Proxima Centauri b

Coordinates: 14h 29m 42.9487s, −62° 40′ 46.141″

Proxima Centauri b (or Proxima b[5]), sometimes

Proxima Centauri b
referred to as Alpha Centauri Cb, is an exoplanet orbiting
within the habitable zone of the red dwarf star Proxima
Centauri, which is the closest star to the Sun and part of the
larger triple star system Alpha Centauri. It is about 4.2 ly
(1.3 pc) from Earth in the constellation Centaurus, making
it and Proxima d, along with the currently-disputed
Proxima c, the closest known exoplanets to the Solar
System.
Artist's conception of Proxima Centauri b
Proxima Centauri b orbits its parent star at a distance of as a rocky-like exoplanet, with Proxima
roughly 0.05 AU (7.5 million km; 4.6 million mi) with an Centauri and the Alpha Centauri binary
orbital period of approximately 11.2 Earth days. Its other system visible in the background. The
properties are only poorly understood, but it is believed to actual appearance and composition of the
be a potentially Earth-like planet with a minimum mass of planet beyond this is currently unknown.
at least 1.07 M🜨 and only a slightly larger radius than that Discovery
of Earth. The planet orbits within the habitable zone of its
parent star; but it is not known whether it has an Discovered by Anglada-Escudé et al.
atmosphere. Proxima Centauri is a flare star with intense Discovery site European Southern
emission of electromagnetic radiation that could strip an Observatory
atmosphere off the planet. The planet's proximity to Earth
Discovery date 24 August 2016
offers an opportunity for robotic space exploration, for
example, with the Breakthrough Starshot project. Detection Doppler spectroscopy
method
Announced on 24 August 2016 by the European Southern Orbital characteristics
Observatory (ESO), Proxima Centauri b was confirmed via
Semi-major 0.048 56 ± 0.000 30 AU[1]
several years of using the method of studying the radial axis
velocity of its parent star. Furthermore, the discovery of
Orbital period +0.0029
Proxima Centauri b, a planet at habitable distances from the 11.1868 −0.0031 d[1]
(sidereal)
closest star to the Solar System, was a major discovery in
planetology[6] and has drawn interest to the Alpha Centauri Argument of 310 ± 50[2]
star system as a whole, of which Proxima Centauri itself is periastron
a member.[7] Semi-amplitude 1.24 ± 0.07 [1]
Star Proxima Centauri
Discovery Physical characteristics
Mean radius 0.94–1.4 R🜨[3][a]
Proxima Centauri had become a target for exoplanet
searches already before the discovery of Proxima Centauri Mass ≥1.07 ± 0.06 M🜨[1]
b, but initial studies in 2008 and 2009 ruled out the Temperature Teq: 234 K (−39 °C;
existence of larger-than-Earth exoplanets in the habitable −38 °F)[4]
zone.[8] Planets are very common around dwarf stars, with
on average 1–2 planets per star,[9] and
about 20–40% of all red dwarfs have
one in the habitable zone.[10]
Additionally, red dwarfs are by far the
most common type of stars.[11]

Before 2016, observations with

instruments[b] at the European Southern
Velocity of Proxima Centauri towards and away from the Earth as
Observatory in Chile had identified
measured with the HARPS spectrograph during the first three
anomalies in Proxima Centauri[12] months of 2016. The red symbols with black error bars represent
which could not be satisfactorily data points, and the blue curve is a fit of the data. The amplitude
explained by flares[c] or and period of the motion were used to estimate the planet's
chromospheric[d] activity of the star. minimum mass.
This suggested that Proxima Centauri
may be orbited by a planet. In January
2016, a team of astronomers launched the Pale Red Dot project to confirm this hypothetical planet's
existence. On 24 August 2016, the team led by Anglada-Escudé proposed that a terrestrial exoplanet in the
habitable zone of Proxima Centauri could explain these anomalies and announced Proxima Centauri b's
discovery.[4] In 2022, another planet named Proxima Centauri d, which orbits even closer to the star, was
confirmed.[15] Another planet candidate named Proxima Centauri c was reported in 2020,[16] but its
existence has since been disputed,[17] while the claimed existence of a dust belt around Proxima Centauri
remains unconfirmed.[18]

Physical properties

Distance, orbital parameters and age

Proxima Centauri b is the closest exoplanet to Earth,[19] at a

distance of about 4.2 ly.[5] It orbits Proxima Centauri every 11.186
Earth days at a distance of about 0.049 au,[1] over 20 times closer
to Proxima Centauri than Earth is to the Sun.[20] As of 2021, it is
unclear whether it has an eccentricity[e][23] but Proxima Centauri b
Overview and comparison of the
is unlikely to have any obliquity.[24] The age of the planet is
orbital distance of the habitable
unknown;[25] Proxima Centauri itself may have been captured by
zones of Proxima Centauri compared
Alpha Centauri and thus not necessarily of the same age as the
to the Solar System.
latter pair of stars, which are about 5 billion years old.[18] Proxima
Centauri b is unlikely to have stable orbits for moons.[26]

Mass, radius and composition

As of 2020, the estimated minimum mass of Proxima Centauri b is 1.173 ± 0.086 M🜨;[6] other estimates
are similar,[27] with the most recent estimate being at least 1.07 ± 0.06 M🜨,[1] but all estimates are minimum
because the inclination of the planet's orbit is not yet known.[18] This makes it similar to Earth, but the
radius of the planet is poorly known and hard to determine – estimates based on possible composition give
a range of 0.94 to 1.4 R🜨,[3] and its mass may border on the cutoff between Earth-type and Neptune-type
planets, if that value is lower than previously estimated.[9] Depending on the composition, Proxima
Centauri b could range from being a Mercury-like planet with a large core—which would require particular
conditions early in the planet's history—to a very water-rich planet. Observations of the Fe–Si–Mg ratios of
Proxima Centauri may allow a determination of the composition of the planet,[28] since they are expected to
roughly match the ratios of any planetary bodies in the Proxima Centauri system; various observations have
found Solar System-like ratios of these elements.[29]

Little is known about Proxima Centauri b as of 2021—mainly its distance from the star and its orbital
period[30]—but a number of simulations of its properties have been done.[18] A number of simulations and
models have been created that assume Earth-like compositions[31] and include predictions of the galactic
environment, internal heat generation from radioactive decay and magnetic induction heating[f], planetary
rotation, the effects of stellar radiation, the amount of volatile species the planet consists of and the changes
of these parameters over time.[29]

Proxima Centauri b likely developed under different conditions from Earth, with less water, stronger
impacts and an overall faster development, assuming that it formed at its current distance from the star.[33]
Proxima Centauri b probably did not form at its current distance to Proxima Centauri, as the amount of
material in the protoplanetary disk would be insufficient. Instead, the planet, or protoplanetary fragments,
likely formed at larger distances and then migrated to the current orbit of Proxima Centauri b. Depending
on the nature of the precursor material, it may be rich in volatiles.[4] A number of different formation
scenarios are possible, many of which depend on the existence of other planets around Proxima Centauri
and which would result in different compositions.[34]

Tidal locking

Proxima Centauri b is likely to be tidally locked to the host star,[26] which for a 1:1 orbit would mean that
the same side of the planet would always face Proxima Centauri.[25] It is unclear whether habitable
conditions can arise under such circumstances[35] as a 1:1 tidal lock would lead to an extreme climate with
only part of the planet habitable.[25]

However, the planet may not be tidally locked. If the eccentricity of Proxima Centauri b was higher than
0.1[36]-0.06, it would tend to enter a Mercury-like 3:2 resonance[g] or higher-order resonances such as
2:1.[37] Additional planets around Proxima Centauri and interactions[h] with Alpha Centauri could excite
higher eccentricies.[38] If the planet isn't symmetrical (triaxial), a capture into a non-tidally locked orbit
would be possible even with low eccentricity.[39] A non-locked orbit however would result in tidal heating
of the planet's mantle, increasing volcanic activity and potentially shutting down a magnetic field-
generating dynamo.[40] The exact dynamics are strongly dependent on the internal structure of the planet
and its evolution in response to tidal heating.[41]

Host star
Proxima b's parent star Proxima Centauri is a red dwarf,[37] radiating only 0.005% of the amount of visible
light that the Sun does and an average of about 0.17% of the Sun’s energy.[42] Despite this low radiation,
due to its close orbit Proxima Centauri b still receives about 70% of the amount of infrared energy that the
Earth receives from the Sun.[42] That said, Proxima Centauri is also a flare star with its luminosity at times
varying by a factor of 100 over a timespan of hours,[43] its luminosity averaged at 0.155 ± 0.006 L☉ (as of
the Sun's),[4]

Proxima Centauri has a mass equivalent to 0.122 M☉ and a radius of 0.154 R☉ that of the Sun.[44] With an
effective temperature[i] of 3050 ± 100 kelvin, it has a spectral type[j] of M5.5V. The magnetic field of
Proxima Centauri is considerably stronger than that of the Sun, with an intensity of 600 ± 150 G;[2] it varies
in a 7-year long cycle.[47]

It is the closest star to the Sun,[k] with a distance of

4.2426 ± 0.0020 light-years (1.3008 ± 0.0006 pc). Proxima
Centauri is part of a multiple star system, whose other members are
Alpha Centauri A and Alpha Centauri B which form a binary star
subsystem.[48] The dynamics of the multiple star system could have
caused Proxima Centauri b to move closer to its host star over its
history.[49] The detection of a planet around Alpha Centauri in
2012 is considered questionable.[48] Despite its proximity to Earth, An angular size comparison of how
Proxima Centauri is too faint to be visible to the naked eye[8] with Proxima will appear in the sky seen
the exception of an instance where a flare made it visible to the from Proxima b (96'), compared with
naked eye.[50] how the Sun appears in our sky on
Earth (32'). Proxima is much smaller
than the Sun, but Proxima b is very
Surface conditions close to its star.

Climate

Proxima Centauri b is located within the classical

habitable zone of its star[51] and receives about
65% of Earth's irradiation. Its equilibrium
temperature is estimated to be about 234 K
(−39 °C; −38 °F).[4] Various factors, such as the
orbital properties of Proxima Centauri b, the
spectrum of radiation emitted by Proxima
Centauri[l] and the behaviour of clouds[m] and
hazes influence the climate of an atmosphere-
bearing Proxima Centauri b.[56]

Artist's conception of the surface of Proxima Centauri b. There are two likely scenarios for an atmosphere
The Alpha Centauri AB binary system can be seen in of Proxima Centauri b: in one case, the planet's
the background, to the upper right of Proxima. water could have condensed and the hydrogen
would have been lost to space, which would have
only left oxygen and/or carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere after the planet's early history. However, it is also possible that Proxima Centauri b had a
primordial hydrogen atmosphere or formed farther away from its star, which would have reduced the
escape of water.[57] Thus, Proxima Centauri b may have kept its water beyond its early history.[49] If an
atmosphere exists, it is likely to contain oxygen-bearing gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide. Together
with the star's magnetic activity, they would give rise to auroras that could be observed from Earth[58] if the
planet has a magnetic field.[59]

Climate models including general circulation models used for Earth climate[60] have been used to simulate
the properties of Proxima Centauri b's atmosphere. Depending on its properties such as whether it is tidally
locked, the amount of water and carbon dioxide a number of scenarios are possible: A planet partially or
wholly covered with ice, planet-wide or small oceans or only dry land, combinations between these[61] or
scenarios with one or two "eyeballs"[n][63] or lobster-shaped areas with liquid water.[64] Additional factors
are:

The nature of convection.[65]

 The distribution of continents, which can sustain a carbonate-silicate cycle and thus stabilize
the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations.[66]
Ocean heat transport which broadens the space for habitable climates.[63]
Ocean salinity variations that alter the properties of an ocean.[63]
The rotational period of the planet which determines Rossby wave dynamics.[67]
Sea ice dynamics which could cause a global ocean to freeze over.[68]

Stability of an atmosphere

The stability of an atmosphere is a major issue for the habitability of Proxima Centauri b:[69]

Strong irradiation by UV radiation and X-rays from Proxima Centauri constitutes a challenge
to habitability.[19] Proxima Centauri b receives about 10–60 times as much of this
radiation[51] especially X-rays, as Earth.[70] It might have received even more in the past,[71]
adding up to 7–16 times as much cumulative XUV radiation than Earth.[72] UV radiation and
X-rays can effectively evaporate an atmosphere[20] since hydrogen readily absorbs the
radiation and does not readily lose it again, thus warming until the speed of hydrogen atoms
and molecules is sufficient to escape from the gravitational field of a planet.[73] They can
remove water by splitting it into hydrogen and oxygen and heating the hydrogen in the
planet's exosphere until it escapes. The hydrogen can drag other elements such as
oxygen[74] and nitrogen away.[75] Nitrogen and carbon dioxide can escape on their own from
an atmosphere but this process is unlikely to substantially reduce the nitrogen and carbon
dioxide content of an Earth-like planet.[76]
Stellar winds and coronal mass ejections are an even bigger threat to an atmosphere.[20]
The amount of stellar wind impacting Proxima Centauri b may amount to 4–80 times that
impacting Earth.[72] The more intense UV and X-rays radiation could lift the planet's
atmosphere to outside of the magnetic field, increasing the loss triggered by stellar wind and
mass ejections.[77]
At Proxima Centauri b's distance from the star, the stellar wind is likely to be denser than
around Earth by a factor of 10–1000 depending on the strength of Proxima Centauri's
magnetic field.[78] As of 2018 it is unknown whether the planet has a magnetic field[19] and
the upper atmosphere may have its own magnetic field.[77] Depending on the intensity of
Proxima Centauri b's magnetic field, it can penetrate deep into the atmosphere of the planet
and strip parts of it off,[79] with substantial variability over daily and annual timescales.[78]
If the planet is tidally locked to the star, the atmosphere can collapse on the night side.[80]
This is particularly a risk for a carbon dioxide-dominated atmosphere although carbon
dioxide glaciers could recycle.[81]
Unlike Sun-like stars, Proxima Centauri's habitable zone would have been farther away
early in the system's existence[82] when the star was in its pre-main sequence[o] stage.[83] In
the case of Proxima Centauri, assuming that the planet formed in its current orbit it could
have spent up to 180 million years too close to its star for water to condense.[49] Proxima
Centauri b may therefore have suffered a runaway greenhouse effect, in which the planet's
water would have evaporated into steam,[84] which would then have been split into
hydrogen and oxygen by UV radiation. The hydrogen and thus any water would have
subsequently been lost,[49] similar to what is believed to have happened to Venus.[85]
While the characteristics of impact events on Proxima Centauri b are currently entirely
conjectural, they could destabilize the atmospheres[86] and boil off oceans.[16]
Even if Proxima Centauri b lost its original atmosphere, volcanic activity could rebuild it after some time. A
second atmosphere would likely contain carbon dioxide,[35] which would form a more stable atmosphere
than an Earth-like atmosphere.[29] In the case of Earth, the amount of water contained within the mantle
might approach that of one Earth ocean.[40] Additionally, impacts of exocomets could resupply water to
Proxima Centauri b, if they are present.[87]

Delivery of water to Proxima Centauri b

A number of mechanisms can deliver water to a developing planet; how much water Proxima Centauri b
received is unknown.[33] Modelling by Ribas et al. 2016 indicates that Proxima Centauri b would have lost
no more than one Earth ocean equivalent of water[19] but later research suggested that the amount of water
lost could be considerably larger[88] and Airapetian et al. 2017 concluded that an atmosphere would be lost
within ten million years.[89] The estimates are strongly dependent on the initial mass of the atmosphere,
however, and are thus highly uncertain.[40]

Life
In the context of exoplanet research, "habitability" is usually defined as the possibility that liquid water
exists on the surface of a planet.[57] As normally understood in the context of exoplanet life, liquid water on
the surface and an atmosphere are prerequisites for habitability—any life limited to the sub-surface of a
planet,[82] such as in a subsurface ocean like in Europa in the Solar System, would be difficult to detect
from afar[83] although it may constitute a model for life in a cold ocean-covered Proxima Centauri b.[90]

Possible setbacks to habitability

The habitability of red dwarfs is a controversial subject,[25] with a number of considerations:

Both the activity of Proxima Centauri and tidal locking would hinder the establishment of
these conditions.[4]
Unlike XUV radiation, UV radiation on Proxima Centauri b is redder (colder) and thus may
interact less with organic compounds[91] and may produce less ozone.[92] Conversely,
stellar activity could deplete an ozone layer sufficiently to increase UV radiation to
dangerous levels.[40][93]
Depending on its eccentricity, it may partially lie outside of the habitable zone during part of
its orbit.[25]
Oxygen[94] and/or carbon monoxide may build up in the atmosphere of Proxima Centauri b
to toxic quantities.[95] High oxygen concentrations may however aid in the evolution of
complex organisms.[94]
If oceans are present, the tides could lead to the flooding and drying of coastal landscapes,
triggering chemical reactions conducive to the development of life,[96] favour the evolution of
biological rhythms such as the day-night cycle which otherwise would not develop in a
tidally locked planet without a day-night cycle,[97] mix oceans and supply and redistribute
nutrients[98] and stimulate periodic expansions of marine organisms such as red tides on
Earth.[99]

On the other hand, red dwarfs like Proxima Centauri have a lifespan much longer than the Sun, up to many
times the estimated age of the Universe, and thus give life plenty of time to develop.[100] The radiation
emitted by Proxima Centauri is ill-suited for oxygen-generating photosynthesis but sufficient for
anoxygenic photosynthesis[101] although it is unclear how life depending on anoxygenic photosynthesis
could be detected.[102] One study in 2017 estimated that the productivity of a Proxima Centauri b
ecosystem based on photosynthesis may be about 20% that of Earth's.[103]

Observation and exploration

As of 2021, Proxima Centauri b has not yet been directly imaged, as its separation from Proxima Centauri
is too small.[104] It is unlikely to transit Proxima Centauri from Earth's perspective;[p][105] all surveys have
failed to find evidence for any transits of Proxima Centauri b.[106][107] The star is monitored for the
possible emission of technology-related radio signals by the Breakthrough Listen project which in April–
May 2019 detected the BLC1 signal; later investigations however indicated it is probably of human
origin.[108]

Future large ground-based telescopes and space-based observatories such as the James Webb Space
Telescope and the Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope could directly observe Proxima Centauri b, given
its proximity to Earth,[20] but disentangling the planet from its star would be difficult.[35] Possible traits
observable from Earth are the reflection of starlight from an ocean,[109] the radiative patterns of
atmospheric gases and hazes[110] and of atmospheric heat transport[q].[111] Efforts have been done to
determine what Proxima Centauri b would look like to Earth if it has particular properties such as
atmospheres of a particular composition.[30]

Even the fastest spacecraft built by humans would take a long time to travel interstellar distances; Voyager 2
would take about 75,000 years to reach Proxima Centauri. Among the proposed technologies to reach
Proxima Centauri b in human lifespans are solar sails that could reach speeds of 20% the speed of light;
problems would be how to decelerate a probe when it arrives in the Proxima Centauri system[112] and
collisions of the high-speed probes with interstellar particles.[113] Among the projects of travelling to
Proxima Centauri b are the Breakthrough Starshot project, which aims to develop instruments and power
systems that can reach Proxima Centauri in the 21st century.[114]

View from Proxima Centauri b

From Proxima Centauri b, the binary stars Alpha Centauri would be considerably brighter than Venus is
from Earth,[115] with an apparent magnitude of −6.8 and −5.2 respectively.[42] The Sun would appear as a
bright star with an apparent magnitude of 0.40 in the constellation of Cassiopeia. The brightness of the Sun
would be similar to that of Achernar or Procyon from Earth.[r]

View from Earth

Looking towards the sky around The relative sizes of a number

Orion from Alpha Centauri with of objects, including the three
Sirius near Betelgeuse, stars of the Alpha Centauri triple
Procyon in Gemini, and the Sun system and some other stars for
between Perseus and which the angular sizes have
Cassiopeia generated by also been measured. The Sun
Celestia and Jupiter are also shown for
comparison.
This chart shows the large
southern constellation of
Centaurus (the Centaur) and
shows most of the stars visible
with the naked eye on a clear
dark night. The location of the
closest star to the Solar System,
Proxima Centauri, is marked
with a red circle. Proxima
Centauri is too faint to see with
the unaided eye but can be
found using a small telescope.
Videos
This picture combines a view of
the southern skies over the
ESO 3.6-metre telescope at the
La Silla Observatory in Chile
with images of the stars
Proxima Centauri (lower-right)
and the double star Alpha
Centauri AB (lower-left) from the
NASA/ESA Hubble Space
Telescope. Proxima Centauri is
the closest star to the Solar
System and is orbited by the
planet Proxima b.
A numerical simulation of
possible surface temperatures
on Proxima b performed with
the Laboratoire de Météorologie
Dynamique's Planetary Global
Climate Model. Here it is
hypothesized that the planet
possesses an Earth-like
atmosphere and that it is
covered by an ocean (the
dashed line is the frontier
between the liquid and icy
oceanic surface). Two models
were produced for the planet's
rotation. Here the planet is in a
so-called 3:2 resonance (a
natural frequency for the orbit),
and is seen as a distant
observer would do during one
full orbit.
A numerical simulation of
possible surface temperatures.
Here it is hypothesized that the
planet possesses an Earth-like
atmosphere and that it is
covered by an ocean (the
dashed line is the frontier
between the liquid and icy
oceanic surface). Here the
planet is in synchronous
rotation (like the Moon around
the Earth), and is seen as a
distant observer would do
during one full orbit.

See also
Alpha Centauri Bb – exoplanet once proposed to be orbiting the secondary star of the
system, Alpha Centauri B, and was dubbed the closest exoplanet for a while before being
disproven
Astrobiology
Extremely large telescope
Exoplanet orbital and physical parameters
List of potentially habitable exoplanets

Notes
a. Range of possible radius values, depending on Proxima b’s composition.
b. The Ultraviolet and Visual Echelle Spectrograph and the High Accuracy Radial Velocity
Planet Searcher.[12]
c. Flares are presumably magnetic phenomena during which for minutes and hours parts of the
star emit more radiation than usual.[13]
d. The chromosphere is an outer layer of a star.[14]
 e. Proxima Centauri b's eccentricity is constrained to be less than 0.35[4] and later
+0.07 +0.21 +0.091
observations have indicated eccentricities of 0.08 −0.06,[21] 0.17 −0.12 and 0.105 −0.068[22]
f. Tides may result in internal heating in Proxima Centauri b; depending on the eccentricity Io-
like values with intense volcanic activity or Earth-like values could be reached.[32] The
magnetic field of the star can also induce intense heating of the planet's interior.[29]
g. A 3:2 ratio of the planet's rotation and its orbit around the star.[25]
h. The tides excited by Alpha Centauri could have induced an eccentricity of 0.1.[32]
i. The effective temperature is the temperature a black body that emits the same amount of
radiation would have.[45]
j. A spectral type is a scheme to categorize stars by their temperature.[46]
k. Hence the name "Proxima".[7]
l. The radiation of a red dwarf is much less effectively reflected by snow, ice[37] and clouds[52]
although—in the case of ice—the formation of salt-bearing ice (hydrohalite) could offset this
effect.[53] It also does not as readily degrade trace gases like methane, dinitrogen monoxide
and methyl chloride as the Sun's.[54]
m. For example, cloud accumulation below the star in the case of a tidally locked planet[39]
stabilizes the climate by increasing the reflection of starlight.[55]
n. One or multiple areas of liquid water surrounded by ice.[62]
o. Red dwarfs like Proxima Centauri are brighter before they enter the main sequence of stars
[49]

p. The probability is about 1.5%.[30]

q. If there is an atmosphere or ocean and Proxima Centauri b is tidally locked, an atmosphere
or an ocean would tend to redistribute heat from the day-side to the night-side and this would
be visible from Earth.[111]
r. The coordinates of the Sun would be diametrically opposite Proxima Centauri, at
α=02h 29m 42.9487s , δ=+62° 40′ 46.141″. The absolute magnitude Mv of the Sun is 4.83, so
at a parallax π of 0.77199 the apparent magnitude m is given by 4.83 − 5(log10(0.77199) + 1)
= 0.40.

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Further reading
Calandrelli E, Escher A (16 December 2016). "The top 15 events that happened in space in
2016" (https://web.archive.org/web/20161220172701/https://techcrunch.com/timeline/the-top
-15-events-that-happened-in-space-in-2016/slide/9/). TechCrunch. Archived from the original
(https://techcrunch.com/timeline/the-top-15-events-that-happened-in-space-in-2016/slide/9/)
on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 16 December 2016.

External links
A search for Earth-like planets around Proxima Centauri (https://web.archive.org/web/20160
902073125/https://palereddot.org/)
The habitability of Proxima Centauri b – Pale Red Dot website for future updates (http://ww
w.proximacentauri.info)
"ESOcast 87: Pale Red Dot Results" (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lysJduOqads) –
via YouTube.
"Interviews with Pale Red Dot scientists" (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Wl1C7PPo3c)
– via YouTube.
"Press Conference at ESO HQ" (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n5QkN05xodA) – via
YouTube.

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