).
The cutting velocity component only is responsible for e.m.f. and
can be used to give a general expression which gives the e.m.f.
at any instant, as e = Blv sin 8 volts.
)8\j- \
/
\
-.
- - --
/
(h)
Fig 64
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BASIC A.C: THEO RY 139
THE A.C. W A V E F O R M
In tlie expression t1 = Shl sin 0 , us for any alternator, 61. 1 and
can be assumed to be const;lnt and made equal to K. The
expression now becomes 61 = K sin U and a further value for K
can be obtained if we cons~derthe instant when the coil sides
are cutting the field at r ~ g h tangles. Velocity component v sin 0
generates a maximum e.m.f. which can be designated as Em.
At this instance e = Em and we can write Em = K sin 8.
But sin 8 = sin 90 = 1 . :. Em = K
Substituting back in the expression, we have:
e = Em sin 0
The above is an Important equation which shows that the
generated e.m.f. varies sinusoidally. e is termed the instantaneous
value and Em the maximum value.
If attention is now turned to a waveforr~plotted to a time o r
angle base, it will be remembered, from work dready done else-
where on vectors, that a sine wave can be deduced from the verti-
cal component of a rotating vector-for electrical work, such a
rotating vector is called a phasor. If the length of the phasor is
made to represent Em,then for any angle 8, the instantaneous
value is the vertical projection and this also can be used as an
ordinate for the waveform, when plotted to an angle or time
base. The diagram (Fig 65) illustrates the procedure for deducing
a waveform and the method is summariscd thus:
I)r.;tw ; I c11.clcof' t a d 1 ~ 1m5 : ~ d cequ;tl I O 1 1 1 In;tullrlillri
~ V;IIIIC oI'tlic
wave. Startlng from the h o r ~ ~ o n t amove
l, the phasor through a
known angle and project the vertical value onto an angle or time
scale. Choose suitable scales so as not to distort the sinusoidal
shape of the wave. The following remlnder shows the connection
between the construction and the representation of a sinusoidally
induced e.m.f. Since, from the triangle illustrated,
e
- = sin 8 so e = Em sln 0.
Em
Fig 65
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LI CYC L E ---------C(
Fig 66
REPRESENTATION O F
SINUSOIDAL ALTERNATING QUANTITIES
Earlicr it hiis been shown that an alternating voltage o r current
can be represented by an expression such as e = Em sin 2xft o r
i = I, sin 2xft and that this method of notation conveys all that
is required to be known about the quantity, ie the fact that it
follows a waveform whose amplitude, frequency and instan-
taneous value, at any particular time, can be found. This method
of notation is called trigonometrical representation.
TKIC;ONOMETRICAL REPRESENTATION . This is useful for two quanti-
tics which are alternating, but not necessarily in the same
simultaneous manner. Thus an alternating voltage of 50Hz can
C ill1~1.11ilting
C ~ I I I ~i111 CuI.rcnt ill i\ circi~itwhich will altcmate a t
5 0 1 4 ~ .'l'he current need not however, be in phase with the
'voltage, which latter may reach its maximum value a little time
before the current reaches its maximum value. The voltage is said
to letrd the current or the current to lag the voltage. There is a
plzusr diflrrence between the two quantities or between their
waveforms and such a phase difference is shown by the inclusion
of the phase angle (in radians). Thus if two current waveforms
are represented by
i, = I,, sin 2xft and i, = I,, sin (2xft + F), it means that the
3
second waveform leads the first by an angle of 2 radians o r - 180
-
3 3
= 60 . A third%aveform written as i3 = I,, sin (2rrfr - h) is
6
180
seen to lag the first or reference waveform by --- = 30".
6
The trigonometrical form of representation, being a mathe-
matical expression, can be used for the usual trigonometrical
o l > c . ~ ; ~ t ~\ oI I C~I ~i \ ;.I S multiplication.-division, expansion, etc and
such ~ ~ p p l ~ c a t ~will o n sbe well illustrated in the course of a.c.
tllcoc ;IS 11115IS ~ i c ~ l o ~ x d .
P I ~ A S O RREPRFSENTATION. This, commonly used for a.c. quantities
bucll as current, volr;~gc,flux, ctc, Iins already hccn introduced
in terms of vectors. In Volume I1 dealing with Mechanics a
vector was introduced and defined. Since voltages or currents
arc qu~~ntitics whose magnitudes and directions are known, they
can be described by rotating bectors but since 'phase' is usually
i~\\~ol\~txI, i~ is IIOW customary to represent these by phasors.
T11\1\;;I volt;~gc~ I i ; ~ s c;ln o r be drawn to scale, its length reprc-
b c l l ~ i ~111c
~ gI I ~ ; I ~ , LI II ~~ 01'~C tlic voIt;~gc; I I I ~tl1c dircclion in wllich i t
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BASIC A . C . THEORY 143
PHASOR
DIAGRAM
Fig 67
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Fig 68
11 will be YCCII t l l i ~ t1'01.llle phnuor diuyram, wc n~crelydepict
the two phasors and their relation to each other. The first phasor
has been taken as the reference and the second is seen to lag it by
an angle 4. Direction of rotation is anticlockwise so E2, is
behind E,, by the angle $. If an instant 8 degrees later in time
has to be considered then the diagram can be drawn as shown
(Fig 69), the horizontal being taken as the zero time or reference
axis.
Fig 69
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION O F
ALTERNATING QUANTITIES
When two or more sinusoidal voltages or currents act in a
circuit the resultant can be obtained in either of the following
ways ( 1 ) By Trigonometrical Methods (2) By Phasor Methods.
(1) ~KIGONOMETKICALMETHODS. These methods require a
good knowledge of trigonometrical identities and follow recog-
nised procedures. Examples of their uses will occur 6n later
studies.
(2) PHASOR ME T H O D S . The resultant of two or more phasors
may be obtained (a) Graphically or ( b ) Malhernalically.
(:I) Thc Gtrrld~icrrlMrthod is performed by sctting 0111 thc
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BASIC A . C . THEORY 145
PHASOR DIAGRAM
PHRSOR ADDITION
Fig 70
If the resultant of two individual wz qeforms is required, then
either of two procedures can be follov ed.
The first procedure uses the known fact that the sum of any
two sine waves of the same frequency 1; itself a sine wave. Thus
any instantaneous value on the resulta , t wave is the sum of the
individual instantaneous values taker from the other waves.
Each waveform is drawn graphically in accordance with the
method already outlined, care being ta.<en to displace one from
the other by the given phase angle. -ly adding instantaneous
values, as shown in the diagram (Fi : 71b), the resultant in-
stantaneous value is obtained to give a point on the resultant
wave. In the example e = r , t e,. Ot; er points are obtained in
a similar manner and a smooth cur e drawn by joining the
points.
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146 REED'S BASIC ELECTROTECHNOLOGY
E , are the given phasors and b, the angle between them. The
ph:~sr :tnplc 0 of Ihr r c s ~ ~ l l : ~c:ln
n t hc oht:~inrtlfrom thr Sinr
Rule.
ti 1:
= -_.L
Thus
s i n ( 1 8 0 - 4) s i n 0
Fig 72
For more than two phasors, the resultant is used with a t h r d
phasor and so on. The method, next to be described, is advo-
cated for the summation of more than two phasors, since it is
quicker and is to be encouraged, being the method on which the
treatment of series and parallel a.c. circuits is based.
(ii) Horizontal and Vertical Components. Any phasor can be
split into two components, which are at right angles to each
other and together produce the same effect as the original
phasor. Thus in the diagram (Fig 73) the e.m.f. phasor E can be
split into a horizontal and a vertical component. If E lies at an
angle 4 to the horizontal, then {he horizontal component will be
E cos (I, a n d the vcrtic;tl cotnponcnt will hc f : ' c o s (00 (1)) o r
E sin b,
Fig 73 Fig 74
If all the phasors as shown in the diagram (Fig 74) are to be
added and the resultant obtained then:
The sum of the horizontal components would be
EH = El cos +EZ cos 42 + E3 cos 4,.
Similarly the sum of the vertical components would be
E, = E , sin dl +E, sin 4, - E, sin 4,.
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Note. Due allowance must be made for the signs. Thus if the
vertical components are considered to be +ve when acting
upwards, then E3 sin 4 , must be subtracted from the sum since
it acts in the downwards or - ve direction.
The resultant E is obtained from E = d m Z and r$,
the angle at which it acts, can be found from the sine, cosine o r
tangent values. Thus cos 4 = EH
-.
E
The method is illustrated by the following example.
Example 51. Find the resultant of the following currents
I , = 5 sln wt
jl =
-
4 sin ot +
9
-
i, 3 sin kul
g)
Express the resultant ii a trigonometrical form ie in the same
form as the individual quantities.
Fig 75
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BASIC A.C. THBORY 149
n
d = 12" (approx) = -
15 radians
( +-
So i = 9.78 sin wt
;5)
.
Note. The following points are of interest in this example.
(a) In line with mathematical practice, phasors drawn to the
right and those drawn upwards are given +ve signs, whereas
those drawn to the left and those drawn downwards are assumed
-ve. Thus in the example all the I, components are +ve. The
phasor diagram should be considered. For the I,, it will be seen
that 3 sin 30" is considered to act downwards and is therefore
subtracted from 4 sin 60" which acts upwards.. (b) The resulting
sign of I, also indicates whether the. resultant I is in the 1st or
4th quadrant, ie whether it lags or leads the reference which in
this case is the horizontal. In the solution 4 i ~ f o u n dto approxi-
7T
mate to 12' which is equal to - radians. The
15
resultant can thus be written as shown.
It will be noted that in the treatment introducing the Mathe-
matical Method and in the above example (Figs 72 to 75), the
suffix m has been omitted from the e.m.f. symbol E. This is in-
tended to illustrate that, as stated earlier, the method is equally
applicable to maximum values and to r.m.s. values. The meaning
of r.m.s. values will next be considered but as these are the most
commonly used in a x . work, it is important to appreciate that
phasor representations, applications and solutions will be used
without further introduction.
I
ROOT ME A N SQUARE AND AVERAGE VALUES
i
i R.M.S. OR EFFECTIVE VALUE
~ The magnitude of an alternating current vanes from instant
I to instant and the power dissipated in a resistance varies
accordingly. The energy given out over a period of time mani-
~~
: fests itself as heat. A resulting temperature rise is attained, which
is steady and can be considered to be due to a constant power
dissipation, ie due to the passage of a constant current which
gives the same heating effect in the same time. Thus from a hea,t-
I
ing aspect, any value of alternating current can be assumed to
have an equivalent value of direct current. WFen it is remembered
7
that the heating effect is proportional to 'current squared -
I since P = 12R, then the magnitude of this equivalent value can
I be deduced as follows.
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150 PRADEEP@MSC
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'S BASIC ELECTROTECHNOUX~Y
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BASIC A.C. THEORY 151
I= tll + i Z 1 + 1,' + , , , in
2
n
It will be seen that only a half cycle has been 'considered,
because the next half cycle is similar to the first, even though it
is considered -ve. As the square of the current ordinates is
Fig 76
required, +ve values will result and the r.m.s. average, if taken
over a complete cycle will be the same as for a half cycle. It
should be noted that the Mid-ordinate Rule has been applied to
the ordinates squared and not to the ordinates directly. If the
latter had to be done, the average value would be obtained. This
will be described later in the chapter.
I
I
I
Fig 77
Then v , = 12 and v I 2 = 144
v 2 = 32 v z 2 = 1024
v3 = 39,s v3' = 1560
V , = 39.5 = 1560
v , = 35 v S 2 = 1225
V , = 32.5 v,' = 1056
\!, = 31 5 v T 2 = 992
L,, = 3 1 v 8 2 = 961
rJ, = 28 v,' = 784
= 1I v L O 2 = 121
Total 9427
- 9427
Mean or average of v 2 - ---- = 942.7
10
1t.M.S. valut: = d942.7 = 10d9.427
= 10 x 3.07 = 30.7 volts
Tlme for a half cycle = ----th
5 seconds, so time for a whole
lo00
1 x 5
i \ ~ l t -.T = I second :ind frequency = 100 hcrrr.
I ocXj loo
[:or ;I \IIIC' L L . ; I V C , I ~ I Cr.111 L, V ; I I I I C can hc sllown rnallicrnal~c;~lly
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BASIC A.C. THEORY 153
--
I5
)r
C
z1
0
"W
p:
d
u
3
3
I-
Z
'25
5
a
u
0 50 60 90 1
20 I
50 1
80
DECREES
Fig 78
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154 REED S BASIC ELECTROTECHNOLOGY
-
- = 292A or Average value = 292A.
10
For a sine wave the average val~leis 0,6365 times the maximum
value. This can be proved mathematically or graphicallv. As f o ~
the r.111.s.value. the most direct method of calculation involves a
knowlcdpc of C;~lculush r ~ :tlic grnphic;iI mcthod can he checked
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BASIC A.C. THEORY 155
FORM FACTOR
This factor, when given a nunlerical value, states how near a
waveform approaches the theoretical ideal sine wave. For any
waveform, it can be defined as the ratio of the r.m.s. to the
t
average value.
R.M.S. value
Thus Form Factor =
Average value
For a sine wave, the Form Factor is 1.11. This can be obtained
from :
0.707 Maximum value - --
0.707 = 1.11
Form Factor =
0.6365 Maximum value 0.6365
Example 54. For the problem already considered, in obtaining
the r.m.s. and average values. the form factor would be
PEAK FACTOR
The term 'peak factor' may occasionally be encountered when
dealing with a.c. waveforms. This can be defined as the ratio of
the maximum value to the r.m.s. value. Thus:
Peak Factor = Maximum value
R.M.S. value
For a sine wave the Peak Factor would be
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CHAPTER 7
PRACTICE EXAMPLES
Time (milli-seconds)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Current (amperes)
0 0.4 0.75 1.1 1.4 1.7 1.9 2.0
Time (milli-seconds)
8 9 10
Current (amperes)
1.8 I 3 0
Plot the curve ot'current and find its r.m.s, value. Calculate
the power diss~p;~tecj when the above current flows through a
reslslance ol' 811.
!C
9. . A stepped alternating current wave has the following
values over equal intervals of time.
Value (amperes)
4 6 6 4 2 0 0 - 2 - 4
Time Interval (seconds)
0-1 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6 6-7 7-8 8-9
ClC.
P16t the waveform and find what value of direct current
would give the same heating effect.
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CHAPTER 8
THE D.C. GENERATOR
It is not intended in this book to cover the finer points of d.c.
machine construction, operation and maintenance since these
matters are better appreciated if dealt with in a practical
manner. It is necessary however, to set out here the basic features
of the machine as it has been developed to date and also to follow
up on the theory already commenced in Chapter 6. Once the
general construction of the machine is outlined, full attention
crln tllcrl bc given to furthcr tllcory und it crln bc connidcrcd
from its functional point of view, which classifies it under the
heading of (1) The Generator (2) The Motor.
I N TERPOLE
l-3-
SYMBOLS USED
FOR THE D C
FIELD MACHINE
SERIES
F l E LD
P
Fig 79
( a ) FIELD Sl'S'TEM
This includes the magnet arrangement comprising the poles
;111(i Y ( I ~ C .tlic field <oils : ~ n dititcrpolcs (whcn fitted). Notc t h ; ~ t
the interpoles are essentially part of the armature electrical
circuit and will be mentioned later under this latter heading.
I > O I . I S A N D \ . O I < I : . Tllc Sot.mcr arc thc cores of the machine
electromagnets and are usually fitted with pole-shoes which
iotlct'ntrate t l i ~ticlcl across the air-gaps in which the conductors
riio\.c Thc yokc is ;In extcnstorl of the milpnct system, forms the
111;1111 I'~.;~rnc.
ol' [he machtnc a n d sc.r.ves 10 carry flux from and to
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THE D . C . GENERATOR 159
the poles. The diagram (Fig 80) shows typical ways in which the
flcld system cnn hc constructed,
The poles and yoke can be constructed from cast steel or
fabricated from mild-steel sheet which has been cut and rolled
Fig 81
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160 REED 'S BASIC ELECTROTECHNOLOGY
into shape. The poles may be part of the yoke, but for modern
machine construction, they are more usually- built u p from thin
laminations, riveted together and shaped to include the pole
shoes.
HELD COILS. The field coils are basically of two types (i) Shunt
Coils which consist of a large number of turns of fine wire a n d
(ii) Series Coils which are made from a few turns of thick cable
or conductor. The shunt coils are built u p on a 'bobbin' o r
'former' but the series coils may be self-supporting. The diagram
(Fig 81). shows a typical cross-section of construction; the
~nsuliitionused is decided by the class of machine and its duty.
wnoLE C O I L
VARNISH
IMPhtCNAllD
COTTON
TAPE
FORMER OF
LEATHERDID 0
D O U B L E C O T T O N C O V E R ED
OR ENAMELLED WIRE
Fig 81
(b) THE ARMATURE
This consists of the armature core, the windings, the shaft
and commutator'The brushes, although not part of the arma-
ture, are considered here since they work in conjunction with
the commutator.
A R M A T U R E CORE .This is built up from iron laminations which
are clamped between two end plates. The laminations are
insulated from each other to minimise induced circulating
currents, called 'eddy currents', and if clamping bolts are used
to pass through the core as shown in the diagram (Fig 82), then
thcy must be insulated. Modern techniques use stamped lamina-
[Ions w h i c h ;Ire pressed onto and 'keyed' to the sllnft, the end
plates being screwed onto the shal't for smaller machines. For
larger designs a 'spider' is employed which allows ventilation and
keeps the iron required to a minimum.
M.INDINGS. Tile number of conductors, their size, shape, etc, are
decided by thc design requirements for the machine. The
d i ; ~ g r . ; ~(~Fni g 8 3 ) \bows :I ~ y p i c a l method of locating and
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THE D . C . GENERAT O R 161
LAMINATIONS 0 1 W Y
6 1 0 ~YlPt
~ 0 1 CONSTRUCTION
.LAHINATIONS
MORE MODfPNCONSTRUCTION
Fig 82
holding the coil sides in position. In the sketch, a wedge made
of' bitkelised pitpel or b;tkclised I';tbric is sllown, but open slots
with a closing piece of fibre and 'binders', made from high-
tensile steel wire, are frequently used. For small machines, mainly
motors: as for vacuum-cleaners, cabin-fans, etc, the armature
windings consist of enamelled or cotton-covered wire placed in
position by hand winding. Semi-enclosed slots are used with a
fibre insert closing the slots.
The method of arranging the conductors to form a closed
winding will be considered in greater detail after the machine
construction has been dealt with.
Fig 83
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SHAFT. This is made from the best forged mild steel and is
designed so that it will not deflect unduly when running up to its
maximum speed.
COMMUTATOR. This consists of copper segments, insulated from
each other by mica. The thickness of the top of a segment may
be up ta $' and the segments may be mounted on but insulated
from a sleeve, which is secured to the shaft, and are clamped
by an end-ring which can be bolted or screwed as shown in the
diagram (Fig 84). Insulated conc-sh;~ped rings, made from
micanite are used to insulate the segments from the stee! clamp-
i ~ i g;~ssc.ml~ly.
Tllc ;1r-nl;rturc \\,inditlgs ; ~ r chrottpllt ollt and
soldered ro the segments. The mica must be undercut between
:~di:~ccnc segments.
Fig 84
BRUSHFS. Any one brush is pressed onto the commutator by
means of the pressure arm and is connected to the holder by
means of a pig-tail of braided copper wire which is moulded into
the brush. One or more brush-holders may be carried on an
insulated spindll! which is mounted Gn the brush rocker-ring.
The brush r~cker-ringis arranged to be clamped firmly once
the brush position has been set. Brushes of modern d.c. machines
are always of moulded carbon and graphite, the grade of hard-
ness being chosen to suit the running condition;. The diagram
(Fig 85) shows a typical arrangement.
Fig 8 5
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THE D . C . G EN ERAT OR 1 63
4
I WLE P I T H
~ 1 8 0 .MECHANICAL
QQr
Fig 86
In practlce it is not usual to make the span equal to one pole
pitch exactly and many small machines have an odd number of
slots. Each slot carries two coil sides, ie it contains more thafi
one conductor. D.C. windings are usually of the 2-layer type, a
a l l side lying at the bottom of the slot and another at the top.
Sometimes more than 2, such as 4 , 6 or even 8 coil sides may be
contained in 1 slot since it may not be practicable to have too
many slots. There are two basic methods of connecting up the
conductors on an armature after they have been formed into
either single or multi-turn coils, and the complete winding falls
into one of two distinct types namely (a) a wave winding or (b) a
lap winding.
(a) The W A V E or two-circuit Winding. This winding results in
there always being two paths in parallel irrespective of the
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SEGMENT I
(a> (b)
Fig 87
(b) The L A P o r multi-circuit Winding. This winding results in
as many paths in parallel as the machine has poles. There are a s
many sets of brushes as the machine has poles. The diagram
(Fig 87b) also shows the essential layout.
In building up a winding it is essential to connect coil elements
in such a manner that the induced c.1n.f. in the conductors add,
in much the same way as cells are connected in series so that their
e.m.fs. add to give the required battery voltage. Thus conductor
X i s in series with conductor Y which occupies relatively the same
position as X but is under a pole of reversed polarity. The coil
element so formed by conductors X Y should then be connected
in series with a similarly placed coil element under a pair of
poles so that the required voltage for a parallel path of the
armature can be attained in this manner. For a wave winding
the connection can be readily seen from the diagram already
introduced and for a lap winding the same rule is followed.
cxccpt [lint all thc coil clenicnts under n pais of poles are con-
nected in series before the winding progresses to connect up the
condl~ctorsunder tllc nrut p;lir of poles.
The example, which follows, .will illustrate both simple lap and
wave windirigs. A small armature is to be designed to have one-
turn coils-one turn comprising 2 conductors. There are to be 8
coils. There will be I co:nmutator segment to a coil, ie 8 com-
mut;\tnr segments. If only 2 coil-sides arc to be accommodated
in n slot then there must !>e ti armature slots and if a four-pole
hystcm is to Ilc ~~sccl
[ I I C I I tI1t1.cwill bc 2 sIots,I~>oI~.
This will give
it fnle pnlc pitch 01' 3 thc pole pitch being thc n i ~ ~ n b eofr
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armatura slots divided by the number of polcs. Sincc the sides of'
a coil should be under the influence of the correct field poles, the
winding pitch must be as nearly as possible cqunl to the pols
pitch. Thus the winding pitch would also be equal to 2 o r a coil
should embrace 2 teeth.
The L A P winding is considered first, being suitable for this
armature. Now for such a winding, the connecting up of the
conductors is such that the winding progresses round the
armature by being pitched alternatively forwards and backwards.
For our example, if (Fig 88) is considered, it will be seen that
conductor No 1 is connected to No 6 which is spaced 2 teeth
away. No 6 is then connected to No 3 and so on. The winding
thus progresses by 1 slot until it is closed by all the slots having
been occupied and conductor No 15 being connected to No 1
through N o 4. #.
Fig 88
If now, for our example, a W AV E winding Is required then a
preliminary examination would show that this could not be
achieved. If the winding started at No 1 proceeded to No 6 and
then on through Nos 9 and 14 it would close back onto con-
ductor No 1. It is obvious that an armature with 8 slots would
not be suitable for such a wave winding and one of 7 or 9 slots
should be considered. A nine-slot armature winding would give
a winding pitch of length slightly less than the true pole pitch
length and is considered as suitable. Consider now the diagram
(Fig 89). Here conductor No 1 is connected to No 6 as before
which in turn is connected to Nos 9, 14, 17 and then to No 4, ie
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Fig 89
the winding passes into the slot beyond that at which the start
was made. The winding, thus does not close immediately and if
the connecting-up proceeds as described, it will be seen that the
winding will progress four times round the armature before the
close is made at the starting slot by conductor No 1 1 being
joined to No 1 through No 16. This then would be a suitable
winding but 9 coils would be used with 9 armature slots and 9
commutator segpents.
More details on armature windings will be found in a book
dealing more fully with the practical subject since machine
design and armature winding is specialists' work. However, it is
of interest to find where the brushes are to be placed on the
co.mmutntor and one accepted way is to draw out the 'equivalent
ring' winding,
EQU I V A L E N T K I N G U ' I N D I N C ; ~ . The diagrams (Figs 88 and 89)
?;l\c>\t Iiow tllc c o ~ i ~ ~ c c t iol'o ntllc conductors c ; ~ nhc sct out. On
the armature winding diagram, current flow is assumed in the
c o ~ l d i ~ c t o r~rndcr
s tlic polcs. this current flow hcing duc to t l ~ c
induced e.m.1'~.'l'hus ~ t ' I'or , the conductors under a N pole, the
direction of the current is assumed from the bottom of the page
to the top, then for those under a S pole, it would be from the
top of the page to the bottom. If next, the winding is drawn out
its a ring winding. as shown at the bottom of each figure and the
conductors are ~nk~rked correctly then:
1;o1.fhc I ;rp wintling N o I sliot~l(iIc*;~d to No 6 and thcn onto
3 ; ~ n t lso on.
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THE D.C. GENERATOR 167
------- - -- - -- - --
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Fig 90
N .
In one second the armature revolves - times
60
and in 1 revolution, one conductor cuts a flux of P x @
webers
N
:. In 1 second one conductor cuts P@ - webers
60
From F a r a d a y " ~law the magnitude of the e.m.1'. generated in
volts is given by the flux cutjsecond
so the e.m.f. generated in 1 conductor = -
P@'V volts.
60
-
If the armature winding is divided into A parallel paills then
the e.m.f. of one parallel path is also the e,m.f. of the machine.
7
Now in a par:illel path there are conductors in series,
A
P@N 7
so e.1n.l'. ol' I parallel pat11 = e.rn.1'. Iiol'the machine = -- x 2
60 A
P
Thus E = -Z@N x - volts. where E = the generated voltage.
60 A
Example 55. The armature of a four-pole, shunt generator is
lap wound and generates 216 volts when running at 600 rev!min.
The armature has 143 slots with six conductorslslot. I f this
armature is rewound and wave connected. determine the e.m.f.
generated at the same speed and fluxipole.
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TH E D . C . GENERATOR 169
From t t ~ ce.m.f.cqrlntion 21 6 --
or @ = 216 webers
60 x 144
Note. This is a Lap-wound armature so A = P = 4.
For a Wave-wound .armature A = 2
CHARACTEKISTlCS
By characteristics are meant graphs which show the behaviour
of any type of machine when under.investigation. As an example,
consider the e.m.f. equation. It is noted that, far any given
machine, all the factors except @ and N are constant. The
ZP
equation can be written E = k @ N where k = -
60A
Thus E a 0,if N is kept constant and E cc N , if @ is kept
constant.
If @ and N are both varied then E will vary accordingly. Thus
we see that the voltage generated can be controlled by varying
the speed or the flux of the machine. This can be shown by
deducing the 'no-load' characteristics.
ASSOCIATED MAGNE'T'IC' C'I IIC'U17' EFFECTS
Since the magnetic circuit forms an essential part of the d.c.
machine, i t is necessary here to consider two effects which
influence generator characteristics. U p to now the electromag~et
with an iron core has not been covered in our studies and it is
therefore necessary at this stage, to mention briefly two of the
factors relating to the magnetising of an iron or steel specimen.
The first noticeable effect is that of residual magnetism.
Experiments with a piece of iron will show thai when such a
specimen is made the core of an electromagnet and it. is magne-
tised by passing a current through the energising coil then, when
the current is switched off and the magnetising m.m.f. has been
renioved, the magnetism o r magnetic flux will not completely
disappear. In other words, some magnetism remains when, in
theory, it should be non-existent. Such residual magnetism will
be discussed fully in Chapter 12 and for the moment it will be
sufficient for the reader to appreciate that the effect does occur.
The second factor which is of importance, is the saturation
efSect of an iron sample when it is being subjected to a magneto-
motive force. If a magnetic circuit uses iron as the medium for
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Fig 91
The flattening out or saturation effect is considered to be due
to r ~ l lthe molecular magnets having oriented themselves in the
direction of the magnetic field and thus, it can be expected that,
the saturating effect will make itself apparent when investigating
the relation of rhc gcncratcd voltagc E lo thc flux 9 in thc
magnetic circuit of the d.c. machine.
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THE D . C . GENERATOR 171
-----cN
Fig 92
(b) VARIATION OF E WITH @ (Speed N constant). As explained
above, variation of flux can most readily be effected by control-
ling the energising current I, in the field coils or the 'exciting
,current' as it is often called. If no residual magnetism is presznt in
the field system then, if I, is increased, the m.m.f. is increased and
the flux in the air-gaps increases. The generated e.m.f. increases
accordingly and a B-H type of curve (1) as shown in the diagram
(Fig 93), is obtained if E is plotted to a base of I,. Note. @ cannot
be readily measured but its effects can be gauged by knowing
the appropriate values of the exciting current.
Curve ( I ) at first increases as a straight line, flattening out to a
horizontal as the magnet system saturates. When saturation has
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occurred, if the field current is reduced, Curve (2) will result. This
curve will be found to lie slightly above the original curve ( I ) and
it is seen that for decreasing values of I,, the values of E are
above those obtained for the ascending curve (1). The cause of
the difference between curves ( 1 ) and (2) is Magnetic Hysteresis,
which will be fully discussed in Chapter 12. When the field
current is eventually reduced to zero, some generated e.m.f. is
found to be present while the machine is run at the constant
speed N. This e.m.f. is due to the residual magnetism; which will
be shown later to be essential, if a generator is required to be
self-exciting. The e.m.f, due to residual magnetism can only be
removed by dernagnetising the field system. IL' the value of I, is
increased again, Curve (3) will be I'ollowed which closes up on
curvc ( I ) . Thc dingram has bccn drawn to accentuate the differ-
ence between curves ( 1 ) and (2). In the modern machine this
difference is not appreciable and if a mean curve is drawn, shown
dotted, this is known as the 'm~gnetisation'or 'open-circuit
characteristic' (O.C.C.) curve.
The Magnetisation Curve or O.C.C. is of sufficient importance
to require the direction of students to this effect. It will be
mentioned repeatedly during theory relating to generators
(alternating current and direct current) and motors and many
problems will require reference to it before they can be solved.
It is-plotted in a standard fashion as Generated Voltage or
E . M . F . to a base of Field Current. This point should also be
noted.
Fig 93
- Il
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THE D.C.GENERATOR 173
--- -- -
-N
Fig 94
If the voltmeter used is sensitive, le it requlres very little
current, the generator output current will be small- so that
armature voltage drop (I,R,) will be negligible. Here R, is the
ohmic resistance value of the armature and I, the armature
current. Thus the load terminal voltage V is approximately
equal to the generated e.m.f. E and the voltmeter can .becali-
brated in revolutions per minute.
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I INTERNAL LOAD
C HARACTtR!STIC
VOLT DROP Wt
TO ARMATURE
REACTION
' VOLT DROP W t
EXTERNAL LOAD I TO IaRa
CHARKTERlSTlC
IL LOAD CURRENT
Fig 95
If the machine is stopped and the armature resistance R, is
rnc;isurcd by the ~mmcter/voltmetermethod and a separate
low-voltage supply, then the I,R, voltagedrop line can bc
plotted as shown. If various I,R, voltagedrop values are added
to the external characteristic the Internal Load Characteristic
can be obtained by construction. The difference between this
line and the horizontal line of the theoretical generated e.m.f. E
will illustrate the voltage drop due to armature reaction effects.
Armiiturc rcactiorl will bc explained very much Inter in detail
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T H E D.C. GENEKATOK 175
(Book 7), but can be described here briefly, by saying that the
passage of current through the armature scts up a magnetic
field which interacts with the mais field, tending to weaken and
distort the latter. Thus the magnitude of the generated e.m.f. is
reduced and commutation is effected adversely.
The load characteristics have been introduced to illustrate the
effects which are responsible for a voltage drop inside the
generator itself, when the machine is on load. In problems the
armature reaction effect is seldom mentioned but the armature
is usually credited with a resistance value greater than its ohmic
value in order to allow for a total internal voltage drop. The
voltage equation would be :
E= V + I,R,
The separately-excited generator in its d.c. form is only used
for specialised applications such as, machines used for supplying
current to electroplating vats. Under these conditions some 6000
to 10 000 amperes may be required at voltages of 6 to 12 volts
and the output can best be controlled by varying a 'separately-
excited field.
LOAD
A VARIABLE
R E S I S T A N C E .)
Fig 96
The shunt field of the machine is connected 'across the
terminals of the generator. The field coils form a high-resistance
circuit, they are wound with many turns of fine wire, ie the
ampere-turns are produced by a small current value and a large
number of turns.
As before: E = V + I,R,
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SEPLRATE
SUPPLY
M A t N E T l SM
Fig 97
- Ir
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REGULATOR
Fig 98
I'hc mngnctisat~oncurvc !'or a n y particular speed N is drawn
from test results obtained by separate excitation. Imagine the
sI1~1ntfield and regulator to Ilavc a ~.csistancc01' R, ohrns. 'T'llcn
assuming a current of value If amps to flow, the field voltage
drop will be I,R, volts. Plot this value ( e ~ a m p l epoint R ) .and
extend the straight liae through R from zero to cut the O.C.C. at
point P. For this point of intersection (P), the voltage drop
across the field equals the applied terminal voltage and condi-
tions a r c h;ll;~nccd.Considcr illso thc I, condition shown, wherc
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THE D . C . GENERATOR 179
Fig 99
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(i) Plot the O.C.C. a s shown in the diagram (Fig 99) and using
the graph, take any value of field current, viz 1 ampere. The
voltage across the field circuit with 1A flowing would be
1 x 240 = 240V. Plot this point (R) and draw the field voltage-
drop line through the origin as shown. Then the O.C. voltage to
which the machine self-excites is 257V.
(ii) For the machine to excite to 237,5V, note this value on the
O.C.C. and join it to zero to obtain the new field resistance
voltage-drop line. Note the field current for 237.W; this is 0.88A,
Then from Ohm's law, the fieldcircuit resistance is
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Fig 100
Fig 101
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T H E D . C . GENERATOR 183
,~ T H A R A C T ~ R I S T I C
INTERNAL
IL
Fig 102
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5HORT SHUNT
- LONG S H U N T
-
Fig 103
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THE D . C . GENERATOR 185
.-
Z
T5- Fig 104(a)
I .OVER COMPOUNDtD
IL
2 . L ~ V E L O R F L A T COMPOUNDED I
I UNDER COMPOUNDfD D
IL
Fig 104(b)
curve (c) would result from'the use of both fields. Any point on
this load characteristic could also be obtained by adding the
voltages obtained from graphs (a) and (b), for any one value of
load current.
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THE D.C.G E N ER A T O R 187
Fig 105
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THE D.C.GENERATOR 189
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CHAPTER 8
PRACTICE EXAMPLES
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THE D.C. GENERATOR 191 I
I
1
7. A four-pole milchine has :I lap-wound rirmature with 90 I
slots each contalnlng 6 conductors. 11' the m'lch~ne runs ,it
1500 rev/min and the fluxipole is 0.03Wb. calculate from I
first principles the e.m.f. generated.
If the machine is run as a shunt generator with the same
field flux, the armature and field resistances being 1.052 and
~
200R respecti\fely, calculate the output current when the
armature current is 25A.
If due to a fall in speed the e.m.f, becomes 380V, calculate
the load-Current
- ---
in-a 4052
--
load.
8. A d.c. generator gave the following O.C.C. when driven a t
1000 revlmin.
Field Current (A)
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Armature Voltage (V) e
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CHAPTER 9
THE A.C. CIRCUIT (CONTINUED)
The method of introduction to the a.c. circuit chosen here. is
again not the recognised approach as used in most text books.
Experience in teaching the subject has convinced the author that
the essential fundamentals should be introduced as soon as
possible and the details should be considered as experience is
acquired. Conscqucntly at this stngc, a number of new terms are
mentioned and relationships are stated. These should be
memorised as soon as possible.
IMPEDANCE
For the a x . circuit, conditions are followed which are some-
what comparable with those for Ohm's law, as it has been
propounded for the d.c. circuit. Thus we can consider a modifi-
cation of Ohm's law as applicable to the a.c. circuit; where the
current is found to be directly proportional to the applied
voltage and also to be inversely proportional to the opposition
of the circuit to the flow of current. This opposition is called the
circuit Impedance (Symbol-2. Unit-the ohm) and is due to
more than the mere ohmic resistance R of the circuit. The differ-
ence between Z and R is now considered further.
For the a.c. circuit, the current flowing is given by
.b
Applied voltage
Impedance
~ h u Current
s voltage
= --------- o r I (amperes) = V (volts)
Impedance Z (ohms)
Note the variations of the relationship. Thus:
v
/=- or C'=I%orZ=-
v
z I
For 111cd . c clrcult. it i b known I I ~ : I II = fwllere R i s tile ohmlc
R
rcsist:lncc of the circuit. l f ; ~wire. of rcsist;~nceR ohms, is laid out
as a straight conduc~orand connected to a d.c. supply of V volts,
17
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THE A . C . CIHCIJIT ( C O N T I N U ~ ~ D ) 1 93
Fig 106
The current I = - V 20
z = -5 = 4A R
The circuit power factor is given by cos 4 = - (from the
3
z
impedance triangle). Thus cos 6 = - = 0.6 (lagging).
5
The term 'lagging' is associated with an a.c. circuit which con-
tains inductive reactance. A more complete explanation will
follow as the theory is developed.
Fig 107
INDUCTANCE
Basic electromagnetic induction theory, as covered in Chapter
6. has alrc;ldy shown t h a t whenever thc magnetic flux linked with
II circuit is c l i ; ~ n ~ i nagn, c.ti1.f. is induced in the circuit. F;~r;~day's
Iiiw shows that the value ol' the induced e.m.f. IS proportioniil to
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THE A.C. CIRCUIT ( C O N TI N U E D ) 195
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T H E A . C . C I R C U I T ( C O N T I N U ED ) 197
Fig 108
Again referring to Fig 108, it is seen that, as the current rises to
its maximum value I, in the first quarter cycle, flux-linkages
N@
LI, are set up, since L = --- o r N@ = L I
I
to zero in the second quarter cycis, the llnkages are destroyed. 1
For the next half cycle the same number of l~nkagesare set up
and destroyed. 1
The ,change of flux-linkages in 1 cycle = 4LIm and the change
of flux-linkages in 1 second = 4fLIm (f is the frequency). Also, I
since the average value of induced e.m.f. = rate of change of flux- 1
Flux-linkages - 4 f L h
linkages Then :rver;ige c m f = - - --
time 1 I
Thus back e.m.f. Ex,, = 4fLIm volts.
The supply voltage is equal and opposite, its value being V,
(r.m.s.) o r VX,, (average). Since r.m.s. values are preferred the
following conversion is necessary.
2
Since VxaV= - Vx, and V,, =4fLI,
K
2
then - Vx, = 4fLIm or Vx,= 2rcfLIm
K
giving 0.707Vxm = 2nfL x 0.7071, or Vx = 2rcfLI.
Thus the voltage drop in an inductor o r reactor is seen to be
proportional to the current and a constant which involves the
circuit inductance and the supply frequency. This constant is
given the name 'reactance' and since it is for an inductive
circuit, we represent it by the symbol .Y with the suffix L.
Thus X, = 2nfL ohms and for a purely inductive circuit
Vx = IX, where X,,= 2 ~ f L .
Inductance reactance is measured in ohms and is seen to be
proportional to both frequency and inductance. Since resistance
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1 H E A.C. CIHCUIT (CON'IINI:LL)) 1 90
Here Z = R :. R = 24.252
2000 = 24.2.Q.
whence R - -
82.8 1
Fig 110
Assume a sinusoidal current of value given by i = I?, sin or to
tw tlo\vlng thsnupli tllc' coil. Since 1 is wrying sinusoldally, the
~ l ~ ; ~ p nficlci
c ~ i isc ; ~ l s ov;lrving ; ~ n d;I sinusoid~~l
sclf-induced c.ni.f.
15 bet ol)po511ig[lie :il)pltcd volt:igc ~ I every I 'T'rc;~tn~en[
i~lb[:~t~ t.
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THE A.C. CIRCUIT ( CONTINUED ) 20 1
of the a.c. circuit with inductance only, showed that the e.m.f. of
self-induction or 'buck c,m.f.' can bc rcyr~rdcdan boing aqui-
valent to a voltage drop, which is caused by the current and by a
property, with which the circuit is credited. This property is
termed lnductivc Rcuctancc (Symbol-XL. Unit-the ohm).
Thus we have Ex = V , = I x X,. X , has already been shown
to equal 2xfL.The associated phasor diagram can now be con-
sidered with the waveform. Ex is the e.m.f. of self-inductance,
displaced 90" behind the current I and Vx is the supply voltage,
being 90" ahead of the current and. 180" out of phase with Ex.
V, is thus always equal and opposite to Ex.This is illustrated by
the-waveforms and can also be shown thus:
It has been seen that the e.m.f. of self-induction can be written
di
mathematically as e = L -. By Lenz's law, since it a t all times
dt
dl
opposes the supply voltage, we can write v = L t.Also v = - e
dr
and since e = L- di then e = L d ( I , sin a t ) = 1, cos or
dt - dt
e = o L 1. (sinor - ;}
Similarly v can be deduced a s i
= V , I, sin or cos of
sin 2 o t
= v, I, 7
L
0
R = 0 therefore cos 4 = - = 0.
z
Summarising we can say. that a circuit with inductance only
and no resistance would be purely imaginary but would give rise
to a zero power-factor working condition.
Example 64. A 220V, 50Hz supply is applied to a choke-coil of
negligible resistance and the circuit current is measured to be
2.5A. Find the inductance of the coil and the power dissipated.
220 880
Since Z = then Z = - = - = 88R
4 2.5 10
Now R = 0 :. X, = Z or X, = 88Cl
also X, = 2xfL
XL -- 88 - 0.88
-
SOL=-
27rf 2 x 3.14 x 50 - 3.14
o r L = 0.28H
0
Also as R = 0 cos 4 = - = 0
88
:. 1' = 220 x 2.5 x 0 = 0
Alternat~velysince P = 12R
t l i c l l 1' 2.S2 x O = 0
3. CIRCUIT WITH RESISTANCE AND INDUCTANCE IN SERIES
Consider a pure resistance and a pure inductance in series as
shown in the diagram (Fig I I I ) . I t should be noted that for the
practical choke-coil or reactor, resistance and inductance are
pliysic;~llyinseparable, but for ding~.an~mntic purposes they can
l)c ~ lI I I ~ O I I C R
~ , I ~ o \ \ ;~I \I I t w o i ~ i ( l i t , i ( l ~~~~; O I I ~; ISI I ( ~1.
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THE A . C . CIRCUIT ( C O N TIN U ED ) 203
Fig 1 1 1
convenience we can assume that the applied voltage V consists
of two components: One such component VR would be the
voltage necessary to overcome the resistance voltage drop of the
circuit and the other component V , would be the voltage
necessary to overcome the reactance voltage drop or would
oppose the induced back e.m.f. of self-induction. Since these two
components are at right-angles to each other, as shown by
consideration of Circuit Conditions 1 and 2, it follows that the
applied voltage is the resultant of the two components. The
relationships being discussed can be illustrated by the diagram
(Fig 112) which shows the relevant waveforms and also the
appropriate phr~sors.
Fig 112
F o r the phasor diagram, thecurrent is common to both com-
ponents, it being a series circuit, and is used as the reference
phasor. The resistance voltage drop V R = IR is in phase with
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Fig 113
Thus from th2 voltage triangle we have V = and
m b = -VvR
also since VR -.I R and VXL = I X L the above can be written as
v = , C I +~( I X , ) ~= 14-
If Z is taken to be the equivalent impedance of the circuit then
V
v = IZ o r Z = -. I
Thus IZ = I whence we have
the impedance triangle relationship of:
Z = r R2 - + X L 2 and cos 4 = -R
Z
The power condition for the R. L series arrangement can now
be deduced as follows:
The diagram (F:ig 114) sllows tllc lx~sicwaveforms of 1, and i,
redrawn to allow the power wave to be deduced.
Let v = V m sin or be the applied voltage and
i = I , sin (oi - d ) be thc circuit current lagging the
voltage by the angle d,
Thcn the instantaneous po\vcs p = 1,;
= I/,,, sin n)i x
I , sln (wr - @)
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Fig 1 14
o r p = Vm I, sin o t sin (ot- 4) C
cos 4 - cos ( 2 0 t - 4)
2 1
--
v'2 d2
Thus p = VZ cos 4 - VI cos ( 2 0 t - 4).
The Average power P = Average of VI cos 4 - Average of
vz cos ( 2 0 1 - 4 )
Whence P = VIcos 4 - 0. Since the average of a cosine
WCIVCis 0.
Note. Vl cos 4 is a constant quantity, thus its average value is
apparent.
In the expression, as finally deduced, P = VI cos 4, we re-
cognise the term power factor as it has been already introduced.
We now see how it can vary between the limits o f 1 and 0, to
enable the extreme conditions of pure R or pure L to be satisfied.
If we examine the power wave we also see how power factor o r
cos 0 is involved with the actual displacement of the power wave
axis above the horizontal. The expression marked thus * shows
that, here again, the power wave is periodic and of twice supply
+
frequency. It consists of ve and - ve areas, showing that some
power can be returned to the supply, the amount depending on
the power factor at which the circuit operates. The greater +ve
net result of the power wave area, the greater the power con-
sumption of a circuit and the nearer unity the power-factor
condition.
It should be noted that the only component responsible for
power consumption is the resistance and that the deduction
made previously may well be repeated here to advantage.
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206 R EED ' S BASIC ELECTROTECHNOLOGY
22 = 4Q
8
A.C. condition. Since I = 8A and the applied voltage is 120V
120 30
thcn thc coil impedance must be - = - = 15Q
8 2
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THE A.C. CIRCUIT ( CO N TI N U ED ) 207
--- - --- . - -- - - -- ---
-
The resistance is, as for the d.c. case = 4R
The power tiissipi~tetl 121< or H 2 x 4 - 256W, I N f n r the
d.c. condition.
The latter part of the problem could have been solved by
P = V I cos 4 = 120 x 8 x cos 4 and cos 4 obtained from -
H
z
4
Thus cos 4 = - = 0.266 (lagging)
15
and P = 960 x 0.266 = 255.4W
CAPACITANCE
The property of capacitance is attributed to an electrical
condenser or capacitor, to use the modern term. A more com-
plete treatment of the capacitor will be made in Chapter 13, but
since the component is mainly associated with a.c. circuits, it is
necessary at this stage to describe the arrangement and action
briefly, in order to enable a.c. circuit theory to d n t i n u e .
If two conductors, arranged as plates, are separated by insula-
tion, such as air or mica and are connected to a d.c. voltage, then
at the instant of making connection, a current will flow. This
current is of maximum value a t the instant of switching-on but
gradually dies away to zero value. This is termed a 'charging'
current. and the action is explained by considering the insulation
to be put into a state of electrical stress. The effect of this stress
can be likened to a 'back e.m.f.' which gradually builds u p in the
cupucitor to opposc tllc Supply voltuyc. Oncc tllc cupucilor Ilus
been'charged and this voltage has built up, its presence becbmes
apparent from the fact that, if the supply voltage is lowered, this
back e.m.f. asserts itself, and causes a current to flow in the
reverse direction, ie i t causes a 'discharging' current.
Since an alternating voltage is varying all the time, either
rising o r falling, it follows that, if it is applied to a capacitor or a
circuit with capacitance, then a 'to and fro' or a.c. current will
flow. This is explained by the fact that, as the voltage across the
capacitor plates rises, a charging current results and as the
voltage falls,.a discharging current results, due to the stress e.m.f.
already mentioned. The magnitude of the current depends on
the Capacitive Reactance (Symbol-X,. Unit-the ohm) of the
circuit. This term is introduced to correspond with inductive
reactance and an expression for it will require to be developed.
A unit for capacitance must however, be introduced first. It can
be shown that the quantity of electricity or charge which passes
into a capacitor is dependen1 on the applied voltage. Therefore
Q cc V or Q = CV where C is a constant depending on the
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Fig 1 15
As the voltage rises from 0 to I f , in a quarter cycle, the charge
or1 tl,c ~>l:\tc'srises 10 ('J",,,, since Q = CV. During the next
qu;\rter cycle, the cliargc frills to zero. For the next quarter cycle,
r l ~ cclla~.gcrises lo - ,'L( and again finally falls to zero for the
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THE A . C . C IR C U I T ( C Q N T I N U E ~ ' 21 1
hT V
"Kc
Fig 117
The applied voltage v is considered to be resolved into two
components V , and V x c . One component V , overcomes the
resistance voltage drop due to the passage of current I, and
the other component Vxc maintains the charging current of the
capacitor and is at all times equalled and sustained by the
internal stress voltage. As seen from Condition 4, there is a 90"
phase displacement between V,, and I. If current is used as the
reference for the waveform and phasor diagram, since it is
common to R and C (this being a series circuit), then the condi-
tions shown can be deduced. If the voltage triangle (shown
heavy) is extracted, the impedance triangle and relationships can
be found thus:
v= c+ vxc2= J ( I R+) ~( 1 x 3=~ I J ~
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Fig 116
The power at any instant p = vi
or p = Vmsin wt x I,,,sin
= I/, 4, 'sin or cos of
sin 2 ot V sin 2 o t
= v m r m 2 6 a v2 d2
= V l sin 2 ot . . .*.
Thus average power P = 0 since the average of a sine wave is
zero. The expression marked thus * shows the power wave to be
periodic and of double frequency. The diagtam also shows
power to be + ve at the times when the voltage is increasing and
energy is being put into the electrostatic field of the capacitor.
When the voltage decreases the power is shown as -ve, ie energy
i \ hcinp, ~.rc.ovcl.ctlfro111 I I I C ficltl ; I \ l l ~ c i ~ p i i c i t o lc. l i s c l ~ i ~ ~ ~ g1 c1sd
thus no power is wasted. The power wave is seen to be sym-
metrical about the axis and the circuit power factor is zero. Thus
if the expression P = VIcos q5 or P = V I x power factor is
applied to this condition. it follows that-cos 4 = 0, as is borne
R 0
I I I - = -- = 0. 111c1.tbeing 110 rcsrstitncc
7 l
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THE A . C . CIRCUIT(CONTINUED) 209
or I,, = 41'('C'm
r
= 4/CVm since I is I second.
X K
For a sine wave I, = - x I,,. Thus I, = - x 4fCVm
2 2
= 2TcfCVm o r in r.m.s. values 0.707 I, = 2nfC x 0.707Vm and
I = 2KfCv.
v ]I
Whence - = -= Xc. Hare X, is called the capacitive
I 2nfC
reactance and the expression is in line with that developed for
inductive reactance.
1
megohms or - lo6 ohms. Here C is in
Thus Xc = ZnfC 2xfC P
microfarads.
X, itself is usually measured in ohms. It should be noted that
the current wave is seen to lead the voltage wave by 90" since
maximum current occurs at the instant of maximum rate of
charge of voltage. If a phasor diagram is drawn, then it follows
that the current phasor I is 90" ahead of the applied voltage
phasor V.
The above conclusions can also, be shown thus:
Lct v = V,, sin ( I J / he the sinusoidal volt;~gei~ppliedacross the
dv C'rl ( b ' , sin ( 0 1 )
plates of the capacitor. Since i = C- then i =
nt dt
"
Xc ( 3
then f = - sin wr + - and i becomes a maximum, when
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v
If Z is the circuit impedance then - = Z. = \/R7 +
Jw
xC2
I
or== As before cos 4=-
R
2
The power relation 'follows the form already used several
times.
Thus power at any instant p = vi
where I = I,,, sin or and v = Vmsin (ot - 4)
then p = Vm I, sin ot sin (or - 4)
= v m Im { cos $I- cos ( 2 0 t - 4)
2
v
or p = -A
d2
x
d2'i cos 4 - cos (2ot - 4)
= VI cos (tl - V I cos (2wt - 4).
Average power P = Average of V I cos 4 - Average of V I
cos ( 2 0 1 - 4) or P = VI cos 4 - 0. Since the average of a
cosine wave is zero.
Thus P = VIcos +the form of expression already en-
countered several times. If the power wave is plotted as before it
will be as shown in the diagram (Fig 118).
Fig 1 1 H
The power wave is seen, as before to be periodic, of double
Srrqucncy and consisting of + ve and - ve sections. The average
value can be found from the amount by which the axis is dis-
placed above the horizontal and this displacement varies with
the power factor of the circuit. Thus Conditions 1 and 4 are also
covered. If .Y, = 0 and the circuit is purely resistive then
cos 4 = I ;~nd the wavc will be fully. displaced above the
linrizc~nt:~l.
I f R = 0 and the circuit is piircly cnp;~citivcthcn
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THE A . C . C IR C U IT (CONTINUED) 213
"no "R*
Fig 119
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THE A.C. CIRCUIT ( CONTINUED ) 21 5
Fig 120
From the phasor diagram we can deduce the expression for
the total circuit impedance Z. I t will be noted t h a t althougli ,!'I
and VRB are in phase and can be added, VxAand V X Bare ant]-
phase and the resultant of the vertical phasors must be obtained
by subtraction. Thus from the resulting final diagram (shown
heavy) :
Summarising Z = J RA + R , ) ~+ ( X , - x , ) ~
Also for the circuit, the power factor
cos qb = - - - = - or, cos 4 = R* + RB
V,-IR R
v IZ z z
The above two circuit conditions give rise to the general series
circuit, which is set out below.
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2 16 PRADEEP@MSC SHIPPING
REED~SBASIC ELECTROTECHNOLOGY
I
Fig 121
Since it is a series circuit, current is common and can alsg be
used as the reference phasor. It will be noted that the condition
being considered is similar to that already considered for
Inductive and Capacitive Impedances in series, except that all
resistance of the circuit is taken as being contained in one
resistor R. Then for the phasor diagram.
V , = IR and is in phase with the current
V X L= I X L and is 90" ahead of I
V,, = I X , and is 90" behind I
V x , and Vxc are 180" out of phase or anti-phase and a phasor
difference can be obtained where V x = V,, - V,,. Here V X Lis
assumed greater than, Vxc
Further deduotion from the diagram is possible, thus:
v = JvR2+ vX2= J v R 2+ (v,,,- vXc)'
= J ( I R ) ~+ ( I X , - 1 x 3 ~
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THE A . C . C I R C U IT ( CO NSHIPPING
T I N U ED ) 217
,ye - 2;rc
1 1 o6 - - - - --- - -lo'- - 3177m
= 2 x 3813 x 5 0 n lo()
Resultant reactance = X = X, - X , = 25.2 - 31.75
314
-- - 6~55fl
The - ve sign denotes that the capacitive reactance predominates
and that the phasor diagram will be as shown (Fig 122).
Fig 122
R 20
The power factor is glven by cos 4=-
Z= -
21
= 0.95
(leading), ie the current leads the voltage since the capacitive
reactance of the circuit predominates.
KESONANCE. An examination of the general serles circuit expres-
sion z= b
'R' + { ? n f ~- - 1'
2nfc 1
will show that a condition
can a r m when 2 ~ f =
L I
--in magnitude. ;c the capacitive
2 XJ'C
>
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Fig 123
This example is important in that it involves basic funda-
mentals and yet has a simple solution.
The phasor diagram is first explained with the various voltage
drops considered in detail. V , is the voltage drop across resistor
R = IR. V , is the voltage drop across the coil and is the
resultant of two voltage drops, V , across the resistance of the
coil = Ir and V, across the reactance of the coil = IX,. V , is in
phase with current and V L is 90' ahead of the current. From the
phasor diagram i t is apparent that V is the resultant of V , and
V, and that the expression given for simple phasor summation
can bc applicd .hcrc.
.I- ~-.
Thus V = \/I.', +
~
01.250'- 2VRV,cos4,,
150' + 180' + 2 x 150 x 180 x cos gL
:. 62 500 = 22 500 + 32 400 + 54 000 cos 4,
or 54 000 cos b,.
- = 62 500 - 54 900
7600
COS q L= ---- - - - = 0,141 (lagging)
0'76
54 000 - 5.4
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THE A.C. CIRCUIT ( CONTINUED ) 219
110
Current for full-scale deflection = -= 0.063A
1 744
On 230V. New circuit impedance must be
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200
(d) Circuit current = -= 14A
14.28
lo - 0.7 (lagging)--since the circuit
(e) Power factor = --
14.28 reactance is net inductive
(f) Impedance ofcoil = ,/lo2 + 31.42 = dl00 + 986
= a14 x33R33 = 462V
Voltage drop across coil =
=
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CHAPTER 9
PRACTICE EXAMPLES
1. A circuit has a resistance of 3R and an inductance of
0.01 H. The voltage across its ends is 60V and the frequency
is 50Hz. Calculate (a) the impedance ( b ) the power factor
(c) the power absorbed.
2. A 100W lamp for a lOOV supply, is placed across a 220V
supply. What value of resistance must be placed in series
with it so that it will work under its proper conditions? If a
coil is used instead of the resistor and if the resistance of the
coil is small compared to its reactance, 'what is the induct-
ance of the coil? The frequency is 5OHz.rWhat is the total
power absorbed in each case?
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CHAPTER 10
THE D.C. MOTOR
A d.c, machine will run ns i\ motor if its field i ~ n diirmuture nre
connected to a suitable supply. The 'motoring' actlon is based
on the fundamental law described in Chapter 5, which stated
that a force is set u p on a conductor which lies in a magnetic
field and carries current. The diagram (Fig 124) shows the basic
arrangement for revision purposes.
Fig 124
DIRECTION 0 1 : 1:OUCE
The four small diagrams (Fig 125) show that, in order to
reverse the direction of the force and thus the direction in which
the armature will rotafe, it is necessary to reverse the current in
the conductor with respect to the magnetic flux.
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Fig 126
MAGNITUDE OF FORCE
From the first principles set out in Chapter 5, it was shown
that the force acting on a conductor in a magnetic field, is pro-
portional to the flux density, the current and the active length of
the conductor ia the field. The law was summarised by the
fundamental formula F = BIL newtons but, it is pointed out
here that, the magnitude of the force also depends on the
inclination of the conductor to the direction of the field. It is a
maximum when they are at right angles.
Example 74. Calculate the force in newtons, as established on
;I conductor, O.5m long, carrying a current of 500A in and at
right angles to a magnetic field of uniform density 0.8T.
S~ncr.I: = R I I .
'Then F = 0.8 x 500 x 0.5 = 8 x 5 x 5 = 200 newtons.
I t should hc nc~rcd.tllat,i f thc conductor is sit~r;~tcd o n ;In
a1'matul.c at a 1.irciiu5 I . metres, then the torque produced on the
shaft can be expressed as F x r. newton metres.
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THE D.C. MOTOK 225
VOLTAGE EQUATION
V = Eb + I,R,. This equation explains the voltage conditions
as they occur for the armature circuit. Here V is the voltage
applied to the armature, Eb is the back e.m.f, being generated
and I,R, is the armature voltage drop caused by thc urmilturc
current I, passing through the annature resistance R,. If a
problem is encountered where the brush voltage drop is given,
then due allowance must be made for this.
It should be noted that the equation is comparable with the
generator terminal voltage equation V = E - IaRa and a
thought about the difference in the two equations will surn-
marise the basics of generator and motor action.
CURRENT EQUATION
Since V Eb + I,Ra then IaRa = V - E,
=
and I, = -
v - Eb
R.
The equation i i this form Shows how the motor current is
L
dependent on the value of the back e.m.f. being generated.
The starting conditions are also illustrated.
, r
v
At start Eb = 0 .: Ias= -
R.
But R, is usually very small so as to minimise the armature-
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THE D.C. MOTOR 227
'
-=
) 0, 0Eh
/a = since K, 6, and 0,cancel
No = Nl x
5
' 199.2 -
= 1200 X ------ - 20 x 199.2
Eb, 180 3
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THE D . C . MOTOR 229
Here I,, =
v
- cind I, = I , - I,,,
f(.,l
Fig 128
Most marine motors are cumulatively-compounded machines.
The relative s-trengths of the shunt and series fields are decided
by the type of performance required and this statement will be
considered further when the characteristics are studied in detail.
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230 R EED ' S BASIC ELECTROTECHNOLOGY
- *
2 x 3.14 x 60
P P
x Z@I, - = 0.1 59Z@Ia -
A A
P
or T = 0.159Z@Ia- newton metres.
A
TORQUE CONTROLLING FACTORS
As for the speed equation sc. for the torque equation, the
factors which influence the torque can be determined. Thus for
irny one particular machine 0.159, Z. P and A ;Ire all constants
and when considered togzllizr can be written iis K .
Thus we have the expression T = K@Ia or T cc @Ia. This
means that the torque developed varies directly with either the
flux and/or the armature current and this fact will also be made
use of for problems and when considering machine character-
istics. As a preliminary point of importance, it can be stressed
here that, for a shunt motor for differen4 conditions of loading
(9 is substantially constant and so T a I,. For a series motor
however, @ is not constant and is frequently taken as being
proportional to I,. Therefore, if (9 a I, and T cx @Ia, we can
write for a series motor T a I a 2 . This deduction is used in the
example.
Example 78. A series motor when running at a speed of 600
revlmin develops 3kW and takes a current of 40A. If the starting
current is limited by means of the starter to *A, find the starting
torque. Neglect the effects of armature reaction and assume that
the magnetic circuit is unsaturated.
Since the magnetic circuit is unsaturated, it can be assumed
that @ r~ I,, c~ I,. Thus we have T x @Ia or T = ~ 1 , ~ .
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7.2 - K I 47.8 x 9
Also - - -a or T = TI(?)' = 47.8($) =
TI K/q2 4
And stilrting torque 7', = 107.6Nm.
MOTOR CHARACTER ISTICS
'I lie bel~aviuurol' sllurl~,series and compou~idmotors can be
illustrated by means of characteristics, which can be considered
under ( a ) Electrical Load Characteristics (b) Mechanical Char-
acteristic, The Electrical Character.istics show speed and torque
in terms of armature current whereas the Mechanical Character-
istic shows speed related to torque, assuming a constant applied
terminal voltage. The Electrical Characteristics are important,
in that they show the performance of the machine when loaded.
The Mechanical Characteristic shows the suitability of the motor
for any particular application.
The characteristics may be checked by making a load test on a
type o f motor, but the theoretical performance may be
reasoned from the two expessions ?!ready deduced, namely
.1. a.
-
Fig 129
la
Fig 130
- 1
---+ 10
* Fig 131
THE SERIES MOTOR
(a) E LE C TRI C A L CHARACTERISTICS. SPEED. For this machine, the
load current value is also that of the field current and, allowing
for the effect of armature reaction, it is seen from the diagram
(Fig 13 1 ) that the useful flux 0 is only slightly less than that given
by the magnetisation curve of 0,. Since @ increases with load
1 .
: ~ n dN vnrics :IS - 11 follows t l l ; ~ r the slxcd must drop and t l ~ c
@'
curve will conform to that for inverse variation (a rectangular
Irypcrbola), I1;1tlcl,111g tion of 0 occurs. Thc no-loird
O L I ~ i15 sa1~11.a
flux is small and speed can be excessive. It is for this reason
that a series motor should never be run 'light'. It is liable to
'race'* and be destroyed by centrifugal force. Like the shunt
motor, N is lower than N , for reasons already described.
'TORQUE. Saturation oftlie tield is not normally achieved over the
\r;oll\it~gIoi~tlI : I I I Hi111(1
C (1)i 4 to I,. Then
; I \ ' ~ ~ I I I I C171.o11o1.1io11;rI
C~
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THE D.C. MOTOR 235
- T
Fig 132
THE COMPOUND MOTOR
As has already been stated, the field connections can be such as
to give a cumulative or differential flux result. The former is
usual and the latter is used for only exceptional motor duties.
The shunt and series motor have in themselves such good
characteristics, that compounding is only used as a means to
minimise disadvantages which may occur'in the basically con-
nected machine. Thus for example, the series motor tends to race
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T H E D.C. MOTOR 23 7
tary slowing down with a rise of 1,. The motor speed tends to
'sit down' and the required driving pnwcr i s ohttlinctf from thr
flywheel which, due to its momentum, glves up sonir ol 11senergy
and does work. This arrangement enables the motor and the
electrical sjstern to be protectcd'1'1~ortiulldue stlock :111dis U S C ~
in connection with motors driving specialised loads, such as the
rolls in steel-works, presses and hammers, some types of
compressors etc.
TORQUE . During starting, when voltage is applied to the shunt
field, due to its self-inductance-it being a winding of thin wire
and many turns, a back e.m.f. is induced whlch tends to oppose
the shunt field current. Thus the shunt field current builds up
very slowly and the torque ( T oc @I,) is small in spite of the
large armature current. A series field arranged to pass the start-
ing current I,,, will produce a flux to strengthen the shunt flux.
Thus the net flux at starting will be very muck larger and an
improved starting torque would be obtained which may be used
for starting against heavy loads, such as those encountered for
compressors, centrifugal pumps, certain machine tools, etc.
Once the machine accelerates, the characteristic will follow that
of a shunt motor, and the effect of armature reaction will alter
the theoretical characteristic from T I to T as shown (Fig 133).
(b) MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTIC. This characteristic is generally
similar to that for a shunt motor.
( 2 ) S~rongseries-weuk sliwrt. Hcrc ugain the cliuracteris~icuf'
the series motor makes it so suitable for its appropriate applica-
tions that, it is obvious, its basic performance features will be
retained. Its major disadvantage, eg the tendency to race on light
load, requires to be removed and this is the main function of the
shunt field.
(a) ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS. SPEED. It will be seen from the
diagram (Fig 134) that although the net flux varies, ie it follows
the magnetisation curve, yet it never falls to zero as it does in the
case of the series motor. In effect the shunt field predominates
on light loads and the machine will run as a shunt motor at a
predetermined speed. Once load is applied, the series field
asserts itself and the speed characteristic passes from that of the
shunt machine into that of the series machine. The tendency for
racing on no load has thus been removed and this is the typical
characteristic for a ship's d.c. winch. Nore. The effect ofarmature
reaction and voltage drop on E, is seen at the higher current
values and speed N is lower than the theoret~calvalue N,.
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-
Fig 134
Ia
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THE D.C. MOTOR 239
-
and -
Now since Eb a @N
Eb
Eb,
E
-- 00
QlNl
OoNo or
:. E, = K@N
But @, = 0.96G0
= No x Eb, = 1250 x 208.77
,.. bo=
Eb 1 0.96@0N1 0.96 x Eb, 0.96 x 219.57
Thus N , = 1238 ie speed on full load = 1238 revlmin.
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MOTOR STARTERS
The need for a starter to work in conjunction with a motor
was mentioned earlier in the chapter, when it was seen that, at
the instant ofStarting since the machine is not rotating, there is
no back e.m.f. The current is consequently limited by the arma-
ture resistance alone, unless some arrangements are made t o
include additional resistance in the armature circuit. Thus for all
but 'fractional output power' motors, which have w i t e a n
appreciable resistance, a resistor is inserted into the armature
circuit and then removed in steps, as the motor accelerates u p
to its correct running speed. The arrangement used is in-
corl>or;~tc~J in :I ~ ~ t l icl; ,I I I c ~ a '11101or starter' or lnorc simply a
'starter' and consists of a tapped resistor and a switching device
1 1 1 ~ - IC.\I\I:II~L.L.
W I I I L ~ I I c11~11ilc\ to 1~ ~ > I . ; I C I I I ; I I I r~ c ~ l t ~ ;IIICI
~ ~ cf li ~ i i ~ l l y
c u t out altogether. 'l'lle starter may also incorporate other special
attachments which may be considered necessary for the safe
operation of the motor. Thus it may include protective arrange-
ments to safeguard the motor against the adverse effects of a
rt~iuccdworkin3 i,oltagc or :In overcurrent.
:lltliougli motor sti1rter.s will be studied later in more detail, i t
I \ ' I I ) ~ Iop1.1;11~ l o I I I C I I I I ~ I 11c1.c
I l I i i 1 1 llic Sor111of starter ncccssilry
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THE D.C. MOTOR 24 1
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THE D.C. MOTOR 243
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I,, = 60A
240 - - 240
and also I,, =
+
R, R, 0.5 R, +
As the motor starts and ;~cceleratesup to speed, the starter
Ilandle is kept in position until the current falls to 45A. Thus the
starting resistance is still in citcuit, but a back e.m.f. is building
10 ii !h;tl V U ~ yivcn
U ~ by kqb,
Here E,, = 240 - 45(3.5 + 0.5) = 240 - 45 x 4
= 240 - 180 = 60V
At this stage the handle is moved and a seztion of the starting
resistor is cut out. Let R, be the new value of the total starter
resistance. The current rises to 60A but the back e.m.f. does not
change until the motor speed changes. Thus at the instant of
moving the handle
+
240 = Eb, I, (R, R1)+
o r 240 = 60 + 60 (0.5 + R , ) whence
or R, = 3 - 0.5
* = 2.5R. Thus the resistance removed during
the first movement of the handle after switching on, is 3.5 - 2.5
= 1R
The first resistance step is thus 1R.
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THE D.C. MOTOR 245
CHAPTER 10
PRACTICE EXAMPLES
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CHAPTER 1 1
A.C. CIKCUL'I'S (contisued) ANL) SYSTEMS
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Fig 136
Since I c o s 4 is a current, in phase with the voltage V and we
know VI cos 4 is the measure of the power expended in a circuit,
then it appears that I cos 4 is the component of current which is
responsible for pewer dissipation. Thus I c o s 4 is called the
active power, wattful o r working component of current. Simi-
larly I, = / sin 4, being always at right angles to voltage, is
responsible for no power and is called the reactive, wattless o r
idle component of current. The example further illustrates these
terms.
Example 85. A single-phase a.c. motor of 15kW and 90 per
cent efficiency is run from a single-phase supply of 400V. Find
the current taken from the mains, if the motor operates at 0.8
power factor (lagging). What is the value of the active current,
the reactive current and the motor rating in volt amperes.
Motor power output = 15k W = 15 x 1000 watts
Motor power input = l5 low x 100 watts
90
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Fig 137
Here I, =
v and I, = -
- v
I 2 2
Resolving into active and reactive components, using arbi-
tniry signs, we hnve I, = I, cos 4, + I2 cos
and I, = - I , sin 4, - I , sin 4,. I t should be remembered
that these phasors are vertically downwards.
Then I = d m 2and cos 4 = I;.Here cos 4 is the power
factor of the whole circuit.
Example 86. In the circuit shown above, let R, = 3R and
X, = 4while R, = 822 and X, = 642. If the applied voltage
is 20V, find the total current supplied and the power factor of
the complete circuit. Find also the total power expended.
2, = J i i 7 - T T 7 = 4 P T i 2 = @ i = 5 5 n
Then I, = - 20 = 4A
5
z2=4-= J m = m = l 0 ~
20
and I, = - = 2A
10
3 4
cos 4, = - = 0.6 (lagging) sin 4, = - = 0.8
5 5
8
cos 4, = - = 0.8 (lagging) sin 4, = - = 0.6
6
10 10
Also I, = (4 x 0.6) + (2 x 0.8) = 2.4 + 1.6 = 4A
I , = - (4 x 0.8) - (2 x 0.6) = - 3.2 - 1.2 = -4.4A
Whence I = = fltT3
v-4T-+4T =
5 Y5A
=
4
C~rcuitpower factor cos 4 = --- = 0.67 (lagging)
5.95
Power expended = 20 x 5.95 x 0.67 = 80W
The above can be checked thus:
Power in b n n c h I = I I 2 R 1= 4, x 3 = 48W
Power in bianch 2 = I Z 2 R 2= Z3 x 8 = 32W
Total 8 0 ~ .
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A.C.CIRCUITS (continued) AND SYSTEMS 25 1
Fig 138
As before I, = I , cos 4 , + I , cos 4,
and I, = - I , sin 4 , + I , sin 4,. I, will carry either a + ve
or - ve sign, decided by the relative values of I, sin 4 , and
I, sin 4,. Thus the resulting reactive component will act either
upwards o r downwards and the resultant circuit current miiy kx
lagging or leading .as shown ,by the example. As before
I
I = dm and cos 4 = . ; The qualifying term lagging o r
leading is decided by the sign of I,.
Example 87. A circuit consists of two branches in parallel.
Branch A consists of a 20R resistor in series with a 0.07H
inductor, while branch B consists of a 60pF capacitor in series
with a 50R resistor. Calculate the mains current and the circuit
power factor, if the voltage is 200V at 5OHz.
Branch A. XA = 2 x f ~ =2 x 3.14 x 50 x 0.07
= 314 x 0.07 = 2252
RA = 20Q ... Z A = .JFT@
= 29.7R
= a
200 - 6.74A and cos 4 - =- 20
'Thus IA= -
29 7 A - ZA 29.7
= 0.674 (lagging)
22
sin 4, = ?A = - = 0.74
ZA 29.7
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- 1 1 o6 -
-
10 3
Branch B. X , = --
2xfC 2 x 3.14 x 50 x 60 3.14 x 6
5 50
= -= 0.686 (leading)
cos =
2, 72.8
P A R A LLEL RESONA~JCE
Before passing on to the more practical applications of parallel
working, it would be well to point out that, a condition of
resonance can occur for the parallel circuit. This condition is
often termed 'current resonance' to distinguish it from 'voltage
resonance' as dealt with for the series circuit. It will be seen, from
the example set out above, that a condition can arise when
I , sin 4, = I, sin 4, and as -these are the reactive components
of cul.~.cntsin inductive and capacitive branches, then they will
oppose each other tending to produce a total reactive component
ol'zcto v;tluc Tlic rcnxtining itctivc colnponcnts will tot;~lto givc
the line current, since I = +~-0= Ia and the. combined
circuit will operate at unity power factor. The supply current
will also be minimum especially if the resistance values in the
two branches are small compared to the reactance values. This
is illustrated by the pli:lsor diagram (Fig 139). from whicll it is
.;ccn t I i : ~ t .sincc the power. filctors of both branches are low, the
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A . C . C IR C U IT S (continued) A N D SYSTEMS 253
---- --
phase angles 4 , and 4 , are large and I, cos 4, and IB cos &
are small compared to the reactive components.
Fig 139
Large currents can flow in the chokecoil and capacitor
branches, which are very much greater than the main supply
current and these, are therefore, not supplied from the line. On
examining the power waves for an inductor and capacitor, it w ~ l l
be seen that they are directly opposite in phase, as are the current
waves. It can be assumed that as the capacitor discharges, the
power given out is absorbed by the choke in building up its field.
When the field collapses, the power released charges the capacitor
and there is a current due to oscillation of power between choke
and capacitor. Apparatus using such a circuit is an oscillator
and has many applications in radio and electrical filter circuits.
\
If no supply is available the current is not maintained, due to
energy loss in the circuit resistance which, however small.
cannot be neglected. To maintain the oscillatory current, the
resistance loss must be supplied at the correct frequency from
the external supply source.
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT
The full meaning and advantages of this technique, which IS
much used in practical electrical engineering work, is best
illustrated by the use of an example, as now considered.
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F'ig 140
Branch A. X, = 2xfL = 2 x 3.14 x 50 x 0.02
= 3.14 x 2 = 6.280
Z, = Jm2+ = 1/25 39.4 = \644
= 8.02R
240 = 29.8A cos 4, 5
1, = - = -
8.02 80.2
sin 4, -6.28
-= 0.78
8.02
= 0.622 (lagging)
= 0.93 (lagging)
3.14
sin 4, = --- = 0.366
8.6
+
Then I, = (29.8 x 0.622) (27.9 x 0.93) = 18.6 + 26
- 44.64
1, (29.8 x 0.78) + (27.9 x 0.366) = 23.3 + 10.2
- 33.5.
It will be noted that the arbitrary - ve sign has not been used
here since, both branches are inductive and there is no doubt as
to, the resultant current being laggin
Then I = w6-m' = IO&G'-ST
= 10\/19.8 + 11.2 = 1OJ31
or I = 55.6A cos 6, = ---
44'6 - 0.801 (lagging).
55.6
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A.C. CIRCUITS (continued) AND SYSTEMS 255
Fig 141
1
Branch C . Reactance of capacitor X c = -
2xfC
1o6 - lo' ohms
Thus Xc = 2 x 3.14 x 50 x 400 - 3.14 x 4
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Fig 142
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258 REED'S BASIC E L E C T R O T E C H N O ~ Y
1
Since X , = ,;-, t
(b) For this part of the problem it will be seen that I, sin 4,
is not to be cancelled completely since, the line phase
angle is only to be reduced from 4, to 4, and line current
to a ncw vnluc I,. This is illustriitcd by the' diagram (Fig
142b). Sincc thc power or active component remains the
same, then for this condition V I , cos 4, = 40 000 as
before.
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A.C.CIRCUITS(continued) AND SYSTEMS 259
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I
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A . C . C IR C U IT S (continued) A N D SYSTEMS 26 1
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262 R EE D s B A S I C ELECTROTECHNOLOGY
k V ~ r o r 11 I
1 Lord
i
sln I$
1
-
I I
I 1 1 I
a 20-+ 20 o 1 1 0 I
I I
1
b 1 1 0 3 . 6 ~ ~ 82.9 --
I
25
127.9
-
-+
-+
1-
1
-
-
62.16 1 ,
43 3
-
- 18.86 i
11
--
I
0.8
0.5
0.6
-4
0,866 1
J
P O W E R - F A C T O R IMPROVEMKNT (k V A method).
Treatment of problems follows lines, similar to those set Out
for the 'current method'. The diagram for the load condition is
built up by splif?ing the original load k V A into its k W and k V A r
components. Since the k W remains the same, then for a new
power-factor condition for the supply, the final k V A r value is
obtained by reducing the original k V A r by an amount equal to
the XC'Ar of the apparatus being added. Such apparatus must
use no power and the static capacitor is such an item of equip-
ment. The added k V A r being leading, will reduce the lagging
X 1'.4r of the supplv. I t should be noted that if a synchronous
rnotc)r. 1s used to obtain a better overall power factor, then this
also contributes output power which must be taken into account.
. I ' I I I ~W ; I \ I I I U S ~ I ~ ; I I C ( I h y 1 1 1 ~prcvioi~sC X ; I I I I ~ ~ C .
Example 92. A 400V, SOHz, 20kW, single-phase induction
motor has a full-load efficiency of 91.15 per cent and operates at
;I powcl- factor of 0.87 (lagging). Find the k V A r value of the
capacitor to be connected in parallel to improve the circuit
pcnver klctor to 0.95 (I;~gpinp).Find also the capaciti~ncevalue
01' tllis c;~p;~citor. Thc di;~gram(Fig 145), illustrates the problem
;111cI ~ o ~ l l t l o l l .
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A.C. CIRCUITS (conrinltcd) AND SYSTEMS 2 63
Fig 145
I
, and Q, = 23.1 x 0.3123 = 7.21kVAr
I
Required Q value = 12.44 - 7.21 = 5.23kVAr. This there-
fore must be the rating- of the capacitor.
-5230
Capacitor current I, = -= 13.75A
400
Capacitor reactance X, = -
400 - 30.59i2
13.75
lo6
or X, = 30.59 =
2 x 3.14 x 50 x C
Ii where C is the value in microfarads.
lo4 -
Hence C = lo3 - 104pF.
30.59 x 3.14 - 961 -
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POLYPHASE WORKING
The student who intends to have a good practical knowledge
of electrotechnology, must make himself thoroughly conversant
with the terms, relationships and theory of polyphase working.
The importance of the work now to be covered cannot be too
strongly stressed. ~ x p e r i e n c ehas shown that most students
consider this part of theory to be 'that little extra, which breaks
the camel's back' and accordingly give it insufficient attention a t
first. The result is that much hasty revision is necessary when
the v;~riouso.c. m;ichines iire to be studied later. Detailed atten-
tion to fundamentals will bring long-term advantages and,
although the next book will be devoted to more advanced a.c.
[ c c l ~ ~ ~ o l o ~g lyi,csul~jcclIlliltIcr now to bc considcrcd m u s ~bc
treated as bas~cand essential to such further studies. I t must be
both understood and rnemorised.
THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
Universal practice has established 3-phase systems to be the
most advantageous for polyphase working. A single-phase
supply, as is usual for small installations, can always be obtained
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A.C. C IR C U IT S (continued) AN D SYSTEMS 265
-
. - - - -- - -
-
STAR OF Y CONNECTION
The diagram (Fig 147). shows the arrangement and it will be
seen that here, the three coils or phase windings are connected
so that either all the starts or,finishes are joined together to form
the star-point ie 'corresponding ends' are connected together.
Similarly the supply lines are connected to the free ends, remote
from the star-point.
Fig I47
The phasor diagram has been drawn in terms of voltage with
the red-phase voltage (V,) used as the reference. The notation
being used from now on should be observed. It will be seen that
the small letter suffix denotes the phase value, while the capital
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letter denotes the line value. The lines have been identified with-
the colours of the phases to whose 'starts' they have been con-
nected. The double suffix such as V , - , denotes the voltage
between lines, the example being the Red to Yellow line voltage.
Assume the condition when the red-phase voltage wave is
positive and that the 'start' of the red-phase winding is +ve with
respect to the 'finish' or neutral point. Current will flow through
the lines and load as shown. For the example and condition
being considered this is possible because, for the yellow phase at
the same instant, its start will be - ve with respect to its finish,
since the yellow phase wnveform is in its -ve half-cycle.
Thus for the phasor diagram, the voltage between the red and
yellow lincs is,obtained by the phasor difference of Vr and V , .
Since a phasor din'erence is being considered, thc resultant I S
obtained by reversing one phasor with respect to the other and
completing the parallelogram. From the deduction set out
below, it will be seen that the line voltage is d 3 times a phase
voltage. This relation also holds for the other lines and the
associated phases. A further point of importance for the star
connection, is that the line current equals the phase current or
IL = Ipp
Consider the phasor diagram. Let the line voltage V R - , = 2x
x d3
But - = cos 30" :. x = --- Vr or 2x = 43 V ,
vr 2
Hence V R - , = .\/3Vr
or the voltage between lines = .\/3 x a phase voltage.
Thus V , = *d3 x V,,.
For a star connection the following must therefore be re-
membered.
Line voltage = .\/3 Phase voltage
or V = V' 3 V,, = 1.732V,,
Line current = Phase current or I = I,,
It will be noted that the subscript L , as in VLand IL, is omitted
when generalising. This is usual and both V and I can be
assumed to be line values. Ag;r~nthe relations deduced have been
derived for an alternator or source of supply but they also
rcl;itc to a stiir-conncctcd load a s the cxnmplc shows.
Example 93. Three 50R resistors are connected in star across
41 5V, 3-phase mains. Calculate the line and phase currents and
the power taken from the supply.
Since the load is balanced. the voltage across each resistance is
tllc correct phase volt;ipc. 'Thus V,, = - - 240V
415 -
v'3
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A.C. CIRCUITS (continued) AND SYSTEMS 267
Ibuu~
Fig 148
BALANCED LOAD
A 3-phase load is said to be balanced when the currents in all
three phases are equal and their phase angles are the same. If an
instant in time is considered, as shown, on the diagram (Fig 149).
I
Fig 149
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4 NOT TO SCALE
Fig I50
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Fig 151
1 that the start of the red-phase winding ; + ve with respect to the
finish. Current will flow through fron R phase into R line as
shown. At this same instant the voltagc in B phase is negative ir
its finish is +ve with respect to its star . Thus it is also correctly
connected for feeding current into the i line and a line current
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A.C. CIRCUITS (continued) AND SYSTEMS 2,
--- - -- - - -- - - - -
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( a ) k V A input = --
3 VI = 1 3 x 400 x 16.5
loo0 loo0
= 6.6 x 1,732 = 1 l.43kV A
( b ) Output power = 9kW
9.0
True active input power = -= 10.11kW
0.89
active power - - 10.1 1
-
So power factor =
apparent power 11.43
= 0.88 (lagging).
Esnmple 97a. A 3-phase, star-connected alternator supplies a
delta-connected induction motor at 600V. The current taken is
40A. Find ( a ) the phase voltage of the alternator (b) the current
i n c i ~ c hp h i l ~ cof thc motor. Refer to the diagram (Fig 152).
Fig 152
voltale
--
( a ) For a star connection V =
.'. V,, = v = ---
v3
600
\ 3
V,,
= 346V. This is the alternator phase
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#YB
Fig 153
400
Here I, = - = 4A in phase with V,,
100
400
Also I, = - = 3.7A leading V,, by 90"
106
Reversing I, and using the modified Cosine Rule
= dl,* + +
21Jb CoS 30'
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PRACTICE EXAMPLES
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A . C . C IR C U IT S (continued) AND SYSTEMS 275
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CHAPTER 12
ELECTROMAGNETISM (continued)
Earlier treatment of the electromagnetic circuit has introduced
fundamental relationships between magnetomotive force-F,
F l u x 4 and Reluctance-S. It will also be remembered that,
the m.m.f. per metre length is called the magnetising force,
magnetic field strength or intensity-H, whilst B (in teslas) is the
flux density.
F
For revision, we write Q, = -, and F = H x I where I is the
3
0 1
lc~igtllof tlic magnetic circuit. Also B = - and S = - where p
A DA
is the absolute permeability and A is the area of the mcgnetic
circuit
PERMEABILITY OF FREE SP A CE ( p , ) . Earlier
work defined the term
permeability as the ratio of flux density in a medium to the
magnetising force producing it. Fur free space, a vacuum, air or
any other non-magnetic material, a value for the permeability
can be deduced as 4x x lo-' in the appr.opriate SI units or
p, = 4x x microhenrys per metre (pH/m). Also since
p, = B : H then H =
4x x 10-
, amperes o r ampere-turns per
metre.
Thus the amperesjmetre o r ampere-turnslmetre for air
-
-
flux density
permeability of free space'
From the foregbing i t can also be deduced that BIH = a con-
stant or B ac H.
If therefore for air, values of B are plotted to a base of H , a
graph, as-shown in the diagram (Fig 154), would be obtained.
This would obviously be a straight line and if measurements of
flux density B were made, at a point outside, but near to, a long
straight current-carrying conductor, for various values of magne-
tising force H , by varying the current; i t being remembered that
I
I
H = -- where r 1s the radius from the point to the centre of the
2xr
c . o ~ l d ~ ~ i . l then
o r . tllc s l r ; ~ ~ g l ~ ~ - 11/11 would bc
l i r l c rcli~lior~ship
confirmed.
I . MAGNET!SIKG FORCE DIJE TO A LONG, STRAIGHT CURRENT-
('AHHYING CONDUCTOR
As mentioned above, the magnetising force outside, but
I
;~d~;iccnt
to. ;I current-cilr~.yingconductor, is given by /-I = -- .
2xr
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I
r
Fig 154
This expression was deduced earlier (in Chapter 5) and should
be revised. It should also be remembered that, H is the m.m.f.1 I
metre length. Magnetomotive force-F, is measured in ampere-
turns and thus the total m.m.f. for any magnetic circuit outside
I
the conductor can be found from F = HI. I
2. MAGNETISING FORCE INSIDE SOLENOID I
If a parallel field of flux lines is assumed inside a solenoid as
illustrated by the diagram (Fig 155), then its length can be taken I
as I metres, the number ot'turns on the coil as N nnd tlic c u r r c ~ i l l
passed as I amperes. The lines of flux are known to fan out at the
ends and for their return path they spread out into space. This I
external return path has negligibly small magnetic reluctance I
and the whole m.m.f. of the coil can be regarded as being utilised
in setting up the field inside the solenoid. Thus the m.m.f. per
unit length is, by definition, H-the magnetising force
F IN
Thus H = - = - ampere-turns per metre.
I 1
I---
1- METRE $
N TURNS
AMPERES
I Fig 155
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Fig 156
Example 99. A wooden ring having a mean circumference of'
300mm and a uniform cross-sectional area of 400mm2, is wound
uniformly overau with 300 turns of insulated wire. If the current
is 3A, calculate (a) the magnetising force (b) the flux density
inside the toroid and (c) the total flux produced.
(a) The total m.m.f. produced = 3 x 300 = 900At
The mean circumference is 300mm = 0.3 metres
F 900
.: The magnetising force H = - = -
1 0.3
= 3000Atlm
(h)Thc flus density is given by B = p, H
= 4 ~ lo-' 3000
= 12.56 x lo-' x 3 x 103
= 1.256 x 3 x 10-3
= 3.768 x
= 0.003 77T
(c) The total flux produced = B x A
= 0.003 77 x 400 x
= 1.5 x webers
01. (D = 1.5uWb
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FERROM AGNETISM
I t is known that, when iron is used as tlie core of an electro-
m;lpnet. thc ficld is intensified or that a very much greater flux
results from tllc ~n;ignctising~ I I I ~ ~ ~ ~ C
01' -the
I Ucncryisiny
I . I I ~ coil.
Since the only ckilnye in the reliition d, must bedue to the
=
S'
reluctance S and if the dimensions oP the core I and A are kept
the same as for the air path, it follows that the permeability of
the iron must be very much greater than that of air. Thus we
can now make reference to the permeability of a magnetic
material which is termed relative peJmeabiliry.
(p,) This is the ratio of the flux densit)
RE L A T I V E PERM E A BILIT Y
which is produced in a magnetic material to tlie flux density
which would be produced in air by the same magnetmotive
force. For materials such as iron, nickel, cobalt, etc this value of
pr can be very large, ranging from 1000 to 200d or even more for
some special electrical steels. It can be quoted as the permeability
figure for the material but is not constant and varies with the
flux-density value at which the material is being worked. It is of
interest to mention that materials such as bismuth have a relative
permeability value of less than 1.
THE B-H OR MAGNETISATION CURVE
If a specimen of magnetic material is made up in the form of a
ring and is wound with an energising coil, measurements of flux
density for various values of magnctising rorcc can hc m:~tlchy
winding on a secondary coil and using the principle of trans-
former action. I t is not proposed at this stage to discuss the
manner in which the tests are made but it can be stated that this
is an accepted industrial method for determining the magnetic
properties of various materials.
It has already been seen thht; if the flux density B is plotted
against the magnetising force H for air, a straight line is obtained,
but for magnetic materials, curves as shown in the diagram (Fig
157) will result.
It will be noticed that, at first, the graphs.are approximately
straight lines, showing B to be proportional to H. Then the
curves begin to turn over forming a 'knee' and finally they
become horizontal and exhibit'little increase in B for a large
increase in H. In this state, the material is said to 'saturate.'-
an explanation for this has already been given when dealing with
the molecular theory of magnetism. -
If the permeability (p,) is plotted to a base of B, curves as
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MACNITISINC FORC t . H (A S / m )
Fig 157
shown in the diagram (Fig 158) would result. The permeability
curve has a peak corresponding to the point on the B-H curve
where the tangent goes through the origin. Beyond this peak the
permeability value drops off fairly rapidly.
An examination of the B-H and p,-B curves shows how the
properties o f various magnetic materials differ. The effect on
machine design can also easily be seen,-lower working B values
necessitate larger section and greater mass to obtain a required
flux \,slue. The effect of high permeability materials is also
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;lpparent and the shape of the B-H curve with the saturation
~ I I I I I ~ ~ ~ Ior~ I IIIIIC'IIIIIC
cll'cc.1, ~ I I O W lllc ~ I ~ ficI(I ' I ~ % ~ C I I I R
I
The magnetic properties are dependent upon the artu.CII COIII-
positiou ol' tllc subsrancc. T l l ~ s~n:~ng:~ncsc-steel i a p17i\cti~i\ll\
i
non-magnetic, but small quantities of carbon or silicon wlicn I
added to steel vary the shape of the B-H curve and sheets of I
commercial steel marketed under trade names, like Stalloy or
Lohys, are available to suit different design requirements. I
( p ) .Since permeability is the ratio of the
AB S O L U T E PERME A BI L IT Y I
flux density in a medium to the magnetising force producing it.
and for air it is known that B = p a , it follows, for a material I
with a relative permeability of p,, that B = prp,H o r B = p H I
where p = prpo.
1
Summarising, we can define absolute permeability as the ratio
of flux density in a substance (in teslas) to the magnetising force
(in ampere-turns per metre) which produces that flux density.
S). This term has been mentioned earlier.
R EL U C T A N C E (SYMBOL
It has been likened to the resistance of an electrical circuit. Since
flux is proportional to the m.m.f. and is restricted by the reluct-
ance, further investigation will show that reluctance in turn is
proportional to the length 1of the magnetic circuit and is inversely
proportional to its area A . Furthermore it must be inversely
proportional to the permeability. since the greater the permea-
bility of the material the greater the flux and hence the sm;lllcr
I
the reluctance. We can therefore write, S = and point out
---
uA
hcrc tllac ;~hsolutcpcrmci~hilityis hcillg uscri. i~ being I . C I I I ~ I I ~ -
bered that p = p,po.
Calculations on magnetic circuits using magnetic materi:~ls
are now possible, but it should be noted that, unlike electrical
V
circuit calculations which use I = -, it is not always necessary
R
F
to use the comparable relationship of @ = - The solution of
S '
M . M . F . of coil is given by F = HI = x I = IN
I
'0°
Flux 0 = - = ;'944 = 5 x 3.944 x l o - ' weber
S 10
ALTERNATIVE SOLUTION
so H = B I 104
-- - - - -
-- ampere-turns per
4 104 4 x x metre
I o4 x x x 240 x 10- 3
R1 hl.1- 01' rlrlg = 111 = - --
4 x x
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EL EC T RO MAG NET IS M (continued) 283
600
If the coil turns are 200, then the current would be -= 3A.
200
ALTERNATIVE SOLUTlON
I
Iicluctancc of ring S = - -- -
~rjlLV4
n x 240 x
or S =
lo3 x 4~ x lo-' x 400 x
- 6
4 x 10-~
= 1.5 x lo6 ampere-turnslweber
Since 0 = 400pWb = 4 x weber
then required m.m.f. = 5'0= 1.5 x lo6 x 4 x
= 6 x lo2 = 600At
600
Required current = - = 3A.
200 C
Fig 159
Then total m.m.f. = m.m.f. across section 1 + m.m.f. across
section 2. If the flux is Q,
then @S = OS! -- OS,
where S is reluctance of the composite circuit. Thus:
S = S , + S,.
Summarising: Total reluctance = the sum of the individual
reluctances of the sections for a ser: : lrrangement.
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Fig 160
If the different paths of the magnetic circuit are in parallel.
then the necessary m.m.f. is that which will produce the required
flux in each part of the circuit considered by itself. Let F = the
rn.1n.f. required to produce fluxes @,, @, @, etc. F also pro-
duces total flux @. - .-.
f- -
-- 14
So @ =
Total Reluctance of circuit S
I .
- 1s referred to as the perrneance of a magnetic circuit and the
S
above can bc s u ~ i l ~ n a ~ . ~bys esaying
d tllal; the reluctance ol' a
divided magnetic circuit (sections in parallel), can be found by
knowing that its permeance is equal to the sum of the perme-
ances of the individual circuits.
Example 102. A n iron ring has a mean diameter of 200mm
' . a i l . gap of0.4rnm is made by
, ~ n d;I C ' I ~ L ~ S ~ - S C C o~ I O' ~I O~ O l i l ~ ~ i.A11
; I r:~tli;~l .;;lu.-c.trl ;1cr-oss(lie r i n g . A s c ~ ~ m i n;I gpcnnc;~hilitvof 3000
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E L E C TR O M A G N ET I S M (ronfinue~d) 285
-
-
62.76
36 x rr .x
= 555.2 x lo3 ampere-turns/wekr
0.4 104
Reluctance of air gap S , =
4 x x 1 0 - ' x 3 x 10-4
- 265.28At I
H for iron is given by:
H I= -0.833 - - 0.833 -
- 66.32 x lo4 1
GAP 0.351Wb
Fig 161
Flux density (T) 0.65 0.89 1.06 1.18
Magnetising Force ( A P m ) 200 300 400 500
Solution uses the graph (Fig 162) obtained from the above
d;1t;1
: \ r c . ~ i ol'iron a n d air gap = 20 x 20 x
= 4 x IV4square metre
1.c11gtl1ol l1.011 - n >. ( I I I C ~ I I cl~;rr~~etcr)
I - a l r gap
= ( n x 120 x l K 3 )- ( 1 x 10-3)metre
= (376.8 - 1.0) = 375.8 x metre
6 ,cngrli oi' ;ilr gap =- I x 10 ' metre
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ELECTROMAGNETISM (continued) 287
Fig 162
From graph for the iron H = 290Atlm
So for Iron, m.m.f. F , = 290 x 375.8 x lW3
= 108.88At
B
For air, since H =-
-
,11"
-
- 0.875
ampere-turns
4 x .n x 10-7
metre
0.875 x lo7 x 1 x
and for air, m.m.f. F A =
4 x x
Fig 163
I t will be seen t h ; t t the flux in air tends to occupy a larger area
than that of the iron, and the flux density is thus reduced. An
allowance can be made for this effect in problems when required,.
but unless a directive to this effect is given, the area of the air gap
can be taken as the area of the iron.
M A G N E T I C L E A K A G E . For some magnetic circuits, due to the shape
of the iron core and the positioning of the energising coil, a small
amount of flux leakage occurs as shown by the diagram (Fig
FLUX IN POLE = VSIfVL FLUX X If AKACf
COfFFlC IENT
164). Somc lines o f flux arc not confined to the iron and coni-
1)lrtr ! I I ~ I I ' 1>itt115 [li~,ougiiair. I-'or. pr.;rctic:tl purposes, a l'i~ctor
known as the In~X-rrgc.r,ocjSc,iettt may be given which, when used,
increases the required working flux value by a n amount sufiicient
to allow !.or' this leakage.
Thus: the required total flus = the useful o r working flux x
lea kagc coeff~cient.
Tlic Ic;~h;~gc ~ o c l i i ~ i c nm;ly
t hc hctwccn 1 . 1 ; ~ n d1.3.
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Fig 165
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B 1
For air, since N = - =
p0 4 x 10-7
- - l o 7 ampere-turns,metre
-
4 x x
and m.m.f., FA = - lo' x 0.5 x lo-'
4 x x
- - =1-o4
- = lo' 3988At
8x11 2.512
From graph f o r the iron, H = 800At;m for a B value of 1.3T
1 o t ; i I ;iliil~cre-turli~
required -
and m.m.f., F, = 800 x 0.5 = 400At
398.8 + 400 = 798.8At
( b ) Induced e.m.f. given by E = Blv volts
S ~ n c ethe area of the alr gap is that of a square, the side of the
- -
square is L. 1000 x = v'10 x
= 3.162 K metre
Thus E = I x 3,162 x x lo2
= 3.162 volts
\'oic In the above B = 1 tesla. I = 3,162 x lo-' metre and
v = 1OOmls.
I R O N LOSSES
The efficiency of electrical machines and transformers is
lo~vered by tlg losses which occur in them. Apart from the
. C l c c ~ / ~ n t ~ Lasses
icnl such as Friction and Windage and the Copper
Lo.\.srs, due to the resistance of the conductors, an additional
1qs.s occurs when 3 magnetic material is taken through a cyclic
iiiriation of magnetisation. This loss I S termed the Iron i o . s s
:ind 1s itself made up of two component losses which are ( 1 ) the
I!i~stc~rc~.si.r L o x and (2) the Eddy current Los.s. The cause of
:hc\e two sources of power loss will next be considered.
r t l l - H Y S T E RE S I S L OO P
II'the m;lpnetlslnp force applied to an iron ci~rnpleis increased
11.0111 L ~ ' I . O to S O I I ~ C1ii;1~11iiu1ii
v;~lue,in exactly the sariic way ;I>
when making the test for a B-H curve, and is then reduced to
zero, ~t will be found that the new B-H curve, for decreasing
L.;IIUCS 01' 11, will lie ~ I ~ O Vthe C original ascending curve, and that
when H is zero B is {eft at some value. The effect of the descend-
Ins LXII.\C be111g ; I ~ o \ . ctlie ascending one. is said to be due to
' I ~ \ . ~ I ~ I . C \ I \ ' . since tllc R v:rlucs lag behind those for tlie cor-
r.c.\l~o~icl~ng 11 \ll.engtll when increasing. T h e word hysteresis
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ELE C T R O MA G N ETI S M (continued) 29 1
.
- .- - --
Fig 166
comes from the Greek meaning 'to lag'. The diagram (Fig 166)
shows the effects being discussed.
The value of B when H is zero is the 'remanence' and is a
measure of the residual magnetism. In order to demagnetise the
iron it is necessary to apply a negative magnetising force, known
as the 'coercive force'. If now, H is increased in the negative
direction to its previous maximum value, the curve will reach a
value equal to the previous maximum B and if H is next gradually
rccluccd to zero, rcvcrscd und incrcuscd to its arigini~l~nuxinlunl,
a closed loop will be traced. This is a hysteresis loop and is a
measure of part of the iron loss.
T o take the iron through the various stages represented by the
loop, an alternating magnetising force has to be applied. One
method of achieving this is by connecting the energising coil to
an a x . supply, when theiron will continue to go through the same
series of changes or magnetic cycles. To confirm that energy is
being expended, it will be found that the iron core will register a
temperature rise. Although it is not proposed, at this stage, to
prove ttie fact that the area of the loop is a measure of the powel
loss due to hysteresis, the loop can be regarded as an indicator
diagram. More advanced studies will show that the energq
absorbed per cubic metre per cycle, due to hysteresis, is given in
joules by the area of the loop, provided the scales used for the
graph are in the appropriate SI units. During the development
of the proof, it would be stated that the energy stored in the
magnetic field is represented by the area OABCDO (Fig 166).
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Fig 167
If the iron sample was non-magnetic, ie air, then the B-H
curve would be a straight line, as is shown in the diagram (Fig
165), and the energy stored in the field when it is set up, is
represented by the area of the triangle OBC. This energy is
recovered wlierb, the field collapses. No energy is wasted when
air is'qhe m e d ~ u mof a pulsing magnetic field.
For alr. area of triangle OBC = -1 O C x CB
2
B x H
where B, is thc maximum Ilux density value, which has been
attained for the H value which was impressed.
I
1 Bm -
- --
Bm
But B = p,M. :. Area of triangle = - x Bm x -
2 Po ~ P O
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ELECTROMAGNETISM (('Or?litlll('(/) 20 3
Fig 168
indicates that the material is suitable for permanent magnets.
The area however is large, showing that hard steel is not suitable
for rapid reversals of magnetism. Loop 2 rises sharply showing a
high p and a good retentivity (large intercept on B axis). The
loop is typical of cast-steel and wrought-iron, w b c h are suitable
materials for cores of electromagnets and yokes of electrical
machines. Loop 3 has a small arca and a high p . The material
(mainly alloyed sheet-steels) is suitable for rapid reversals of
ma g netism and is used for mnchine armatures, transformer-
cores, etc
1. HYSTERESIS LOSS. Since this. is a function of loop area, the
effect of varying B on the area requires consideration. When the
value of H is increased eg doubled, the value of B is not doubled
and consequently the ratio of the loop area is not quadrupled.
1 1 is li)t~ntllo incrci~sc: ~ b o t 3~ ,ll 1i111csi ~ t ~ il'wc
tl nsstlrllc Arci~crl'
Loop to be proportional to BmX then x lies between 1 and 2-
here B, is the maximum value to which the flux density has k e n
taken. Steinmetz originally found x to be practically constant
for all specimens of iron and steel and to equal 1.6 (approxi-
mately).
This figure is called the Steinmetz Index and we can now
write: power loss per cubic metre per cycle as PH cc Bm1''6
o r PH = constant x Bm"6 x f joules per second.
Thus P H = K H x B,"~ x f watts per cubic metre, where KH
1s a hysterrsls coeficicnt, depending on the material being con-
'sidered, and f is the cyclic frequency of magnetic alternation.
Summarising :
Hysteresis loss P, = K,B,' ' 6 f watts per cubic metre-an
empirical formula.
2. EDDY - C U RRE N T LOSS. When an armature rotates in a magnetic
field, an e.m.f. is induced in the conductors. Since the conductors
are let into slots, it is obvious that the armature teeth can also be
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P U L L OF A N ELECTROMAGNET
It has been seen that the energy stored in a magnetic field in
BZ
air is given by - joules per cubic metre, where B is in teslas
2/43
Consider two poles arranged as shown in the diagram (Fig 169),
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Each has an area A square metres and let F be the force ot'
r ~ l t r r ~ c t i o(in
n ncwtonu) hctwc.~ri t l i r ~ l c ~ l r u
Let one pole be m o v ~ da s l n i ~ l l~ I S ~ ~ I I .\I C( CI ~ w ~ I . c . \ ) i l g i l l l l h t [ I I C
force F. Then the work dorlc i s F\- nrw~on1nrlrt.s 01. io\~lrs.
The volume of the magnetic field has been increased by ,4.v
cubic metres and therefore the energy stored in the field is In-
B2
creased by -- x . 4 . ~joules. This is obviously equal to the worA
2 ~ 0
done In separating the poles so that Fu = - B 2 A.u
2/10
= 0.942T
B2A - 0.942' x 1000 x
Now pull F = --- - newtons
2p0 2 x 4 x x lo-'
~ h u Fs =
and the pull would be 353.3N.
z:f
-newtons
, ,.
Total ampere-turns o r M . M . F . for air gap IS given by:
1: = ..- 1 23-.- -- x 2 x 10 ampere-turns
A 4 x 1 1 4 ~10.'
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P O LE(Cast Steel)
Length 24 x metre
Area 0.065 = 6 . 5 x 1 0 r,ciu;lrc rnc!rr
Y O KE(Cast Steel)
3.04
Length -= 0.76 = 76 x metre (between poles)
4
or 0.38m magnetic length
Area = 2 x 0.04 = 0.08 square metre. (Note the
doubling of the area since full pole area has
been taken for the flux)
= 8 x 10-'m2
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(Laminations)
A RM A T U RE
0.4
Length - = 20 x metre (magnetic length)
2
Area = 2 x 0.025 = 0.05 = 5 x lo-' sauare metres
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CHAPTER 1 2
PRACTICE EXAMPLES
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CONSTITUTION OF MATTER
Matter may be de'fined as anything that occu5es space. I t may
be'in solid, liquid o r gaseous form but basically consists of
molecules of the substance. A molecule is the smallest particle of
a substance that can exist by itself. Thus molecules have the
properties of the substance which they form but themselves
ccnsist of groups of atoms. As an example, a molecule of water.
written H,O, consists of 2 atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen.
The atom is defined as the smallest particle that can enter into
chemical action, but is itself a complex structure consisting of
charges of electricity. A substance that contains only atoms with
tlie samc propcrtics is called iln clcmcnr, but one conluining
atoms of different properties is called a compound.
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a4 -.
ILtCTl.ON
#
fltCTRON
-4'- ''
.wc
/
* - * -=\
-
I 1 NfUIRON
\
\
- /
/
/ \
\
\-or
,'
/
\ '.**'
f'.
/',/
.e'
HYDROCE N
ATOM -
Hf LlUM
ATOM
\ - _
OXlC f N
#
Fig 172
-
ATOM
/ ; l a \ a\!\ -
,B'
/
/
/o-.*
\
, ' ,d I ,o.- \*%\'\
' , \ \
\ \ \
1 1I
/ /6 /
( 1 t0 \ 1
\ , ' 1 I '\ \ I I# I
\
/' /
' \ \ \
\
\ - - - D' / ,' /
' 4 -
~\
_ *\ .. P
\
' - - /
/
\
\ -..&-' , /
/'
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ELECTRON THEORY, BASIC ELECTRONICS, ELECTKOSTATI(3 303
-
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.
-qi,+?+~.ls.r-b-++;tb,
yo;
05
\ .
4 d
.. ~ -<-,.:,
0 --q<f-Q<)
ELECTRONS
N O APPLIED P. D . APPLIED P.D. AS SHOWN
ELECTRIC FIELD
This tcrm h ; ~ s;\lrcndy hccn used in association with the
potential diff'erence required to cause electron movement in a
circuit. I t will bc dc;llt with in mnrc dctnil under the heading of
Electrostatics, but must be given some attention here, since i t is
directly associated with electron or current flow.
Elemental bodies such as those made of metal, have the same
electrical properties of their atoms. If therefore, the atoms are
charged: in that they 11,ave become ions. either through the
removal of electrons making them +vely charged or through an
ovcr i~bundi~ncu ol.clcctrons. making rhcm -vcly c h ~ ~ r g cthcn
d,
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ELECTROSTATICS
Mention has been made in this chapter, and in Chapter 4, of
the existence of static charges but, for the reader who is con-
solidating his studies at this point, we can repeat the introduction
made before proceeding with further work. From earliest times
the presence of electricity was known because of its simple
attraction and repulsion effects. The Greeks for instance, knew
that a piece of amber, when rubbed, attracted light bodies such
as pieces of cork and fibrous material. The amber was said to be
charged with electricity and the phenomena to be discussed here,
are concerned with the presence of electric charges at rest ie
electrostatics.
Experiments show that the simplest method of generating
static electricity is by rubbing or friction. Thus a glass rod when
rubbed with silk is electrified and can attract pieces of paper, but
if a similarly treated glass rod is suspended by a thread, and
brought near the original charged glass rod, then a repulsion
effect would be noted. An ebonite rod rubbed with fur would
also be found to be charged and, if brought near-to the suspended
charged glass rod, attraction would be noted.
Summansing, we cnn aciy tlint the glnsa and cbonltc r~ccluirc
charges which can be of two types, termed positive (+ve) and
negative (- ve), and that like charges repel whereas unlike
charges attract. The allocation of the type, +ve charge to the
glass rod and -ve charge to ebonite, is purely arbitrary, but the
general theory is that all uncharged bodies consist of +ve and
- v e charges which neutralise each other. If these charges are
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I?LI!CTRON THEORY, BASIC ELECTRONICS, I!I.ECTHOS.TATI('S 307
SULATtO
TOP
.MIlrL
FRAHf
CLAI J
IlDf 5
Fig 175
The action of the electroscope is apparent when the instrument
is studied. Assume a +ve charge to be given to the electroscope
I
by stroking the disc with a glass rod which has been charged by 1
rubbing with silk. The +ve charge imparted to the disc spreads
all over the insulated -metal and the leaves, having the same i
charges, are repelled and diverge. The condition is as shown in 1
the diagram (Fig 175). If an ebonite rod, -vely charged by
rubbing it with fur, is brought near the electroscope, the leaves
will be seen to converge. The explanation is that the +ve ,I
charges on the electroscope are attracted by the -vely charged
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rod and rise up to concentrate in the area of the disc. The charge
on the leaves thus diminishes and the repulsion force between
them falls. In the same way, a +vely charged. glass rod brought
near the instrument will produce a further divergence of the
leaves, since the +ve charges already present are repelled down
towards the leaves. The density of charge in this region thus
increases and increased divergence is indicated. The instrument,
though seldom seen in use outside the laboratory, is useful for
assisting with simple demonstrations and will be referred to
frequently.
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
If, when two bodies are charged, as described earlier, and are
brought into contact, a minulc current is notcd to flow bctwccn
them while the charges equalise, then in the isolated and
electrified state, a potential difference will exist between them.
For the bodies to maintain their charges they must be insulated'
from earth, ie mounted on insulating rods. In the case of the
electroscope, the charge given to it is with respect to earth; the
gold leaves, rod and disc of the instrument being one body and
the mass of earth being the other. Thus the leaves are charged
+ve to earth if a +ve charge is given to the electroscope.
Similarly a - ve charge given to the instrument means that the
leaves are -ve with respect to earth. It can thus be seen that if
two bodies are charged +ve and -ve, they are at a potential to
each other, ie a potential difference exists between them and
they are also a b a potential to earth. One body is +ve to earth
and the other -ve to earth, the earth mass itself being con-
sidered to be at zero potential.
ELECTROSTATIC CHARGING
The effect of friction has already been mentioned and in
practical engineering, it is the mo-st important cause of electrlc
charging. Tht: build-up of charges can be quite considerable and
prrcuutions must bc takcn in thc artificial silk, paper, rubber,
cable-making and associated industries to discharge the bales or
coils of mnterit~laftcr they hqve been processcd. Such processing
involves, kneading, rolling, drawing, etc and the friction effects
can cause large voltages to be generated, which would be un-
comfortable and even dangerous to persons handling the
material. The electrostatic charging of aircraft and rnotor-
vehicles is a well-known hazard and in the case of the former,
because of the large voltages possible, a means of earthing is
necessary before persons can alight from the aeroplane. Electric-
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ELECTRON THEORY , BASIC ELECTRONICS, ELECTROSTATICS 309
--- - - -- -- -- -- - - --
Fig 176
It will be noted that charging by induction results in a charge
of opposite polarity being produced. For the example, the
inducing charge was +ve and a -ve charge resulted on the
instrument. If a - ve inducing charge had been used, a +ve
charge would result on the electroscope.
DISTRIBUTION OF CJIARGE
The statements set out below are the results of experiments
with a charged electroscope and a proof plane. The latter is a
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small metal disc fitted with an insulated handle. The proof plane
is placed in contact with the body being investigated and is
electrified to the same polarity. If brought near a charged
electroscope, movement of the leaves with the appropriate
interpretation will enable conclusions to be made. The following
are some deductions made as a result of such investigations as
illustrated by the diagram (Fig 177).
Fig 177
1. A hollow body such as that shown, is only charged on the
outside. Thus a proof plane contacted with the outer surface and
presented to a charged electroscope, will show a deflection. If
contacted with the inside, it will show no deflection.
2. If a sphere is charged, the charge is spread uniformly over
its surface and the surface density is uniform. If a charged body
is nop-spherical, the charge concentration is found to be
greatest in the region where the radius of curvature is the smallest.
The diagram (Fig 178) depicts what is stated, the charge dis-
tribution or surface density being represented by the dotted
envelope. *
Fig 178
3. 11'n cliarycd body 1s shaped to have a sharp point, then the
charge concentrates at the point and the surface density may be
so great that dust or particles in the air, corning in contact with
the body, are charged and repelled. On moving away, each
particle removes a small portion of the original charge and the
effect of a point on a charged body is to discharge the. body. The
action of the lightning conductor can now be explained.
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ELECTRON THEORY, BASIC ELECTRONICS, ELECTROSTATICS 311
Fig 179(a)
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Fig 179(b)
Fig 179(c)
Fig 179(d)
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ELECTROSTATIC nux
As for the magnetic field so for the electric field, we can
introduce the term flux. The symbol is !P (the Greek letter psi)
and the number of electrostatic lines of flux, passing through a
particular medium, is called the flux. Since the practical unit of
charge is the coulomb, then in order to establish an electrostatic
unit we consider one line of flux to emanate frcqm 1 coulomb.
Thus a charge of 10 coulombs will have in association a flux of
10 lines, or !P will equal 10 coulombs. Since most practical
electrostatic work is concerned with capacitors which are made
up from flat plate-like conductors, placed adjacent and parallel
to each other and as the medium between the plates or dielectric
carries the flux, it is convenient to introduce the term 'rlrctric
r 'V
,pzrx density ,-symbol D. Thus D = where A is the area of the
dielectric in square metres. Then D" = -
y or -Q coulomb per
A A
square metre.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
The basic idea of electric potential has already been intrn-
duced when it was seen that, if two bodies are charged and
connected together, then as a current flowed while the charges
equalise, there must have been a difference of potential between
them. Again, since the earth mass can be taken as being at zero
potential then, if a body charged with Q coulombs of electricity
is connected to earth, a current will flow. The current will be
from the body to earth if it is +vely charged, and from earth to
the body if -vely charged. The direction of the current is not
important but work is done during this period. If we consider
that 1 joule of work is done whilst 1 coulomb is passed, then
the potential difference or electric potential of the body must
have been 1 volt. Voltage is therefore used as a measure of the
potential difference between the body and earth.
The- reasoning already made can also be applied to the
practical capacitor, when the plates are charged with respect to
each other. The condition of a charged capacitor can usefully be
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THE CAPACITOR
Numerous references have already been made to the electrical
capacitor o r condenser, as it used to be called orignally. In its
simplest form, it consists of two metal plates separated from
each other by a film of air. As will be seen later, the area of the
pl;ltr.s, disti~nce of sepi1r:ttion and nature of the dielectric
(insulating medium), all influence the performance of a capacitor,
htlt tiic b:~sicf;~ctIcnrncd from any cxpcriments made with such
an arrangement is t h a t i t can store electricity. Thus if the plates
are connected to a source of supply through a sensitive milli-
ammeter, then a current will be seen to pass at the instant of
closing the switch. The current will quickly fall to zero, because
the potential difference between the plates will be seen to rise, as
indicated by an appropriate voltmeter. The form of current fall-
off o r decrement, form: a separate item of investigation, but the
capacitor can now be assumed to hx1.e attained a 'charged' state.
If the supply is disconnected and the plates are shorted together,
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CAPACITOR SYSTEMS
Such units can be connected in series or parallel and the
\ttldenl should compare [he expression\ glvlng ecl~riv;~lcnl
capacit;~nccv;~lucsw ~ t hlIlo\c. g~vlngC ~ ~ L I I L , . I ~I .CC \II~\ ( I; I I I C . C vi~luc\.
for comparable arrangements.
SERIES CO N N E C T I O N . The arrangement is shown in the diagram
(Fig 180).
- Fig 180
-----------+I
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we can write:
v-=a+&+&
c, C2 C3
If C is taken to be the equivalent capacitance of the arrangement
then
v = -Q
C
or Q=&+&+e,
-
c
Cl c2 C3
but the same current flows through each capacitor for the same
time. :. Q = Q1 = Q2 = Q3 and the above can be simplified
to :
1 - -1 1 1
- + c2 + c3
- - etc.
c c,
P A R A L LEL C O NN E C T I O N , The arrangement is shown in the diagram
(Fig 181), from which it will be seen that the same voltage is
applied to each capacitor.
C
Fig 181
Then for each capacitor Q , = C ,V Q , = C2V Q , = C, V
If the total quantity of charge = Q then obviously
+
Q = C , V + C , V + C , V = V ( C , C , C,) +
or 2v = c1+ C , + C,
If C is taken as the equivalent capacitance of the arrangement,
then Q = C V orCV=V(C,+C,+C,)
when C = C, C, + +
C,.
Fxamplc 108. I f two capacitors of values 100pF and 50pF
respectively, are connected (a) in senes (b) in parallel, across a
steady applied voltage of 1000V, calculate the jolnt capacitance
(a) Series. Joint capacitance C is given by :
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ELECTRON THEORY, BASIC FL.F(.TKONICS. EI.ECTHOSTATI(.S 317
or I = C-
v
-
Since Q = 11 tllcrl It C ' I '
t
The expression shows that current only flows when the voltage
v
across a capacitor is changing, since - represents a rate of change
t
of voltage. The current at any Instant can also be found, il' the
rate of change of the voltage is known at that instant. If however.
the rate of change is unifontg for a period of time, then a con-
stant current will flow. This is illustrated by the example.
Example 109. The p.d. across the plates of a 50pF capacitor
r
varies thus
From time r = 0 to t = 1 millisecond. V rises uniformly from
0 to 200 volts
From time r = 1 to t = 3 millisecond. I'is constant at 200 volts
From time r = 3 to t = 5 millisecond, L'falls uniformly from
200 volts to 0
Illustrate the voltage variations on a graph and deduce the
shape of the current wave during the period of 5 milliseconds.
Fig 182
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318 REED 'S BAS IC ELECTROTECHNOLOGY
Since Q = CV = It then It = CV or I = C -
v
t
(200 - 0) - 50 X 200 X
(a) I = 50 x 10-b x
0.001 - 1x
= lo4 x = 10A (charging)
= 0 amperes
(c) I = 50 x (0 - 200) - 50 X
x x ( - 200)
-
0.002 2 x 10-3
= - 5A (discharging)
The required graphs are shown on the attached diagram (Fig
1 82).
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ELECTRON THEORY, BASIC ELECTRONICS, ELECTROSTATICS 3 19
RELATIVE PERMITTIVITY
Jf' a parallel-plate capacitor is made lip so that one plate I S
C L ) I ~ I ~ C C10~ C ~ c11rt11i 1 1 1 d ~ I I C O I I I C I lo ; I I I C ~ C L ~ I ~ ~ X C[ IOI C~ c~ lCl c, ~0,1 ~
altering the nature of the dielectric can be observed. With air a s
[ l \ c I I ~ S L I I ; I [ I I \ ~I C ~ I L I I \\)C[\VCCII
\ [l\c ~ I : I [ C > ,tl\c c : ~ p : ~ i * ~ ~[ o\ ,~\ I, I1~
charged to a given value as would be indicated by the amount ol'
divergence of the leaves of the instrument. If now a sheet of
insulating material, such as a slab of paraffin-wax, was inter-
posed into the air-gap, a converging effect of the leaves is pro-
duced, indicating that the charge appears to have been reduced.
This can be shown to be an incorrect supposition since, if the
insulation is removed the leaves again diverge to the original
extent. An alternative assumption to be made is that thc
capacitance of the arrangement has been increased, ie the capaci-
tor is now capable of accepting a greater amount of charge
for the same divergence of the leaves. This is confirmed if the
capacitor is charged to an amount giving the original extent of
divergence of the leaves, and the wax insulation is'then removed.
The leaves would be seen to diverge to a far greater extent.
showing a larger charge to have been Imparted to the arrange-
ment. The experiment shows that capacitance can be varied bq
the nature of dielectric or by a property which is termed its
permittivity.This property can be likened to the pemeability of
a magnetic substance, and at this stage is considered as relative
only. It can thus be defined quite easily, as the ratio of the
capacitance of a capacitor, with the material being considered
the dielectric, to the capacitance of the same capacitor with air---
o r more truly a vacuum, as the dielectric. Another term for
relative permittivity is the dielectric constant. The symbol used is
E,, (the Greek letter-small Epsilon).
Typical values for relative permittivity are Air 1.0006,
Paraffin Wax 2.2, Mica 4.5 to 8, Glass 4 to 10.
ABSOLUTE PERMITTIVITY
It is not proposed to d o much extensive work on dielectrics as
used for capacitors or cables, but the absolute value of permit-
tivity needs to be considered, since E , as introduced is on14
relative to air. As for the magnetic circuit, we can writer
Absolute permittivity = relative permittivity x permittivity of'
free space
Thus E = E, x E,
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Thus f:
D or
=- E = -
QiA - Ql
R V/l VA
C '
L'A
1'1 C
A
' I --
Whence6 = --- = - o r C'= r , 4 but 1: = E,C,
1
,,I 1;" Lr
SoC'=- farads
1
Example 1 1 1. A capacitor consists of two parallel metal plates,
each 300mm by 300mm, separated by a sheet of polythene 2.Smm
thick, having a relative permittivity of 2-3. Calculate the energy
stored in the capacitor when connected to a d.c. supply of 150V.
9 x lo4 x x 8.85 x 10-l2 x 2.3 farads
C=
2.5 X
= 73.278 x l o - "
or 73.278 x microfgrads
=0.000 73pF = 730pF
Energy stored = :CV2 joules
= X 73,278 X 10-I X 1502
= 36.639 X 22 500 X lo-"
= 36.64 X 2.25 X lo- -
= 9.16 x 9 x lo-' = 8.244 x joules.
Example 112. A capacitor of 5pF charged to a p.d. of 100V, 1s
connected in parallel with a similar uncharged capacitor. What
quantity of electricity would flow into the second capacitor and
to what voltage would i t he charged?
Consider the first capacitor designated by the letter A , lllclr
since Q = CAV, Q = 5 x l o w 6x 100 = 5 x coulombs.
When the capacitor B is connected across A , charge will pass
from A to B until the potential of each is the same. The arrange-
ment of capacitors can now be considered as a parallel con-
nection or the joint capacitance is the same as that of 1 unit of
10uF.
Applying the formula Q = CV
Q - 5 x lo-"
Then T.' = - -
C 10 x 10-0
or I.'=
1 - lo2 - 100 = 50 volts
2 x lo-' 2 -
3
The final voltage will be 50V.
This could have been deduced more simply from the fact that
the capacitors are similar and charge will pass from A to B until
the potential of each is the same.
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CHAPTER 13
PRACTICE EXAMPLES
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CHAPTER 14
D.C. NETWORKS
1. A PP L I C A T I O N O F K I R C HH O FF ' S L A W S
The laws are revised in association with the diagram (Figs
183a and b).
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dli~pr;\m
Law 2 states that tlic algebra~csun1 ol' ~ I I I rllc curI.cn[s :I[ ,I
polnt is zero. Current flowing to the point b e ~ n greckoned 21s
+ve and current in the reverse direction as -ve.
In the diagram I , + I , + I , - I , - I , = 0.
Problems are solved by the application of the above two laws
and by building up equ:rtions which are then solved ;ilpebraicaIIy.
The examples illustrate the procedure.
g c..m.f. of 2 V ; ~ n d
Example 113. Three cells each l i ; ~ v ~ n;In
negligible reslstnnce are connected in series. A resistor of 100R
and one of 25Q are connected in series across the battery. thc
iOOR resistor being connected to the +ve t e ~ i n a l Calculate
.
the current flowing in a 1 0 0 resistor connected between a
tapping o n the battery, 4V from the +ve end and the Junctio
of the .two resistors. The arran_rement is illustrated by t h
diagram (Fig 184).
2 VOLTS 4VOLTS
Fig 184
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326 R E ED ' S BASIC ELECTROTECHNOLOGY
Fig 185
('onsider the right-hand mesh, then 1001, + I O ( 1 , -1,) = 4 ( ~ ) .
I t will bc seen that the current in the IOR resistor has been
t:~kcn ;rs I , - I : . Nest considcr the left-hand mesh, then
10(1, - I , ) + 251, = 2 f h ) . Here cyclic current I2 being clock-
WlhC. I \ ~;II\CII; I 4 I VC.
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A I\( I
IO(1, - I , ) t X I 2 = 2 01 - 101, i M I z - 7
I.ll\l\ \\C I l , l \ L S
1 101, - 101, = 4
d 1101, + 3851,
~ n - = 21
Adding gives. 3751, = 26
or I,
lo-' = 26 = O0694A
3.75
Subst~tutingback; then 351, - 101, 2 =
(35 x 0.0694) - 2
or (35 x 0.0694) - 101, = 2 and I, =
10
giv~ngI, = 0.0427A
The current in the 10fl resistor is then given by:
0.0694 - 0.0427 = 0.0267A (in the downward direction)
Fig 186(a)
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2 VOLTS -
10 OHMS
2 5 OHMS
100 OHMS
Fig 186(b)
4 VOLTS
Fig 186(c)
1
0 OHHS
*VOLT5
100 OHMS I I
25 OHHS
Fig 186(d)
-I
i Condition 1 . 4 V battery e.m.f. suppressed. Fig 186a.
To illustrnte procedure, the diagram has been set out ;IS
I shn~ Fig 1S6b.
L = resistance of parallel section
' '
I
1 - I - -
-
" or I{ = 9 090
I H - 100 10 106
i
The ~ 6 t a clrcult
l resistance would be 25
7
+ 9.09 = 34.090 and
the current flowing = = 0.0587A
34.09
Voltage drop across the parallel section = 0.0587 x 9.09volts
0.0587 x 9.09
and t h current
~ in the 1 0 9 resistor = -
- = 0,053312.
10
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Fig 187
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330 REED'S BASIC ELECTROTECHNOLOGY
6 VOLTS
Fig 1'88
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CIRCUITS : hfETHODS OF SOLUnON : SPECIAL APPLICATIONS 33 1
Mesh ABD
21, + 50(1, - 1,)+ 5(11 - I,) = O
or 21, + 501, - 501, + 51, - 51, = 0
and 571, - 501, - 51, = 0 ... (cij
Mesh BCD
41, + 8(I, - I,) + 50(1, - I,) = 0
or 41, $- 81, - 81, + 501, - 501, = 0
and - 501, + 621, - 81, = 0 . . . (b)
Multiply (a) by 8 and (6) by 5
Then 4561, - 4001, - 401, = 0
and - 2501, + 3101, - 401, = 0
Subtracting 7061, - 7101, = 0 . . . (c)
Mesh ADC and battery
5(13 - I,) +
8(13 - 12)= 6
or 51, - 51, + 81, - 81, = 6
and - 51, - 81, + 131, = 6
Multiply (a) by 13 and (d) by 5
Then 7411, - 6501, - 651, = 0
and - 251, - 401, + 651, = 30
Adding 7161, - 6901, = 30 . . . (e)
Solving ( c ) and ( e ) Multiply (c) by 6.9 and ( e ) by 7.1
Then 6.9 x (7,061, - 7.1I, = 0)
or 48.7141, - 48.991, = 0
and 7.1 x (7.161, - 6.91, = 0.3)
or 50.8361, - 48.991, = 2.13
Subtracting - 2.1221, = - 2.13 or I, = 1.003 77A (downwards)
706
I - --- I, = 0.994 x 1.003 77 = 0,998 16A (upwards)
- 710
:. Resulting current = 1.003 77-0.998 16 = 0.0056A (down-
wards).
I t will be seen that the Super-position of Current Theorem
cannot be applied to this network since there is only one source
of e.m.f.
SERIES CIRCUIT - -
REVISION = p, + V, + V,
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Fig 189(a)
Fig 189(b)
The circuit diagram (Fig 189a) and phasor diagram (Fig 189b)
summarise the c2nditions. from which it can be deduced that:
Since v= Jm
= /( + VRI f VR, . . . ) 2 f ( VG + V X Z+ VX,. . .)'
VR,
= ~ ( I R+,I R 2 + I R , . . .), + ( I X , + I X , + I X , . . .),
= I J ( R ~ + R ~ + R ,. . ) 2 + ( X 1 + X 2 + X 3 . . .)'
1i
But L-
- Z--where Z is the equivalent impedance
I
Then 1
= J ( R+, R , + R , . . . ) 2 + ( X I + X 2 + x 3 . . . 1 2
Also since R , = Z , cos 4, A', = 2,sin 4, etc
and R , = Z 2 cos 412 X 2 = Z 2 sin 4, etc
PARAI.Lti1. CIKClIIl'
I<cv~niorli - - i, I 1, + I , ,
The circu~t d ~ i i g r ~(1;lg
~ ~ u 100~1),111d l > l ~ ~ i \ do r~ i i g r ~(1:1g
~n~
190b) summarise the conditions, from which ~t can be deduced
that:
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CIRCUITS: METHODS O F SOLLTION : SPECIAL APPLICATIOSS 333
I.'
.I2 +
iz",
- sin 4, + - sln 4, +
z2 z,sln 8 ,
-
- j2
or I = ~ 4, + 1 COL 4, + 1 cos B3 l2
v \ / il ( cos - -
2 2 -- 2 3 --
I . 1
G1- sln $, +,
/-
rln 4, + - sin 9,
2 z3
V I 1
)'
But if Z is the equivalent impedance, then Z = - or -, = -
l l Z
whence
I -
- I ( l
-
- -I - 1
dl + - 1
cos 4, + - cos 4, . )I +
v z ci z, z 2 z
3
I I 7
1
3 :'
R I Xa T,
<
Flg 190(a)
Fig 190(b)
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334 REED 'S BASIC ELECTROTECHNOLOGY
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I or Y = d(G1+ G1 + GJ . . . ) 2 + ( B 1 + B2 + B3 . .
Since there is a right-angled relationship between G , B a n d 1.
.)2 etc
TRIANCLf FOR
TRIANGLE F 0 9 CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT
INGCTIVE CI RCUIT
I Ir - _ - - _ _ _ -
CURRENT D I A G R A M
- -m
1
3
. -
1"
deduced current triangle when modified by dividing all sides b)
Kv
CURSENT TRIAA
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1-x=1
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CIRCUITS: METHODS SHIPPING
OF SOLUTION: SPECIAL APPLICATIONS 337
Fig 194
Branch 1 X1 = 2 x 3.14 x 50 x 0.02 = 6.2852
R -50
-
z,' J 5 % + 6 6 . 2 ~ ~25 + 39.5 = 6 4 . 5
Branch 2
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T H E WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Although this network has already been introduced as an
example for 'methods of problem solution,' it should be noted
thnt thc condition of no current in the centre arm is of particular
Importance. The bridge In this basic form has been adapted for
methods of measurement and control but the original applica-
tion, used by H. Wheatstone-a railway engineer, indicated the
conditian of unbalance and was used for signalling. The now
best known adaptation enables resistance measurements to be
made and is considered here in connection with the diagram
(Fig 195). R
Fig 195
MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE
The bridge consist. of a network of four resistors wl~icli.by
the choice of values for three, can be used to measure the v.iilue
of the fourth resistor. R , , R , and R , are the known resistance
valucs. R , is the unknown resistor and G is a centre-zero
ammeter o r milliammeter, called a galvanometer. A cell, battery
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T E M P E R A T U R ~ M E A S U R EME N T
Although it is not pI"oposed to describe here, the m'any
m e t h ~ d savailable for measuring temperature, it is necessary to
point out to theyenweer that present-day pethods utilise either
a resistance-thermometer probe or a theirnocouple probe. The
former only is destribed here, as the 'thermo-electric' effect has
not been introduced as yet.
The fact that the resistance value of a resistor varies with
temperature is already known, the-relationship being a straight
line--ref Fig 20. If therefore, a thermometer 'head' ie probe is
connected into a Wheatstone-bridge arrangement, then the
resistance value for any temperature can be measured and either
reference can be made to the appropriate graph o r the scale of
&can (E directly calibrated in temperature units. The resistance
thermgmeter head can consist of a spool of platinum wire
wound onto a ceramic former, the whole being enclosed in an
envelope of special steel. Various forms of 'head' or probe have
been evolvcd for cxtrcmc conditions sucli as furnacc or rc-
Srigerator work and it should be noted that, thermistors have
illso bcun introduced ; I S altcrna tivc probc clcrncnls lor tcnl-
pcrilturc mrasurcmcnl.
tiere again, the 'out-01'-.balance' bridge method can be used in
-conjunction with a direct-reading instrument. The scale is
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I
CIRCUITS : METHODS OF SOLUTION : SPECIAL APPLICATIONS 341
- .-
T H E POTENTIOMETER
The word is derived tiom 'potential meter' and thus the
instrument performs the same functions as a voltmeter but with
greater accuracy because, when a 'reading3% being taken, no
current is being drawn from the potential or e.m.f. source which
is being measured. The potentiometer is not an indicating meter
in the true sense, but consists of a resistance arrangement,
galvanometer and cells which can be used for measurement,
once the apparatus has been set up. Like the Wheatstone bridge,
commercial versions are available but here also measurements
must be made rather than 'readings' taken.
Considcr the dingrrlm (Fig 196). A n i s A rcsistor of h ~ p h
accuracy provided with a sliding contact C AB is wound with a
Fig 196
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GAS
MATER
Fig 197
in an order which showed the current across the hot junction
from the earlier to the later metal. Amongst these metals are:
bismuth, platinum, copper, lead, tin, silver, zinc, iron, antimony
etc. For practical purposes thermocouples are classed into two
, main groups (a) rare o r precious metals and (b) base metals.
Because of the obvious reason of cost, the latter are used most
extensively in industry and, with cxperience, alloys havecbeen
dcvclopcd which stl~id'y tllc rcq~~ircmcntsof a working tempera-
ture range. Thus a common usage for measuring the temperature
of electrical machines is the copper/constantan o r co per/
f
eureka couple. The latter is an alloy of nickel (40 per cent and
copper (60 per cent), the temperature range is 0-40OUC. An
iron/constantan couple is suitable for a 0-800"(? range, whilst
nickel-chromium/nickel-aluminium alloys, when used for a
thermocouple. can cover temperatures up to 1200°C.
In practice the hot (common) junction is kept in good electri-
caI and thermal cbntact by welding together the thermocouple
THERMOCOUPLE
(HOT JUNCTION)
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b0 -
/
,
nV /
,,
,
,
-
I
0 400 e00 I 2C.m
TEMPERATURE
L-
C
Fig 199
r B '. WIRE D
Fig 200
If the leads shown in the second diagram of Fig 200 are made
of copper, the cold junction would still be at B and any improve-
ment is only achieved if the thermoco~plemetals are extended
by making the leads of appropriate metals. The leads between
BC and DE are thus known as 'compensating leads' and vary to
suit the thermocouple. Thus a copper/constantan couple will use
copper and constantan wire in the compensating leads. Similarly
iron and constantan are the wires fur an ironlconstantan couple,
r N s m u M t w r A T l o N . A S was stated carlier, measurement can be
made by using either a meter or a potentiometer. o or the
former, a sensitive milli-voltmeter of the moving-coil type is used
since the e.m.f. is unidirectional and a thermocouple has
polarity. At the cold junction, the wire from which the current
flows. is called the positive element and that into which the
current flows is the negative element. Polarity is also given to the
compensating leads.
For a copper@nstantan couple; the +ve element is co'pper
and the - ve element is constantan. For the compensating leads
the +ve wire is copper and the - ve wire is constantan. T o
achieve accuracy, the thermocouple responses need to be
registered by a highly sensitive instrument movement ie one
whi,h requires only a small current for full-scale deflection.
Resistance voltage drops are thus minimised and measurement
errors are reduced. Such indicators are delicate and not ex-
tensively used for marine work. With the advent of reliable
semi-conductor amplifiers however, the sensor signals can be
I magnified and applied to a more robust instrument with a more
substantial movement. The indicator would be calibrated
directly in temperature units and i f the e.m.f. is to be a true
rnc:isurc of thc tc~npcrnturcdiffcrcncc (7;,- Tc), betwccn tllc
hot and cold junctions. i t is essential to keep T , constant o r to
compensate for variations of 7',. Such nuton~aticcold junction
compensation is a feature of direct-reading indicators and is
achieved by introducing a bimetal corrector into the movement
suspension system.
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CIRCUITS : METHODS OF SOLUTION : SPECIAL APPLICATIONS 347
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CHAPTER 14
PRACTICE EXAMPLES
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CIRCUITS : METHODS OF SOLCTION : SPECIAL APPLICATIONS 349
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CHAPTER 15
ELECTRONICS
THERMIONIC DEVICES
ELECTRON EMISSION
The electrons associated with the atoms constituting a metal,
are considered to be normally confined to the shells, as was
described earlier in Chapter 13. At the surface of a metal, the
'free' electrons in the outermost shells may, by virtue of in-
creased velocity or deflection by collosion, tend to, leave the
surface. They are howeve: immediately attracted back by the
iinbalnnce of the electric field which is caused and tends to set up
it potential barrier. It' the free electrons acquire sufficient
velocity to ovcrcoinc thc ;~tlr;~ctionn f tlic electric ficld a n d tllt~s
break through the potential barrier, the process is termed
c,lcc,tron c~rnission.Electron emission can result from various
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T H E V A C U U M DIODE
If a plate is placed near to the source of electron emission and
is m;~clc positive to tlic I;~ttcr,the elcctrons emitted will be
attracted to i t becai~sc01' the +vc ~ ~ t ~ ~ l tii1lC1~ i l 1115
l , \I)iICC
charge will not accumulate. This prinziple is made use of in the
simple radio' valve and discharge lamp. The valve in this b a s ~ c
form is called a vuc~uu~n diode. It consists of two electrodes sealed
into an evacuated glass envelope and constitutes a simple form
of electronic device. One electrode is made in the form of a wire
which is heated by a current flowing through it. This results in
thermionic emission from the wire or ,filainent: Tlie other
electrode is in the form of a cylinder which is rriade to surround
the filament and is called the anode. The anode is made +ve with
respect to the filament or cathode and attracts the emitted
electrons. Thus we have current flow from anode to cathode
inside the valve as long as the anode is made +ve with respect
to the cathode, but it should be noted that if tlie anode is made
- ve with respect to tlie cathode, tlie emitted electrons will be
repelled and current will stop. T h m the diode is a unilateral
conducting device ie it will .allow current flow in one direction
only and functions like a one-way valve-hence the term. The
diagrams (Fig 201a and b) shows tlie simple construction and
tlie equivalent electrical circuit.
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CA1Hm
[g tVACUATID
\VALVE
CLASS
ANODI
PINS
lop€
LOAD
R f SISTOR
EMITTED
BATTERY fOR
THEATINC
CATHOOF
t
HtATtD
VALVE
0 Q i t i l c t l TtNsloN
I
I
I
BATTERY
VALVE
Fig 202
7
For the indirectly heated arrangement, the cathode consists of
1 - i ~ nickel tube on to wllicli is sprayed barium or strontium oxide.
1 Tlie Iiec~tcr'wire i s Iool7cci insidc i t : \ t i t 1 \~~it:lhIy
insuli~tctlI'rij111i t .
For a.c. radio sets, ;I low-voltage heater-transformer is used to
1 .nergise this heater and those of otiier valves'.
7'he diagrams (Fig 203) show the test circuit used to determine
I -
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ELECTRONICS 353
K
A N O D ~ V O L I A C ~ V,
Fig 203
The valve characteristic ie relationship between anode voltage
V , and anode current I,, is obtained by varying the high-tension
voltage applied to the anode, by means of the adjustable contact
on the potentiometer resistor. The corresponding readings of the
voltmeter and milliammeter are noted and plotted to give the
graph shown. Certain factors for the diode can be derived from
the characteristics in order to use the valve for a particular
application. Thus the diode can be used as a rectifier, but its
internal resistance in the conducting direction would require to
be known. This value can be obt,iined from the characteristic
but it is necessary, at this point. to distinguish between srntic and
dyt1~11lic operating conditions. In the circuit of Fig 203, the valve
anode is not connected in series with a load, such as a resistor.
The voltage across the anode and cathode is set to a known
value when doing the test-a condition different from that when
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I=.
tlirough the origin is I O B Point P is known as the 'operating
'quiescent point' and the d . c . resisti~nccvalue is rclativc
~ > o i t l tor
'
to this point.
ANON VOLTAGE Va
Fig 204
Altliouph oper;ttion of the diode under a.c, conditions will not
be considered to any extent. it is appropriate, at this stage to
introduce the term a.c. rcsistcrt1c.c~or slops rr~si.rrancc~.
This term--
symbol r,, will bc rcconsicicrcd whcn opcrc~tionol' thc triodc
valve is being described, and here we merely consider it in
relation to the d.c. value.
Assume that the alternator, shown in the diagram (Fig 205),
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ELECTRONICS 355
H.T.
bAllLRI
Fig 205
The battery is assumed to offer negligible resistance to the a.c.
voltage and so an alternating current will flow which is super-
imposed on the direct current, and the totaldurrent fluctuates
between the limits of a maximum and minimum value. As will be
deduced from the graph (Fig 206), the valve offers a resistance
value which is different to that for the d.c. working. Sum-
marising, it can be said that, if the diode is used in a circuit with
a steady d.c. current then the anode d.c. resistance is used, but
if ihe anode current is varying between limits then the a.c. value
is used. Using the characteristic, note the limits 0 and Q
Fig 206
- va
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ELECTRONICS 357
Fig 207
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0 A' -VOLTAGL V
Fig 208
LO AD LINE . A S shown above, the voltage-drop conditions in the
anode circuit of a diode with a resistor in circuit, can be ex-
pressed as V = Va + VR o r Va = V - V R . Since the voltage
drop across the resistor will be proportional to the anode
current. the relationship can be represented by the straight-line
graph which would result from the expression:
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ELECTRONICS 359
Fig 209
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Ker~storvoltage drop ( V )
Il1sh-ten4lon ~ o l t ' i s er V )
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For a h~gh-tens~on
voltage of 1 IOV, the crrcult current rs seen
to be 9 I m A . Thc volt,tge drop acro\s the rcslstor = 1 I0 - 74
= 36V.
IONISATION
Earlier in Chapter 13, ionisation was mentioned, when i t was
stated that if an electron is removed from a n atom, the latter
acquires a +ve charge and becomes a +ve ion. The ionisation
of a gas atom is accompanied by a n emission of light, which is
monochromatic ie the colour o r wavelength of the light depends
on the gas being ionised. It is unlike that given off by the tung-
sten-filament lamp which covers the wide spectrum of visible
white light, consisting of seven colours. Ionisation of a gas is
mainly the result of the collision of fast, free-moving electrons
with gas atoms. We have seen how electrons can be given off
from the surface of a metal by thermionic emission, and how
these electrons can be made to travel in a stream with consider-
able \felocity towards an electrode, if the latter is made +vc to
the emitter. The higher the p.d. between anode and cathode. the
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3 62 PRADEEP@MSC SHIPPING
R E E D ' S BASIC ELECTROTECHNOLOG)
greater the velocity of the electrons, and if these collide with gas
atoms with a velocity sufficient to remove further electrons from
the parent gas atoms. ionisation takes place with the accompany-
ing of light. The additional electrons, being subjected to the
electric field between ano.de and cathode, accelerate towards the
anode, joining the electron stream and collide with further gas
atoms to maintain the ionisation. We then have a stream of
electrons making their way to the anode or a current flowing
from anode to cathode. The e'lectronic device, whether in the
form of a gas-filled valve o r discharge tube, is thus dependent on
ionisation for its conducting properties. When the electrons
rcacli tlic anode, they displace fucther electrons in the conducting
metal of the circuit and this process explains the current taken
from the mains. which is necessary to maintain the device in
operation. The + v e ions of the ionised gas, bcing vcry much
heavier than electrons, move slowly to the cathode to combine
with the electrons moving round the circuit. The current stream,
in an ionised gas, thus consists of electrons moving from cathode
to anode and + ve ions m0vir.g from anode to cathode. It should
be noted that the $.ve ions, in moving to the cathode, neutralise
any space charge effect and, if the voltage across the electrodes is
too large, they may bombard the cathode with sufficient velocity
to destroy it rapidly. It should be remembered that the mass of a
proton, which constitutes the major part of the +ve ion, is alone
some 1850 times that of an electron and that, in a discharge tube,
the heat generated at the cathode by ion bombardment, under
conditions of ~ o r m a loperation, is sufficient to maintain the
temperature high enough for electron emission to take place,
even though the filament heating current has been switched off.
Sin:e electronics now plays such an important part in practical
everyday electrical engineering, it is essential that some know-
ledge of related devices is acquired. Above we have introduced
the basics of thermionic emission, ionisation and conduction in a
vacuum and in a gas. A fuller treatment of the operating action
of any practical device is left to books devoted to their detailed
technology, construction, operation and maintenance; the
descriptions which follow are intended to provide fundamental
knowledge only.
DISCHARGE LAMPS
The operation of a discharge lamp depends on the ionisation
of a gas, which can be accomplished by thermionic emission o r
cold emission. The latter is sonietiri~escalled field emissinr a n d
1s ;~cliic\,cdhy the ;~pplic;~tian
o f :I high potenti::' :;;rC:s .::-F
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ELECTRONICS 3 63
lamp electrodes. The lamps are thus of two basic kinds, known
as (a) hot-cathode types (b) cold-cathode types. Since the light
given off is mainly in the ultra-violet range of the spectrum. the
tube is coated with a chemical powder coating or phosphor. This
phosphor glows or 'fluoresces' when subjected to the ultra-violet
radiations from the ionisation.
THE HOT-CATHODE DISCHARGE LAMP (Low-pressure)
The diagram (Fig 210) shows the basic construction. The
lamp envelope or tube is long c~mparedwith its diameter.
Lengths vary from 300mm to 2.4m, with respective diameters
from 15mm to 38mm. The inside of the tube is coated with the
phosphor, and mounted at each end are the electrodes in the
OXIDE COATED
FILAMENTS
T
L0llil-i
TUBE INTERNALLY COATCD
%\'/IlCt4
Fig 210
form of small tungsten wire spirals. These spirals may be oxide-
coated to assist electron emission, and additional guard elec-
trodes may bk fitted to form the roots for the main discharge.
The tube contains a small quantity of mercury and argon gas
which, when warm under working conditions, is at about
bar or 0.1 Pa, The low working pressure.allows the lamp to
run at a temperature which does not affect the phosphor coating.
The argon gas helps to initiate the discharge t h r ~ u g hthe low
pressure mercury vapour, and although the amount of white
light given off is small, some 65 per cent of the input energy is
converted into radiant energy in the ultra-violet range. The
ultra-violet energy acts upon the fluorescent powder in such a
way that the latter radiates visible light.
At start, current is passed through both electrodes, thereby
heating them, making them suitable for electron emission and
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ELE C T R O N IC S 365
CHOKE
m
AUXILIARY
ELECTROD(
CARBON
SERIES
RfIISTOR
---- C
L-(
\ J
Fig 21 1
CARBON RESISTANCE
01 ?It4W I N HOUND
ON AIbI$TOS BRAID
Fig 212
T H E CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE
This instrument has now been developed to suit a wide vari ty
of applications but it should be appreciated that, in its funda-
mental form, the cathode-ray oscilloscope (C.R.O.) is a device
for measuring voltage both in magnitude and time. By displaying
a luminescent, mobile spot on a fluorescent screen, a trace of the
deflection and/or. waveform can be observed and measured-a
graticule suitably scaled, is usually provided for superposition on
the screen. By the use'of ancillary equipment such as amplifiers
and transducers, any measurable quantity can be converted into
a voltage and is so displayed. Suitable calibration will then allow
the quantity, being checked, to be measured directly in its
appropriate units.
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and terminates at the screen. Its purpose is to allow the path for
electrons to be completed back to the supply source. once they
through the glass and screen phosphors from the
SCREEN
Fig 213
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ELECTRONICS 369
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TIME-BASE
This can be regarded as a repetitive pulse of voltage which
can be adjusted. The time-base impulse is usually provided by a
saw-tooth voltage sequence, built up by special circuitry. This
voltage increases uniformly with time until it reaches a value
when it collapses, to restart building up again. The spot accord-
ingly moves uniformly across the screen, flies back a n d again
commences mouing at uniform rate. Additional circuitry allows
'synchronising', by feeding some of the Y .amplifier's output to
the X time-base. This arrangement allows a trace pattern to be
held stationary.
The time-base for a modern C.R.O. is a specialised, involved
item of circuitry, arranged in rnodular form to allow difkrent
time-range requirements to be met. The criteria would be
stability, reliability and accuracy but a simple circuit to illustrate
the principle can be considered. This would be made up fr'om a
small cold-cathode lamp o r tube connected across a capacitor
in series with ;) resistor. When a d.c, voltage is applied across the
combination, the capacitor charges up, with the volta e across
the capacitor plates rising uniformly with time, until t! i- e break-
down voltage value of- the tube is attained. Thedtu6e t.hen strikes
and the capacitor discharges; with its p.d.-falling to zero. The
process of charge and discharge recommences and a graph, i f
plotted with time, will be of a sawtooth'shape. Thus the voltage
rises unifc>rrnly, I'r~lls to zero, rises again, falls and so on. I S
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ELECTRONICS 37 1
SOLID-STATE DEVICES
SEMICONDUCTORS
In this chapter, an introduction is made to the semiconductor
diode. This device is comparable to the thermionic diode and as
such is required to function in a manner prescribed by the
associated electronic circuit. It should be appreciated however,
that semiconductor materials have properties which allow their
usage for devices other than those mentioned in this chapter and
to-date they have been developed to respond to the effects of
temperature, pressure, stress, light-energy, magnetic and electric
fields. As such they can be used as sensors and transducers.
In general the term 'semiconductors' can be taken to include
all solids whose electrical conductivity lies between that of metals
and that of insulators. Germanium and silicon are the most
Important semiconductor mnteriuls but before proceeding to
investigate their electrical properties, it is of interest to recall the
history of semiconductor development for electrical work.
The rectifying properties of certain substances were known
during the last century and, early in this century, the advent of
radio saw both the thernlionic valve and rectifying crystal being
used. The latter was a form of natural semiconductor diode. but
was displaced in favour of the valve which, in time had been
evolved into its triode form and, could be used for detection.
rectification and amplification. The crystal again became
popular as a detector in the early days of broadcasting because
of its cheapness and the device using it, was most commonly
known as a 'cats-whisker'. Use of the crystal lapsed again as
valves became more readily available and were adapted for
9
'mains use, but it was redeveloped for use in radar during the
last war. The crystal diode as used till then was known as the
"oint-contact rectifier' and the first 'junction' diode way ~volved
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BASIC THEORY
The atom of a material consists of a nucleus (+vely charged)
and planetary electrons ( - vely charged). The nucleus has nearly
all the mass of the atom and consists of protons and neutrons.
Neutrons have no electrical properties, but since forces of
repulsion exist between the +ve charged protons, then the
neutrons ha* the function of holding the nucleus together. An
atom. contains equal numbers of protons and electrons with
charges cancelling to make the atom neutral. The atoms of
various elements contain different numbers of protons, neutrons
and electrons a t d the greater the number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus, the greater the density of the substance.
The electrons move in orbits and for the larger atoms, these
electrons are arranged in shells. The chemical properties of an
atom may be explained in terms of the number and grouping of
the planetary electrons. The shells--called 'quantum shells,' are
considered to be concentric and seven in number, distinguished
by the letters K, L, M, N,0 , P, Q. The K shell is closest to the
nucleus and the appropriate maximum number of electrons
possible in each shell is 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 13 and' 2. Since ger-
manium will be of particular interest in our studies, i t should be
tllat it:, 32 clcctruns i\rc arr-iinged in the K, L, M and N
~~<)tccl
shells thus: 2, 8, 18 and 4. Silicon, also of interest, has 14
electrons arranged in the K , L and M shells thus: 2, 8, 4.
A solid in its srnallcst particle form, if investigated, is found to
consist of a large number of crystals joined together and the
crystals are built up from a regular structure of atoms which
rcpe;\t.; ~ t s c lcontin~l;~lly
f to fornm ;I Iiitticc. The electrons in the
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ELECTRONICS 373
8' \ - - - e - ---
O N M
~ OL~CULE e 7
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374 REED 'S BASIC ELECTKOTECHNOLOGY
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ELECTRONICS 37 5
Fig 216
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ELECTRONICS 377
T H E P-N JUNCTION
By such a junction is not meant the joint between two pieces of
germanium, one being P-type a n d the other N-type. T o produce
an clTcctivs junction, one piece c ~ l ' g c r ~ i ~ i ~isnyrclwn
i i ~ n ~ to snsurc
a suitnble continuous crystal lattice. During the growing procyss.
P- and N-type zones are created by 'doping,' with a detinite line
of demarcation between them. Since one side has a preponder-
ance of holes and the other of electrons and, because both sides
are electrically neutral, there is no tendency for electrons to flow
and neutralise the holes. Majority carriers will however tend to
drift across the junction in an attcmpt to even out the con-
centration. As soon as electrons flow from the N-type to the
P-type material or holes pass from the P-type to tlie N-type
material, the latter becomes positively charged and the P-type
material becomes negatively charged. This effect immediately
prevents any further flow of charge carriers aeross the junction
and can be looked upon as the build up of a potentizl barrier.
This potential barrier can be likened to a battery connected in
tlie sense shown by the diagram of Fig 217.
7
P lYPt a I N lYPt
- ~L~CIRONS ACROSS
+ HOLES BARRIER
Fig 21 7
For the arrangement shown, few charges can cross the barr~er
unless they have an energy level high enough to overcome the
potential. The +ve charge of the N-type will however attract the
minority carrier electrons from the P-type side and the - ve
charge will attract the minority carrier +ve holes from the
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POlCNTlAL
/ DI51RIBUl I O N
! I
Fig 218
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ELECTRONICS 379
Fig 219
Avolding involved deta~lsof the junctlon diode action. ;i clcar
explanation 1s possible if we consider one side of the junction to
have only holes as charge carriers and the other side to have on]!
electrons.
Fig 220
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which shows the limit where the saturation value of the reverse
current is broken down-the '7ener effect.' and the semi-
conducror hccomcs ;I conductor. IJnlc55 rhc cfrc'cct is lilnitcd thc
material is ruined thc crystal srructul.~of' I l ~ cycnl\:~niu~n is
destroyed. Unlike the \,acuurn diode this reverse operation of t h C
~emiconducrordiode I S csploilcd Ii)r L . ; I S I O ~ I ~C I S C I I I [ S IIIIJtllc
Zener Diode, as it is called, is used for voltage regulation and
stabilisation. for meter protection, cut-off, limiting and clipp~ng
circuits.
RECTIFIER OPERATION
Since the junction diode requires no heater supply, it can be
introduced directly into circuit arrangements to allow either
half-wave o r full-wave rectification. The characteristic shows the
device to be suitable for a rectifier and if an alternating voltage
of about 1 volt (peak to peak) is applied to P-N junc:ion. the
potential barrier is alternately strengthened and weakened to
allow the rectifying action. The reverse current can be considered
as negligible. Silicon is used in preference to germanium for
power rectifiers since i t can carry large currents and can operate
at liigller temperatures. Its reverse current is also lower than that
for germanium with similar forward current values.
The ad\,anrages of sem~conductorrectifiers over the earlier
type of 'metal' rectifiers such as the copper-oxide and selenium.
lie chiefly in their smaller size, longer life and greatly improved
regulation and efficiency. 7 he latter features are the result of t h e
low I'orui~rdr-csist;~ncc;111dvoll;~gcdrc~p;lnd t l l c I ' ; I C ~ t11;1t I'c\\cI
elements are required In series to handle a given voltage.
Example 119 The folloulng vnlues refer to il gcni1;inlum
diode.
Forward current
(mA) 0 0.1 0.18 0.22 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.1 1.6 2.3 3.45
Forward voltage
( mV) 100 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320
Reverse current (PA) -0.2 - 0.3 -0.4 - 0.4
Reverse voltage (mV) - 200 - 400 - 6, - 800
Plot the anode characteristics for the above diode and
determine from i t ( a ) the 'forward' d.c. resistance when the
current is 3mA. ( b ) the forward anode voltage when the d.c.
resistance is 2000.
( a ) From the graph of Fig 322 the forward d.c. resistance -
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Fig 222
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20
P
t IS
6
U
t
z
;lo
a
a
U
K)
VOLTAGE (v) -
1 .5
8
CHAPTER 15
PRACTICE EXAMPLES
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CHAPTER 1
1.
Let R be the equivalent resistance of the parallel arrangement
8.19
-
Volt;~gcdrop iicross thc ;lrr;1ngemcnt = 8.6 x 0.952
8.19V Ana
Current I, in 2R resistor = - = 4.095A Ans.
2
8.19
Current I, in 4R resistor = ---- = 2.0475A Ans.
4
Current I, in 5R resistor = -
8'19 = 1,638A Ans.
5
8'19 = 0.819A Ans.
Current I, in 10Q resistor = -
10
Check. Total current = 8.6A Ans.
Fig I
2.
- -1 + -I + -1 = 6 + 4 + 3 o r R
I -
H , 4 6 8 24
4 =
24
;,
For Group A . Let R A = the equivalent reslsrance, then
= issn
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$011JT10N9 TO PRACTTCF FXAMPLFS 387
- - - -- --- - -- --- . - - -
1 OHMS
6 OHMS
0 -t
b OHys
8 OHMS B
A
24 VOLTS
Fig 2
Current in resistors. G r o u p A
11.53 - 2.88A Ans.
3.
F r o m Q1 the e q u ~ v a l e n tresistance R of the load = 0.95R
T h e total resistance of the circuit = 0.95 + 0.65 = 1 . 6 0
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388 REED 'S BASIC ELECTROT ECHNOLO G Y
12 3
The circuit current = = - = 7,5A Ans
--
1.6 0.4
The term~nalvoltage - = 7.5 x 0.95 = 7,125V Ans
7 125
Current In 5 0 reslstor = = 1.425A Ans
--
= 0.006R Ans.
(b) Voltmeter \vifli wries resistance.
ol' instrument circuit to drop 500V
I<csist:~~lcc
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FOLUTlONS TO PRACTICF FXAMPI FS 3 8'9
- --- -
- -- - -
- -
6.
Let E = e.m.f. of the battery and R i its Internal reslstancr.
then E = 0.18 (10 + R i ) ..a
and E = 0.08 (25 + R i ) . . . b.
E q u a t ~ n g( a ) and ( b l 0.18 (10 + R , ) = 0.08 (25 + R , )
-
or 1.8 0.18 R , = ? c 0.08 R i
(0.18 - 0.08) R i = 2 - 1.8
or 0.1 R , = 0.2
or R , = 2 0 4 n s
Subst~rur~ng In E = 0.18 (10 + 2 )
= 0.1s x I:!
= 1.16V Ans.
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70 ~ o l t , ~d&r o p acres, g r o u p B = 6 x 6 25 = 37 5V A n \
37 5
( urrent in 1 0 0 reslstor = - = 3 75A Ans
10
37'5
Current in 15R reslstor = -- = 2.58 Ans.
15
I t Total current = 6.25A Ans.
Voltage d r o p across g r o u p A = 6V Ans.
Supply Voltage = 6 + 37.5 = 43,SV Ans
b.
-
= 0.13V
I?OmV.
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SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE EXAMPLES 39 1
Since shunt voltage drop for 300A is 150mV, then the meter
resistance would have to be ~ncreaccdby an external resistcr of
v;iltlc 0.03R. 0ht;llnccl I'rom I ;Imp (0.03 t 0.12) o h m
1 x 0.1.5 0. 15V or IOlnV.
Ilndcr this cc>ndition rhc ;1ctt1;11
current ~ c I I . ; ~ncrcrc~l
, \vot11d
be 301A. 300A would pi~ssthtougl~the .;llii111 : \ t d I t \ tllrougll
the ammeter.
.Yore. The resistor would have to be rated for this current rc
I amp. Thus l 2 x 0.03 = 0.03 w a t t s -d e a l t with in Chapter 2 .
Fig 5
PD across BC = 34 + 6
in turn is 34V above E.
- M V , since E is 6V above C and
p.d. across C D - R ,
iind - - - or R, = 30 = t 5 R Ans.
p.d. across A B 10 20
90 - 90
Current in branch ABCD = - = 2A Ans.
+
10 20 + 15- 3
90 - 90
Current In branch A E D = ----- - - = 6A Ans
9 + 6 15
Supply current = 2 + 6 = 8A 4 n s .
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v2 202
Resistance of 1 lamp = - = --- = 40R
P 10
P 10
o r lamp current = - = - = 0.5A
v 20
20
and lamp resistance = - = 40R
0.5
40
Resistance of 3 lamps in parallel = - = 13.33R
3
Total resistance of complete circuit
LL
Circult current = --- = 1.54A
14.33
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1.54
(b) Current taken by 1 lamp = - = 0.513A Ans.
3
( a ) Voltage drop in battery = 1.54 x 1 = 1.54V
Battery terminal voltage = 22 - 1.54 = 20.46V Ans.
(c) Power loss per cell = (current in 1 bank)2 x
resistance of a cell
6'465 - 7.275kW
Input to motor = ----
0.89
7275
Motor current = -- --
- 363'75 - 33.1A Ans,
220 11
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SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE EXAMPLES 395
-. - -
6. 1,1gl1t111g
lo;~d = IOU 100 - I0 OOOW .IIICJ
2 0 0 x 6 0 - 12oooW
= 10 + I' = 22kW
Heating load = 25kW
Miscellaneous loads = 30 x 220 = 6600 = 6.6kW
Total load = 22 + 25 + 6.6 = 53.6kW
Generator output = 53.6kW
Generator input = - 53.6 = 63.1kW
0.85
Now generator input = engine output.
So engine must develop 63.1kW Ans.
7. 0 . C . e.m.f. of battery = 4.3V
4.3
O.C. e.m.f.,'cell = - = I .43V
3
4.23
Value of load resistor = - = 10,575R
0.4
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Fig 6
40 = 0.363A
Current for 40W lamp = ---
110
Resistance of 40W lamp = -110 = 303R
0.363
Current for 150W lamp = -150 = 1.5A
100
Resistance of 150W lamp =
100
--- = 66.66R
1.5
Parallel circuit has to carry 1.5A
:. Current in shunt resistor = 1.5 - 0.363 r- 1.137A
Voltage drop across shunt = 1 IOV
Resistance of shunt = -- = 96.8R Ans.
1.137
110V is dropped across the parallel circuit
IOOV is dropped across the series lamp
.: 230 - 210 = 20V must be dropped across the s e x $ *
resistor which carries 1.5A
20 40
:. Resistance value of series resistor = - = - = 13.3fl .Ans
1.5 3
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SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE EXAMPLES 397
-- - - -
2 OHMS
r---l
-: I.SV/CELL
T
I
T
] 4 CELLS
1 0 . 2 2 5 OHM
1 /CELL
II
I
I
IN SERIES
I I
-L I- -L
2 . 5 OHMS
w
Fig 8
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398 REED 'S BASIC ELECTROTECHNOLOGY
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17 x
= x lo6 = 170 Ans
'b) Area of plate = 100 x 100 = 1C 4mm 2
,,
10 x 103 = Irnm
Thickness of plate = --
This is the length in the expression R = @
A
.: R = l7 I0l6
10
I ohms = 1.7 x iO-3irQ Ans,
Alternatively using p = 1.7 x l o - @ ohm-metres for ( a t - a s
an example.
2. S ~ n c eR2, = +
RO(l x20) and R60 = Ro(l + a60)
-Jllcn R"(1 c *fa)
w- t o K o ( I tct20)
and R,, =
Hz,[I + (60 x 0.004 28)] -
[I -t ( 2 0 x 0 (XM'X)]
or R,, = ---( l + -0.2568)
90 ---- -
90 x 1,2568 ohnls
1 + 0,0856
-
1.0856
230
Current taken by coil at 20'C = --- = 2.56,4
90
At 60'C to keep the current constant, the toltage must be
2 56 x 104 4 = 267 26V So the voltage must be ra~sed bh
267.26 - 230 = 37.26V Ans.
220 11
The current taken by the heater is --- = - = 1.83A
120 6
a n d the power r a t ~ n gof the heater = 220 x 1.83
= 403.3W
Since the heater is only 84 per cent efficient, only 403.3 x 0.84
watts are available to heat the water.
.: time of heating = 296 lo' seconds
403.3 x 0.84
- 296
0339 = 873s
873
= -- minutes = 14min 33s Ans.
60
4. Since R P1
=- RA
then 1 = -
A P
5 Since
R
2= R, (1 + cx T,)
R, R,(I+rT,)
.' R2 =
R, (1 + aT2)
I + cc T,-
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SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE EXAMPLFS 40 1
-- - - -.-. -- .
6. -
240V
L-
SUPPLY A
,
I50 m
-
A
0
I50 m
-
rl
200 A
LOAD
Fig 9
Since the resistance of a cable core 880m long and 50mm 2 in
area is 0.219R
then the resistance of a cable core 88Om long and 150n1rn2 ~n
0.219
area = -= 0.073R
3
and the resistance of a cable core 150m long and 150mm2 in
area = 0.073 150 = 0.0124n
880 e
Current In length AB = 300A
Resistance of length AB = 2 x 0.0124 = 0.0248f2
Voltage drop in length AB = 300 x 0.0248 = 3 x 2.48
= 7.44V
Voltage at 200A load = 240 - 7.44 = 232.56V Ans,
1
1
7. Resistance of l m m diameter cable R - P1
- A.
105
Let R2 = resistance of 800 x -= 840m of 1.5mm dia-
100
meter cable
Then R , =
x 840 lo3 4
x x 1.5~
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= 2.47 x 8.4 x
- 20.75 - 9.22Q
2.25
Since there are 19 strands in parallel, the resistance of the
complete cable, being inversely proportional to area, will be
reduced by 19
9.22
.: Resistance of cable = -= 0.485R Ans.
19
8 . Since R = R, ( 1 + a T) or 15 = 10 [ l + (a x 100)]
= 1 0 + (a x 1000)
or 5 = 1000a and a = 0.005 Ans.
or using the definition
a =
increase of resistance per O°C rise in temperature
resistance at O°C
- l 5 - 1°/10 = 5 = 0.005 Ans.
- 100
Also since R = R, (1 + a T ) then 30 = 10 (1 + 0.0057')
and 30 = 10 + 0-05T
or 20 = 0.05T and T = - 20 = 20 x 100 degrees
0.05 5 Celsius
= 400°C Ans.
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S O LU T IO N S TO PR A C T I C E EXAMPLFS 403
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CHAPTER 4
4.869A
=
Error in reading = 5.1 - 4.869 -
= 0,231A (high) Ans.
This may be better expressed as a percentage thus:
- Difference between false and true reading x 100
-
true reading
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SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE EXAMPLES 40 5
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SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE EXAMPLES 407
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CHAPTER 5
1. F = BII newtons
= 0.25 x 100 x 1 = 25 newtons per metre length
Ans.
2. Magnetomotive
- force F = 4 x 250 = lOOOAt
F
(a) Magnetising Force H = - = m.m.f, per metre length
1
- loo0
- 500 x 1 0 - 3
= 2000At/m Ans.
(b) Flux Density B = x H = 4 x n x lo-' x 2000
11,
= 8 x rc x teslas
Cross-sectional area of ring = 400 x square metres
:. Flux @ = B x A = 8 x rr x ): 400 x
= 25.L2 x 4 x lo-'
= 0.002 512 x 4 x
= 0.010 048 x
= 1.0048 x webers
or 1.0048pWb Ans.
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SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE EXAMPLES 4(K,
Also B = p, x H B=
:H = - 5 x lo2
p 4 x rr x lo-'
6.5 x
- 5
- -
x lo9500 -
--
- lo1
26 x n 81.64
= 6 12 x 10' ampere-turns metre
Air g a p = 3mm = 3 x metrec
Requlred ampere-turns = 6 12 x 10' x 3 x lo-"
4
= 18.36 x lo4
= 183 600At Ans
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8. F = BII newtons
= 0.5 x 25 x 400 x = 0.5 x 100 x l o - '
= 0.5 x 10 = 5N Ans.
-
- 6'28 9'6 kilowatts
6
= 6.28 x 1.6 = 10.05kW Ans.
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S O L U TI O N S TO PR A C TI C E EX A M P L E S 413
-- . -- -
. --- - - - -- - - -
The above is based on the conductors cutting the field :it rig11t
angles and therefore the maximum value of e.m.f. generated I \
10.144V Ans.
r l n ~ lbr
c 1 rcvoiotlon = I \ c c o n d s in OIIC r c v o l i ~ t i n ~:I ic y l r
20 '
I S pcncr;\rcd. So I'rcq~~c~lc.!,
of pcllc.r;~r~-d c 111.I'. 2 0 L~\(~IC, IVI
second or. in S1 units. I'requency of generared c.m.1 = 70 Ilcrrl
iz 11s
nd4 - n X (10 X l ~ - ~ ) ~
Area of small coil = --
4 4
- lo-' square metre
4 w
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I
CHAPTER 7
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416 R EED ' S BASIC ELECl'ROTECHNOLOGY
Fig 1 1
Horizontal component V , = 100 + 80 cos 60
= 100 + 80 x 0.5 = 140V
Vertical component V , = 0 - 80 sin 60
I = 0 - 80 x 0.866
= - 69.28V
Resultant V = .\/1402 + 69.28'
= J19 600 + 4800
-
1 = d'24 400 = 156.3V Ans.
Since maximum values have been used for the phasor the
resultant is a maximum value, which lags the l00V values by
26" 26' Ans.
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SO L U TI O N S TO P R A C TI C E E X A MPLE S 41 7
Fig 12
5. The phasor diagram I s drawn as shown, but is not to scale
since the resultant is obtained mathematically. For convenience,
the second current has been used as the reference along the
horizontal.
....\ ,
\
\
1
I
I
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Fig 14
E2, = 50V E3, = 75V E,, = 125V
For the resultant E = 100.5mm= 252V
The angle 8 = 12" (approx)
180 IT
Now 12" = - or - radians (leading)
15 15
The required expression can be written
cl, + c, + P, + e4 ore = 252 sin Ans.
+
8. (a) Alternators in step V = 100 200 = 300V Ans
(b) When phase dispacement is 60"
V= v'no2 +.-20o2 + 2 x 1 0 0-
- - --
x 2 0 0 o ; 60 -
= d l 0 000 + 40 000 + (40000 x +) = 1\70000
-
r
v = \ 10O2+2OO2=~50OOO=100~5
= 223 7V Ans
( d ) When phase displacement is 120'
V = / 5 0 0 0 0 + 4 0C ~ 120
S
= \'50 000 + 40 000 ( - cos 60)
-
-+ --
= t/50000 + 4 0 0 0 0 ~ = t'50000 - 20000
--
= 130000 = 1 0 0 ~ = 3 1 7 3 2 V Ans.
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Fig 15
' the time interval 0 - 8 is considered as the base of the half
.c, cipllr ~nici-ordini~tcs can be used, giving:
I , = 4 and i , 2 = 16
i , = 6 and i12 = 36 The sum of i 2 = 1 12
i, = 0 and i,' = 36
112
1, = 4 and i,2 = 16 The mean of i Z - - - J i 4
- 8
i , = 2 and ',i = 4
1 , = 0 and i,2 = 0 The r.m.s. value = ~'14
i, = 0 nnd i7' = 0 = 3.75A
i , = - 2 and i f 1 2= 4
Ilc rcqu~rcdvalue o1'd.c. would be 3.75A An5
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SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE FXAMPLES 42 1
- - -- --- -- -- ---- -
Fig 16(a)
Fig 16(b)
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CHAPTER 8
ZON P
1. E.m.f. generated = - x - volts
60 A
Here Z is 144 x 6 = 864 N = 600 rev/min
P = 4 and A = 4 since this is a lap winding
.'. 216 = 8 6 4 x 0 ~ 6 0 0X -4
60 4
or@= 216 webers
864 x 10
If the armature is wave wound A = 2
Substituting the value of 0
then E = 864 x
2 16 600 4
864x 1 O X 6 o X 2
= 21 6 x 2 = 432V Ans.
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SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE EXAMPLES 423
The table shows the adjustment for the 900 rev mln condition
I
1 F r c ~ t ; ~ t ~Cl~rrcnt
I I
on O 04 , 0X I 2 1h
; I, (amperes) 11 ~
1 ~ 1 ~ ~
+--- -1- 1 1
E.m.f. at
1200 rev/m~n
I 1 9 6 , 226 , 2 4 4 2541
I
E (volts) I
i I I
I 1
I
I
1 E.m.f. at I
15x3 88x3
11 900rev/min
E (volts) 112; 6 6 T l ~ ~ 5 1 4 1 6 5 8 9 0 5 ~
I I I 1 I
Fig 17
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= 172.72A
I , = 172.72 + 4.4 = 177.12A
Also E = I / + /,R,
= 220 + (17712 x 0.1) = 237.72V
Z@h P P
Again E = --- x -
60 A
250 000
Full-load current = ------ = 520A
480
Total voltage d r o p on full load = 520 (0.01 + 0.005 + 0.005)
= 520 x 0.02 = 10.4V
So e.m.f. generated on full load = 480- + 10.4 = 490.4V
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SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE EXAMPLES 42 5
---
7. Here Z .= 90 x 6 = 540
540 x 0.03 x 1500 4
.: E =
60 *4
= 9 x 3 x 15 = 9 x 45 = 405volts Ans
If I, = 25A. The armature voltage drop = 25 x 1.0 = 2 5
volts. Since the same field flux and speed iire to bc assumed, tllcn
the same e.m.f. is being generated or V = E - I,R, and
V = 405 - 25 = 380 volts,
380
So shunt-field current = - = 1.9A
200
Machlne output current = 25 - 1.9 = 23.1A Ans.
Let I, = the load current
Then I , x 40 = V (the terminal voltage)
Also V = E - I,R,
= 380 - I , x 1.0 also I, = I&+ 1,
... V = 380 - 1.0 ( I , + 1,)
o r 4 0 x I'= 380 - I, - I ,
and 41 x I , = 380 - I,
also I - - V - ------ --
40 x I , - I,
'- 200 - 200 5
So the above becomes
41 x 1, = 380 - - IL
5
205 x 1, = 1900 - IL
1900
206 x I,, = 1900and I, = 2m= 9.22A A n s .
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Fig 18
(c) The 1100 revlmin O.C.C. is obtained by multiplying the
original 1000 revlmin values by 11 - 1.1
- '
10 -
to give the new table:
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SoLunoNs TO PRACTICE EXAMPLES 427
9. output current = M X 1 o a , = -m = 2 1 f i 9 ~
230 23
230 -
Shunt-field current = - -- - 4.18A
46 -
55 11
Armature current = 217.39 4.18 = 221.57k +
Armature voltage drop = 221.57 x 0.034 = 2.2157 x 3.4
= 7.53v
I
I Induced emf = 230 + 7.53 + 2 = 239.53V
I
Electrical power required to be generated
I = 239.53 x 221.57 watts
1 = 239.53 x 0.2216 kilowatts
*
i
L
= 53.18kW
Total input power = electrical power input + mechanical loss
= 53.18 + 1-6 = 54.78kW
Thus input power = 54.78kW Ans.
Excitation
currcn t 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
I, (amperes)
E.m.f. at 200
revlmin
. 10 38 61 78 9 3 106 115 123 130 135
E (volts)
. .
E.m.f. at 400 , , '-'
' ,
rev/min 20 76 122 156 186 212'230'246 260 270
E (volts) :I 1
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(c) For the e.m.f, to reduce to 220V. the field voltage-dmp line
~ I I O L I I C I C L I I L I I C O.('.C'.i\L (111sI ) ~ I I ~ 'l'lle
[ . field current would
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SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE EXAMPLES 429
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CHAPTER 9
= 572.3W Ans.
100
Lamp resisiance = ---- = lOOR
1
( a ) Total resistance to give 1A with 220V applied
-
- -
220 = 220R
/ I
.'. Series resistance = 220 - 100 = 120R Ans.
Power absorbed by circuit = 12R = l 2 x 220 = 220.W
Ans.
( b ) Wticr~11 coil (re:ictor) is used for voltage dropping
220
Impedance of circuit Z = --- = 220R
1
Reactance of circuit =
=loo
dm---%?
= 100 J E T
J ~ = 1 0 0 , / m
-i2
= 100 x 1.96 = 196R -
= 0.624H Ans.
Power absorbed by circuit P = I * R = l 2 x I100 = lOOW Arts-
-
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SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE EXAMPLES 43 1
Fig 20
4. RA = I 2 W R B = 100Q
X, = 2xfL X, = 2xft
=2 ~ 3 ~ 1 4 ~ 5 0 ~ 2 5= 0 ~2 ~1 03 .- 1~ 4 ~ 5 0 ~ 10-3
400~
= 314 x 250 x = 3.14 x 40
= 78.5Q = 125.m
Z, = 100 6 1 . 2 +~ 0.785~ Z , = 100 Jm2
= 100 41.44 + 0.615 = 100 17-/
= 1 0 0 r n 5 = 14352 = 1 0 0 m = 160.552
Total circuit R = 120 + 100 = 22052
X = 78.5 + 125.6 = 204.152
Z = J2202 + 2 0 4 . 1 ~= 100 d 2 . 2 2 + 2 . ~ 4 ~
= ioo J4.85 + 4.1 8 = I 00 m 3 = ~OOR
230
(a) I = - = 0.766A Ans.
300
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2 20
(b) cos d, = - = 0.733 (lagging) and 4 = 42" 46' Ans
300
(c) Voltage across ,4 = 0.766 x 143 = 10936V Ans.
- across B = 0.766 x 160.5 = 122.9V Ans.
Voltage
120
( d ) cos 4 - --- = 0.838 (lagging) o r 4, = 33" 7'
A - 143
CoS OB = -loo
-- = 0.623 (lagging) r r
160.5
= 51 " 27'
Tht~zpl~itsedifference 4 = 51" 27' - 33" 7'
= 18" 20' Ans.
A.C. condition Z , -
=
140 = 70R 2, = -100 = 50R
2 2
.Y, = J- = d49OO - 100
= tm= 10 JG = 69.3R
X , = J502 - IS' = J2500 - 225
- = &m = 10 m 5 = 4 7 - 7 ~
Since X is proportional to frequency
Therefore at 50Hz X, = 69.3 x = 86.6R :
XB = 47.7 x 2 = 59.7R
For the total series circuit R = 10 + 15 = 2 5 0
4
.
X = 86.6 + 59.7 = 146.3S2
So Z = J252 + 146,32 = 10 d 2 . 5 2 + 1 . 4 . 6 3 ~ohms
= 10 ~ 1 6 . 2 5+ 214 = 10 JEEB = 10 x 14.81
Current I = -
230
148'1
= 1.55A Ans.
Reactance ,, -. .%
,. , I', = 1.Y =S 284 x 2 . 5
= 0.710kV
From the phasnr diagram
~.
(Fig 2 1 )
C ' = J(3.3 x 0.8 + 0 , 2 8 4 ) ~+ (3.3 x 0.6 + 0 . 7 1 ) ~
~-
= dm:+- 0.28 4 i T T - T F - T
= \/'2,9142 + 2.69
= dR.55'.1--7rE = f l 5 3
= 3.98kV
q o \oltase a t the generator = .3,98kV AIIS.
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SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE EXAMPLES 433
2.924
Generator power factor cos 4 = - = 0.73 (lagging) Ans.
3.98
Generator output = 3980 x 284 x 0.73kilowatts
lo00
= 3.98 x 284 x 0.73
= 825kW Ans.
Figs 21
7. 64 = 8A
Current in 8R resistor = -
8
= current in circuit
(b) Power absorbed.in resistor = I'R = 8' x 8
= 64 x 8 = 512W Ans.
LOAD
C - - - - - - - -----.
Figs 22
From the deduced diagrams (Fig 22)
0 A 2 = O C 2 + C A 2 + 2 x OC x CA x c o s 8
or 1002= + 48' +2 x 64 x 48 x cos 6
10 000 = 4096 + 2304 + 128 x 48 x cos 8
COS e =
loo00 - 4096 - 2304
128 x 48
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Hence - XI -
--50 and X I = -5 X , or X , = 1.25X2
x2 40 4
Substituting
293.09 = ( 1 . 2 5 X 2 - X 2 ) ( l . 2 5 X 2 + X,)
= 0 , 2 5 X 2 x 2325X2
2 2 5 X Z 2 o r 2 9 3 0 9 = 0,5625X2'
- .----
4
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SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE EXAMPLES 43 5
Thus C =
1o6 - lo4 - 10 000
- - --
22.8 x 3 . 1 4 ~lo2 72 72
= 139pF Ans.
For the diagram Fig 23, as an example:
Resistance voltage drop = IR = 6.66 x 10.25 = 68.27V
Reactance voltage drop = 1 X , = 6.66 x-28.5 = 190Vetc.
Fig 23
1
9. At resonance 2rcj'L = ---
2nfC
1 1
and f Z = ( Z ~ ) Z L C
or/ = -
2n d7.Z
Here I can be obtained from I = - v
v xc
or I = -= V2xfC
- 1
2xfC
Thus 1 = 100 x 2 x 3.14 x f x 10 x
= 6.28 x f x
B
= 6:28 x x -
2 x 3.14CC
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436 PRADEEP@MSC SHIPPING
REED'S BASIC ELECTROTECHNOLOGY
Fig 24
= 148.3R
Impedance of circuit
+ (X,- X,)
z = Jm2
1 O6
b
/400' + (148.3 - 2 x 3.14 x 50 x 40 'i2
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SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE EXAMPLES 437
I = - 200 = 0.495P
405
1 o6
V c = 0.495 x
2 x 3.14 x 50 x 40
---
- 0.495 x 10' - 495 - 39.5,, Anr.
3-14 x 4 12.56
+
Impedance of coil Z , = d400' 148.3'
= 1o2JFTTW
= 10~JlCiTi3= 1 0 2 m
= lo2 x 4.265 = 426.5R
V,, = IZ,
= 0.495 x 426.552
= 211V Ans.
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CHAPTER 10
40
4. ( a ) Current in 1 parallel path = - = 10A
4
Current in 1 conductor = current per parallel path
So f'orcc on I conductor is given by B / l
= 1.2 x 10 x 0.4
= 4.XN Ans,
= O72N m Ans
( b ) T o t ~ torque
l due to ,111 cond:qctors
= 240 x C, - L
= 172 SN m A n >
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SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE
PRADEEP@MSC EXAMPLES
SHIPPING 439
- 6.28 80 x 172.8
'X
6
-
= 502.4 x 28.8 watts
14 469W = 14.5kW Ans
E k 0 2N2
Also slnce = ---
Eb, kQIN1
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E 5x400
Thus - = or 256.1 - 400
E, 5 x N 244.1 N
400 x 244.1
or N = = 382 revlmin Ans.
256.1
Vote. Since flux can be assumed to be proportional to the
field ampere-turns, and hence the exciting current, then the
current value has been substituted for the flux values 0.
7. On no load. I, - 10s
--- =
90
1.1 7A ILo= 3.5A
lao = 3.5 - 1.17 = 2.33A
Ebo = 105 - (2.33 x 0.25) = 105 -
2.3'3
--
4
= 105 - 0.58 = 104.42V
On full load. Output = 3 x 1000 watts
Input = - 3 x 1000-x-1- 00-
- 1000 x 100
82 27.33
= 36.6 x 100 = 3660W
Input line current I,, = - 3660 = 34.86A
105
la, = 34.86 - 1.17 = 33.7A
N o w E a @ N o r E = k@N
= 105 -
Eb, = 105 - (33.7 x 0.25)
8.43 = 96.57V
= -k 0 , No
and we can write
E,, k Q 1, N l
104.42 x 1.17 x 1000
o r No = Ebo x @, x N , -
Eb, X 00 96.57 x 1.17
-= 1080 revlmin Ans.
Again, since T is constant and T cc @Ia,we can write
T , = k 0 2 1 a 2and T I = kcb,la,
or T_1= 2 k@ 3 I B U ~T , = T ,
T, I and 0 , = 0 ,
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8. Cold condition
Z@N P E, 60,4
Also since E, = -x - then N = - x -
60 A Z P
230
10. I , = -- = 2.2A I, = 5 - 2.2 = 2.8A
O 104.5
Also since I f I = 2.2A then I,, = 50 - 2.2 = 47.8A
Again Ebl = 230 - (47.8 x 0.4) - 2
= 230 - 19.12 - 2 = 208.88V
And Ebo = 230 - (2.8 x 0.4) - 2
= 230 - 1.12 - 2 = 226.88V
Eb2= -
( a ) Since - k-
@-l Nl
Eb,, k@O'VO
Thcn Vd = Ebo N~ asrumlng constant flux.
Eh .
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SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE EXAMPLES 443
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CHAPTER 11
Thus X = f i 9 - 144 = f l 5R
Reactance of coil = 5 ohms Ans.
v - 100
= a= 12.4i2J F12K Z 9 =
Impedance af Branch B. Z ,
=
d m i
m
4
and sin
= 21.652
- 4,
d64
= - = 0.242
12.4
+ 400
. . \ c ~ i \ c cornponcnts o f current.
1 , -: 1, cclh d)A t 1,) dlB
-= ( X . 0 8 0,968) + (4.64 X 0.172)
7N 1 1 7 3 = 0 53A
React~\,ecomponent of current:
ir = - I,, sin qb,, - 1" sin @B
= - (8.08 x 0.242) - (4.64 x 0,928)
= - 1.96 - 4.3 = - 6.26A
- .-
L/'9.53- + 6.26' = J91 +
-
7 - - - --
t4c11c.cI = 39 =
I IA Arls.
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..
RA
c~~+A= - --- =50
-- I0 - 0.99 (lagging)
ZA 50.5 10.1
127R
= r
200
I - - = 1.575 cos 4, = 0 sin 4, = 1
' -127
Then I, = (3.96 x 0.99) + (1.575 x 0) = 3.92 + 0 = 3.92A
I, = - ( 3 . 9 6 ~ 0 . 1 2 4 ) + ( 1 . 5 7 5 ~ 1 =
) -0.491+1.575
= 4.075A
Total current = 4.075A cos 4 = -3'92 = 0.962 (leading)
4.075
Phase angle 4 = 15" 50' Ans.
4. Let the branches be A , B and C respectively. Then:
X, = 2 n f L = 2 x 3.14 x 50 x 0.02 = 6.1HR
Z A= Jg2 +
6.28' =5- J =5 -
= 10.2R
8 4, 6-28
and cos 4, = - = 0.785 (lagging)
10.2
sin = - = 0.616
10.2
'10 15.7
cos 4, = - = 0.537 (lagging) sln 4, = --- = 0.845
18.6 18.6
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446 REED'S BASIC ELECTROTECHNOLOGY
P(tic.~cnc.!=
output (power) - -- - -
9kW -
.1 Input ( p o i i r ) lOkW
or q = 90 per cent Ans
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SOLUTIONS M PRACTICE EXAMPLES 447
e
Line current = ~ d a s current
1/
e
Total power, P = 3 VI cos q5
10
100
:. Load current p r phase = -- = 10A
= 10A Ans.
a. *
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- t 3 x z 3 x 100 x 30 x 0 8 6 6
1 000
= 3 x 3 x 0.866 kilowatts
= 7 794kW Ans.
= 0.866kW Ans,
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SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE EXAMPLES 449
Since P = 3 VIcosc#J
\
51 140
(a) Line current, I =
t 3 x 500 x 0.9
or I = 51 = 65.6A Ans.
1.732 x 450
(b) Output from the alternator = input to motor
= 51.14kW Ans.
51 140 x 100 watts
(c) Input to alternator =
80.
.
51 140 x 5
or output power of prime-mover = -
4 ~1000
= 6 4 k ~Ans.
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L V A O f MOTOR
I / I TOTAL kW
Fig 25
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CHAPI'EII 12
2. B = -Q,= 500 x 5
7 = - = 1.25T
A 400x10- 4
Also since B = p H = / L , 11, H then
(b) Reluctance =
Length -- ampere-turnrlweber
/I YArzi~ p,,/l, x ,+f
I
= 1.25MAiWb Ans
F = 400 x 2.5
4. (a) H = ampere-turns per metre = -
I 1.25
Thus H = -
Ioo0 -- 8OOA t/m
1.25
I =
( h ) Rcl\lct;lncc, .S -- -- -- -
I --25- 103
/,,,l 0 027 x I 500 v 1 (I (I ampcrc-
lurns/weker
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SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE EXAMPLES 453
Using the graph of Fig 26, we see that, for atflux density of
0,942T. the ampere-turns per metre length of the iron = 850.
I. 0
-
<
-I
w
fi
0.5
0
0 XX,
Fig 26
Since length of iron path = 0.6m
:. M.M.F. for iron = 0.6 x 850 = 6 x 85 = 510At
Total magnetomotive force required = 3000 510 or +
3510At Ans.
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SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE EXAMPLES 455
Fig 27
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f i3
and B = \ m 6= 1.185T
From the graph of Fig 27, for a B value of 1.185T,
the H value = 560Atlm.
n
Area of one contact face = - x 1 5 x~ square
4 metre
n
Flux, @ = BA = 1.185 x - x 225 x lo-' weber
4
= 0.296 x 3.14 x 225 x lo-"
= 0.296 x 3.14 x 2.25 x
= 2.09 x 10-4Wb
Since B for horse-shoe magnet
:- I I X51' tlic11,llro1111:ig 27, the i f vulue = 560
At/m
Length of magnet path
115 = 180.5mm = 0.1805m.
= rt x
&
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SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE EXAMPLES 457
n1m2
Area of air gap = - 10-6
9, (a) 4
-
- 314 l o ' square metre
4
3.14 x 10''
Volume of air gap = 2.5 x 10-3
4
= -3'14 x lob4 cubic metre
16
0.004 x 4
~ i u dinsity
x in gap =
T[ X loo2 X
-
- lo' - tesla = 0.508T
x lt
B~
Energy stored in joules = -x Volume
2 ~ 0
-
-
0.5082 X -
3.14 10-4
2 4~ lo-' 16
- 0.508' x 10' - 0.258 x 103joules
8 x 16 - 128
-
--258
= 25 Ans.
128
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458 REED 'S BASIC ELECTROTECHNOLOGY
( b ) Pull (newtons) =
B 2 -~ 0.508'
----- -
x 3.14 x
2p, 2 x 477 X 10- 'X 4
= 806N Ans.
Also B = p,H
B 0.833 - 833 x 104
. . H value lor alr = - = - --- -
4nx10-~ 471
= 66.2 x lo4 ampere-turnslmetre
M.M.F. for air gap = 66.2 x lo4 x 5 x 10-3
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SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE EXAMPLES 459
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CHAPTER 13
1. For a series combination, the equivalent capacitance is given
1 1 1
by C, where - = -- + --- = -- -
2+1- 3
C 0.02 0.04 0.04 0.04
0.04
o r C = ---- = 0.0133pF Also Q = CV
3
Q = 0.0133 x x lo2 coulombs
1 3 3 x lo-" = 6 6 ~ 7 Vrind V , = -.-.--
1.33 -.-.
x
',
l'I1c11 I =
0 4 2 ' ~lo-'; 0.04 x lij-"
= 33.3v.
'I'he voltage drops are respectively 66.7V and 33.3V Ans.
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SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE EXAMPLES 46 1
and & = -C = + 3 x 1 0 4 -
- 3 x /OH
E, 1 0 x lo6 x 8 . 8 5 ~lo-'' 8 . 8 5 ~10'
30
or E, = -
8.85
= 3-39 Ans.
EA
6. C = - where A = 6 x lo4 x square metres
6
= 6 x square metres
!= 3.5 x metres
and E = E, x E,
= 8 . 8 5 x lo-'' x 3
8.85 x 10-l2 x 3 x 6 x
Hence C=
3.5
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= 1,264 x 16.2 x
= 20.477 x joules = 2 0 . 4 8 ~ 5 Ans.
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SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE EXAMPLES 463
ii. I = 40 x x 50 amperes
1 x 10-
= 2 x lo-' x lo3 = 2A Ans.
iii. I = 40 x x O amperes = OA Ans
1 x 10-
iv. I = 40 x i
1 x 'lo-
,
lM) amperes = 4A Ans.
v. I = 40 x x 50 amperes = 2A Anr.
1 x 10-
Fig 29
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1 1 000 = 1 I 0000
10. Reactance of cable per kilometre = -----
1
6
lo6
Also X, = ---- -
- I 0
ohms
2nfC 2 x 3.14 x 50 x C
whence I I x lo3 = lo' andC= lo microfarads
3.14 x C 1 1 x 3.14
or C = 0.289pF
electric flux density
Again since permittivity =
electric force
Bur Q = C'l'
I) r 'I'
/1
-
-. O "Y lo-'
4
II lo' coulomb per \qu.,rc
metre
dnd & =
v
1 1 ~ 1 0 ~
- =
1
10 x 1 0 - ~
= I l x lo5 \,olts per metre
The mean diameter of the insulation = 10 + 12 = 22mm
The area of the dielectric
= mean circumference x length
= rrd x 1000 square metres
= 3.14 x 22 x x lo3
= 3.14 x 22 = 69.1m2
Also, from the above,
n = CV = 0.289 x x l l x 10' coulomb per
,.A 3.14 x 22 square metre
- 3.179 x lo-'
69.1
D 0~289x11~10-~
Again E = - =
8 3.14 x 22 x 1 1 x 10'
- 2.89 X
-
3.14 x 22
Also E = E , x E ,
.' . F =- - 2.89 x lo-'
' 3.14 x 22 x 8.85 x lo-"
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T h u s 1, = 10 -
- -l o = 1.2A Ans.
1 +7.33 8.33
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Fig 30
2 OHMS 2 OHHI
- - - ---
J OtcMI I,
i
I
I I
0 OHMS I,
A
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SOLUTIONS TO PR A C TI C E EXAMPLES 467
-
SOHMS 1
1
0 OHMS 12 OHM$
Fie 72
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or 0 0 1 , t - 812 . . . (c)
Multipl! ( a ) by 4. - 8 = 201, + 401, - 481,
\ I I I I I I ,IC.I (11) 4 ?Or, - 1 512
glLlng - I2 = 551, - 4XI3 . . . (d)
M u l t ~ p l >( c ) by 7.4. 14.4 = 4813 $ 19.21,
Adding ( d l - 12 = - 481, + 551,
..- -- --
2.4 = 74.21,
3.4
Thus 1, = - = 0.0324A
74.2
S u b \ t ~ t u t ~ for
n s I, In ( c )
then h = 701, + 8 x 0 0324 o r 6 = 201, + 0 2592
6 - 0.2592 =
glvlng 1, = - -
20
Current in 8 R resistor = I, + I, = 0.0324 + 0.287
.d = 0.3194A o r 0.32A Ans.
8OHMS
= VOLTS
T I5 O H M S
'vvvvv
B
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S O L U ~ I O N STO PRACTICE EXAMPLES 469
Fig 34
Let R be the resistance of the 5R and 1 5 0 resistors in ~arallel
rl Fig 35
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SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE EXAMPLES 47 1
Substituting in (a)
211 + 41, -'6(1.3311 - 2) = 0
21, + 41, - 7.981, + 12 = 0
41, - 5.9811 = - 12 . . (d)
Substituting in ( c )
41, - 41, - 812 - 81, - 41, = 0
411 - 812 - 1613 = o
41, - 8(1.331, - 2) - 161, = 0
41, - 10.641, + 16 - 161, = O
- 6.6411 - 161, = - 1 6
or 6.641, + 161, = 16 . . . (e)
Multiplying (d) by 4 and solving with (d) and (e)
161, - 23,921, = - 48
161, + 6.641, = 16
Subtracting
- 30,561, = - 64 or I, = 2.09A
using (b)
611 - 12 = 41, or I, = 1.51, - 3
thus I, = (1.5 x 2.09) - 3 = 3.14 - 3 = 0.14.A
Current is 0.14A (downwards) Ans,
6 9.447
Joint G = 0.0159s Joint B = - 0.007 035
Y = d 0 . 0 1 5 9 ~+ 0.007 032 = I O - J~ 1 . 5 9 ~+ 0.703'
= 1 0 - ~ J 2 . 5 2 5 + 0.50 = Jm
'
= 10- x 1.74 siemens
z= -lo' = 57.6Q
1.74
Joint impedance = 57.6R Ans.
The equivalent resistance = G x z2= 0.0159 x 57.6'
= 52.8R
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8. Branch 1 of section AB
Total (; = 0.01 4S
63.5
Also B, = - = 0,008 31s
7650
78 5
B2 = - -- = - 0.008 06s. (Note the - I-e sign)
9750
Total B = 0.000 25s [ r B = 0 s
1. = 10-2J].42 + 0 02s2 = lo-' x 1.4 = 0.014s
1
and Z = = 71.5R
8.014
Equivalent R = 71.5R Equivalent X
Total R = 100 + 71.5 -. 171.50
OR -
, X = 94.2 + 0 = 9 4 . 2 0 .
Note ,'A = 2 x 3.14 x 50 x 0.3 = 94.20
.. Z = fi71.5' + 94.2'
= 1 0j 1 7 . 1s2 + 9.322
= 10~'?94.!2 + 88.74
= 10\/?83-06 = 10 x 19.7 = 197R
8 z ,
,
Impedance of scctlon BC' = v/ 10O2 + 94.1'
- i H 840
or ZBc = 1.17.4C)and \olt:~gcd r o p = 2.54 137.4
= 348.99V
7'hu\ 3 4 0 V will I>c tlic vo1t;lgc ;Icro\s \cctiorl I%('
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a n d ZA2= +
j2 9.422 = 9 + 88.74 = 97.74
a n d ZB2= 10O2 +
7.8' = 10 OOO + 60 = 10 060
Branch C X = X, - X C
= (2X 3.14X 5OX 0.02) - 1o6
2X 3.14X 50X 3 0
10. C i r c u ~ A
t%, = R, = 2 0 0 X A = OR
Circuit B X = 2 x 3.14 x 50 x 0.05 o r XB = 15.70R
Z R- 2 = 52 +
15.7' = 25 + 246.49 = 271.49
1o6
Circuit C X =
2 X 3.14 X 50 X 50
Then GA = -R~
7 --
Z,
-,
20-
20
i
= - = 0.05s
20
Thus total
PRADEEP@MSC G = 0.0684s
SHIPPING
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474 R E E D ' S BASIC ELECTROTECHNOLOGY
0
Similarly BA = 7 - - T =OS
XA -
z, 20
X7
BB = -B
= - ----
15.7 = - 0'0578s
ZB 271.5
1
B - Xc - -= 0,0157S
- ZC2 - 63.65
Total B = - 0.0421s
Hence Y = 10-2J6,842 + 4 . 2 1 =
~ 1 0 - ~ 2 / ~ m 2
- 10-~\/64_51
- = x 8.05 = 0.0805s
I . . I'} IOO h 0.0805 :- H,OSA A I ~ s .
(-.irctilt p o w c kictor is plvcn by ;lnd is lagging. since 6 is
) '
tllinu o r riel ~ n d u c l ~ v c :
0.0684
: cos 4 = = 0.85 (lagging) A n s
0.0805
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CHAPTER 15
power d i s y y t e d (watts)
1 . Anode current (amperes) = -- -.
anode to cathode voltage (voli,)
1
3. Resistance, r, =
conductance
1.64 x - 8.13 x lo3
or r, = 1 - -
1.64-
= 4.957 x lo3 ohms = 4.96kQ Ans
4. A.C. resistance =
- change in anode voltage
change in anode current
129-75 - 54 x 103
o r ra =
(22 - 12)io-%- 10
= 5.4 x lo3 ohms o r 5.4kQ Ans.
D.C. resistance, R (for 75V condition)
-
- 75 = 6.25 x l a 3 ohms
12 x 10-
= 6.25kQ Ans.
D.C. resistance, R (for ,129V condition)
-
- 129 = 5.864 x 1030hms
22 x 10-
= 5.86kR Ans.
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Fig 36
6 Tlic c l i ; ~ r ; ~ c t e r ~ 1s
\ t ~plotted
c a s s h o w n a n d the load line 1s
d r a \ \ n In t I ~ u \ .
I A h \ r ~ ~ nI:,c = O T h e n voltage o n a n o d e ~ v o u l dbe 6 o V t o
! ? I \ C poll11 ,\
II . \ \ \ L I I ~ ~il:'
I~ \.II\c' resl\l;lnce 10 be o t ' r n l n ~ m u balue.
~ ~ i Thc
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SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE EXAMPLES 477
- - ...~.~ .
~ - .. . - . . -. . -.-. - - - - -. . .
200
IS0
,--
.5
S
-z
$100
3
V
4
cl
0
z
4
50
A
0 1
0 K, X) 43 Y,
ANODt V O L l A C t VO(VOLTS) -
Fig 37
Alternatively (from the load); for polnt P, V , = 30V
. . Voltage dropped across load resistor
= V - Va = 60 - 30 = 30V
Power dissipated = voltage across resistor x anode current
= 30 x 100 x = 3W Ans.
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- -- - --
VOL1 A C k
Fig 38
a load line on the static characteristic for a resistor of I kR
and a supply voltage of 8V. This is shown dotted and the
current is seen to be 5.1mA. For this problem, since the
dynamic characteristic has been deduced the load-line
method is unnecessary.
8. The problem is solved by plotting the valve characteristic
and drawing the load line for the resistive circuit. Solution
will be assisted, if the circuit is drawn out.
Consider the valve on open-circuit ie non-conducting.
Then the current through the resistive circuit would be
,111~1 [tic
\oI[,~gedrop across the anodc rcslstor woulci hc
4 10 lo3 = 40v
Thc p.d. between anode and cathode 31' the calve, l o r
',
t
2 6 0
J
t-
40
IY
a
3
V
B
:2 0
0
z
4
100
ANODE
Fig 39
VOLTAGE v~(v)-
200 250
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Fig 40
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SELECTION OF TYPICAL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 483
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SELECTION O F TYPICAL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 485
-- -- ---- - -- --
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220
3. ( a ) Field current at instant of starting = --- = 1.35A Ans
165
(b) When running, the starter resistance is inserted into the
field circuit by vi,rtue of the position of the contact ami.
Field-circuit resistance = 165 + 9.8 = 174.80
220
Field current when running = -= 1.26A Ans.
174.8
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220 12 k .~ l o w a t thour
5. Energy input to furnace = 4'5 x -
loo0 60
d = 0.198kW h
= 0.198 x 3600 kilojoules
= 712.8kJ
Energy received (by lead)
= (5.5 x 31 1 x 0.1278) + (5.5 x 22.72) kilojoules
= 218 7 + 125 = 343.7kJ
Energq put out by furnace into lead = 343 7kJ
343.7
Etticiency = = 0.482 = 48.2 per cent Ans
7 12.8
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- 2222.2
44 444 -
Input current = - -= 202.02A
220 11
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492 R EE D ' S B A S I C E L E C T R O TE C H N O L OG Y
220
Shunt-field current = - = 4A
55
Armature current = 202.02 - 4 = 198.2A
Armature starting current = 198.2 x 1.5 = 297.3A
220
Resistance of armature circuit = ---- = 0.74R
297.3
Resistance to be added = 0.74 - 0,075 = 0,665Q Ans.
On normal load E, = 220 - (198.2 x 0.075) volts
= 220 - 14.87 = 205.13V
On 90"" speed E,, = 0.9 x 205.13 = 184.62V
/\s~ii;~rurc\olr;~gedrop = 220 - 184.62 = 35.3XV
35.38
Annaturecurrent = ----- = 471.7A Ans
0.075
-
-- 84
- x-- lo-' (2 85) = 7 2 85 I() -2
12
I'hc c ~ ~ . c impedance
u~t is 14.40 A n s
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SOl,llTIONS TO TYPICAI. EXAMINATION Qt1I:Sl'IONS 493
- -
- -----
~
V2 V2 60 x 60
16. When on d.c. P = - :. R = - = ------ = 1 2 0
R P 300
When on a.c. P = 1200W also P = 1*R
V 130
The impedance Z of the circuit = - = - = 13R
I I0
So reactance X = v'132 - 12' = d m 4 4 = f l 5
= 5R
T h i ~ sreactance of coil = 5R Ans.
= 4.57A Ans.
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SOLUTIONS TO TYPICAL EXAMINATTON QUESTIONS 495
75
19. 75W lamp. I = - = 0.375A
200
40
40W lamp. I = - = 0.2A
200
With lamps in serics 40W lamp will only p;~ss0.2A
.: (0,375 - 0.2) amperes must be piissed through il sliunt
resistor connected across the 40W lamp. This resistor is i i l > r )
to be suitable for 200V, and its resistance value must
- -200= 1143R Ans.
0,175
Power loss in this resistor = 200 x 0.175 = 35W Ans
35 - 4 9 x 1 2
Units used per week = 7 x 24 x ---- -
lo00 100
Cost = 588 0'5p = 2.941, Ans,
100
*
20. Here L = 1.5H so X, = 2 ~ f L= 2 x 3.14 x 50 x' 1.5
= 471R
kilowatts (P)
or hilo\oll iilnperes ( S ) =
power kictor (cos 4)
560
Thus S .= --- = 800kV A
0.7
1' 100
( a ) Current I =- = = 20A
--I Ans.
Z 5
( b ) R e i i s t ~ ~i.o!t:~gedrop
c I,', = I R = 20 x 3 = @JV Ans.
( c ) liei~ctivevolt:cge drop b', = I X = 20 x 4 = 80V 4 n s .
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SOLUTIONS TO TYPICAL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 497
-- - -- - - - - -.- - . - - -- ---. --
- 75
Also X, = 2rcfL .: L = XL - -- -
2 x 3.14 x 50 100 x 3.14
--
- 0.75 = 0.24H Ans.
3.14
~t new frequency X, = ;/m~@
= 100 J1.206~ - I
= 100JFEC-1 = l o o m 4
= 100 x 0.674 = 67.4Cl
new frequency - 67.4
So --
50
75 50. 4
o r new frequency 67.4 x - = 33.7 x -
=
75 3
= 11.233 x 4 = 44.93 hertz
The new frequency value would be 45Hz I n s .
27. Mass of water = volume x density = 4.5 x 1 = 4.5kg
Heat received by water = 4.5 x 4.2 (100 - 17)
= 19.9 x 83 kiloioules = 1569kJ
100
Electrical energy supplied to heater = 1569 x -
80
- l 5 690 - 1961kJ
8
energy 1961
Power rating of heater = _- - --
time 15 x 60
-
- -= 2.18kW
196 1
9W2180 - I09 - 9.gA
Current taken from mains = -- - -
220 11
Mains current = IOA (:ipprox) Ans.
Resistance of heater = ,-220 = 22.252 Ans.
9.9
28. Here R = O R and Z = X = 25l2
V 100
:. r.m.s. value of current I = - = --- = 4A
Z 25
The graphical solution consists of a sinusoidal voltage
wave with a sinusoidal current wave lagging it by 90G,since
the circuit is wholly inductive. Thus when voltage is maxi-
mum current is zero. When voltage has fallen to zero, the
currer-t has risen to its maximum value and as voltage rises
to its negative maximum the current falls to zero.
When V is a maximum, current value is zero Ans.
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-
-
3.4 x 9.2 x - 31.28 x
486 486
= 0.643 x ohms
Voltage drop in cable = 777.6 x 0.643 x 10- = 0.499
= 0.5V
Power loss in cable = 777.6 x 0.5 = 388.8W Ans.
P 1 where' 1 is the
Resistance of the brushes is given by R =-
A
length of a +ve plus a - ve brush and ,4 is the area of half
the total number of brushes.
2550 2 x 30 x - 25.5 x 60 x W 3
Thus R 4 -
108 600 x 1 0 - 5 24 600 x 24
- 255 x
- = 0.106 x ohm
24
Power loss In the brushes is given by 1 2 R
= 777.6' x 0.106 x
= 7.776 x 7.776 x 1.06 watts
Thus power loss in brushes = 64.1 W Ans.
v 200
If Z is the circuit impedance then Z = - = - = 66.6R
I 3
Now only resistance is responsible for power dissipation.
1 44
then P = I' R or 144 = 3 ' ~ .Thus R = = 16R
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SOLUTlONS TO TYPICAL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 499
A
and di= @a .: A , = -2since area K diameter 2
4
R i= 40 x 1.1 x I, x A, x 4
So-
Ra 13 x I, x A,
-
- 160 x 1.1 -
-
176 - 13.54
13 13 1
Thus, since the resistance ratio of the iron to the alu-
minium wires are 13.54 to 1, and as the wires are in parallel.
the currents in the wires are in the ratio Iron :Aluminium =
1 : 13.54. Ans.
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1
At a frequency of 50Hz, time for 1 cycle = - seconds
50
(a) When the voltage is at a maximum, the time is for; cycle
1
or t = ------ - 0.005 seconds
4 x 50
Current at this instant is given by substituting in
i ,= 14.14 sin (2x50 x 0.005 - 4)
or i = 14.14 sin (2 x 180 x 50 x 0.005 - 30). x and 4
= 14.14 sin (90 - 30) = 14.14 sin 60"
in degrees
= 14.14 x 0.866 = 12.25A Ans.
(b) At an instant 0.005s later t would be 0-01s
:, i = 14.14 sin (2 x 180 x 50 x 0.01 - 30)
or i = 14.14sin (180 - 30) = 14.14sin 150"
i = 14.14 sin 30" = 14.14 x = 7.07A Ans.
35. Resistance of filament (cold)
I 10
The resistance R is 19.5n. Therefore the reactance X is
obtained from X = d m 2= J22' - 19.5'
= J484 - 380.25 = J 1 i 5 = lO.lsR
10.15 - 0.1015
Also X = 2xfL :. L =
2 x 3.14 x 50 - 314
= 0.032H Ans.
37. From Faraday's law.
E*" = N ( @ I - @,)
t
-2000 x 4(2.6 x lo-' - 0.1 x
0.2
- 80 x (2.6 - 0.1) - 80 x 2.5 =
25
,, 0.2 0.2 volts
Induced e.m.f. = lOOOV or 1 kV Ans.
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500
Also since P = 1 2 R . then R of coil = --r = 5R
10
Thus reactance X of coil = V'Z* - , R ~ = Jw-Ti
o r X = \;424.36 - 25 = d m 6
= 19.98R
Z ofadditional apparatus = 5R
X 9, ,, = 4R (capacitive)
.: R ,, = Jm2 = = 3n
Total resistance of circuit = 5 +
3 = 8R
Tor;ll reactance ,, = 19.98 - 4 = 15.98R
Note. The inductive and capacitive reactances have been
st1 ht r a c ~ c d .
*I otal impedance ofcircuit = J82 + 1 5.5)g2
= J64 + 255.36
= = 17.880 Ans.
Since cos 4=-
17.88
= 0.44 (lagging)
39. Since the circuit is built up from wire of the same material
and
. sectional
. area, then the resistance of various parts of the
clrcult are proportional to length.
The resistance of the diameter = 2 ohms
:. The resistance of the circumference = x d = 2x ohms.
i'he resistance of circumference = x ohms
The circuit is made up of a diameter and two circumfer-
ences in parallel. :. if R is the circuit resistance
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- - 40Hz Ans.
29.987
The frequency of the supply is 40Hz Ans
43 Output of heater = l 0 M J
'ilso IkLV h = 3600 x 1000 = 36 x lo5 loule5
10 x lo6 100
Nou c.ncrg\ o u t p u ~o f Ilc,rtcr = -- = 17s
36 x lo5 = 36
= 2 78kW 11
O L I I ~ L I I - 7, 711
1-rlcryy 1111)111 - =: 3 27h W 11 / \ I ] \
ellic~ency 0 85
'-
Z of complete clrcult
In~ped~ince = &?-+
3142
= J42 25 +
985 96
= dl028 Z I
= 10fi0-
3 207 = 32 07Q
= 10 x
Appl~ed\ o l t L y efor 16 92A = 16 92 x 32 07 - 542 6V An5
If frequency rljes 5 per cent. reactance rlses 5 per cent N e u
~ c ~ ~ c t . ~ r l c7 cl 4 r 1 0 5 1 2 07R
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= 7.68A
Error of ammeter = 7.68 - 7.3 = 0.38A (low) Ans.
C
0.38
o r as a percentage error =---- = 0.049
7.68
= 4.9 per cent low Ans.
= +- 16 340
\/'I 0-- ~/16440 =
= 1 0 2 d 1 . W= lo2 x 1,283
= 128.30 Ans.
' 9 9 2- = ----
T h ~ sgives N o = 1200 x - - 1328 revimin
3984 -
1 80 3
Ans
P 450 450
AlsoPowerP = 1 2 R o rR = J2 =
= 2T
Hence I<= 18iL
Also since Z 2 = J F i 2then X = d ~ 2 - R ~
or .Y = \'44' - 18' = d l 9 3 6 - 324
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17 : 041 il.~py~ng)
An\
( b ) l~npedanceZ = 44R Rcsht,\nce R = ISR
Reactance X = 40 142
Inductance L is given by: X = 2 x f L
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SELECTION OF TYPICAL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 509
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17. The magnetic field in the air gap of a two-pole motor has
a,flux density of 0.8T. The armature is wound with 246
conductors, each of 400mm effective length, mounted a t
150mm effective radius, and at full load each conductor
carries a current of 20A. Assuming-that the actual torque
-produced is equivalent to that due to two-thirds of the
number of conductors cuttlng the l~nesof force at right-
rrnglcs. find (a) tllc torqi~cin ncwlon mctrcs, und ( h ) thc
shaft power developed at 500 revjmin.
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Field current ( 1 , t a m p e r e s 1.2 2.8 5.0 7.0 7.7 9.0 '1 1.0
Generatede.m.f.(E+volts 46 88 126 149 154 162 168
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49. In a shunt motor the four field coils are connected in series.
Each coil 1s wound to give 750 ampere-turns, the length of
each turn being 450mm. At the safe working temperature,
there are 45 watts dissipated at each coil. If the supply
voltage is 220V. find ( a ) the ficld current, (b) the diameter ol'
the wire, and (c) the length of wire in each coil. T a k e the
resistivity of copper as 2.0 x lO-%n~.
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60 60
-
-
3.14 x 37 x-~ 617.2 -
- 116.18 x 617.2
3 3
= h I! x 0.617 kilowatts = 24kW Anh.
, , 7
140 = 140
T o t ; ~ appiircnt
l po\\cr-ol'comblned load. .S = - --
cos Cb 0.8
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520 REE D ' S BASIC ELECTROTECHNOLOGY
= 391.37'C Ans.
' =
----
output ( k W 1
G u t ( k W )+copper loss fkW)+lron loss (kW)
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SOLUTIONS TO TYPICAL IeXAMIh'ATION QUFSTIONS 52 1
-
175000 = 1750
Now primary current = ------ --
=26.51A
6600 66
26.5 l 2 x 0.4
Primary copper loss = - = 0.703 x 0 . 4
1000
1 7 5 0 0 --3 9 7 . 7 *
Similarly, secondary current = ' 7 5 o o o = -
410 44
397.7' x 0.0015 = ,58
Secondary copper loss = 0,
1000
175 x 0.9
Thus q =
175 x 0.9 + (0.2812 + v237.) + 2.75
-yl
I SO
-
-1
C
0
>
W
"loo
Y
C
-8
S
0
50
0 2 J 4 5
FIELD CURRENT - AM AM PERF^)
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522 REED ' S BASIC ELECTROTECHNOLOGY
.M@2 - 0 1 )
6. Using the expression E,, =
4 t
60 [(0,4 x lo-') - (- 0.4 x
We have E,, = volts
-
1
40
= 60 0.8 1 0 4 x 40
o r E,, = 4.8 x 4 x l o - ' = 1.92V Ans.
Also E,, = L x average rate of change of current
I 12
o r 1.92 = L x - . Thus 1.92 = L x - volts
I 1
--.
80
.\'o/(n. The tirnc taken for the current to fall to zero h i ~ sbeen
taken.
= 0.002H Ans.
7. Let 1 bc the current in llle sllorl section ol' the ring. it* ill
the 4001n length. Therefore ( 1 10 - /) is the current in the
2000 - 400 = 1 600m lengt 11.
Resistance of 400m of cable (double conductor)
- 0'032 8oo = 0.032 x 4- = 0.0256Q
-
1000 5
Resistance of 1600m of cable
= 0.0256 x 4 = 0.1024Q
Since points X and Y are connected by both sectlons of t h e
ring, it follows that the voltage drop in the short-section
= the voltage drop in the longer section
or I x 0.0256 = (110 - I) x 0,1024. C
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524 R E ED ' S BASIC ELECTROTECHNOLOGY
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SOLUTIONS TO TYPiCAL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 525
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cos 4, =-l-
o = 0.98 (lagging)
10- 1 7
cos 4, =
0
-- = O sln 4, = 1
z,
Solving mathematically: I, = (43.2 x 0.98) + (36.66 x 0)
4 = 42.3 + 0 = 42.3A
I, = (43.2 x 0.174) + (36.66 x 1 )
= 7.52 + 36.66 = 44.18A
Resultant current
I = J42.3' -L 44,182
= loV'4.23' + 4.418* = 10 J17.81 + 19.5
= 1 0 v m 1 = 10 x 6.1 = 61A A n s .
42.3
Power I'i~cror,cos d, = = 0.694 (lagging) Ans,
61
\ ' O I ( > . ' 1 ' 1 1 ~ p1.0hIc.111
1i:is k~e11solved ~ii;tllie~ii;tlic;~II~~.
~ L I [
[lie grapliic;~l .;elution is made b ~ clioosing . a suit;tble
current scalc and. L V I ~ I I voltage as reference, rc, along the
horrzontal. drau I , lagging the voltage by an angle whose
coslne is 0.98. Newt draw I , lagging the voltage b), 90
Complete the p:rralleloram. Draw the longer diagonal,
measure this 10 sc~rleand :ilso the angle of lag. The cosine of
tills iingle will g ~ \ cthe power fiictor of the circuit. Thc
answers sllould chcck wlrh those obta~nedabove.
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SOLUTIONS TO TYPICAL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 527
220
I?. Since I, = --= 2A, then I, = I , - 1, = 6 - 2 = 4A
110
Input power = 220 x 6 = 1320W
1
Copper loss (armature), Z ~ R=, 4' x 0.25 = 16 x - = 4W
4
Copper loss (field), I:R, = 2' x 110 = 440W
Total copper loss = 444W
Rotational loss = 1320 - 444 = 876W. These are the losses
attributable to Iron, friction and windage. Ans.
CVhen the current is 62A, the input is 220 x 62 = 13 640W
The output = input - losses (all values in watts)
- 13 640 - copper losses - rotational Iosse.;
10.10 - (001 x 0.25 -1 2' x I 10) - 870
= 13 640 - (900 + 440) - 876
13 040 - 7710 1 1 424W
So i.lfic~enc\ = '2= 0 817 or 83 7 per cent Ani
13 640
\ate F O I 'I innre complete u n c l e ~ k t ~ ~ n of
d ~tnhp~ problem.
s
the reader should refer to Volunle 7, Chapter 1
t' -
For theprohlem :
S cos 4 or liW = kVA x cos 4
Hence 560 = kVA x 0.7
560
TIiu4 ;Ipparent power buppl~ed= - - = 800kVA,
0.7
\L'~th the power factor Increased to 0.8 and the apparent
power kept constant, the new 'active power' = 800 x 0.8 =
640kW
The Increase in active power would be:
(A0 - 560 = 80kW Ans.
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SOLUTIONS TO TYPICAL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 529
-
-- Ll
-- 10.4, say 10
2.6
Thus number of lamps = 10 lamps in parallel at start. Ans.
At start of charge:
- C
If R = 108
- = 10.8 ohms, the current is obtained
10
from 200 = (Il x 10.8) + (I, x 0.96) + 86.4
At end of charge:
If 10 lamps are in parallel, then R = 10.812.
So 200 = (I2 x 10.8) +
(I2 x 0.96) + Eb . Here I, is the
final charging current value and Ebi is the final back e.m.f.
Then Eb = 48 x 2.2 = 105.6V
and 200 - 105.6X = 1 1 ~ 7 6 1 ~
5
I f frequency rose to 50 + (--100 x 50) = 52.5Hz. XL would
rlsc In proportion.
52.5
:. New reactance X,, = 3.14 x --- = 3.14 x 1.05
50
V 111.04
New heater current 15.23A
= - = -=
Z, 7.288
NCIVv01~1gc;\cross hcater tcnninals = 15.23 x 6.5
= 98,995V
Ch;~npc01' volt;~pc= 100 - 98,995 = 1,005V Ans,
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SOLUTIONS TO TYPICAL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 53 1
Asacheck: I =
1.5 x 10 _- -l 5 = 0.143A
100 + (0.5 x 10) 105
So power dissi p ated = 0 . 1 4 3 ~x 100
= 0,143 x 14.3 =,2.045W
o r the given rating. 2W (approx)
20. The conductors, being cut a t the same speed by the same
magnetic field, must each be generating the same maximum
value of e.m.f., but as they are spaced 20" apart, their e.m.f.s
must be 20' out of phase with each other. As the conductors
are in series, the e.m.f.s phasors can be added by a method
already described.
Resolving the phasors into hor~zontaland vertical com
ponents, we have :
Total horizontal component
= 200 cos 0" + 2 0 cos 20" + 200 coa 40"
= 200 ( 1 + 0.9397 + 0.766)
= 200 x 2.7057 = 541.14V
Total vertical component
= 200 sin 0" + 200 sin 20" + 200 sin 40'
= 200 (0 + 0.342 + 0.6428) = 200 x 0.9848
= 196.96V
Resultant maximum e.m.f.
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$'oft.. Maximum values have been used since the ratio of'
tlie r.m.s. values would give the same result. The total e.m.f.
would be the e.m.f. generated, if all conductors were in series
without phase displacement.
60 1
21 current taken by a lamp at full voltage = ---- = - = 0.25A
240 4
240
Resistance of I earth lamp = --- = 960R
0.25
Let R , be the resistance between the +ve line and earth.
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3500 -
:. I., = 3500 = 154.7 turns
2.22 x 10.2 22.64
or primar), turns = 155 (approx)
Second'lrq turns = 440 = - I,
3500 155 -
44 792
or I.= ,155 x --- = -- = 19.5 turns
350 35
Thus secondary turns = 30 (approx) Ans
20 000
35 Load current of generator = = l0OA
300
Shunt-field current = 2=
'00 1.74A
115
A ~ I ~ I ; I ~LI .IIVI IC. ~ C I 101
: I ~ 7A
Copper lobs of armature circuit = 101 .7-L(0.15+ 0.025 +
- 0.028) = 101~72(0.203) = 2099.6W = 2.1 kW
Copper loss in shunt field = 1.74 x 200 = 348W =
0.348kW
Total copper loss = 2.1 + 0.348 = 2.448kW
output - output (k W)
Efficient) = -- - ----
Input output ( k W ) + losses ( k W )
-
-
20 + copper 105s + Iron loss + rotational 105;
26 Delta-connected load
Act~be pou rer, P, = 30kW at a power factor of 0.92
(leading)
30-
Apparent power. S , = - = 32 61 kVA
0.02
c.o\ 4) = O 93 4 = 22 56, sin qb = 0 3896
Co reactl\e power, Q , = 32 61 x 0 3896 = 12 7kVAr
\ [ < I 1 - ~ o l l l l c ~IO'l<i
~~<l
A c t i ~ e power. P , = 40kW at a power factor of 0 85
( I,~gging)
Apparent pouer. S 2 = -- 40 -- 47 ILVA
08 5
PRADEEP@MSC SHIPPING
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SOLUTIONS TO TYPICAL EXAMINATION QUffTlONS 535
43Vl
gain three-phase kilovolt amperes is given by -
lo00
1.732 x 500 x I - - 71 .06
Hence
1000 a
71.06 x 2 - 142.12
or I= - -= 82.1A
1.732 1.732 r ,
Line current = 82.1A Ans.
Supply power factor = - P =- 70 = 0.98 (lagging) Ans
S 71.06
The lagging corldition is determined from the resultant -ve
sign of the total reactive power value.
Original conditions:
Eb, = 440 - (30 x 0.7) = 440 - 21 = 419V
Original flux condition @,
Final flux condition :
ds, = O)Rds,.Assuming n o speed change then since generated
e.m.f. is proportional to flux
new E, value = 0.8 x 419 = 335.2V
and momentary current is given by I.' - Eb amperes
R.
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240
and capacitor current = --- = 60A
4
There are now two currents, I , = 250A, lagging the
voltage by 36" 44' (Note cos36' 44' = 0.8) and I c = 60A,
leading the voltage by 90c. The problem calls for a graphical
solution. Draw a voltage ordinate horizontally. Choose a
suitable current scale and, from the origin, ie left-hand point
of the voltage ordinate, draw I,, to scale, ve~ticallyupwards.
Next from the origin draw I, to scale below the voltage
ordinate by 36' 44'. Complete the parallelogram for the
current \,ectors. draw and measure the resultant current for
r i i , ~ g ~ i ~atn~$~ pliasc.'This
dc part of the problem is wnrhcd
out hcrc rnathematicaily.
TIILISI = J I ~ ~ + 21L,ICcos 0
+ Ic2
--
= d250' + 60' + (2 x 250 x 60 x cos 126 44')
= "'250~ + 602 - (2 x 250 x 60 x cos 5 3 16')
-
- 2;~? ~ 7 7 3 ~ 7 3 x 9 3 7 ~ )
lo2\
7--
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PRADEEP@MSC SHIPPING
SOLUTIONS TO TYPICAL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 537
-
and V=620-0.015
iI,+-
gy5)
0.01 5V
giving V = 600 - 0.01 51, - ---
85
V = 620 - 0.0 1 5 IB - 0.015
----
V . . . (b)
85
Subtracting (a) from (b),
O = 20--0~01510+0~0151, or 0 = 20-0.015(1,-I,)
and 0 -- 20 0~015[1,,- . (2500 .. I,)]
20 - 0.015[1, - 2500 + I,]
=
= 20 - 0.031, + 37.5
57.5 -
Thus I, = - --5750 = 1916.66A Ans
0.03 3
I, = 2500 - 1916.66 = 583.34A Ans.
0.01 5 V
From (a) V = 600 - (583.34 x 0.015) - ---
85
Whence V +-
0 ' 0 1 5 v- 591.25
85
giving
85V + 0.015V = 59 1.25
85
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and 85 = 6.94 85
lf = 591'25
85.0 15
Thus I' = 590.75 Volts Ans.
Output of machine 4 = 583.34 590'75 = 344,fkW A ~ . . ;
1 000
The resultant IS thus (73' 8' - 30') = 43" 8' ahead o f thc
third current-of m a x i n ~ u ~valiic
n = 4312 Ana.
The required r.m.s. value of' the resultnnt = 41.46,A .411s.
220
32. Let IA = the current in the first coil, then I, = --
16
= 13.75.A Ans.
.5
cos 4, =- = 0.187 4, = 79" 13' sin 4, = 0,9824
16
220
I, = the current in the second coil, then I , = ?C
i.J
= 8.8A Ans
1
cos 4, = - = 0.28 6,= 73" 44' sin 4, = 0.96
25
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Tile rn,~gn~tucle
of the e n1.f.generated on open c ~ r c u i [is
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SOLUTIONS TO TYPICAL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 541
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PRADEEP@MSC SHIPPING
3 5 , No load
I n ~ u to t motor = 400 x 2.8 = 1120W
Shunt-field current. I - 400 8
= - = 0.89A
' - ---
450 9
/ \ I ~ I I I : \ I Ucttrrctit,
IT la - 258 - 0*$9 1 - 9 l A
Copper losses = field copper loss +'armature opper 1
I(1ss
= (400 x 0.89) + (1.91 x 0.45)
= 356 + 1.64 = 357.64W
Rotational loss of machine = input - copper l o s e s
o r P, = 1120 - 357.64 = 762.36W
On load
Input to motor = 400 x 35 = 14 OOOW
Losses on load = copper loss + rotational loss
Copper losses. PC, = field copper loss + armature
copper loss
= (400 x 0.89) + [(35 - 0 . 8 9 1 ~x 0.451 watts
Note. Load armature current = line current - field
current
Thus."Pc, = 356 + (34.1l 2 x 0.45)
= 356 + 523 = 879W
Total losses = 879 + 762.36 = 1641.36W = 1.6414k W
Output of motor = 14 - 1.6414 = 12.358kW
output - 12.358 - 0,882
Efficiency = 7--- --
in~ut 14
o r = 88.2 per cent Ans.
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PRADEEP@MSC SHIPPING
L L
-
64
= 8.22 x 64 = 526A Ans.
Check. Power supplied = (846 + 526 + 526)221.78
= 1898 x 221.78 watts
= 421 kW (approx).
Using the other root of the quadratic equation we have
v = 231.66 2- 21 1.9 --7-=
19.76
9.88V
Current of Machine No 1 = (235 - 9.88) x 64
= 225.12 x 64 = 14 408A
Current of Machine No 2 = (230 - 9.88) x 64
4
= 220.12 x 64 = 14088A
Current of Machine No 3 as for N o 2.
The above conditions though theoretical, would relate to
a busbar voltage of 9.88V and could be imagined as the
result of a 'short-circuit' at the busbars, where the power of
422kW could be assumed to be dissipated.
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PRADEEP@MSC SHIPPING
SOLUTIONS TO TYPICAL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 545
Star load
Active power, P2 = 40kW
cos 4 = 0.62 4 = 5 1' 41' and sin 4 = 0.7846
Apparent power, S2 = - 40 = 64.5kVA
0.62
Reactive power, Q2 = 64.5 x 0.7846 = 50.6kVAr
(leading)
+
Total power, P = P , P2 = 50 30 +
= 90kW Ans.
Total reactive power, Q = Q l + Q 2 = - 44.1 + 50.6
= 6.5kVAr (leading)
Apparent power, S =
= l o w 2 = 10 x 9.023
= 90.23kVA Ans.
Power factor = -= -90 - -- 0.988 (&ding) Ans.
S 90.23
I
40. (a) At resonance X, = X, o r 2nfL = -
2lcfC
1
Thus resonant frequency f =
(27Q2CL
1 o6 -
-
1 O6
or f 2 =
( 2 ~ 3 . 1 4 ) 1' ~4 ~ 0 . 8 4 6.28' x 1 4 ~ 0 . 8 4
1o4 - 10 000
and f 2 =
3.94 x 1.18 - 4.65
1100
~ h u sJ' = -i = J21505
4.65
or f = 10d21.505 = 10 x 4,638 = 46.38Hz Ans.
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PRADEEP@MSC SHIPPING
Also ,
'
A 27~fL= 2 x 3.14 x 46.38 x 0.84
=
6.28 x 46.38 x 0.84
=
5.28 x 46.38 = 244,890
=
For a current flow of 5A
Voltage drop across the inductive reactance of the coil
= 5 x 244.89 = 1224.45V
Voltage drop across resistance of coil = 5 x 50
= 250V
Voltage drop across capacitance = 1224.45V Ans
Voltage drop across coil = d 5 o 2 + 1224.52
= lo2J2.52 + 12.245'
= IO'J?ZSTT~~~
= 1 0 2 m 2= 1o3drn2
= 103 x 1,25 = 1250V A n \ .
Voltage drop across coil and capacitor = voltage across
resistance only = 5 x 50 = 250V Ans.
( b ) At 60Hz. since k, is proportional to frequency
Then X , = 244.89 x 60
-- -
2448.9 x 6
46.38 46.38
= 189.30
Voltage across capacitor = 5 x 189.3 = 946.5V Ans.
Voltage across resultant reactance = 1584 - 946.5
= 637.5V
Voltage across resistance = 250V
:. Supply voltage = J637.52 + 250'
= lo2J6.3752 i- 2,S2
= 1O2J4O.5 + 6.25 = 1 0 2 ~ 5
= lo2 x 6.845 = 684.5V A n s .
Voltage across coil = dl 584' + 2502
= lo24 1 5 . 8 4 ' + 2.52
= I 0' J250.9 + 6.25' = I 0' J257. I 5
= lo3Jm = 103 1.604
= 1604V Ans.
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PRADEEP@MSC SHIPPING
Current I, =
110
5.3
-= 20.75A
-
Resolving iis bcforc, activc colnponcnl I, rcn1;lins rllc xtnic:
but reactive component I, = 20.75 - 11.52
now vertically upwards, ie leading V by 90'.
Resultant current I = J22-36l +
9;F2
9.23A and I S
o r I = 10J2.2362 +
0.9232
= 10J5.01 + 0.85 = l o r n 6
= 10 x 2.42 = 24.2A Ans.
400
45. Here Rf = 3 0 M . . ~ I,. = -
= 1.33A
--
300
I , = 30A. . . 1, = 30 - 1.33 = 28.67A
And for the first load condition:
E, = 400 - (28.67 x 0.3) = 400 - 8,601
= 391.4V
With the data given and the O.C.C. plotted. it will be seen
that with 1.33A field current, the e.m.f. generated at 1500
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FI ELD C U RR E N T - I ~ ( A M R R E S )
rev!rnin is 648V. Therefore for the same field current and for
391.4V to be generated, since E cc A' the speed
- will be
391'4 = 906 revlmin Ans.
648
For tlie second load condition I, = 50 - 1.33 = 48.67A
The E, is now = 400 - (48.67 x 0.3) = 400 - 14.6
= 385.4V
1500 x 385.4
As before. tlie new speed condition is given by -
648
= 892 revlmin Ans.
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SOLUTIONS TO TYPICAL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 55 1
..
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Energy
-.
taken from mains = 373 8005
373 800
With a d.c. supply. the current taken would be
220 x 3.5 x 60
220
and resistance of kettle element = ---- = 2719R
8.09
On a.c., the reactance X of the kettle becomes effective.
:. X = 2nfL = 2 x 3.14 x 50 x 0.05 = 3-14 x 5 = 15.7R
Hence Z = d27.19' + 1 5 . 7 ~= 10J2.719~ + 1.572
= 0ld-6 10m
= 10 x 3.14 = 31.4C2
=
220
T k r ~ qon an ;i.c. supply, currcnt takcn w o i ~ l dbc
3 i.4
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PRADEEP@MSC SHIPPING
554 REED ' S B A S I C E LE C T R O TE C H N O L OG Y
Ans.
The above could be deduced more easily thus:
With 2 per cent slip, if synchronous speed was 100 revlmin,
then rotor speed would be 98 revlmin. Accordingly, if
synchronous speed was 120 rev/min, then rotor speed
would be
-
- 98 l2? = 98 x 1:2 = 117.6 revlmin Ans.
100
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INDEX
A Cell 29.72
Acceleration .. .. . . 20 Chdracterist~cs,d c generator 169- 189
Acceptor. . . . . . 376 .. motor 232-239
A . C , circuit .. .. .. 192 vacuum diode 353
,. generator . . . . . . 124 sem~conductor
Accumulators . .. 79 d~ode 7x0
Active component current 24 8 Chargc 59 301
power . . . . . . 247 Charg~ng 83
~ d d i t i o nof phasors . . 144 Chem~cdleffect 23.58
Admittance .. .. 331.334 equ~\alent 63.65
Alternating e.m.f. , 125 ~ho<e 194
Alternator .. 112.121 Circu~t( d c ) R 198
Ammeter .. .. .. I1 L 200
Ampere . 2.22. 100 .. R ~ n 1,d 202
, hour .. 23.8 1 .. R a n d s '
.. -turn . . . . 103 .. Id.C.1
Amplitude .. ~ .. . . 140 Cold-cathode lamp . . 366
Angular velocity . . 140 Commutation . . .. 128. 162
Anode . . .. . . 60,351,368 Commutator .. 162
,, characteristic .. . 353 Compensating ieads . . . . 345
,, resistance ( a x . ) . . . . 354 Component of a phasor . . 147
,, ( d c . ) . . . . 354 Compound-connection. generator 184
Apparent power .. . . 247 motor 229
Armature .. .. . . 160 condenser :'. , . 194
,, core . . .. . . 160 Conductance . . . , 5,331,334
,, reaction .. . . 174 Conduction control .. . . 374
,, windings .. 160, 163 Conductors .. 37.306
Artificial magnets .. 88 Copper loss 290
Atom .. .. . . 301 ., voltameter . .. 61
Atomic weight .. . .63,64 Cosine rule .. . 146
Average value . . ., . . 149 Coulomb .. .. 23. 305
C'o-vi~lenthontl~np 773
B Criticul ~ C I I \ ( ~ I I I C C !?(I. 1 x 0
Cumulative connection . . 185. 236
Bdck e m f 66,224 Current . . . . 1.4
Battery 6.7. 29 .. c q u a t ~ o n nio[or
, 225
Bedrings 163 Cycle .. . I40
B-H curve 170
B ~ a (forward)
s 378
,, (reverse) 378 Daniel1 cell 75
Brushes 124, 162 D.C. generator . ,127. i67.172
,, &chine . .. I58
C ,. motor .. .. . . 223
Calorie . . . . .. .. 18 Delta connection .. 265,269
Capacitance .. . 207 Depolariser .. .. 74
Capacitive reactance 194,208 Derived units . . . .., 20
Capacitor .. . . 194.313.314 Dielectric . . 312
. current 3 17 Differential connection . . 185. 239
,, systems .. 315 Diode characteristic, vacuum . . 357
Capacity . . . . .. . 81 semicon-
Cathode . .. 60.351 ductor 380
,, -ray oscilloscope . 367 .. vacuum . . . . 35 1
. . . . tube 367 .. junction .. 378
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..
31 1
89:94. 96
. . 158
K
Kirchhoffs Laws . . 4.324. 329
Filament . . . . .. . . 351
Fleming's hand rules . . 122. 224 L
Fluorescent lamp .. . . 363 Lag .. .. 142
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Laws of electrolys~s , 62 N
... electromagnetic induction I 12 Neutral . . . . .. 267
Lap winding . . 164 Neutron .. 301
Lead . . 142 Newton 20
.. -acid cell . . .. 79 North pole 4
Leakage coeficienr . . 288 N-type germanium 375
Lcclanche cell 78 Nucleu~ 30 1
Lrl't-hand rule 224
Lenz's law Ill 0
Line of flux (magnetic) . . . . 90 Ohm . . 2.25
. . . . . . (electr~c) 31 1 Ohm s I;t\r 3
.. ..l'ol-cr s e c ; ~ h o \ c O p c r l - c ~ ~ . c~u~~h(: ~ r . : ~ c ( c r l s r172.
~ c 177
Load c h a r a c t e r ~ s t ~ c
173. 174. 180. 183. 186 P
.. l ~ n e . ,357.358. 383 Parallel circuit ( d . c . ) .. 4. 5
.. (a.c.) .. . . 332
M .. connection .. .. 31
Magnet . . . . .. .. 87 .. -plate c a p a c ~ t o .r . . . 320
Magnetic circuit . 102. 169 .. resonance .. 25 2
.. series . . . . 283 Peak factor .. .. . . I55
,. parallel . . 284 .. inverse voltage . . . 329
, effect ofcurrent . . 93 .. value .. .. . . 140
.. field . . .. .. 89 Percentage p o m p w n d i n g . . 187
.. strength (intensity) Periodic time . .. 140
102. 105 Permanent magnet . . 88.98. 173
.. Hux dcnslr) . 91. 101 Permeability. of free space 276
.. Ily"ler.c\~~ 172 relative 274'
.. leakage 28 X .. absolute 28 I
.. mater~als . . 88 P e r r n ~ t t ~ v ~oft yfree
, space 3 19
.. s a t u r a t ~ o n . 92. 169. 279 .. relatl~e 319
absolute 319
~hase"d~fTerence . 142, 266
Phasor . . I39
Magnet~sm .. 87 .. d ~ a g r a m. . . . . . 143
Magnetodynamo .. . 124 P-N Junction . . ., . . 377
Magnetomotive force . . . . 104 Polarisat~on . . .. . .68,74
Majority carriers .. . . 376 Poles .. .. .. 87, 158
Mass .. .. .. . .19.20 Polyphase working .. . . 264
M a x ~ m u mvalue. . . . 139 Potential (pressure) difference . 2.308
M~~xwcll's rule '1 5 PC~ICIIII~I~ICIQ~ 341
, circulatin g current Power . . .. . .21.70
theorem 326,330 .
,. single-phase .. . . 198
Mechanical energy .. .. 27 ,. , three-phase .. . . 270
,, losscs .. 290 Powcr c q u ~ ~ t ~m o on t, o r . . . . 230
, units .. 20 . factor .. .. I93
Mesh connection
Midordinate rule
..
..
. . 269
150. 15 1
.. -factor improvement
Primary cell .. ".
223.262
. .70,75
Minority carriers .. . . 376 .. coil .. .. . . 114
Modulator .. . 368 Proton . . .. .. . . 301
Molecular theory . .59,92 P-type germanium . . . 376
Molecule. . . . .. . . 301 Pull (of an electromagnet) . . 294
Motor (d.c.) .. . . 223
,, back e.m.f .. 224
, characterlst~cs 232
, currrnt equation . 225
,, speed equatlon . 2 26 R
,, controll~ngfactors 227 Range reslstor . . 14
, torque equation 23 1 Reactance 193
, voltage equatlon 225 Rcact~vecomponent .. . . 248
Mutual induct~on .. . 115 Reactor . . . .. . . 193
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