Nozzle Theory For Ideal Rockets

course Technical Elective (Rocket Propulsion)

last review @February 27, 2023

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assignment For Review ‼

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date @March 27, 2023

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Percentage of accuracy and precision of measure performances of rocket

propulsion systems

Between 1 and 6% below the calculated ideal values

Assumptions for an ideal rocket propulsion unit include:

Working Fluid is homogeneous in composition

All species of fluid are gaseous and any other matter have negligible effect to
the total mass

Flow is adiabatic

No wall friction and boundary effects

No discontinuities and shock waves

Constant Steady flow state

Transient effects (Start-up and shutdown) are negligible

Exhaust gases leave at a velocity parallel to the nozzle axis

All state parameters (pressure, temperature, density, velocity) are uniformly

distributed across the section normal to the nozzle axis

Nozzle Theory For Ideal Rockets 1

 Chemical equilibrium is assumed

Ordinary propellants are stored at ambient temperature. Cryogenic propellant

are at their boiling points

Nozzle Theory For Ideal Rockets 2

 Nozzle Theory

Theoretically, max exit velocity occurs in a vacuum

 MASS FLOW RATE EQ'T
-
EXPANSION OF

CONDITIONS :
1) SUPERSONIC WIND TUIMEL

2) LOCATION : THROAT
3) M = 1

vi
*
ii *** ** v V VELOCITY
p
= =
=

Y V =
VOLUME

SINCE
y = K : SPECIFIC
HEAT

1) (3+, )
+
=
RATW

p =

Po( " )Y-

(3 +)51
E

2)
To(y +1) VR
* *
T = 3) a =
=
yRT

=
A(y) yRTe
An “ideal rocket engine” is designed to operate at sea level using a propellant whose products
of combustion have a specific heat ratio k of 1.3. Determine the required chamber pressure if
the exit Mach number is 2.52. Also determine the nozzle area ratio between the throat and exit.
Calculate the ideal thrust and Cf for a rocket propulsion system operating at 68 ATM of chamber
pressure and exhausts to ambient pressure. The nozzle has throat diameter of 10mm and exit of
20mm. The exit nozzle pressure is 4 ATM. Assume k=1.04.
 What is the percentage variation in thrust between sea level and 10 km for a launch vehicle whose rocket
propulsion system operates with a chamber pressure of 20 atm and has a nozzle expansion area ratio 𝜖 of
6? (Use k = 1.30.) Also, at what altitude is the performance of this rocket optimum?

GIVEM :

Po =
20 ATM
H: 0 k M ASL

E =
G
↓> " 10km ASL

·
OkM ASL

Po 20 ATM
I = 20
Fe 1 ATMY

CF = 1 33
-
.

·
10 km ASL

Po= 20 ATM
= 76 .
5

Te 0 . 26151 ATM

Cf =

-
1 56
.

AF=dF- *
dCF
Fo * Co
#

=CF+
-

Ci
Cfi
1 50 -
1 33
3
=
.
.

0 173
1.
= 1
:
.

1 .
33
For an ideal rocket with a characteristic velocity c∗ = 1500 m⁄sec, a nozzle
throat diam- eter of 20 cm, a thrust coefficient of 1.38, and a mass flow rate
of 40 kg/sec, compute the chamber pressure, the thrust, and the specific
impulse.

AP= F
?

C
*
=
1 ,
500 M/s i

1 38 mi =

40 kg/s
CF
= .

Po :? F :? Isp :?

SOL'M :

*
C
*
= Po

mi

Po
=
1909 .
86 KPa
-

mc C
*

Is F =

C
*
- go
CF 2
# 800 1
=

1 211 08 s
:
.
FEATI University
Name: ____________________________ Date:___________
Subject: AE660 LC
Instructor: Engr. Aaron Daniel G. Delima

INSTRUCTIONS: Answer the problem below.

1. A rocket engine test near sea level gives the following data: thrust F = 53,000 lbf,
propellant mass flow rate ṁ = 208 lbm⁄sec, nozzle exit area ratio A2⁄At = 10.0, actual
local atmospheric pressure at test station p3 = 13.8 psia, and chamber pressure p1 =
620 psia. The test engineer also knows that for the same flow rate (and mixture ratio)
the theoretical specific impulse is 289 sec at the standard reference conditions of p1 =
1000 psia and p3 = 14.7 psia, and that k = 1.20. For many propellants we may assume
that the combustion temperature T1 and k do not vary significantly with chamber
pressure. Compare the test performance of this rocket with its equivalent at sea level,
standard, and vacuum performance.

TEST TEST FOR SEA STANDARD VACUUM

RESULTS LEVEL CONDITION CONDITION
P1 (PSIA) 620 620 1000 620
P3 (PSIA) 13.8 14.7 14.7 0
P1/P3
F (LBF)
ISP
CF
 53006 254
=
8074
IbF
.

2) F = 53 , 000 208/32
-
- 574)
.

32174

3) F CONVERT Ib m
/sp sings
*
To
=

5
-

S
in
go
-

=
254 .
81

4)(
=ay(21-()5)

( - )]
!
↑

O == 1 5197
.

~ 1 .
52

THIS EQUATION COMES FROM THRUST AS

* FUNCTION OF AREA & PRESSURE

F- Fopi + P At
.

(e)
P =

((( = ] +
( )
· SEA LEVEL TEST

F : 42 1769
.

*
P SAME
- IS THE
,

P =

((( = ] +
( )
lit
WHERE
Po/D ,:

CF 1 5052
=
.

21 5 .

Fo -
Co
Fr CFt

ECFo
CFt
- Fo =
(3 KIPS) (10) :
52494 . 31
I
ZoCkET EQUATION
-> RELATES SPECIFIC IMPULSE TO THE VELOCITY

ACHIEVED BY THE COMPLETE ROCKET VEHICLE

TOTAL MASS

M =
M + M +
Mp

1⑪
VELOCIT
X -
BURDOUT VELOCITY

Vis

TIME

F = Ma

FTHRUsT=
M FTHRUsT=WIsp
=

migo lop

mi =
-

dRp=-dT
M
FiHust=-golsp=M
 golsp
dM=dY
-

Hif Mif

I
Mi
-
dM
in
=

!M;
dy
golsp

- gl
Mf Yb

-
In m
=

golsp V

Mi 8

A
-

((nmf hmi) -
=

sp
In Mi-InMy
sp Inx-Iy= In t
=

In hi sp

i
In
Y =

golsp it
In
sp
Mi =

My

Ri=elb/golp > ROCKET EQ'M

 Under- and Overexpanded
Nozzles
course Technical Elective (Rocket Propulsion)

last review @March 13, 2023

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Underexpanded Nozzles

Nozzles that discharge the gases at an exit pressure greater than the external
pressure because its exit area is too small for an optimum expansion

Expansion of gases is incomplete within the nozzle

Expansion still takes place outside of the nozzle exit because the nozzle exit
pressure is higher than the local atmospheric pressure.

Overexpanded Nozzles

Gas exits at lower pressure than the atmosphere as it has an exit area that is
too large for optimum expansion.

Under- and Overexpanded Nozzles 1

 Separation behavior in nozzles is deeply influenced by the presence of
compression waves or shockwaves inside the diverging nozzle section

Four Possible flow conditions in Supersonic Nozzles

1. When the external (ambient) pressure p3 is below the nozzle exit pressure p2,
the nozzle will flow full but there will form external expansion waves at its exit.
The expansion of the gas inside the nozzle is incomplete and the values of CF
and Isp will be less than at optimum expansion

underexpansion

2. For external pressures p3 somewhat higher than the nozzle exit pressure p2,
the nozzle will continue to flow full. This will occur until p2 drops to a value

Under- and Overexpanded Nozzles 2

 between about 10 and 40% of p3. The expansion is somewhat inefficient and
Cf and Isp will have lower values than an optimum nozzle would have. Weak
oblique shock waves will develop outside the nozzle exit section.

3. At higher external pressures, flow separation will begin to take place inside
the divergent portion of the nozzle. The diameter of the exiting supersonic
jet will be smaller than the nozzle exit diameter (with steady flow, separation
remains typically axially symmetric). Figures 3 – 9 and 3 – 10 show diagrams
for
separated flows. The axial location of the separation plane depends on both the
local pressure and the wall contour. The separation point travels upstream with
increasing external pressure. At the nozzle exit, separated flow remains super-
sonic in the center portion but is surrounded by an annular-shaped section of
subsonic flow. There is a discontinuity at the separation location and the thrust
is reduced compared to an optimum expansion nozzle at the available area
ratio.
Shock waves may exist outside the nozzle in the plume.

Under- and Overexpanded Nozzles 3

 4. For nozzles in which the exit pressure is just below the value of the inlet pres-
sure (i.e., curve AH in the figure above), the pressure ratio is below the critical
pressure
ratio (where M=1) and subsonic flow would prevail throughout the
entire nozzle. This condition normally occurs in rocket nozzles for a short time
during the start and stop transients.

Under- and Overexpanded Nozzles 4

 Nozzle Configuration
course Technical Elective (Rocket Propulsion)

last review @March 20, 2023

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Important Factors of Nozzles

Nozzle Configuration 1
 Converging Nozzle Section

Does not significantly affect nozzle performance.

Small attitude control thrust chambers have had their nozzle turn at 90°
from the combustion chamber axis without measurable performance loss

Throat Contour

Not critical to performance

Any smooth curved shape may be accepted within reason

Pressure gradient is high in the first two regions thus flow will always adhere in
the walls

Most differences in nozzle configurations are found in the diverging supersonic-

flow section

Internal wall surfaces must be smooth for optimum flow

A good nozzle configuration (with a good area ratio) obtains the highest
practical Specific Impulse, minimizes inert nozzle mass, and conserve length.

Cone- and Bell-Shaped Nozzles

Conical Nozzles

Oldest and simplest configuration.

Easy to fabricate.

Correction Factor

Theoretical Correction factor λ must be applied to the exit momentum

(momentum thrust) of conical nozzles.

Correction Factor is the ratio between the momentum of the gases

exhausting with a finite nozzle angle 2α
λ = (1/2)(1 + cosα)
Ideally, λ should be 1.0. But for a rocket nozzle with divergence cone
angle of 30° (half angle 15°) the exit momentum and therefore axial
exhaust velocity will be 98.3% of our calculations using nozzle theory.

Nozzle Configuration 2
 Small nozzle divergence angles may allow most of the momentum to
stay axial (resulting in High Isp) but they render long nozzles thus
increasing weight.

Large divergence angle gives shorter and lighter designs with low
performance parameters compared to small angles.

Bell-shaped or Contour Nozzles

most common nozzle shape today

High angle expansion section directly after the throat then gradually
reverses the slope to have small exit divergence angle.

Expansion waves are essential to bell shaped nozzles

Turn Back angle

difference between inflection angle and exit angle ( θi − θe ). Because of
this difference, oblique compression waves occur.

Nozzle Dimensions

Length of a bell nozzle

Nozzle Configuration 3
 Given as fractions of length of a reference conical nozzle with a 15° half
angle.
Example:
An 80% bell nozzle has a length 20% shorter than a comparable 15°
cone of the same area ratio.

Two Step Nozzles

Two-step nozzles have a small throat area that suddenly expands to a

larger exit area.

This configuration results in a higher expansion ratio, higher exhaust

velocity, and higher specific impulse.

Two-step nozzles are commonly used in high-performance rocket engines,

such as space launch vehicles and ballistic missiles.

Extendible Nozzles

Extendible nozzles can change their length and/or shape during flight to
maintain an optimal expansion ratio at different altitudes.

This configuration allows for better rocket engine performance by adapting

to varying atmospheric pressure and temperature.

Extendible nozzles are commonly used in rocket engines that operate at

varying altitudes, such as satellite launch vehicles and scientific missions.

Nozzle Configuration 4
 Real Nozzles
course Technical Elective (Rocket Propulsion)

last review @March 23, 2023

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I. Approximations
Sec 3.1 assumptions listed for ideal rockets are merely approximations that
allow relatively simple mathematical relations for the analysis of real rockets
nozzles.

These assumptions give the possibility to

Use an empirical correction factor

Develop or use more accurate and precise algorithms which represent a

better simulation of energy losses, physical or chemical phenomena, and
contain more complex theoretical descriptions.

II. Principal losses

Divergence of the flow

divergence angle is directly proportional to the losses in the nozzle exit

sections as proven by the equation of correction factor for conical nozzles:
λ = (1/2)(1 + cosα)

Real Nozzles 1
 The correction factor equation proves that nozzle exit losses are a function
of the cosine of the divergence angle

These losses can be reduced with bell-shaped nozzle contours

Low Nozzle Contraction Ratio

Low A0 /At can cause pressure losses in the chamber and slightly reduce
the thrust and the exhaust velocity (See Table 3-2)

When a chamber has a cross-section that is about four times larger than the
throat area, the chamber velocity may be neglected as it is virtually zero.

Some requirements for liquid propellant systems as well as solid propellant

systems lead to smaller chamber cross sections which negates the
statement above.

Because gases in the chamber expand as heat is added, the energy

expended in accelerating these gases within the chamber will cause a
pressure drop (even before the throat). This possibility causes the
processes in the chamber to be adiabatic but not isentropic. Losses will now
be experienced as entropy increases.

Maximum entropy is achieved when the chamber cross section is equal to

the throat.

This is called a Throatless Rocket Motor

This is found mostly on scale rockets, tactical missile boosters where

there is a premium on minimum inert mass and length.

Real Nozzles 2
 Flight performance improvements due to inert mass savings have
outweighed the nozzle performance loss of a throatless motor

Due to significant pressure drops in narrow chamber cross sections,

chamber pressures lower at nozzle entrance than that would be with a larger
area ratio between the chamber and the throat.

This causes a small loss in thrust and specific Impulse.

Boundary Layers

Lower velocities at the wall boundary layers reduce the effective average
exhaust velocity by approximately 0.5% to 1.5%

Solid Particles and/or Liquid Droplets

Particulates may cause inefficiencies of up to 5%

Unsteady Combustion

Flow oscillations may result in small losses.

Chemical Reactions within the nozzle flows

Internal chemical reactions within the nozzle change composition and state
parameters marginally. This can be typically a loss of 0.5% (will be
discussed further)

Transient Operations

Chamber pressures and overall performance are affected during start, stop,
and/or pulsing

Erosion

Any gradual decay of the throat slightly increases diameter by up to 6%

during operation with uncooled nozzle materials (such as fiber-reinforced
plastics or carbon).

This will reduce chamber pressure and thrust to about 6% as well.

Specific Impulse is also reduced marginally (0.7 %)

Non-uniform gas compositions

incomplete mixing or incomplete combustion

Real Nozzles 3
 Real Properties

Deviations of specific heat ratios and Gas constants from theoretical values
to actual values are a source of inefficiencies.

Nonoptimum Altitude

III. Boundary Layer

Real rocket nozzles develop thin viscous boundary layers adjacent to their inner
walls

The boundary layer may be considered as being built up of successive annular-

shaped thin layers of increasing velocity until the free-stream value is reached

The low-velocity flow region closest to the wall is always laminar and subsonic,
but at the higher-velocity regions of the boundary layer the flow becomes

Real Nozzles 4
 supersonic and can be turbulent

Gaseous boundary layers have a profound effect on the overall heat transfer to
nozzle and chamber walls and affect rocket performance, particularly in
applications with very small nozzles and relatively long nozzles with high nozzle
area ratios

Flow separation in nozzles always originates inside the boundary layers

For most rocket nozzles with unseparated flow, boundary layer derived losses of
specific impulse seldom exceed 1%

IV. Multiphase Flow

Gaseous working fluids in some propulsion systems may contain liquid droplets
and/or solid particles that can heat the gas during nozzle expansion.

Particle size affects how the particles interact with the gas, with smaller particles
having a greater impact on gas temperature than larger particles.

In general, if the particles are relatively small (typically with diameters of 0.005
mm or less), they will have almost the same velocity as the gas and will be in
thermal equilibrium with the nozzle gas flow.

As particle diameters become larger, the mass (and thus the inertia) of each
particle increases as the cube of its diameter; however, the drag or entrainment
force increases only as the square of the diameter.

Smaller particles transfer heat more readily than larger particles because larger
particles have lower momentums.

Equations can be used to correct performance in the presence of particles, but

they rely on several assumptions, including that specific heats of the gases and
particles are constant and that there are no chemical reactions.

β = particle fraction = particle mass/total mass

h = (1 − β)(cp )g T + βcp sT
V = Vg (1 − β)
p = Rg T /Vg
R = (1 − β)Rg

Real Nozzles 5
 k = [(1 − β)cp + βcs ]/[1 − β)cv + βcs
The particle fraction (mass of particles divided by total mass) affects specific
impulse and characteristic velocity, with higher particle fractions leading to lower
performance.

Particle condensation can occur in high area ratio nozzles with low exit
pressures, which can decrease gas flow and transfer heat to the remaining gas.

Particle size and composition play a role in mitigating the impact of particle
condensation on performance.

Real Nozzles 6
GIVEM:
R = 346 42 .

//1g 12
Po =
2 833
.
MPa
To =
2900k
Poo = 0 .
09 MPa

** =
0 . 0008 M2

k = 1 .
3

SOL'M :

To
a) V= a :

By

=
1045 44
.

M/S

b) ② TROAT :

PH=RT
*

Y 4319
RT = 0 .

pi
5) The following data are given for an optimum
rocket:

Average molecular 24 kg/kmol

mass
Chamber Pressure 2.533 MPa
External Pressure 0.090 MPa
Chamber Temperature 2900 K
Throat Area 0.00050 m2
Specific Heat Ratio 1.30

Determine the (a) throat velocity, (b) specific

volume at throat, (c) propellant mass flow rate and
specific impulse, (d) thrust, (e) Mach number at
throat, (f) ideal coefficient of thrust