13.
6 The Human Eye
DID YOU KNOW?
Retina Cells
The retina contains basically two kinds
of light-receptive cells: rods and cones.
These cells are identified by their basic
shape. The cone cells allow you to see
colour. The rod cells are much more
sensitive to light and are predominantly
for black and white vision.
WRITIng Tip
Writing a Critical Analysis
In a critical analysis of the human eye,
you might comment on similarities
between its parts and those of a
camera: pupil/aperture, iris/diaphragm,
retina/digital sensor. You might form
an opinion that the development of
the camera as an optical instrument
was based on the parts of the human
eye and how they function. You can do
further research to find out whether
anyone else agrees with your opinion.
(a)
572 Chapter 13 • Lenses and Optical Devices
The human eye is the optical instrument that helps most of us learn about
the external world; it is what you are using to read this sentence. It is a
remarkable apparatus that acts as our window on the universe.
Parts of the Human Eye
“I am a camera with its shutter open, quite passive, recording, not thinking.”
This is the opening line from Christopher Isherwood’s 1939 novel Goodbye
to Berlin. Isherwood’s opening line compares the eye to a camera as a
recorder of events. Isherwood used the eye as an analogy, and the example
of the eye as a camera is a good comparison.
The human eye is an amazing optical device that in many ways is very
similar to a camera. A camera has a diaphragm that controls the amount
of light entering it. The diaphragm on a compound microscope has exactly
the same function. The iris in the eye has this function. The iris is the
coloured part of the eye, and it opens and closes around a central hole to
let in more or less light. The hole in the iris is called the pupil, comparable
to the aperture in a camera, and is where light enters the eye. A camera has
a converging lens to refract light to form a sharp image. The eye also has
structures (the lens and cornea) that cause light to converge. The cornea is
the transparent bulge on top of the pupil that focuses light. Light is refracted
more through the cornea than through the lens.
In a camera, the image is focused on film or on a digital sensor. Light-
sensitive cells in the retina at the back of each eye cavity accomplish the
same task. The retina converts the light signal into an electrical signal that is
transmitted to the brain through the optic nerve (Figure 1). The optic nerve
creates a blind spot at the back of each eye because there are no light-sensitive
cells in this small area. You do not notice the blind spot in normal vision
because each eye compensates for the blind spot of the other eye. That is, your
left eye can see what is in the blind spot of your right eye and vice versa.
retina
iris
pupil lens
optic nerve
cornea
(b)
Figure 1 The anatomy of the human eye
NEL
 T RY THIS DISCOVERIng YOUR BLInD SPOT
SKILLS HANDBOOK
SKILLS: Performing, Observing, Communicating 3.B.

Equipment and Materials: pencil; blank sheet of paper
1. Place a dot with a diameter of 2–3 cm on the sheet of paper.
Place an “X” of similar size so that it is 6 cm to the right of
the dot.
2. Hold the paper at arm’s length in your right hand. Close your
3. Keep your eye focused on the “X” and slowly bring the
paper straight toward you. At a certain point, the dot
should disappear.
4. Keep moving the paper until the dot reappears.
A. Why did the dot disappear? T/I

right eye and look at the “X” with your left eye. You should B. Why did the dot reappear when you continued moving
also be able to see the small dot out of the corner of your the paper? T/I
eye. This is called “peripheral vision.” C. Why do you not normally notice this “hole” in your vision? T/I

Most people think that they see with their eyes. In reality, the eye acts DID YOU KNOW?
as a light gathering instrument. We actually “see” with our brain. The Eye See
cornea–lens combination of the eye acts like a converging lens and produces The average person blinks about
a smaller, real, inverted image on the retina (Figure 2). Electrical impulses 15 000 times a day.

from the retina travel through the optic nerve to the brain where we “see”
the image. The brain takes the inverted image from the retina and flips it so
that the image we “see” appears upright.
eye muscle

retina
iris

pupil

cornea optic nerve

lens

Figure 2 The eye acts like a converging lens and produces a smaller, inverted, real image on
the retina.

Eye Accommodation
A camera focuses by moving the lens in and out because the plane of the
film or digital sensor is fixed. The human eye, however, cannot move the
lens in and out like a camera. Eyes have evolved a different way of producing
a clear image.

NEL 13.6 The Human Eye 573


accommodation the changing of shape
of the eye lens by eye muscles to allow
a sharply focused image to form on the
retina
In humans, eye muscles called ciliary muscles help the eye focus on
distant and nearby objects by slightly changing the shape of the eye
lens. This change in shape of the eye lens changes the focal length of the
lens to allow focusing of the image on the retina. This process is called
accommodation. A healthy eye can accommodate itself to view distant and
nearby objects (Figure 3).

distant image nearby image

object object

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)

Figure 3 A healthy eye can focus light from both distant objects (a) and nearby objects (b) on the
retina. Notice that the lens is slightly fatter when focused on nearby objects.

Focusing Problems
For some people, the process of accommodation does not work as well as it
should. These people’s eyes cannot focus on objects at every distance. This
can result in blurred vision. The difficulty might be with focusing on nearby
objects or on distant objects.

hyperopia the inability of the eye to focus
light from near objects; far-sightedness
Hyperopia (Far-sightedness)
A person who has hyperopia is far-sighted. This means that the person
has no difficulty seeing distant objects. Seeing nearby objects is a problem,
however, because the eye cannot refract light well enough to form an image
on the retina. Far-sightedness usually occurs because the distance between
the lens and the retina is too small or because the cornea–lens combination
is too weak. Instead, light from all nearby objects focuses behind the retina
(Figure 4).

Ontario Science 10SB

distant nearby
Unit D: Lights
object object

Figure Number CO13-F31-UDOS10SB

Company Theresa Sakno

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Creative
Figure 4 (a) A far-sighted person focuses light from a distant object onto the
Pass retina. (b) Light from nearby objects, however, is focused behind the retina.
Approved Approved

Not approved

574 Chapter 13 • Lenses and Optical Devices NEL

 The far-sighted eye needs help in refracting light. A converging lens will
do the trick. The actual lens shape is modified from the basic converging
lens shape and is called a positive meniscus. A positive meniscus lens is a positive meniscus a modified form
converging lens because the middle part of the lens is still thicker than the of the converging lens shape
edge (Figure 5). A positive meniscus is much more cosmetically appealing
than the thick shape of a basic converging lens.
the solution the actual lens shape

positive
meniscus

nearby nearby
object object

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)

Figure 5 (a) A converging lens will correct far-sightedness. (b) A lens with a positive meniscus has
the same effect because it, too, is thickest in the middle.

Presbyopia
Many people find it harder to read small print as they get older. The reason
is that the eye lens loses its elasticity. This loss of accommodation results in
a form of far-sightedness called presbyopia. Presbyopia is an age-related presbyopia a form of far-sightedness
vision condition and, unlike hyperopia, is not a result of the eyeball being caused by a loss of accommodation as
a person ages
too short for focusing. Presbyopia can also be corrected by glasses with
converging lenses.

Myopia (Near-sightedness)
A person who has myopia is near-sighted. This means that the eye can myopia the inability of the eye
focus light rays from nearby objects on the retina; this person can see close to focus light from distant objects;
near-sightedness
up quite clearly. Distant objects, however, are a problem. Myopia usually
occurs because the distance between the lens and the retina is too large or
because the cornea–lens combination converges light too strongly. In the
near-sighted eye, light from distant objects is brought to a focus in front of
the retina (Figure 6).

Ontario Science 10SB

Unit D: Lights
nearby distant
object object
Figure Number CO13-F33-UDOS10SB

Company Theresa Sakno

Creative (a)
(a) (b)
(b)

Pass Figure 6 (a) A normal, healthy eye focuses light from nearby objects directly on the retina.
(b) A near-sighted eye focuses light from distant objects in front of the retina.
Approved Approved

Not approved

NEL 13.6 The Human Eye 575

 DID YOU KNOW?
A Common Sight
Myopia is a common vision condition
that affects nearly 30 % of Canadians.
negative meniscus a modified form of
the diverging lens shape
The near-sighted eye can focus the image if incoming light rays diverge a
little. A diverging lens achieves this. The actual lens shape is modified from
the basic diverging lens shape and is called a negative meniscus. A negative
meniscus lens is a diverging lens because the edge of the lens is still thicker
than the middle part (Figure 7). A negative meniscus is, again, much more
cosmetically appealing than the thick edge of a basic diverging lens.
the solution the actual lens shape

negative
meniscus

distant distant
object object

(a)(a) (b)(b)

Figure 7 (a) A diverging lens will correct near-sightedness. (b) A lens with a negative meniscus has
the same effect because it, too, is thinnest in the middle.

Contact Lenses
contact lens a lens that is placed directly A contact lens is a lens that is placed directly on the cornea of the eye.
on the cornea of the eye Contact lenses serve the same purpose as glasses. A contact lens can
be shaped so that it can be used for correcting far-sightedness or
near-sightedness (Figure 8). A contact lens is usually invisible when
placed on the cornea.
Contact lenses can also be used for strictly cosmetic purposes when they
are used to change the colour of the eye. Movie makeup artists make use
of contact lenses in this way to transform actors into zombies or demons
WRITIng Tip
(Figure 9).
Writing a Critical Analysis
In a critical analysis of contact lenses,
you might focus on the problems
that some people experience. These
problems could include dry eyes,
irritation, and blurred vision. You might
conclude by suggesting possible
solutions to these problems such as
better contact lens care, nocturnal
contact lenses, permanent implantable
Ontario
contact Science
lenses, 10SB
or laser eye surgery.

Unit D: Lights

Figure Number CO13-F35-UDOS10SB

Figure 8 A contact lens can be used to Figure 9 A contact lens creates this
Company Theresa Sakno improve vision. “cat’s eye” effect.

Creative

Pass

Approved Approved

Not approved

576 Chapter 13 • Lenses and Optical Devices NEL

 RESEARCH THIS OTHER VISIOn PROBLEMS
SKILLS: Researching, Communicating SKILLS HANDBOOK
4.A.
The human eye can suffer from vision problems for many other A. What causes astigmatism? How is it treated? T/I

reasons than the ones mentioned here. Just as you have regular B. How does an optometrist check if someone has
health check-ups with your family doctor, it is also important glaucoma? T/I
to take care of the health of your eyes. Regular visits to an
C. What factors contribute to the formation of cataracts? T/I
optometrist will alert you to eye problems.
D. Prepare a visual presentation that summarizes these vision
1. Research the cause, development, and treatment of each
problems, their causes, and how they are treated. T/I C
of these common eye problems.
• astigmatism
• glaucoma
• cataracts

GO TO NELSON SCIENCE

UNIT TASK Bookmark

In this section, you learned about vision and vision problems. How can you apply your
knowledge to the Unit Task described on page 588?

In SUMMARY
• The cornea–lens combination in the eye acts like
a converging lens; the brain flips the inverted
image that it receives from the eye so that what
you see is upright.
• The eye focuses through accommodation; the
shape of the eye lens is changed slightly by eye
muscles.
• Hyperopia means that a person is far-sighted;
near vision is corrected with a converging lens.
• Presbyopia is an age-related condition of
far-sightedness that is caused by a loss of
accommodation.
• Myopia refers to a person who is near-sighted;
distant vision is corrected with a diverging lens.

CHECK YOUR LEARnIng

1. Describe at least three similarities between a camera and 5. (a) People often require reading glasses as they get older.
the human eye. A What vision problem do these people usually have,
2. The text states that we actually “see with our brain.” What and what causes it?
is meant by this? K/U (b) Which corrective lens shape corrects this problem,
3. (a) What is the difference between far-sightedness and a positive meniscus or a negative meniscus?
near-sightedness? Explain. K/U A
(b) What simple lens shape would correct each of these 6. The introduction to this chapter described how glasses
problems? K/U were used to start a fire in Lord of the Flies. Would
eyeglasses to correct near-sightedness be able to do this?
4. The actual lens shapes to correct the two vision problems
Explain, with the aid of a diagram. K/U C A
of far-sightedness and near-sightedness have been
modified. K/U A
(a) What are these new lens shapes called? Draw an
example of each new shape.
(b) Why have they been changed from the basic lens
shapes?

NEL 13.6 The Human Eye 577