1

There is a tale that Queen Victoria visited Trinity College at Cambridge in the 19th
century. As she looked over the bridge abutment, she saw a lot of pieces of paper
floating down the river. She asked the Master of Trinity College, "What are all those
pieces of paper floating down the river?"

To which, with great presence of mind, the Master replied, "Those, ma'am, are notices
that bathing is forbidden."

May isang kuwento ukol kay Queen Victoria na bumisita sa Trinity College sa
Cambridge. Habang tinitingnan niya ang ilog mula sa isang tulay, siya'y nagtanong sa
Master ng paaralan, "Ano po ba ang mga iyon, mga piraso ng papel na lumulutang sa
ilog?" Sa kanyang sagot, may kakaibang kalmadong isip, sinabi ng Master, "Iyon po,
inyong kaharian, ay mga abiso na ipinagbabawal ang maligo dito."

This tale is a reminder of how polluted the River Cam was in the past. However, it is
also a reminder of the importance of taking action to protect our rivers and waterways.

during the middle of the 19th century, public health measures were not very effective in
preventing the spread of disease. This was because the germ theory of disease was not
yet fully understood. Germ theory is the idea that diseases are caused by
microorganisms, such as bacteria and viruses. Before germ theory was understood,
people believed that diseases were caused by bad smells or miasmas.

Despite the lack of understanding of germ theory, some public health measures did
have a positive effect. For example, removing corpses during epidemics helped to
reduce the spread of disease. This is because corpses can contain harmful germs that
can spread to other people. Additionally, appeals for cleanliness helped to reduce the
spread of disease by encouraging people to wash their hands and keep their
surroundings clean.

Here are some other public health measures that were implemented in the middle of the
19th century:

 Improved sanitation, such as the construction of sewers and water treatment

plants.
 Vaccination against diseases such as smallpox.
  Improved housing conditions.
 Improved working conditions.

These measures helped to reduce the spread of disease and improve public health.
However, it was not until the late 19th century that the germ theory of disease was fully
appreciated and that scientists began to understand the importance of hygiene and
sanitation in preventing the spread of disease.

The 1850s were a time of great progress in public health, as scientists and public health
advocates began to understand the importance of hygiene and sanitation in preventing
the spread of disease.

Snow was a physician who believed that cholera was spread through contaminated
water, despite the prevailing belief that it was spread by miasma, or bad air. He used a
map of the area and identified the residences of those who contracted the disease to
show that the cases were clustered around the Broad Street pump. He also conducted
experiments to show that the water from the pump was contaminated with cholera
bacteria.

Environmental engineers play an important role in protecting public health by identifying

and addressing environmental hazards. However, their work can be challenging, as it is
often difficult to establish a clear link between environmental exposure and health
outcomes. This is because the effects of environmental pollutants can take years or
even decades to manifest, and there are often many other factors that can contribute to
a person's health.

Despite the challenges, environmental engineers are essential to ensuring the health
and safety of our communities. By conducting research, developing regulations, and
implementing solutions, they can help to reduce the risk of environmental diseases and
improve the quality of life for all.
Chapter II

The response of an individual to a pollutant can vary depending on a number of factors,

including their age, sex, general state of health,. This is because people have different
levels of susceptibility to different pollutants.

For example, children are more sensitive to pollutants than adults because their bodies
are still developing. They are also more likely to be exposed to pollutants because they
spend more time playing outdoors.

Elderly people are also more sensitive to pollutants because their bodies are less able
to fight off infection. They are also more likely to have chronic health conditions that can
be made worse by exposure to pollutants.

People who are chronically or acutely ill are also more sensitive to pollutants because
their bodies are already fighting off other infections.

For example, lead is a highly toxic metal that can cause a variety of health problems,
including learning disabilities and developmental delays. The threshold value for lead
exposure is very low, and even small amounts of lead can be harmful to children. As a
result, there is no safe level of lead exposure, and the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) has set a zero-tolerance policy for lead in drinking water.

The EPA sets exposure limits for a variety of pollutants, including air pollutants, water
pollutants, and food contaminants. These limits are based on the best available
scientific evidence and are designed to protect the health of the population as a whole.

It is important to note that exposure limits are not always zero. This is because it is
sometimes impossible to completely eliminate exposure to pollutants. However, the goal
is to set limits that are as low as possible while still allowing for a reasonable level of
economic activity.

By setting exposure limits and enforcing them, we can help to protect the health of the
population from the harmful effects of pollutants.

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Regulatory agencies try to set exposure limits for pollutants below the threshold level for
95% or more of the U.S. population. This is because the threshold level is the amount of
a pollutant that is required to cause a harmful effect in an individual. By setting the
exposure limit below the threshold level, we can help to protect the health of most
people.

However, there are some pollutants that do not have a threshold level. These are called
nonthreshold pollutants. For nonthreshold pollutants, there is no amount of exposure
that is safe. Even small amounts of exposure can cause harm.

Carcinogens are all considered to be in this category of nonthreshold pollutants.

Carcinogens are substances that can cause cancer. Even a single exposure to a
carcinogen can increase the risk of cancer.

In cases where there is no threshold level, regulatory agencies need to use a

comparative risk analysis. This is a process of comparing the risks of different pollutants
to each other. The goal is to identify the pollutants that pose the greatest risk to human
health and to take steps to reduce exposure to those pollutants.

Comparative risk analysis is a complex process, but it is an important tool for protecting
public health. By using comparative risk analysis, regulatory agencies can make
informed decisions about how to allocate resources to reduce exposure to pollutants
ECOSYSTEM RISK ASSESSMENT

In ecosystem risk assessment, the species at risk can be any organism in the
ecosystem, including plants, animals, and microorganisms.

The exposure pathway is also more complex in ecosystem risk assessment than in
human health risk assessment. In human health risk assessment, the exposure
pathway is usually from the source of the substance to the human being. In ecosystem
risk assessment, the exposure pathway can be more complex and can involve multiple
steps. For example, a substance may be released into the air, then deposited on the
ground, then taken up by plants, then eaten by animals, and finally passed on to
humans.

Ecosystem risk assessment is a complex and challenging process, but it is an important

tool for protecting the environment. By understanding the risks posed by pollutants, we
can take steps to reduce exposure and protect the health of ecosystems.
CHAPTER 3

Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies, such as lakes, rivers, oceans, and
groundwater, with harmful substances. These substances can be chemicals, biological
materials, or physical objects.

Oxygen-demanding substances (ODS) are one of the most important types of pollutants in water. These
substances are organic materials that decompose in the watercourse and use up dissolved oxygen (DO).
DO is essential for aquatic life, and low DO levels can lead to fish kills and other problems.

Sewage: Sewage contains organic matter from human waste, food, and other sources.

Animal waste: Animal waste from farms and feedlots can also contain high levels of organic matter.

Sediments and suspended solids can also be classified as pollutants. Sediments are
particles of soil, rock, or other materials that are carried by water, wind, or ice.
Suspended solids are particles that are suspended in water, but not dissolved.

Sediments and suspended solids can come from a variety of sources, including:

 Land erosion: Soil erosion can be caused by activities such as farming,

construction, and mining.
 Floods: Floods can carry sediments and suspended solids into waterways.
 Natural erosion: Natural erosion can also occur, such as from wind and ice.
 Damage to infrastructure: Sediments and suspended solids can damage
infrastructure such as bridges and dams.
 Reduced water clarity: Sediments and suspended solids can reduce water clarity,
making it difficult for sunlight to penetrate the water. This can make it difficult for
aquatic plants to photosynthesize and for fish to find food.
Nutrients are essential for plant and animal life, but when they are present in excessive
amounts in water, they can lead to eutrophication. Eutrophication is the process of
nutrient enrichment in a water body, which can lead to the rapid growth of algae and
other aquatic plants. This can deplete the water of oxygen and cause other problems.

The two main nutrients that contribute to eutrophication are nitrogen and phosphorus.
Nitrogen is found in fertilizers, manure, and sewage. Phosphorus is found in fertilizers,
detergents, and animal waste.

Phosphorus and nitrogen are essential nutrients for plants and animals, but they
can also be pollutants. When they are present in excessive amounts in water,
they can promote the growth of algae and other aquatic plants, which can
deplete the water of oxygen and cause other problems.

 Decreased oxygen levels: Algae blooms can use up oxygen in the water, which
can lead to fish kills.

Heat can be classified as a water pollutant when it is added to water in excessive

amounts. This can happen when factories or power plants discharge heated water into
rivers or lakes. The heated water can raise the temperature of the water body, which
can have a number of negative impacts on the environment.

The term "anthropogenic" refers to something that is caused by human activity. In the
context of heat pollution, anthropogenic alterations of stream bank vegetation refers to
changes in the vegetation along the banks of a stream that increase the amount of
sunlight that reaches the water. This can happen when trees are removed or when
vegetation is replaced with concrete or other materials that reflect sunlight.

Municipal wastewater is a complex mixture of water, organic matter, inorganic matter,

and microorganisms. It can contain a variety of pollutants, including:

 Organic matter: Organic matter is made up of carbon-based compounds that

come from human and animal waste, food, and other sources. Organic matter
can decompose and use up dissolved oxygen in water, which can lead to fish
kills.
  Phosphorus and nitrogen: Phosphorus and nitrogen are essential nutrients for
plants and animals, but they can also be pollutants. When they are present in
excessive amounts in water, they can promote the growth of algae and other
aquatic plants, which can deplete the water of oxygen and cause other problems.
 Pesticides: Pesticides are used to control pests, but they can also be pollutants.
When they are released into the environment, they can harm aquatic life and
other organisms.
 Toxic chemicals: Toxic chemicals can be released into the environment from a
variety of sources, including industrial facilities, mining operations, and leaking
underground storage tanks. Toxic chemicals can harm aquatic life and other
organisms, and they can also pose a risk to human health.
 Salts: Salts are naturally occurring minerals that can be found in water. However,
they can also be released into the environment from a variety of sources,
including industrial facilities, mining operations, and road salting. High levels of
salts can be harmful to aquatic life and other organisms.
 Inorganic solids: Inorganic solids are made up of minerals and other non-living
matter. They can come from a variety of sources, including soil erosion, industrial
wastewater, and mining operations. Inorganic solids can make water cloudy and
can also harm aquatic life.
 Pathogenic bacteria and viruses: Pathogenic bacteria and viruses can come from
human and animal waste. They can cause a variety of diseases, including
cholera, typhoid, and hepatitis.

Agricultural wastes are a major source of water pollution because they can contain a
variety of pollutants, including nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen), biodegradable
organic carbon, pesticide residues, and fecal coliform bacteria. These pollutants can
enter surface waters through a variety of ways, including runoff, erosion, and direct
discharge.

The use of fertilizers and pesticides in agricultural production is the main cause of
agricultural water pollution. Fertilizers can run off into surface waters, where they can
cause eutrophication. Pesticides can also run off into surface waters, where they can
harm aquatic life and other organisms.
OILS

 Harm to marine life: Oil can coat animals, making it difficult for them to breathe,
swim, and regulate their body temperature. Oil can also kill marine animals by
ingestion or by smothering them.
 Pollution of water bodies: Oil can pollute water bodies, making them unsafe for
drinking, swimming, and fishing. Oil can also damage underwater ecosystems.
 Damage to infrastructure: Oil can damage infrastructure, such as beaches,
docks, and boats.

Acid mine drainage (AMD) is a type of water pollution that occurs when water comes
into contact with rocks that contain sulfur-bearing minerals. The sulfur-bearing minerals
are oxidized by bacteria, which produces sulfuric acid. This acid can then leach into
surface water, groundwater, and soil, causing a number of problems.

AMD can have a number of negative impacts on the environment, including:

 Harm to aquatic life: Acidic water can kill fish and other aquatic organisms.
 Pollution of water bodies: Acidic water can pollute water bodies, making them
unsafe for drinking, swimming, and fishing.
 Damage to infrastructure: Acidic water can damage infrastructure, such as
bridges and dams.
 1. Producers: Producers are organisms that can make their own food. They are the
foundation of the food chain and include plants, algae, and some bacteria.
2. Consumers: Consumers are organisms that cannot make their own food and
must eat other organisms to survive. They are divided into two groups:
o Primary consumers: Primary consumers eat producers. They include
herbivores, such as cows and rabbits.
o Secondary consumers: Secondary consumers eat primary consumers.
They include carnivores, such as lions and wolves.
3. Decomposers: Decomposers are organisms that break down dead organic
matter. They include bacteria and fungi.

These three categories of organisms are interdependent. Producers provide food for
consumers, consumers provide food for decomposers, and decomposers return
nutrients to the soil so that producers can use them to grow.

Here are some examples of organisms that belong to each category:

 Producers: Plants, algae, and some bacteria

 Consumers: Herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, and detritivores
 Decomposers: Bacteria and fungi
A terrestrial ecosystem is an ecosystem that occurs on land. It is characterized by the
presence of soil, which provides a medium for plant growth. Terrestrial ecosystems can
be found in a variety of habitats, including forests, grasslands, deserts, and tundras.

The main components of a terrestrial ecosystem are:

 Producers: Producers are organisms that can make their own food. They are the
foundation of the food chain and include plants, algae, and some bacteria.
 Consumers: Consumers are organisms that cannot make their own food and
must eat other organisms to survive. They are divided into two groups:
o Primary consumers: Primary consumers eat producers. They include
herbivores, such as cows and rabbits.
o Secondary consumers: Secondary consumers eat primary consumers.
They include carnivores, such as lions and wolves.
o Tertiary consumers: Tertiary consumers eat secondary consumers. They
are rare in terrestrial ecosystems.
 Decomposers: Decomposers are organisms that break down dead organic
matter. They include bacteria and fungi.