UTS - L1 - L6 (Reviewer)

Republic of the Philippines
Cebu Normal University

Osmeña Blvd., Cebu City, 6000, Philippines
College of Arts & Sciences

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Email: cnucas@cnu.edu.ph | Website: www.cnu.edu.ph
UNIT 1- Lesson 1 : The Self from the Various Perspectives
A. SOCRATES
● Greek Philosopher
● Known for: Socratic Method
● Lifetime: 470-399 BCE
● No historical document proves that Socrates actually existed, and he did not leave any known
writings, but his wisdom was venerated by his students (from Plato to Aristotle). Although his
identity remains enigmatic, he has been credited for his many contributions to Western
philosophy.
● Famous quote : “The one thing I know is that I know nothing”
SOCRATES’ PERSPECTIVE
● "Know thyself" (gnōthi seauton)

● Self-knowledge as understanding of the world and one's potential
● Knowledge is virtue, ignorance is vice
● Subjective nature of answers to existential questions
The Self From Various Perspectives
a. SOCRATES' DUALISM
Socrates was a dualist, and believed that a man

kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk has a body and a soul.
b. IMMORALITY OF THE SOUL
He believed that death merely marked the soul's

kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk liberation from the body, as he considered the soul
to be immortal.
SOCRATES’ PERSPECTIVES
He reminds us to ‘know thyself’ (translation of an Ancient Greek aphorism gnōthi seauton), positing
that if a person knows who they are, all basic issues and difficulties in life will vanish and everything will
be clearer and simpler.

Self-knowledge, for him, meant knowing one’s degree of understanding about the world and
knowing one’s capabilities and potentials. It is through this that the
self emerges, meaning that the self is achieved, and not just discovered.
For Socrates, possession of knowledge is virtue and ignorance is vice. He argues that the
acceptance of ignorance is a stepping stone for the acquisition of knowledge.
Answers will always be subjective and there is no right or wrong answers to the questions posited by
Socrates, as they largely depend upon those who answer them, thus the constant reminder to know
thyself.
B. PLATO
● Greek Philosopher
● Known for: Founder of Academy
● Lifetime: 428/347 BCE
● Influence on Western philosophy
PLATO’S PERSPECTIVES
● Plato's belief in empirical reality as unreal appearances.

● Ultimate reality is eternal and consists of abstract essences.
● Plato's idea that physical objects are unreal, but their universal essences are real as immaterial
blueprints.
a. IMMATERIAL BLUEPRINTS
- Plato's idea that physical objects are unreal, but their universal essences are real as immaterial
blueprints.
b. PERCEPTION VS. ESSENCE
- What we directly see is not necessarily essential; it's what we think of in our minds upon
receiving the idea.
c. IDEAS AS OBJECTS OF INTELLECT
Understanding Plato's Perspective:
- Plato's perspective that ideas are known by reason alone.

- They are objective realities existing in their own world.
d. ENDURING SELF AND THE SOUL
Plato's Belief in an Eternal Soul:
- Plato's view that the soul represents an enduring self.

- The soul is eternal and persists even after death.
Thus, using Plato's perspective, real-world dogs are unreal, but the ideal characteristics in our minds
are real.

C. ST. AUGUSTINE
● Algerian Bishop
● Known for: The Confessions
● Lifetime: 354 - 450
ST. AUGUSTINE’S PERSPECTIVES ON TIME
- a property of the mind, not the world time in different periods coexist in the soul ; memory
(past), direct experience (present), and expectation (future)
- time is not real unless they exist in the mind or consciousness
- past and present only exists through memory and expectation
- Famous quote : I think, therefore I am (Cogito, ergo sum)
TERMINOLOGY: Introspection - the examination or observation of one's own mental and emotional
processes.
● St. Augustine’s perspective on the self revolves around how an individual perceives his
memories and expectation
● St. Augustine argues that time is something that people measure within their own memory,
thus, it is a property of the mind, not a feature or property of the world. He believed that the
times present of things past, present, and future coexist in the soul; those being memory, direct
experience, and expectation, respectively. He also emphasized that the memory of the past is
significant in the anticipation of the future and presence of the present.
● He argued that as far as consciousness can be extended backward to any past action or
forward to actions to come, it determines the identity of the person. Concludingly, his
perspective of the self revolves around how an individual perceives his memories and
expectations.
D. RENE DESCARTES
● French Philosopher and Mathematician

● Known for: Father of Modern Philosophy
● Lifetime: 1596 - 1650
DESCARTES’ PERSPECTIVES
● self is a mind-body dichotomy

● thought always precedes action
- Only humans have the audacity and impertinence to try to figure out the meaning of life and
are actually self-aware of their own existence, hence possibly why the saying “man is a
rational animal”, an example of positing Descartes’ ideas.
- Descartes believed that the self is a thinking thing or a substance whose whole essence or
nature is merely thinking; it is real and not an illusion. He also assured that the self is different
from the body, existing but differing in existence and reality. The self is not a feature of the
body but of the mind, and thus, it is a mental substance rather than a physical substance.

- The self, for him, was nothing else but a mind-body dichotomy, meaning that the self, for
Descartes, was made up of the body and the mind. Thought (mind) always precedes action
(body), since everything always starts with a thought
E. JOHN LOCKE
● English Philosopher and Physician

● Known for: Father of Liberalism
● Lifetime: 1632 - 1704
LOCKE’S PERSPECTIVE
● consciousness can be transferred

● a person may appear in a different body but still be the same person
LOCKE ON CONSCIOUSNESS
● it is the perception of what passes in a man’s own mind

● the brain and body has nothing to with it as they may change, but consciousness does not
Locke’s main philosophy about personal identity or the self is founded on consciousness (or
memory), which, for him, is the perception of what passes in a man’s own mind. He rejected that the
brain has something to do with consciousness, as the brain (as well as the body) may change, while
consciousness remains the same.
He supports that consciousness can be transferred from one substance (body and soul) to another,
also supporting the idea that the same person may appear in a different body yet still be the same
person.
His notion of tabula rasa posits that one starts as a blank slate, its content provided by
experiences over time.
F. DAVID HUME
● Scottish Philosopher
● Lifetime: 1711 - 1776
HUME’S PERSPECTIVES
● self is simply memory and imagination

● self is only a set of successive perceptions
● soul is a product of imagination

HUME ON PERCEPTION AND PERSONALITY
● personality and cognition are only machines that can be activated and deactivated
● death obliterates one’s perception
PERSONAL IDENTITY NOT REFLECTED BY SELF-BODY ASSOCIATION
● separate individuals can only be the same if they have the same set of memories or mind
● mind is constituted by a set of private memories
According to Hume, there is no stable thing called self, for the self is nothing but a complex set
of successive impressions or perceptions. The assumption of a self as a mental entity and thus as a
mental substance does not exist. His materialism views the soul as a product of the imagination. Any
concept of the self is simply memory and imagination.
He reduced personality and cognition to a machine that may be activated and deactivated,
further saying that death, according to him, obliterates the perception thaT one has.
Hume also rejected the idea that personal identity is reflected by the association of the self
with an enduring body, saying that separate individuals can only be the same entity only if they have
the same set of memories or same mind. On his account, a mind would be constituted by a set of
private memories.
G. IMMANUEL KANT
● German Philosopher
● Known for: Author of Critique of Pure Reason
● Lifetime: 1724 - 1804
KANT’s PERSPECTIVE
● the self is something real

● humans can acquire knowledge only through experience
● self is a transcendental unifying subject, allows intelligible experience
He referred to inner sense as empirical self-consciousness while consciousness of oneself and

of one’s state via acts of apperception (relating news ideas to existing ones) as transcendental
apperception.
The inner sense is the source of empirical self-consciousness, such as moods, feelings, and
sensations. While transcendental apperception, makes experience possible and allows the self and
the world to come together.
Kant argues that consciousness being unified is the central feature of the mind. He also says
that the self is a transcendental unifying subject, an organizing consciousness that makes an
intelligible experience possible.
Unlike Hume, Kant stresses that the self is something real, yet it is neither an appearance nor a
thing in itself since it belongs to a different metaphysical class. He also emphasized that it is only
through experience that humans can acquire knowledge.

H. SIGMUND FREUD
● Austrian Neurologist
● Known for: Founder of Psychoanalysis
● Lifetime: 1856 - 1939
FREUD’S PERSPECTIVES
● self is multi-layered
● human mind is composed of three structures: id, ego, superego
FREUD’S PERSPECTIVES
H. GILBERT RYLE
● British Philosopher
● Known for: Criticizing the Cartesian Dualism
● Lifetime: 1900 - 1976
RYLES PERSPECTIVES
● self is a combination of the mind and the body, opposing dualism

● self is the way people behave
OPPOSING THE DESCARTES’ IDEAS
● self is not a thinking thing


● Descartes’ mind-body dualism as ghost in the machine

● behavior is the seat of the self, not the mind
SUPPORT ON BEHAVIORISTIC PSYCHOLOGY
● logical / analytical behaviorism - mental concepts can be understood through observable

events
ADJECTIVES OVER NOUNS
● properties of a person are better understood as adjectives modifying a body, instead of a

noun parallel to it
He opposed Descartes’ idea that the self is a thinking thing and maintained that the mind is
not separate from the body. Ryle also supported the basic notions of behavioristic psychology,
having his theory called logical behaviorism or analytical behaviorism – a theory of mind which states
that mental concepts can be understood through observable events.
Ryle instead says that instead of using nouns (objects) parallel to it, the properties of a person
are better understood as adjectives modifying a body. For instance, kindness is not a thing that exists
apart from the body, rather, it is a collection of properties that a body has. He also posited the
maxim, “I act, therefore I am”. Ryle also believed that behavior is the seat of the self, not the mind,
and that the self is the way people behave.
I. PAUL AND PATRICIA CHURCHLAND
● Canadian Neuroscientists
● Known for: Eliminative Materialism
● Lifetime: 1942, 1943 - present
THE CHURCHLANDS’ PERSPECTIVES
● self is nothing else but brain

● self is contained entirely within the physical brain
● to understand the self, one must study the brain, not just the mind
They introduced eliminative materialism, a radical claim that ordinary, common sense
understanding of the mind is deeply wrong and that some or all of the mental states posited by
common sense do not actually exist.
For them, it is false to claim that folk psychology, or common sense psychology, is the capacity
to explain mental states of people. The Churchlands argued that talk of mental states would
eventually be abandoned in favor of a radically different view of how the brain works not identified
with mental states.
In Touching A Nerve: The Self As Brain (2013), Patricia Churchland supports the idea that to
understand the self, one must study the brain, not just the mind.
J. MERLEAU-PONTY

● French Phenomenological Philosopher

● Known for his Contribution in Phenomenology
● LIFETIME: 1908 - 1961
MERLEAU-PONTY’S PERSPECTIVES
● He categorized the body into two types: Subjective and Objective.

● He saw the self as embodied subjectivity.
● He rejected dualism, arguing that the mind and body are fundamentally connected
OPPOSED THE DUALIST ACCOUNT OF SUBJECTIVITY
● He stressed the mind-body connection for understanding subjectivity.

● He viewed consciousness as both perceptive and engaged.
● Merleau-Ponty saw the self as embodied subjectivity, emphasizing our physical interaction with
the world as integral to our consciousness
UNIT 2- LESSON 2: THE SELF FROM THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
What is Sociology?
● Socio-logy (sociologie) derives its name from the latin and greek word.
- Socius (latin word) | “companion or fellowship”
- Logy (greek word) | “the study of”
● A social science that focuses on society, human social behavior, patterns of social
relationships, social interaction, and aspects of culture associated with everyday life.
Why study sociology?
Provides a better understanding of the following:
● Reasons for social differences, including differences in social behavior.

● Reasons for the differentials in group opportunities and outcomes.
● The relevance of social hierarchies and social power in everyday life.
● Sociology can help us to understand ourselves better, since it examines how the social world
influences the way we think, feel, and act.
● It can help with decision-making, both our own and that of larger organizations.
Who studies sociology?
People who study Sociology are called Sociologists.
- They are the ones to study social relationships, cultures, histories, and institutions and their
intersections with modern life to determine how that affects people today.

a. GEORGE HERBERT MEAD
○ Pioneer in symbolic interactionism, a sociological theory focused on the role of symbols and
language in human interaction.
○ Developed the concept of "self" as a social product, emphasizing the importance of socialization
and role-taking in self-development.
○ Emphasized the significance of the "I" (spontaneous, creative self) and the "Me" (socially influenced
self) in understanding human behavior.
○ Influential in the development of social psychology, stressing the role of the individual in shaping
society and vice versa.
➥SOCIAL BEHAVIORISM
Sociologist George Herbert Mead argued that self is not biological but social. Self is developed
through social interaction. He illustrated the development of self in the case of Genie, a girl who was
confined in a room until she reached the age of 13. She was found when she was already 13 years
old; she did not know how to walk and speak. According to Mead, she had no self development of
the self. Even though her body developed her “self” because of her isolation from the world. Self,
therefore, is constructed by directly engaging in the world through interaction and through
reflections on those interactions.
Mead explained that the self has two parts: (1) self-awareness and (2) self image. He
proposed the idea that self develops through social interaction; that social interaction involves the
exchange of symbols (i.e., language); and that understanding of symbols involves being able to take
the role of another. In order for interaction to prosper, each person involved must correctly interpret
the meanings of symbols and intentions of others. It can only succeed by the existence of common
symbols, but actually accomplished through the process of role playing. Role playing is the process in
which one takes on the role of another by putting oneself in the position of the person with whom he
or she interacts. Through role playing, the individual develops a concept of self. By putting oneself in
the position of others, one is able to reflect upon oneself. Therefore, the development of the concept
of “self” lies in the ability “to wear other people’s choice”.
For Mead, self is not inborn. Babies cannot interpret the meaning of other people’s behavior. It
is usually learned during childhood which comes in three stages of development. First is imitation or
the preparatory stage. In this stage, a child initiates the behavior of their parents like sweeping the
floor. Second, the play stage. It involves the child playing the role of others such as acting as a
teacher, carpenter or soldier. In doing these they become aware that there is a difference between
themselves and the role that they are playing. Last is the game game stage. It is where the child
comes to see themselves from the perspective of other people. To play the game, the child must be
aware of their relationship with other people and place themselves in their roles in order to
appreciate their relationships in the game. It is where the collective viewpoint from the generalized
others (other people). This is the time when remarks like “He is brilliant,” “She is creative.” or “He is
lazy” are formed.
“I” and “Me” Self


According to Mead, all humans experience internal conversation. This conversation involves
the I and Me, which he called phases of self. For him, self is essentially a social process going on
between I and me. The I is the phase of the self that is unsocialized and spontaneous. It is the acting
part of the self that is free and unique. On the contrary, the “Me,” is the self that results from the
progressive stages of role playing or role-taking and the perspective one assumes to view and
analyze one’s own behaviors. It represents the conventional and objective part of the self.
- The I is the response of the organism to the attitude of others. It allows the individual to still
express creatively and individualism and understand when to possibly bend and stretch the
rules that govern social interactions.
- The Me is the organized set of attitudes of others which one assumes. It is a socialized aspect
of the individual. It represents learned behaviors, attitudes, and expectations of others and
society. It is developed through the knowledge of society and social interactions that the
individual has experienced.
➥GENERALIZED OTHERS
One of the best known concepts is the generalized other. He described it as an organized
community or social group which gives to the individual their unity for self. The attitude of the
generalized other is the attitude for the entire community. For example, a dance group, as a team, is
the generalized other as long as it enters as an organized process or social activity into the
experience of any one of the members of the group. However, this sort of exchange is entirely
different from one more complex set of behaviors that require an individual to participate in the
dance presentation. With this, one is required to learn not only the responses of specific others, but
also the behaviors associated with every member of the stage.
b. CHARLES HORTON COOLEY
○ Coined the term "the looking-glass self," a concept that emphasizes how individuals develop their
self-concept through social interactions and the perception of how others view them.
○ Advocated for the significance of primary groups, such as family and close friends, in shaping an
individual's identity and socialization.
○ Played a key role in the development of symbolic interactionism, a sociological perspective that
focuses on the role of symbols and social interactions in shaping human behavior and society.
➥THE LOOKING-GLASS SELF
It is a social psychological concept introduced by Charles Horton Cooley. In this view, the self
is developed as a result of one’s perceptions of other people’s opinions. For instance, if parents of
teachers praise the child for their artistic skills, the child will infer that they are artistic, thus boosting
the child’s self confidence. People are the way they are at least partly because of the other
people’s reactions to them and to what they do.
The self is built through social interaction which involves three steps: first, people imagine how

they must appear to others; second, they imagine the judgment on that appearance; and finally,
they develop themselves through the judgment of others .
For Cooley, this social self is the central element of society. He wrote, “the imaginations which
people have of one another are the solid facts of society.” The concept of looking-glass self provides
an idea on how the self develops in relation to the perception of others. It should serve only as a
guide for reflection and should not be taken to end up living in accordance with other people’s
expectations.
➥PRIVATE SELF, PUBLIC SELF, AND COLLECTIVE SELF
Private/Individual Self is the cognition that involves traits, states, and behaviors. It is the assessment of
the self by the self. For instance, “I am generous” and “I am ambidextrous” show one’s knowledge of
their attributes that differentiate them from the others.
Public Self is the cognition concerning the generalized other’s view on the self. It corresponds to an
assessment of the self by the generalized other. For instance, “People think I am religious” or “People
think I am corrupt” shows one’s relation with others and the role one assumes in that relationship.
Collective Self is the cognition concerning a view of the self that is found in memberships in social
groups (family, workers, tribe, professional organizations). For instance, a person may be identified as
feminist. Attributes of being feminist that are similar with other feminists are emphasized forming the
collective self.
c. SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY
The Social Identity Theory was conceived by Henri Tajfel. Social identity has been defined as
the person’s sense of who they are according to their membership to a certain group. Group
membership, according to social identity theory, is an important source of pride and self-esteem. It
gives a sense of social identity—a sense of belongingness to the social world.
In this view, the world is divided into “us” and “them” through the process of social
categorization forming the social groups. These social groups developed by William Graham Sumner
are further divided into two—the in-group and out-group. An in-group is an esteemed social group
commanding a member’s loyalty. It is to which a person belongs. On the other hand, an out-group is
a social group to enhance its self-image. For instance, in upholding the claim that Filipinos are the
most hospitable people in the world, Filipinos increase their self-image by interacting with other
Filipinos, the in-group (the group against the out-group (the group one does not identify with).
Tajfel and Turner (1986) identified three mental processes involved in evaluating others as “us”
or “them” (in-group and out-group).
● Social Categorization: how people categorize things

● Social Identification: It is where people adopt the identity of self
● Social Comparison: People tend to compare themselves with other groups.

Consequently, they might begin to discriminate and criticize the other groups.
d. POST MODERN VIEW OF THE SELF
Postmodernism is not a philosophy but more of a report on the mindset of western culture in
the latter health of the 20th century. In the postmodernist view, self is not the creator of meaning, nor
the center or the starting point of sociological inquiry. For French philosopher Michel Foucault, the self
is also seen as a product of modern discourse that is socially and historically conditioned (David,
2002).
Anderson (1997) gives four basic postmodernist ideas about the self, which address the issues of
change and multiple identities.
● Multiphrenia: refers to the many different voices speaking about “who we are and what we are”
● Protean: a self capable of changing constantly to fit the present conditions.
● De-centered: a belief that there is no self at all.
● Self-in-relation: Humans do not live their lives in isolation but in relation to people and to certain
cultural contexts.
In this view, the person has no center, but is drawn in many directions and is constantly
changing and being defined externally by their relations with other people. For postmodernists, there
is no “I” as Mead maintained. The self is shaped by outside forces; it is socially constructed. What
defines a person are the norms, values, languages, arts. and culture of society. People have no fixed
identities which are separable from their surroundings and which remain the same even though
certain characteristics and conditions may change.
The postmodern social condition is dominated by two realities:
● The rise of new media technologies

● The dominance of consumerism
According to Lyon (1997), the predicament of the self postmodern societies is complicated by
the advent of technology. However, Green (1997), posited that the self is “digitalized” in cyberspace.
Therefore, in traditional society, a person’s status is determined by their role, while in modern
society, it is determined by their achievement, and in postmodern society, by fashion or style. (Wade,
1999)
e. ERVING GOFFMAN
○ His most renowned work, "The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life," was published in 1959 and had
a profound impact on sociology.
○ He authored "Asylums" in 1961, which examined the experiences of individuals in total institutions
like mental asylums and prisons.
○ Goffman is known for his development of the "dramaturgical perspective," which views social
interactions as theatrical performances.

○ He explored concepts such as impression management, face-saving, and stigma in his research.
➥PRESENTATION OF SELF IN EVERYDAY LIFE

Erving Goffman is one of the most influential American sociologists of the 20th century,
introducing a theory which he referred to as the dramaturgical model of social life. For him, social
interaction may be compared to a theater and people to actors on a stage where each plays a
variety of roles (Crossman, 2018). In this theory, he posited the idea that as people interact with one
another they are constantly engaged in impression management—a process in which people
regulate and control information in social interaction. This model of social life assumes that
personalities are not static because they change to suit the situation.
Goffman used the imagery of theater in order to portray the nuances and significance of
face-to-face social interaction. For him, the self is made up of the various parts that people play, and
a key goal of social actors is to present their various selves in ways that create and sustain particular
impressions to their different audiences. In theater, people play the part of either an actor/performer
or an audience. The actor is the one who gives meaning to themselves, to others, and to the
situations. They have all the creative and destructive information about the situation or the
performance. They are the ones who constantly attribute meaning to the performance and to the
actors.
However, the audience will be confused and upset if there is inconsistency between
appearance and manner. In this scenario, like in real life, everyday interactions happen in three
regions which have different impacts on a person’s individual performance. These are the front
stage, and back stage, and Off stage.
● FRONT STAGE : the region where actors perform and act in a conformity with expectations of the
audience.
● BACK STAGE : the region where actors behave differently (portrayal of natural selves)
● OFF STAGE: the last region where actors meet members of the audience independently.
f. KENNETH GERGEN
○ Gergen is known for his contributions to the development of social constructionist theory.
○ His book "The Saturated Self: Dilemmas of Identity in Contemporary Life" (1991) is considered one of
his significant works.
➥SATURATED or MULTIPLICITOUS SELF
For Keneth Gergen, the saturated self is characterized by constant connection to others, a self
that absorbs a multitude of voices (sometimes contradictory) and takes in seemingly endless streams
of information. This saturation contradicts the notion consisting of “multiple” selves. This is due to the
splitting of the self into a multitude of options, which Gergen calls multiphrenia—when people
establish multiple selves through absorption of the multiple voices of people in their lives, either in real
life or through the media. People then internalize these different selves, thus creating a seemingly
endless pool of selves that they can choose to draw upon depending on the needs of the current
situation.

The saturated self as a multiphrenic condition, in which one experiences the vertigo of
unlimited multiplicity, does not only apply to mere exposure to technology but also accounts for the
feeling of overload that results in a socially saturated condition. Gergen explained that options are
not only endless, but are no longer constrained by time or distance, and because of this, “the daily
life has become a sea of drowning demands, and there is no shore in sight.” Simply put, the
saturated self is stressed.
Furthermore, he gives a particularly compelling example of how social saturation makes even
a seemingly simple dilemma such as “what should I do today” into something complex and stressful
by describing a man contemplating about what to do with his free Saturday. The man starts his day
excited about having the freedom to choose how he spends his time. He starts to think about what
to do with the day, which turns into thinking about more things that need to be done, which reminds
him of other things he would like to do. With that, his sense of having a free day becomes completely
overwhelming with all the options and obligations.
Gergen described what the state of social saturation is like. Thus, for him, social saturation
brings with it a general loss of true and knowable selves.
UNIT 3 - LESSON 3 : THE SELF FROM THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
Cultural Identity and National Identity :

● Culture - derived from the Latin word cultura/cultus meaning care or cultivation
● Identity - refers to “who the person is”, or the qualities and traits of an individual that make him/her
different from others
● Cultural identity - refers to the identity or feeling of belongingness to a certain culture group;
pertains to an individual’s perception of himself/herself anchored on race, gender, nationality,
religion, ethnicity, and language
● Cultural identity theory - explains why the person behaves the manner s/he does
● Nation - a group of people built on the premise of shared customs, traditions, religion, language,
art, history, etc.
● National identity - refers to identity or feeling of belongingness to one state or nation.
- Rupert Emerson, a political scientist, defines National Identity as “a body of people who feel
that they are a nation.
- National Identity is socially constructed and is shaped by the material and non-material
culture;
● Material culture such as the flag, emblem, or seal is representative of all people who are part of a
nation
● Non-material culture embodies the shared understanding of a group of people which include
norms, beliefs, and traditions
Brian Morris’ Anthropology of the Self

● Morris reiterated that the self isn’t an entity but a process that orchestrates an individual’s personal

experience
- As a result of this process, a person becomes self-aware and self-reflective about his/her place
in the surrounding world
- The concept of self, for him, is defined as an individual’s mental representation of his/her
person, as kind of self-representation
- On the other hand, the concept of “other” in relation to the self, refers to how one perceives
the mental representations of others
- A clear separation between self and others seems to be universal, but the meaning of this
distinction varies from person to person (Van Meijl, 2008 citing Spiro, 1993)
- Simultaneously, it seems obvious that the relationship between the self and others is also a
function of culture (Van Meijl, 2008 citing Shweder & Bourne, 1984)
- Morris (1994) also stated that the most crucial form of interaction and exchange takes place
neither between the individual and society nor between the psyche and culture, but instead
between the self and his/her cultural environment as mediated by social practices (as cited in
Van Meijl, 2008)
- This idea concerning the self was long conceived by Marcel Mauss (1938 as cited in Van Meijl,
2008). Implicitly, he focused on the notion of the person as a cultural category while reserving
the conception of the self for the psychological dimension of personhood. He appended that
the person or personality was considered primarily a cultural conception, or a category of a
particular community.
Dialogical Self
● The dialogical self theory was introduced in 1992 by Hubert Hermans wherein it regards the “self” as
the “society of Mind”
- In this theory, an individual’s sense of self is established through how one identifies himself or
herself with the different positions he or she holds, internally, or externally.
- An internal I-position refers to how one functions in himself or herself while an external
I-position refers to how one identifies himself or herself based on particular external factors.
- All these constitute the functionality of the self.
- The dialogic self approach calls for the need for the I-positions to come in contact with each
other or to be in a dialogue with each other in order for an individual to become fully aware of
the different perspectives that makes himself or herself.
- When positions are silenced and suppressed, the self becomes monologic instead of dialogic.
- It is when positions are recognized and accepted together in their differences that the self is
seen as dialogic.
- As a whole, the dialogic self approach is designed to stimulate the conversations between the
internal and external positions of the self
- This approach was conceptualized in terms of multiplicity of relatively autonomous I-positions
in the extended landscape of the mind. The self is described as the microcosm of society
where different internal and external factors and components establish a whole (these
components work as a sort of network; reliant on each other in order to be functional).
- In this conception, the “I” has the ability to move from one position to another in accordance

with the changes in the space and time it is situated in and it fluctuates among different and
even opposed positions, and has the capacity to give each position a voice so that dialogical
relations between positions can be established.
- Culture can be seen as the collective voices that shape the social positions of the self. Such
positions or voices are expressions of historically situated selves that are, particularly on the
interface of different cultures, constantly involved in dialogical relationships with other voices
(Hermans, 2003)
Individual Self, Relational Self, and Collective Self

● There are 3 fundamental selves: the individual, the relational, and the collective self
- The individual self reflects the cognitions related to the traits, states, and behaviors that are
stored in memory (e.g., “I am religious”, “I feel cold”, or “I am ambidextrous”)
- The relational self reflects the cognitions that are related to one’s relationships (e.g., “I am the
father”, “I am the godfather” or “I am the son-in-law”)
- The collective self reflects cognitions that are related to one’s group (e.g., “I am an Ilocano”
or “I am a Filipino”)
- Each Self is inherently social, involves assimilations and contrasts, which respectively occur
between and within persons, dyads, and groups for the individual, relational, and collective
self
○ Furthermore, each self is important and meaningful to human experience (Gaertner et al.,
2012)
Identity Struggles
● Identity struggle - a term coined by Anthony Wallace and Raymond Fogelson which characterizes
the discrepancy between the identity a person claims to possess and the identity attributed to that
person by others
● When an individual perceives that s/he is assigned a wrong impression, s/he will probably always
defend his/her identity
UNIT 4 LESSON 4: THE SELF FROM PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
Psychologically speaking, the self is a reflexive process that commences when an individual
recognizes themselves as an object, followed by articulating their self-concept or self-feeling,
culminating in displaying how they behave and present themselves to others (Zhao, 2014). This
definition is taken from the textbook on the subject.
William James' Self Theory - The "Father of American Psychology"
Division of an individual's perception of the self into "Me" and "I" (William James, 1890)
- The concept of "I" and "Me" in self-awareness is not just limited to philosophy but is also
explored in psychology. In psychology, the "I" is referred to as the subjective self and the "Me" is
the objective self.

- "I" represents the thinking and self-aware subject within a person, capable of conscious
awareness of both their environment and their own existence. This continuous stream of
consciousness is what gives rise to self-awareness.
- "Me" comes into play when an individual turns themselves into the object of their own thinking.
It's the aspect of self that is contemplated and reflected upon.
- In order to achieve a healthy sense of self-awareness, it is important to balance both the "I"
and "Me" aspects of oneself. It is important to be aware of one's own thoughts and feelings as
well as the external influences that shape our sense of self. By understanding the "I" and "Me,"
we can cultivate a deeper understanding of ourselves and our place in the world.
James further contextualizes the self into three categories: The Empirical Self: Understanding Its
Constituents, Feelings, and Actions
William James, a well-known philosopher and psychologist, divided the self into three categories:
constituents of the self, self-feelings, and self-seeking actions. These three categories work together to
form what he called the empirical self.
● The constituents of the self include the material self, social self, spiritual self, and pure ego.
● Self-feelings represent the emotions and feelings that arise from one's knowledge and
appraisal of their existence.
● self-seeking actions encompass an individual's efforts to preserve and improve themselves
based on self-knowledge and resulting self-feelings.
All of these categories are arranged hierarchically, with the material self at the bottom, the
social self in the middle, and the spiritual self at the top.
CARL RANSOM ROGER - Carl Ransom Rogers, a renowned American psychologist and
humanisticpsychology pioneer. He is best known for his person-centered psychotherapy and is widely
regarded as one of the founding figures in psychotherapy research.
Understanding Carl Roger's Self Theory
● Self-Development: Rogers believed that the self is something that develops over time. As
children mature, they begin to recognize themselves as individuals distinct from the world
around them.
● Freedom to Choose and Act: According to Rogers, people have the ability to shape
themselves based on their desires and decisions. This implies that individuals have the
independence to become whomever they want through their actions and choices.
● The Self as the Core of Experience: Rogers viewed the self as being at the heart of an
individual's experiences. It is a continuous sense of their identity and understanding of their
position in the world. How and why a person responds to their environment is influenced by
their self-concept.
● Values and Choices: An individual's choices are guided by their set of values. Rogers stressed
that these values play a significant role in one's self-development.

REAL SELF AND IDEAL SELF
- The real self is who you truly are, encompassing your thoughts, feelings, appearance, and
actions. It's your authentic self that you should accept and improve.
- The ideal self, on the other hand, is the image of who you wish to be, shaped by external
influences and societal expectations. It's a dynamic, ever-changing perception of what you
think you should be togain acceptance and love from others.
SELF CONCEPT
- Self-concept refers to the beliefs, attitudes and opinions an individual has about themselves as
they progress through life. It's a dynamic and ever-changing aspect of their self-awareness
that begins with a small dot at birth and expands as they grow older.
a. Existential Self - This aspect of self-concept starts when an individual recognizes themselves as
separate from others and acknowledges their existence over time and space. It's typically
developed from infancy to early childhood and is demonstrated when a child begins to interact with
the outside world.
b. Categorical Self - The categorical self arises once a child understands their separate existence and
becomes aware of themselves as objects in the world. At this point, individuals begin to categorize
themselves based on traits like age, sex, height, and weight. As they grow older, they become more
self-aware and conscious of how others perceive them, leading to self-description.
Carl Rogers proposed that self-concept, the way we perceive ourselves, consists of three main
components:
a. Self-Worth or Self-Esteem: This component involves what an individual thinks about themselves.
It begins to develop in early childhood through interactions with parents, caregivers, and the
environment. A positive self-esteem is important for healthy psychological well-being.
b. Self-Image: This component refers to how a person sees themselves, including their physical
appearance and inner personality. It plays a crucial role in an individual's psychological
health. How someone perceives their self-image can influence their thoughts, emotions, and
behaviors in the world. For example, someone may see themselves as good, bad, beautiful, or
ugly, and this self-image affects their self-concept.
c. Ideal Self: The ideal self is the person one aspires to be. It consists of dreams, goals, and
aspirations in life. Importantly, the ideal self is not static; it evolves and changes over time. For
instance, a person's ideal self during childhood is likely to be different from their ideal self
during adulthood as their goals and aspirations shift.
DONALD W. WINNICOTT - English Pediatrician and Psychoanalyst
The Concept of True Self and False Self
● The True Self, or the Real Self, is sometimes referred to as the authentic self, original self, or
vulnerable self. This is the essence of who you are, unshaped by society or upbringing.
● The True Self, or the Real Self, is sometimes referred to as the authentic self, original self, or

vulnerable self. This is the essence of who you are, unshaped by society or upbringing.
Global VS. Differentiated Model
- examine an individual as a whole, indivisible entity that cannot be broken down into parts.
Two major schools of thought supporting this concept include Gestalt Psychology and
HumanisticPsychology.
Gestalt Psychology is founded on the notion that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. This
response to Wilhelm Wundt's structuralist view of the self was brought forth by Max Wertheimer. Great
psychologists of this era reject the idea that the self is a structure that's made up of the Id, ego, and
superego. Instead, this school of thought is interested in examining the entirety of the self, including
the mind, body, physical attributes, behaviours, and more.
Humanistic Psychology is guided by the principle that human beings, as humans, exceed the sum of
their parts and cannot be reduced to mere components. This school of thought posits that
personality should be studied from the perspective of an individual's subjective experience. To
humanistic psychologists, understanding others entails examining the impact of the environment on
their experiences, rather than focusing on their internal thoughts and desires that define their
personality.
Differentiated Model
● Two of the most prominent psychoanalysts, Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung, examined the
human psyche and its components to better understand personality and identity.
● Freud's differentiated model divides the psyche into three parts: the id, ego, and superego.
The id is the instinctual part of the psyche, present since birth, that stores repressed desires
related to sexual and aggressive impulses. This part is driven by libido, or sexual energy, and
operates on the pleasure principle. The ego, on the other hand, is developed as a result of
coping with anxiety caused by the id's impulse repression and operates on the reality principle.
Finally, the superego is the last to develop, operating on the morality principle and serving as
the reservoir for moral standards imposed by society.
ALBERT BANDURA - A Pioneer in Social Cognitive Psychology
Agentic Theory of the Self - The social cognitive theory employs the agentic theory of the self to help
us understand our own identity. Being an agent means having the ability to intentionally influence our
own functionality and life circumstances. Being an agent means recognizing our own ability to make
life decisions, instead of being passive entities shaped by environmental factors or inner drives. The
agentic theory of the self rejects the idea that selfhood is solely influenced by culture or controlled by
urges. Instead, it views every human being as capable of thinking, deciding, foreseeing, and
controlling their actions, free to make their own choices. This is known as human agency, the
capacity of an individual to exert influence over their actions and the course of their life.
4 Core Properties of Human Agency
Intentionality - refers to how individuals form intentions with action plans and strategies to achieve

them.
Forethought - is the ability to envision oneself in the future state of existence, and to anticipate
possible opportunities or roadblocks.
Self-reactiveness - demonstrates that agents are not just forethinkers and planners, but also self-
regulators. In order for intentions and foresight to produce successful actions, individuals must self-
regulate their efforts to make their vision a reality.
Self-reflection - indicates that people are capable of self-examination. They reflect on their life
pursuits, the meaning of the action they take to accomplish these pursuits, their thoughts, and
personal efficacy.
UNIT 5 - LESSON 5: The Self in Western and Eastern Thoughts
In Western thought, the emphasis tends to be self-oriented, prioritizing individual freedom and
personal choice. This perspective often seeks liberation from the perceived constraints imposed by
society. Conversely, Eastern philosophy leans toward an others-oriented approach, valuing
relationships and social obligations, with a focus on the well-being of the broader community.
The Western perspective often strives to forge a unique individual identity, while the Eastern
viewpoint identifies with and places importance on the collective group.
INDIVIDUALISM AND COLLECTIVISM
● Individualism is an orientation concerned with the independence and self-reliance of the

individual, whereas collectivism is an orientation characterized by belongingness to larger
groups or collectives.
INDIVIDUALISM
- Emphasizes independence and self-reliance.

- Western conception of the self, focusing on freedom, choice, and self-realization.
- Encourages individuals to express themselves.
- Does not promote isolation but values personal autonomy.
- Stresses individual decision-making and self-interest.
- Allows individuals to choose involvement in societal problem-solving.
- Examples of individualistic cultures: New Zealand, Germany, Austria, Greece, Poland, Italy,
Belgium, Ireland, Spain, Finland.
COLLECTIVISM
- Prioritizes relationships, roles, duties, and tradition.

- Eastern conception of the self, viewing it as part of a collective ("we").
- Values group goals over individual desires.
- Individuals make decisions based on the interests of the group.

- Group can be a family, clan, community, nation, or larger entity.

- Examples of collectivistic cultures: Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Iceland, Indonesia, Philippines,
Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, Portugal.
BUDDHISM
- Buddhism rejects the existence of the atman (self) on any metaphysical, material, or spiritual
plane.
- The atman is considered an illusion, a product of flawed human reasoning and evolving
consciousness.
- It cannot be perceived with the senses and is challenging to define but can be seen as the
unadulterated essence of a person.
- According to Buddhism, everything, including the self, is a misperception—a flow of fleeting
perceptions, thoughts, and emotions.
- Buddhism denies the idea of a self that endures over time, as it contradicts the concept of
impermanence.
- Instead of a static and unchanging identity, Buddhism views a person as the result of five
dynamic processes: physical activities, feelings, perceptions, reactions, and consciousness.
- Identification is a nuanced process, involving patterns and roles, leading to the development
of a sense of self.
- However, these identifications are not the true essence of a person in Buddhist philosophy.
- Buddhism suggests that words cannot adequately capture the essence of existence,
emphasizing that entities should
- be seen as processes rather than static objects.
- The entire cosmos is viewed as a continuous process, with entities as sub-processes within it.
- Buddhism rejects the idea of a static, distinct self and emphasizes impermanence and
interconnectedness.
CONFUCIANISM
- Confucius emphasized that one's identity is defined by membership in their reference group.
- This concept is known as the relational self, where individuals derive their identity from their
affiliation with a group.
- Each member of the group must share the values and characteristics upheld by the group.
- In both success and failure, individuals are unified and share the group's pride.
- The relational self underscores the importance of collective identity in Confucian philosophy.
- Confucius introduced the idea of the suppressed self, which is conditioned to prioritize social
obligations and requirements over personal needs and goals.
- This concept reflects the emphasis on self-control in Confucian ethics.
- Self-control is achieved through the practice of ren, a core Confucian virtue.
- Ren is characterized by altruistic behavior, which can be interpreted as affection, generosity,
or kindness.
- The suppressed self, in Confucianism, acts as a "person for others," prioritizing the welfare of the
community over personal desires in philosophy.

TAOISM
- Taoism is an ancient Chinese religion and philosophy.

- Associated with philosopher Lao Tzu, who authored the Tao Te Ching around 500 B.C.E.
- Central belief: Humans and animals should live in harmony with the Tao, or the universe.
- Taoists believe in spiritual immortality, where the spirit joins the universe after death.
- Rejects Confucian values like social convention, hierarchy, and governmental rule.
- Values simplicity, spontaneity, harmony with nature, and individual freedom.
- Rejects hierarchical views of self, society, and the cosmos.
- Unlike Confucianism, Taoism doesn't define the self by social relationships.
- Views the self as a manifestation of the Tao, an extension of the cosmos.
- Central concept in Taoism is the balance of forces, represented by yin and yang.
- Yin and yang are complementary pairs (e.g., light and dark, hot and cold) that work together
to form a universal whole.
- Belief that the universe originated from the interactions of yin and yang.
- Everything in the universe is connected, and nothing makes sense in isolation.
- Taoism encourages life in balance, mirroring the yin-yang principle.
- Emphasizes living in harmony with nature and accepting life's changes.
- Belief that resistance to the Tao (natural order) causes friction and unhappiness.
- No "bad people " in Taoist principles; it's about behavior and understanding.
- Ultimate goal is to live in peace with the Tao, accepting life as part of the eternal force that
binds all things.
HINDUISM
- Hinduism encompasses both a religion and a philosophical system.

- Advocates belief in Eternal Order and Ultimate Reality.
- Recognizing these concepts is essential for leading a meaningful life.
- The purpose of life in Hinduism is to realize the essential oneness of existence.
- Individuals must recognize their higher aspect, the Atman, which is part of the universal
Over-Soul/Mind.
- Through adhering to one's duty (dharma) and performing proper actions (karma), one can
break free from thecycle of rebirth and death (samsara).
- The ultimate goal is the union of the individual Atman with Brahman, returning to the primordial
oneness.
- Maya, the illusion of duality, keeps individuals from realizing their oneness with others and the
divine.
- Overcoming maya involves recognizing the unity of all existence.
- Self-actualization is the enlightened state that one strives for.
- Hinduism is not only a religion but also a way of life and philosophy.
- Self-knowledge is central to Hinduism, as knowing oneself leads to knowing God.
- Evil arises from ignorance of what is good, and knowledge of the good negates evil.
- One's purpose in life is to recognize what is good and pursue it according to their duty
(dharma) and karma.

- The more dutifully one performs their karma in line with their dharma, the closer they come to
self-actualization.
- Self-actualization is the path to realizing the divine within oneself.
UNIT 6 - LESSON 6 : PHYSICAL ASPECT OF SELF
Our face represents most of our physical self. It provides other people with an initial impression
about who we are and what we are.
We maintain a face value because we consider our face as our initial asset. Before other
people can discover our true attitude and capabilities, they first rely on what they can physically see.
The Self as the Body
- The physical self refers to the body. It is the tangible aspect of the person that can be directly
observed and examined (Singh,2017).
- defined by physical characteristics that are visible. The characteristics are defining traits and
features of the body.
Thus, the physical aspect of the self does not include characteristics that are internal to the self.
Impact of Culture on Beauty and Body Image
- The Irrational stereotype of beauty is that to be beautiful means a lot of privileges and
advantages in society. The people who are not endowed and blessed with beautiful face
according to society’s standard may be prone to bullying.
- In this imperfect world, inequality exists in various contexts, including in the physical
appearance of people. However, it is said that; Being beautiful is sometimes a liability and;
Most prominently, present culture prescribes that being beautiful is a necessity, an obligation in
order to be liked and loved.
Will There Be Beauty If There Is No Sight?
- If beauty is referred to as something that is seen through the naked eye, then what is beauty
for the blind?
- Beauty is contextualized into two categories—(1)One that is seen by the eye and (2)One that
is felt by the heart.
- Aesthetics may have laid down the laws and principles of determining beauty as seen by the
naked eye but the very essence of beauty transcends the sight– it can be heard, felt, and
understood.
- An example of this is the movie “Kita, Kita”. The message of the movie entitled "Kita Kita" tells us
true love does not need to be seen but felt.
Achieving Physical Well-Being


To achieve and maintain a good and balanced physical well-being, consider the following tips:
- Eat healthy foods. An unbalanced diet may lead to multiple diseases. Drinking at least eight
glasses of water a day is also very important.
- Maintain a healthy lifestyle. A person must sleep for at least eight hours a night. Vices like
smoking and taking prohibited drugs must be avoided.
- Follow proper hygiene. Taking a bath daily, Brushing the teeth, and maintaining regular bowel
movements must be a routine. Nails must be cut off if they are long and dirty
- Engage in daily exercise. Cardiovascular activities like jogging and swimming, it is very
important to stay fit. If you have limited time walking can also be a substitute.
- Take vitamins and drink fruit juices. Vitamins help in preventing diseases. Make a healthy
choice in choosing your drink, taking medicines without a prescription must be avoided.
- Avoid stress. Learn ways of coping with or preventing stress. Stress ignites many health
problems which makes it important to avoid the things that cause you stress.
- Spend less time in front of computers and gadgets. Staying in front of computers for more than
three hours a day is not a good practice as it leads to eye problems, obesity, and other health
problems.


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Republic of the Philippines

Cebu Normal University

College of Arts & Sciences

UNIT 1- Lesson 1 : The Self from the Various Perspectives

● "Know thyself" (gnōthi seauton)

The Self From Various Perspectives

Socrates was a dualist, and believed that a man

b. IMMORALITY OF THE SOUL

He believed that death merely marked the soul's

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● Plato's belief in empirical reality as unreal appearances.

b. PERCEPTION VS. ESSENCE

c. IDEAS AS OBJECTS OF INTELLECT

Understanding Plato's Perspective:

- Plato's perspective that ideas are known by reason alone.

d. ENDURING SELF AND THE SOUL

Plato's Belief in an Eternal Soul:

- Plato's view that the soul represents an enduring self.

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ST. AUGUSTINE’S PERSPECTIVES ON TIME

● French Philosopher and Mathematician

● self is a mind-body dichotomy

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● English Philosopher and Physician

● consciousness can be transferred

● it is the perception of what passes in a man’s own mind

● self is simply memory and imagination

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HUME ON PERCEPTION AND PERSONALITY

PERSONAL IDENTITY NOT REFLECTED BY SELF-BODY ASSOCIATION

● the self is something real

He referred to inner sense as empirical self-consciousness while consciousness of oneself and

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● self is a combination of the mind and the body, opposing dualism

OPPOSING THE DESCARTES’ IDEAS

● self is not a thinking thing

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● Descartes’ mind-body dualism as ghost in the machine

SUPPORT ON BEHAVIORISTIC PSYCHOLOGY

● logical / analytical behaviorism - mental concepts can be understood through observable

ADJECTIVES OVER NOUNS

● properties of a person are better understood as adjectives modifying a body, instead of a

I. PAUL AND PATRICIA CHURCHLAND

THE CHURCHLANDS’ PERSPECTIVES

● self is nothing else but brain

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● French Phenomenological Philosopher

● He categorized the body into two types: Subjective and Objective.

OPPOSED THE DUALIST ACCOUNT OF SUBJECTIVITY

● He stressed the mind-body connection for understanding subjectivity.

UNIT 2- LESSON 2: THE SELF FROM THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

Why study sociology?

Provides a better understanding of the following:

● Reasons for social differences, including differences in social behavior.

People who study Sociology are called Sociologists.

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a. GEORGE HERBERT MEAD

“I” and “Me” Self

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b. CHARLES HORTON COOLEY

➥THE LOOKING-GLASS SELF

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