Nursing Research 1 2.2.
Assembled information - These are
Unit I. Introduction of Nursing Research
Research - It is a systematic inquiry that uses
disciplined methods to answer questions and
solve problems.
- It is also the systematic and rigorous
investigation of a situation or
problem in order to generate new
knowledge, and validate existing
knowledge
- The ultimate goal of research is to
gain knowledge that would be useful
for many people or professionals
Sources of Nursing Knowledge
1. Unstructured
1.1. Tradition - Handed down knowledge
from one generation to another and
leads to actions that occur because it
has been always done that way.
1.2. Tradition - It is a person with
specialized expertise and recognition for
that expertise.
1.3. Intuition - The ability to understand a
phenomena as a whole without previous
study or reasoning.
2. Structured
2.1. Logical reasoning
Logic - It is a branch of philosophy that
concerns analysis of inferences
(forming a conclusion) and arguments
(conclusion plus supportive
evidenced).
Reasoning - It is the mental processing
of a phenomena to solve problems.
There are two intellectual mechanisms used in
logical reasoning:
quality improvement data.
2.3. Problem-Solving
2.4. Scientific Method
The scientific method is the process of
objectively establishing facts through
testing and experimentation.
The basic process involves making an
observation, forming a hypothesis, making
a prediction, conducting an experiment and
finally analyzing the results.
Types of Research
1. From the Perspective of Application
1.1. Pure Research: Involved in developing
and testing theories and hypothesis or
may or may not have practical
application at the present time or in the
future.
1.2. Applied Research: Research techniques,
procedures, and methods. These are
applied to various aspects of situations,
issues, problems or phenomenon.
2. From the Perspective of Objective
2.1. Descriptive: Attempts to describe a
situation, problem, phenomenon,
service, or program.
2.2. Correlational: To discover or establish
the existence of a relationship between
two or more aspects of a situation or
phenomenon.
2.3. Exploratory: Also called as a feasibility
study or pilot study. Carried out to
investigate the possibilities of
understanding a particular research
study.
2.4. Explanatory. Attempts to clarify why
and how there is a relationship between
two aspects of a situation or
phenomenon.
3. From the Perspective of type of info sought
3.1. Qualitative. Purer or descriptive. The
purpose of the study is to describe a
situation phenomenon, problem, or
event.
 3.2. Quantitative. Analysis is geared to
ascertain (discover) the magnitude
(level/amount) of the variation.
Clinical Nursing Research
- This is a research designed to generate
knowledge to guide nursing practice and
to improve the health as well as the
quality of nurses’ clientele.
It is also a branch of healthcare science
that determines the safety and effectiveness
(efficacy) of medications, devices, diagnostic
products and treatment regimens intended
for human use.
Use for prevention, treatment, diagnosis
or for relieving symptoms of a disease for the
improvement of nursing practice.
Clinical nursing research is a systematic
inquiry into the problems encountered in
nursing practice and into modalities of
patient care.
Disciplined Research (Nursing Research)
The systematic study and assessment of
nursing problems or phenomena; finding ways
to improve nursing practice and patient care
through creative studies; initiating and
evaluating change; and taking action to make
new knowledge useful in nursing.
Nursing Research Priorities
➢ To improve nursing as a profession
➢ To improve nursing practice
➢ To improve patient’s outcomes
Research in nursing began with Florence
Nightingale, a British nurse. Her landmark
publication, Notes on Nursing (1859), described
her early interest in environmental factors that
promote physical and emotional well-being.
This involved an analysis of factors affecting
soldier mortality and morbidity during the
Crimean War.
Most studies in the early 1900s concerned
nurses’ education.
For example, in 1923, a group called
Committee for the Study of Nursing Education
researched about the educational preparation
of nurse teachers and administrators and the
clinical experiences of nursing students.
One of the findings of this research was on the
identification of educational inadequacies and
it concluded that advanced educational
preparation was essential.
Funding for independent research was
nonexistent in the early years. However, nurses
commitment to research, was the motivation of
most nurse researchers at that time that is to
contribute for better curriculum development
then to nursing practice.
Sigma Theta Tau (now Sigma Theta Tau
International) was the first organization to fund
nursing research in the United States, where
Alice Crist Malone in 1936 was awarded a $600
grant.
During the 1940s, government-initiated
studies of nursing education continued,
spurred on by the high demand for nursing
personnel during World War II.
Studies about nurses’ roles and attitudes,
hospital environments, and nurse–patient
interactions were some research titles at this
time.
Several forces in the 1950s put nursing
research on a rapidly accelerating upswing in
the United States.
The American Journal of Nursing, first
published in 1900, began to publish a few
studies in the 1930s.
A surge in the number of studies being
conducted in the 1950s, however, created the
need for a new journal; thus, Nursing Research
came into being in 1952.
In 1963, the International Journal of Nursing
Studies began its publication so with the
Journal of Nursing Scholarship and the
Canadian Journal of Nursing Research.
By 1970s, the growing number of nursing
studies and discussions of theoretical and
contextual issues created the need for
additional communication outlets.
Nurses began to pay attention to the utilization
of research findings in nursing practice.
The Journal of Advanced Nursing, the premier
international journal of nursing, began
publication in UK.
The Workshop of European Nurse Researchers
was established in 1978 and develop greater
communication and opportunities for systemic
partnerships among the 25 European National
Nurses Associations involved.
Several journals that focus on nursing research
were established, including Advances in
Nursing Science, Research in Nursing & Health,
and the Western Journal of Nursing Research.
There was also a change in emphasis in
nursing research from areas such as teaching
and nurses themselves to improvements in
client care - signifying a growing awareness by
nurses of the need for an evidence base from
which to practice.
Nurses also began to pay attention to the
clinical utilization of research findings. A
seminal article by Stetler and Marram (1976)
offered guidance on assessing research for
application in practice settings
In the United States, research skills among
nurses continued to improve, and the cadre of
nurses with earned doctorates steadily
increased.
Nursing research also expanded internationally.
The 1980s brought nursing research to a new
level of development. A number of qualified
nurse researchers increased due to the
availability of computers for the collection and
analysis of information.
The first volume of the Annual Review of
Nursing Research was published.
1986 -In the US, National Center for Nursing
Research (NCR) and National Institute of
Health (NIH) was established.
Its purpose was to promote and financially
support - research projects and training
relating to patient care.
In Canada, National Health Research
Development Program ( NHRDP) and Medical
Research Council.
In 1989, the US government established the
Agency for Health Care Policy and Research
(AHCPR) which was renamed Agency for
Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) in
1999.
Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality
(AHRQ) specifically designed to improve the
quality of health care, reduce health costs, and
enhance patient safety, and thus plays a pivotal
role in the promulgation of EBP.
Nursing Science also came into maturity where
the birth of National Institute of Nursing
Research (NINR) in 1993 with the funding has
grown from 16 million to 70 million in fiscal
year 1999. Canadian Health Services Research
Foundation (CHSRF) was established in 1997.
Several Journals were established namely:
Clinical Nursing research, Clinical
Effectiveness, and Outcomes Management for
Nursing Practice. Qualitative health Research,
was also starting to emerge using different
methodologies
Today, research is ever-growing and its
recognition as an integral part of professional
nursing which led nursing leaders to raise new
issues and concerns.
Heightened focus on evidence-based practice
and outcome research.
Use of multiple confirmatory strategies like
replication and multisite studies.
Greater focus/stress on systematic reviews.
Expanded dissemination of research findings.
More multidisciplinary collaboration
Expanded local research in health care settings.
Greater focus on cultural issues and health
disparities.
1. Emphasizing on the development and
utilization of nursing knowledge, which
is essential for continued improvement
in patient care.
2. Nurses’ need to document the
effectiveness of their practices not only
to the profession, but also to the clients,
administrators and other professionals.
3. Nurses’ need for understanding the
varied dimensions of their profession
(theoretical, ethical, practical
dimensions).
4. Research enables nurses to describe the
following:
a. the characteristics of a particular
nursing situation about which
little is known.
b. explain the phenomena that must
be considered in planning
nursing care.
c. predict the probable outcomes of
certain nursing decisions.
d. control the occurrence of
undesired outcomes
e. Initiate activities to promote
desired client behavior
Roles of Nurses in Nursing Research
• Consumers of nursing research: Read
research reports to develop new skills and to
search for relevant findings that may affect
their practice.
o Indirect participation: This is a
minimum nurse involvement in a
research responsibility. It is done when
a nurse read a research report to keep
up to date on relevant findings that may
affect their practice. This level is called
“research utilization”.
• Producers of nursing research: nurses who
actively participate in designing and
implementing studies.
 oDirect participation: in which nurses are
nursing research producers. They are
actively participating in designing and
implementing research studies.
• Between these two dimensions of research
participation, there are variety of roles for
nurses to play, from these roles:
o Attending research presentations at
professional conferences.
o Evaluating completed research for its
possible use in practice.
o Discussing the implications and
relevance of research findings with
clients.
o Giving clients information and advice
about participation in studies.
o Assisting in the collection of research
information
o Reviewing a proposed research plan
for its applicability in clinical settings.
o Assisting with the development of an
idea for a clinical research project.
Characteristics of Nursing Research
1. It is a problem-solving activity
Finding answers or solutions to the
professional problem >>> Therefore, good
research focuses on searches for the answers
or solutions to professional problems.
2. Generation of knowledge
To develop new knowledge or refine existing
professional knowledge >>> Therefore, good
research is always directed towards the
development of professional knowledge which
is valid.
3. Accuracy should be evident in doing a
nursing research.
Research activity is incomplete and poor
until gathered is adequately and appropriately
analyzed using a standardized and accepted
method of data analysis.
4. Accuracy should be evident in doing a
nursing research.
Accuracy means complete data collection
and properly analyzed as well as interpreted
using an accepted data analysis.
5. The research should have an empirical
(factual, real and verifiable) evidence.
6. The research should have originality.
Solving and finding out answer of current
issues is one of the important / essential
purpose of doing a research. Therefore, a good
research must be performed on a current
professional problem that can be solved and
up to date.
7. The research should be logical.
The research must follow the rules of
research formulation and should be objectively
done.
8. The research must be replicable.
Replicability means obtaining consistent
results across studies aimed at answering the
same scientific question using new data or
other new computational method
9. Theory development
The development and testing is a
systematic process of inquiry in a discipline.
Therefore, only research can make it possible
to develop or test a theory.
10. The use of appropriate methodology.
A good research always employs the most
appropriate and suitable methodology.
11. Conduct on the representative sample.
A good research considers and should be
represented by a good sample.
Purpose of Nursing Research
Main: To answer questions or solve problems
of relevance to nursing profession
Basic research: To extend the base of
knowledge in a discipline, or to formulate or
refine the theory
Applied research: Focuses on finding solutions
to existing problems and thus tends to be of
greater immediate utility for
EBP; designed to indicate how these
principles can be used to solve problems in
nursing practice.
Purpose of Research
1. Identification of problems
2. Description - to provide baseline data or
simply a picture of how things are. It is
the “how and what” but not the “why”.
3. Exploration - To gain better
understanding of the exact nature of the
problem and not to provide a conclusive
answer to the problem itself and an in-
depth research can be conducted later
on.
4. Explanation - Determine how variables
interact. It deals with the “why” of the
problem.
5. Prediction “guess or tag-an” - A
statement of the expected results of the
experiment based on the hypothesis.
6. Control - An element that remains
unchanged or unaffected by other
variables.
World Health Organization’s Definition of
Research of Research for Health
Research for health covers the full spectrum
of research, which spans the following five
generic areas of activity:
1. Measuring the magnitude and
distribution of the health problem
2. Understanding the diverse causes or the
determinants of the problem, whether
they are due to biological, behavioral,
social or environmental factors
3. Developing solutions or interventions
that will help to prevent or mitigate the
problem
4. Implementing or delivering solutions
through policies and programs
5. Evaluating the impact of these solutions
on the level and distribution of the
problem.
Areas Covered in Health Research
1. Etiology (biologic, endogenous,
psychological, social, economic)
2. Disease prevention and promotion of
well-being (interventions to modify
behavior, promote well-being or alter
physical, biological and environmental
risks)
3. Detection, screening and diagnosis (all
phases – from development to evaluation
– of markers and technologies
4. Development of treatments and
therapeutic interventions
(pharmaceutical; medical devices;
psychological; behavioral; physical)
5. Evaluation of treatment and therapeutic
interventions
6. Management of diseases and conditions
(individual care; end-of-life care;
management and decision making)
7. Health and social care services
(organization and delivery of services;
health economics; policy, ethics and
governance; resources and
infrastructure; research design and
methodologies)
Examples of Research Problems in Health
1. Growing microbiological resistance in,
for example, diseases like tuberculosis
and malaria.
2. Absence of effective treatments for
diseases in low-income countries such
as dengue fever
3. Treatment and prevention in HIV/AIDS
4. Need for new knowledge about local
contexts, conditions and health
priorities
5. Need for new knowledge about social,
political, economic and environmental
determinants of health
6. Health policy and systems research –
how to make the health system perform
better
7. Research on environmental health, the
interaction between economic activity,
environment and human health
Activities that Nurses Should Engage
1. Participate journal club in a practice setting
2. Solving clinical problems and making
clinical decisions based on rigorous research
3. Collaborating in the development of an idea
for a clinical research project
4. Reviewing a proposed research plan with
respect to it feasibility in a clinical setting and
offering clinical expertise to improve the plan
5. Recruiting potential study participants
6. Assisting in the collection of research
information (e.g. distributing questionnaires to
patients)
7. Giving clients information and advice about
participation in studies
8. Discussing the implications and relevance of
research findings with clients
Unit II. The Research Designs
The methodological process is guided by
philosophical beliefs about the nature of reality,
knowledge, and values and by the theoretical
framework that helps comprehension,
interpretation, choice of literature and research
practice on a given topic of study.
Research Methods - Methodology summarizes
the research process, that is, how the
research will proceed.
Paradigms of Research - Deciding on a
methodology starts with a choice of the
research paradigm that informs the study.
A general perspective or model based on the
complexities of the real world.
A research paradigm is a philosophical
framework that your research is based on
Research paradigm

The Philosophical Assumptions and
Characteristics
Why is philosophical Assumptions
important in research?
The term 'philosophical assumption' generally
refers to a person's beliefs or thoughts about
large universal issues in life.
Philosophical assumptions use abstract
ideas and beliefs that inform the research. It
is the first ideas in developing a study and
how they relate to the overall process of
research.
The ontological position refers to the
researcher's relationship with the study's
reality.
This is how the researchers obtain the
data, how it is analyzed, and how the
research will be done to derive a good
subject’s responses or verbalizations. In
this study, all methodology or data
collection methods will be considered
and that these must be done objectively.
The epistemological position refers to the
researcher's relationship between the
researcher and that being studied.
Researchers should the focus on the
responses not the person. Listening to
the subjects without prejudices and
biases. Responses are protected,
respected, and is keep confidential.
The axiological position refers to the role of
values in research and inquiry.
The researcher’s value of respect is a
critical factor during the data collection
phase (Creswell and Creswell, 2013).
Awareness and avoidance of biases
towards the subject's responses and
experiences will be laid down during
data collection.
The methodological or rhetorical position refers
the art of speaking or writing effectively the
research.
The art of speaking means how the
researchers gather data and also how
the data is being interpreted that is with
tact and respect. This also includes
observing the subjects gestures,
mannerism or facial expression when
answering to the researchers.
The positivist paradigm of exploring social
reality is based on the idea that one can best
gain an understanding of human behavior
through observation and reason.
Basic assumption: Positivism (Logical
Positivism) is a philosophy that holds
that empirical evidence obtained through
the senses which is the only firm foundation
for knowledge.
Utilizes surveys, structured
questionnaires, structured interviews and
experiments.
The social constructivism of social group
constructing things for one another,
collaboratively creating a small culture of
shared artefacts with shared meanings.
Main idea: Focuses on the collaborative
nature of learning.
Knowledge develops from how people
interact with each other, their culture, and
society at large.
Students rely on others to help create their
building blocks, and learning from others
helps them construct their own knowledge
and reality
The transformative frameworks believes that
people are autonomous beings who are at the
same time fundamentally connected to one
another, and constantly striving to balance
their autonomy with relating to others.
Application: Encouraging student
autonomy and initiative. Discussion even in
lectures, promoted by the educator asking
open questions and allowing time for
responses.
A transformative paradigm emphasizes the use
of qualitative and mixed methods to outline the
ecological complexity of a situation and to
access the voices of those who have historically
been marginalized.
Four major types of mixed methods:
1. Triangulation - Using more than one
method to collect data on the. same topic.
This is a way of assuring the
validity of research through the use of a
variety of methods to collect data on the
same topic, which involves different
types of samples as well as methods of
data collection.
 questions under investigation. Combination of
knowledge and experience.
It is an educational philosophy that says
education should be teaching students the
things that are practical for life and
encourages them to grow into better people.

Research Design

A detailed outline of how an

2. Embedded or Nested - When one kind of
data act as supportive data and opposite
act as dominating data (concurrent or
sequential).
investigation will take place. This includes how
data is to be collected, what instruments will be
employed, how the instruments will be used
and the intended means for analyzing data
collected.

Example: A research study to analyze

the impact of hospital information
technology on therapeutic
communication in intensive care unit of
Vicente Sotto Memorial Medical Center

3. Explanatory

Example: A research study to

determine Hepatitis E awareness needs
of pregnant women residing in
Mambaling, Cebu City

4. Exploratory
Example: A research study to develop
and measure psychometric properties
(validity and reliability) of bedsore
assessment tool

Postmodern perspective rejects the possibility

that we can have objective knowledge.
It values the subjective and multiple
opinions of individuals and communities
rather than predetermined rules for action. I. Quantitative Research
It assigns value to multiple meanings rather
than the single, authoritative voice of the A systematic investigation of phenomena
expert researcher. by gathering quantifiable data and performing
statistical, mathematical, or computational
Pragmatism involves research designs that techniques.
incorporate operational decisions based on
“what will work best” in finding answers for the
 Quantitative research collects
information from existing and potential
customers using sampling methods and
sending out online surveys, online polls,
questionnaires, etc., the results of which can
be depicted in the form of numerical.

Common Terminologies in Quantitative

Research
Inference. “Intelligent guess”

Reliability. A measure of the stability or

consistency of test scores. It is the degree to
which research method produces stable and
consistent results.

Consistent, true and genuine research

results > To ensure validity > First: Apply
your methods consistently (especially
multiple researchers. During the conduct of
interviews or observations, behaviors aside
from verbal responses must be noted
Consistent, true & trustworthiness of
research results > To ensure validity >
Second: In data collection, keep the
circumstances as consistent as possible to
reduce influences of external factors that
will create variations in the results.
Like in experimental set up, the researcher
must make sure that all participants are
given the same information and tested under
the same conditions.
Validity. The extent to which a concept is
accurately measured in a quantitative study.
To ensure validity > First: Choose appropriate
method of measurement
• Use of standardized questionnaire.
• In cases where the researcher uses his
own formulated questionnaire, a pilot
study should be conducted.
• Questionnaires must be properly worded
based on the statement of the problem.
> Second: Use appropriate
sampling methods for the
research subject / respondents /
informants (specific age,
geographic location or profession)
Bias. It is where the researcher influences the
systematic investigation to arrive at certain
outcomes.
The Hawthorne effect occurs when people
behave differently because they know they
are being watched.
Like research studies such as study about
dietary habits, or hygiene practices.
Attrition bias happens when some
participants exit while the research is still
ongoing.
A 5% or less attrition rate is not much
concern unless it is already in excess of
20 %. The researcher/s must be in close
contact with the subjects and with open
communication.
Selection bias, sampling bias, self-selection
bias, or/and exclusion balance
Taking a sample of opinions in a
barangay by selecting subjects from phone
numbers in the phonebook would exclude
people who choose to have unlisted numbers,
or people who do not have a phone, and
people who have moved into the barangay
since the telephone directory was published
Measurement bias, results from poorly
measuring the outcome you are measuring

If the researcher uses scores or ratings to Example: The survey interviewers asking
measure the variables (like psychological about deaths were poorly trained and
traits or physical properties), results should included deaths which occurred before the
reflect accurately in collecting data time period of interest.

Example: A teacher might want to get an

estimate of the number of students who use
cellphones in the hallways. However,
students hide their phones when they see
their teacher. This may be an inaccurate
data collection method.
Randomization. It is where that each Dependent variables. Also called effect
individual in the population has an equal variables which is affected by the
opportunity to be selected for the sample. manipulation of the independent
variable. This is usually monitored
Criteria for Randomization
during an experiment.
1. Unpredictability. Each participant
3.2. Control variables – variables that are
has the same change of receiving any
held constant to help identify the
of the interventions.
possible differences in the outcomes as
2. Balance. Treatment groups are of
a result of controlling certain variables
similar size and constitution.
3. Simplicity. Easy for the researcher to Moderator variables – are variables that
implement. delineates how a relationship of interest
changes under different conditions or
Control. This is the researcher’s effort to
circumstances. Applies both to
remove the influence of any external variables
quantitative and qualitative studies.
that might have an effect on the dependent
variable 3.3. Extraneous variables – variables that
are already existing during the conduct
Manipulation. This refers to the conscious
of an experiment. These could influence
control of the independent variable by the
the results or findings of the study.
researcher through treatment or intervention to
observe its effect on the dependent variable. 4. Non-Experimental Variable – variables
which cannot be manipulated by the
Variables. It is any characteristics, number, or
researcher.
quantity that can be measured or counted.
4.1. Predictor variable – variables that
Classifications of Variables
change / affect other variables in a non-
1. Numeric Variable – are variables with values experimental study.
that describe a measurable numerical
Criterion Variable – variables that are
quantity. These answers the “how many
influenced by the predictor variable in a
and how much” of a study. Applies
non-experimental study.
commonly to quantitative research study.
Causality. “Cause and Effect”
1.1. Continuous / Interval Variables.
Assume any value between a certain set
of real numbers depending on the scale
used.

1.2. Discrete Variables. Assume any whole

value within the limits of the given
variable

2. Categorical Variable – are variables with

values that describe a quality or
characteristic of a data unit. These variable
answers “what type or which category”.
Applies to qualitative research study.
2.1. Ordinal Variable (to classify or rank) • Collect reliable and accurate data
• Quick data collection
2.2. Nominal Variable (to identify)
• Wider scope of data analysis
2.3. Dichotomous Variables – are variables • Eliminate bias
that represent only two categories while Types of Quantitative Research
polychotomous variables have many
categories. 1. Non-experimental research designs. It is
research that lacks the manipulation of an
3. Experimental Variable independent variable, researchers
conducting non-experimental research
3.1. Independent variables. Also called
simply measure variable as they naturally
causal variables which is presumed to
occur (existing by nature and without
cause changes in another variable and
artificial aid.).
is usually manipulated in an
Characteristics
experiment.
 o Controlled experiments are not
performed longer because of ethics or
morality.
o The samples or participants already
exist and develop in their environment.
o Studies the phenomena exactly as they
occurred.
o The researcher doesn’t intervene directly
on the environment of the sample.
o Based on events that occurred
previously and are analyzed later
A. Descriptive Research Design
It is a type of research design that aims
to obtain information to systematically
describe a phenomenon, situation, or
population.
It helps answer the what, when, where,
and how questions regarding the
research problem, rather than the why.
Results of quantitative observation are
derived using statistical and numerical
analysis methods.
B. Case Study
This involves in-depth research and
study of individuals or groups.
This type leads to a hypothesis and
widen further the scope of studying a
phenomenon.
Case studies should not be used to
determine cause and effect as they
cannot make accurate predictions
because there could be biases on the
researcher that may lead to faulty
conclusions.
C. Survey
It is a quantitative approach that
features the use of self-report measures
on carefully selected samples.
It is a flexible approach that can be used
to study a wide variety of basic and
applied research questions.
In survey research, respondents answer
through surveys or questionnaires or
polls.
D. Correlational Research
A research method that involves
observing two variables in order to
establish a statistically corresponding
relationship between them.
The aim is to identify variables that have
some sort of relationship do the extent
that a change in one creates some
change in the other.
Types
a. Naturalistic observation
A correlational research
methodology that involves observing
people's behaviors as shown in the
natural environment where they exist,
over a period of time.
The major advantages of the
naturalistic observation method are
that it allows the researcher to fully
observe the subjects (variables) in their
natural state.
However, it is a very expensive and
time-consuming process plus the
subjects can become aware of this act at
any time and may act contrary.
Some of the disadvantages of
naturalistic observation includes:
• Observer bias: The biases of the people
observing the natural behaviors can
influence the interpretations that
experimenters make.
• Lack of validity: The Hawthorne effect
can play a role in people altering their
behavior simply because they know they
are being observed.
b. Survey application
Surveys and questionnaires are
some of the most common methods
used for psychological research.
c. Ex post facto Research
Meaning “from after the fact.” This
means that the study starts after the
fact has occurred without interference
from the researcher.
This research attempts to
understand relationships among
phenomena as they naturally occur,
without any intervention.
It is similar to an experiment, except
the researcher does not manipulate the
independent variable.
d. Developmental research design
This research design is to investigate
patterns and sequences of growth
and/or changes as a function of time.
Longitudinal growth studies like
measuring the nature and rate of
 changes in a sample of the same
children at different stages
development.
Cross sectional growth studies like
measuring the nature and rate of the
same changes by drawing samples of
the different children from
representative age levels.
e. Epidemiologic study design
a. Cohort studies
It is an observational study design
where; the participants do not have the
outcome of interest to begin with.
They are selected based on the
exposure status of the individual. They
are then followed over time to evaluate
for the occurrence of the outcome of
interest.
Retrospective starts after the
exposure is known. Records can help
the researcher to know who ultimately
develop a specific outcome.
Retrospective starts before the
exposure is known.
b. Case control studies
It is a type of observational study.
This is the reverse of cohort study.
Participants are selected for the study
based on their outcome status.
f. Survey Research design
It is a design where investigators
administer a survey sample or to the
entire population to describe the
attitudes, opinions, behaviors, or their
characteristics.
2. Experimental research designs – is the
process of carrying out research in an
objective and controlled fashion so that
precision is maximized, and specific
conclusions can be drawn regarding a
hypothesis statement.
Key Terms:
of
Treatment. It is something that
researchers administer to experimental
group and in research it is represented by
“X”.
Control. It is anything that is held constant
or limited in an experiment. It is a variable
that is not of interest to the study’s aims but
can influence the outcomes.
Randomization. The process of assigning
participants to treatment and control
groups, assuming that each participant has
an equal chance of being assigned to any
group. “R” is the letter for representation.
This is to avoid biases.
Test. It is a measurement used in
experiment usually written
test/questionnaire. It may be before
(pretest) or after (posttest) the treatment.
Usually represented by letter “O”.
1. Pre-experimental Research
The simplest form of experimental
research design and usually has no
control group.
A. One-shot Case study
Also termed as Posttest only
group. A type of design where single
group is being exposed to a
treatment and a single measurement
is taken afterwards. It only
measures the posttest results.
Compare the results after the
posttest. Therefore, the integration
of technology in conducting lessons
has a positive effect on the academic
performance of students.
 B. One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
A type of quasi-experiment in
which the outcome of interest is
measured 2 times: once before and
once after exposing a non-random
group of participants to a certain
intervention/treatment.
C. Static-Group Design
A quasi-experimental design in
which the outcome of interest is
measured only once, after exposing
a non-random group of participants
to a treatment and compared to a
control group.
2. Quasi-Experimental Designs
A 2nd type of experimental research
which has the word “Quasi” which
means “resemblance” or in Bisayan term
“morag” experimental research.
Usually, quasi-experiments are in
the classroom settings. Like when you
study Class A section, all students in
that section will be included in the study.
The subject samples CANNOT be
randomly assigned to groups.
A. Non – equivalent (comparison)
groups design
It is considered as “non-
equivalent” since members of the
groups are not randomly assigned. It
involves testing two groups.
B. Pretest – Posttest design: To test
the dependent variable before
the treatment is given and after the
treatment has been given
C. Interrupted time series design
D. Combination design. This design
combines the elements of both
non-equivalent designs and pretest &
posttest designs. It involves having a
test group and a control group in
conducting the study.
3. True-Experimental Designs
The key to true experimental
research is random assignment of
subjects to treatment groups. There is
also a control group (comparison group).
A. Post-test Only Control Group
Design
B. Pre-test and Post-test Control
Group Design
A type where test units are
randomly assigned to an
experimental group and a control
group. Both groups are measure
before and after. The
experimental group is exposed to
treatment.
C. Solomon Four Group Design
D. Factorial Design
An experimental design that is
used to study two or more factors,
each with multiple discrete
possible values or “levels”.
The most common is the 2 x 2
factorial design, in which there
are two factors (or independent
variables) and each factor has
two levels.
E. Randomized block design
 A randomized block design is Confirmability - Objectivity or no subjectivity
an experimental design where by researcher/s
the experimental units are in
Transferability - Findings can be transferred to
groups called blocks.
another setting / working hypothesis
The treatments are randomly
allocated to the experimental 1. Case Study
units inside each block. When all Involve a long-time and in-depth
treatments appear at least once investigation of a person, group,
in each block, we have a organization, or situation/phenomena.
completely randomized block Useful for testing whether a specific
design. theory and model actually applies to a
F. Crossover study design phenomenon.
It is a repeated measurements 2. Ethnography
design such that each Involves a studying a particular
experimental unit (patient) cultural group to get a clear
receives different treatments understanding of their belief systems
during the different time periods, and practices.
i.e., the patients cross over from Aims to have a more thorough
one treatment to another during understanding of the set-up, practices
the course of the trial. and lifestyle of the members of the group.
Falls under the fiel of anthropology.
Advantages of Experimental Research
Since ethnography focuses on a
• Researchers have a stronger hold over certain group of people, the results are
variables to obtain desired results. content specific.
• The subject or industry does not impact 3. Phenomenology
the effectiveness of experimental Investigating the human
research. Any industry can implement it experience/s regarding a certain
for research purposes. phenomenon.
• The results are specific. Recognizes that each experience is
• After analyzing the results, you can unique and meaningful
apply your findings to similar ideas or Presents a detailed discussion of the
situations. Lived experience/s of the informants.
• You can identify the cause and effect of 4. Historical Analysis
a hypothesis. Researchers can further Involves the examination of primary
analyze this relationship to determine documents to make better
more in dept ideas. understanding in the connection of the
• The data you collect is a foundation on past and present events.
which to build more ideas and conduct
more research.

II. Qualitative Research

A type of research that focuses on

explaining the reality of the world through the
perspective of the informants.
5. Grounded Theory
It is characterized by the researcher’s It helps nurses to understand,
active involvement when interacting with develop, and utilize real-world
participants when gathering data in the natural knowledge about health concerns.
setting. (Nathaniel & Andrews, 2007).
The results of this tend to be subjective Helps offer an EXPLANATION about
as it is affected by the perceptions and opinions the main CONCERN of the
of the respondents based on their experiences. PARTICIPANTS involved in the research.
This takes place when a researcher
Common Terminologies in Qualitative DISCOVERS a NEW THEORY to underlie
Research his study at the time of data collection
and analysis.
Dependability - Reliability of data collected
In practice, grounded theories
(proper collection of verbatims
enable nurses to see patterns of health
Credibility - Confidence that the result and in groups, communities, and
interpretation are true populations and predict health and
practice concerns in nursing care.
 The researcher through various which are then merged to obtain results
means of data collection is able to to understand a problem in analysis.
discover an idea that would explain the The researcher gathers both
how and why behind a particular quantitative and qualitative data,
phenomenon. analyses data separately, compares data
6. Participatory Action and makes the necessary interpretation
Everybody knows the word
“Research” and most people do not have
the same reaction to this.
It is a qualitative research
methodology that involves researchers
and participants collaborating to
understand social issues and take
actions to bring about social change.
2. Explanatory Sequential Design
Involves collection of both
quantitative and qualitative data
sequentially.
Also known as the “two-phase model”
Considered as one of the most
popular forms of mixed methods design
in educational research
3. Exploratory Sequential Design
Involves collection of data
sequentially however, the qualitative
III. Mixed research designs data is collected first followed by the
It is a procedure for collecting, quantitative data.
analyzing, and “mixing” both quantitative and This design is done to explore a
qualitative methods in a study for purposes phenomenon through qualitative
of understanding a research problem. data collection, which is then followed by
the quantitative data collection to
explain relationships in the
qualitative data.

Unit III. Components of a Research Process:

Quantitative Study

1. Convergent Parallel Design

Involves simultaneous collection of
both quantitative and qualitative data Research Proposal
 Research proposals are documents
describing what researchers propose to study,
prepared before a project has commenced.
Goal: To present and justify the need to study
a research problem and to present the
practical ways in which the proposed study
should be conducted.
Proposals almost always begin with a brief
synopsis of the proposed project. The
abstract helps to establish a frame of
reference for reviewers.
The abstract should be brief (usually
about 200 to 300 words) and should state the
study objectives and methods to be used.
It should be written with care to create a
positive impression: It should persuade
reviewers that the study has merit and would
be undertaken with rigor.
Although an abstract appears at the
beginning of a proposal, it is often written last.
Start formulating the research statement or
questions to be answered in the study. A
theoretical model shall be chosen for
quantitative research
For qualitative study, the researcher
shall formulate the possible research questions
for the informants.
I. The research problem (Quantitative
Research Study)
II. Introduction
Based on the research title, formulate
a concept map of the problem on how to
write the Chapter I Introduction >>
• General to specifics
• A beginning statements that will
draw the reader to continue . . .
• For quantitative, include
statistical data about the study
III. Review of Related Literature
It is a survey of scholarly sources on
a specific topic. It provides an overview
of current knowledge, allowing the
researcher/s to identify relevant theories,
methods, and gaps in the existing
research.
What is the purpose of a literature review?
When writing a research study, the
investigator will likely have to conduct a
literature review to situate the research within
existing knowledge. The literature review gives
the researcher a chance to:
1. Demonstrate familiarity with the topic
and its scholarly context.
2. Develop a theoretical framework for
research framework.
3. Explain theoretical framework in
consideration of the stated problem.
IV. Definition of terms
Operational definition of terms refers
to a detailed explanation of the technical
terms and measurements used during
data collection.
Ensures that the readers will
understand the components of your
study in the way that the researcher will
be presenting them.
V. Statement of the Problem
It is an explanation that describes the
problem or phenomena that needs study.
What problem is the research
attempting to address?
Having a Problem Statement allows
the reader to quickly understand the
purpose and intent of the research.
VI. Research Questions
 VII. Making hypothesis - is an educated
guess that will be tested using
inferential statistics and answers the
main problem.
Statement about an expected
relationship between variables, or
explanation of an occurrence, that is
clear, specific, testable and falsifiable
Null hypothesis: There is no
significant relationship between . . .
Alternative hypothesis: There is
significant relationship between . . .
VIII. Significance of the Study
It is a written statement that
explains why the research is conducted.
It is a justification of the importance
of the study and the impact it has on
research field, the contribution to new
knowledge and how others will benefit
from it.
IX. Methodology
Refers to the strategies of the
research project. It involves studying the
methods used in your field and the
theories or principles behind them, in
order to develop an approach that
matches your objectives.
An introductory phase should start
the methods to be used in a research
study
1. Research Design.
Overall strategy that the researcher
choose to integrate the different
components of the study in a coherent and
logical way.
2. Research Locale.
It describes the place where the study is
conducted.
3. Research Sampling
Population - Refers to a larger pool of
potential participants for a study
Sample - Refers to participants obtained
from the larger population
To determine the correct sample size
Slovin’s Formula:
where:
N = Total population
n = Sample size
e = margin of error
Confidence level = 95%
Types of Sampling
Probability Sampling - Each member of the
population has equal chances of being
selected as a participant in the study.
Selection is done randomly
Non-Probability Sampling - Involves purposely
choosing participants according to some
identified variables. No random selection
(depends on the technique)
A. Non-probability Sampling
Since non-probability sampling does not
involve random selection of participants, a
researcher may use on the following situations.
a. Convenience Sampling (Accidental
/incidental sampling
Selected participants are those
available at the moment, however
participants selected are still on the
identified characteristics or variables.
b. Snowball Sampling – participants are
recruited / endorse other people to
become the study participants. This
type of sampling is useful for “hard to
find” participants
c. Purposive Sampling (Judgmental
sampling) – participants are selected
based on their knowledge about the
topic and are chosen based on the
purpose of the study.
Expert Sampling is a type of purposive
sampling. Participants selected are
those who are fully knowledgeable
about the topic.
d. Quota Sampling – participants are
selected from homogeneously divided
strata so that equal distribution is
attained to each strata.
e. Modal Instance Sampling – involves
selection of the most “typical”
members to become part of the
sample.
B. Probability Sampling
a. Simple random sampling. Allows for
each member of the population to have
equal chances of being selected as
member of the sample.
b. Stratified random sampling. Involves
dividing the population into
homogenous subgroups to ensure equal
representation of each subgroup. It
involves 2 steps:
➢ Divide the population into different
subgroups/strata.
➢ Randomly select the members of the
sample for each subgroup
c. Systematic random sampling.
Conducted when simple random
sampling or stratified random sampling
proves to be too tedious or complicated
due to large populations. Involves four
steps:
➢ First, number the units from 1 to N,
where N is the total population.
➢ Second, compute the sample size
using Slovin’s
➢ Third, compute the interval size,
which is k, where k is the total
population divide it by the sample size,
where N/n.
➢ Fourth, take every case unit as the
member of the representative sample.
In this case the fifth of the total
population.
d. Cluster sampling. Used when the
members of the population are
dispensed across a wide geographic
location.
This involves randomly selecting
districts from a target area to become a
part of the sample. This includes 3 steps:
➢ First, divide the population into
clusters based on geographic location.
➢ Second, select the units out of the
chosen cluster.
4. Research Respondents

Those individuals who complete a survey

or interview for the researcher, or who
provide data to be analyzed for the research
study.

5. Research Instruments

A tool used to collect, measure, and 6. Research Procedure

analyze data related to your subject. It also Letter of Approval to Conduct the study
involves obtaining the specified research
questions or objectives. This can be done by
utilizing research instruments that are
either developed or adopted.

In quantitative research, questionnaires

use the following approaches:

A. Scale (usually Likert scale) 7. Research Data Analysis

A Likert scale is a rating scale used to
assess opinions, attitudes, or behaviors.
In reference, the investigator’s statement
of the problem will be the basis in
formulating questionnaire.
8. Ethical considerations

Ethical review provides protection for

participants, and also helps to protect the
researcher.
By obtaining ethical approval the
researcher is demonstrating that they have
adhered to the accepted ethical standards of
a genuine research study.