NOUNS

1. What is a noun?

A noun is a word that names something, such as a person, place, thing, or idea.

Example: factory, approval, construction, London, etc.

Functions of a noun Examples

As a subject The seminar will be held next week.

As an object of a verb I enjoyed his presentation.

As an object of a preposition There was a complaint from the customer.

As a complement Mr.John will become the next mayor.

2. Functions of a noun

3. Positions of a noun

Positions of a noun Examples

After an indefinite article (a, an) or a definite article (the) I am looking for a chair

After an adjective It is a good solution

After a possessive adjective (my, her, his, etc) David is one of my colleagues.

After a preposition They offer a variety of services.

4. Countable nouns & uncountable nouns

- Countable nouns are nouns which can be counted, even if the number might be
extraordinarily high (like counting all the people in the world). Countable nouns can be
used with a/an, the, some, any, a few, and many.

Example: office, product, etc

- Uncountable nouns are nouns that come in a state or quantity which is impossible to
count; liquids are uncountable, as are things that act like liquids (sand, air). They are
always considered to be singular, and can be used with some, any, a little, and much.

Example: intelligence, information, etc.

5. Proper nouns & Common nouns

- Proper noun is a specific name of a person, place, or thing, and is always capitalized.

Example: Does Helen have much homework to do this evening? ⇒ Helen is the name of a
specific person

- Common noun is the generic name of an item in a class or group and is not capitalized
unless appearing at the beginning of a sentence or in a title.

Example: The boy crossed the river. ⇒ Girl is a common noun; we do not learn the
identity of the girl by reading this sentence, though we know the action she takes. River is
also a common noun in this sentence.

+ Types of common nouns:

 Concrete noun is something that is perceived by the senses; something that is

physical or real.

Example: I heard the doorbell ⇒ Doorbell is a real thing that can be sensed.

 Abstract noun is something that cannot be perceived by the senses.

Example: We can’t imagine the courage it took to do that ⇒ Courage is an abstract

noun. Courage can’t be seen, heard, or sensed in any other way, but we know it
exists.

 Collective noun denotes a group or collection of people or things.

Example: That pack of lies is disgraceful. ⇒ Pack of lies as used here is a

collective noun. Collective nouns take a singular verb as if they are one entity – in
this case, the singular verb is.

6. Nouns suffixes

- When a noun suffix is added to a verb or an adjective, a noun will be formed.

Noun suffixes Examples

 -ion / -sion / -tion / demonstrate ⇒ demonstration

-ity active ⇒ activity

- ness weak ⇒ weakness

-or/-er work ⇒ worker

supervise ⇒ supervisor

-ism multicultural ⇒ multiculturalism

-ment employ ⇒ employment

-al propose ⇒ proposal

-sis analyze ⇒ analysis

-ure fail ⇒ failure

-ship intern ⇒ internship

-th grow ⇒ growth

-ant participate ⇒ participant

-ee interview ⇒ interviewee

-ance/-ency important ⇒ importance

efficient ⇒ efficiency

- Some common noun suffixes:

ADJECTIVES

1. Functions of Adjectives
Adjectives describe the aspects of nouns. When an adjective is describing a noun, we say it
is "modifying" it.

Adjectives can:

- Describe feelings or qualities

Examples:

He is a lonely man.

They are honest.

- Give nationality or origin

Examples:

I heard a French song.

This clock is German.

Our house is Victorian.

- Tell more about a thing's characteristics

Examples:

That is a flashy car.

The knife is sharp.

- Tell us about age

Examples:

He's a young man.

My coat is old.

- Tell us about size and measurement

Examples:

John is a tall man.

This film is long.

- Tell us about colour

Examples:
Paul wore a red shirt.

The sunset was crimson.

- Tell us what something is made of

Examples:

The table is wooden.

She wore a cotton dress.

- Tell us about shape

Examples:

I sat at a round table.

The envelope is square.

- Express a judgement or a value

Examples:

That was a fantastic film.

Grammar is complicated.

2. Using Adjectives

- Adjectives in English usually appear in front of the noun that they modify.

Examples:

The beautiful girl ignored me.

The fast red car drove away.

- Adjectives can also appear after being and sensing verbs like to be, to seem, to
look & to taste.

Examples:

Italy is beautiful.

I don't think she seems nice at all.

You look tired.

This meat tastes funny.

 - Some exceptions:

+ Adjectives appear after the noun in some fixed expressions.

Examples:

The Princess Royal is visiting Oxford today.

The President elect made a speech last night.

He received a court martial the following week.

+ The adjectives involved, present & concerned can appear either before or after the
noun that they modify, but with a different meaning depending on the placement.

Examples:
Adjective placed after Adjective placed before the Adjective placed
Meaning
the noun noun before the noun
I want to see the people who
I want to see the It was The discussion was
have something to do with
people involved. an involved discussion. detailed & complex.
this matter.
Here is a list of the
Here is a list of the people The present situation is The current situation
people present at the
who were at the meeting. not sustainable. is not sustainable.
meeting.
I need to see the A worried father
I need to see the man who A concerned father came
man concerned by this came to see me
has been accused. to see me today.
accusation. today.

3. Common forms of Adjectives

Forms Examples
-able considerable
-ible eligible
-ive effective
-ous dangerous
-ic economic
-ical identical
-ful/ness helpful/helpless
 -ent excellent
-ory compulsory
-ish selfish
-ial special

ADVERBS

1. Function of adverbs
- Adverbs modify or tell us more about other words, usually verbs

Examples:
The bus moved slowly.
The bears ate greedily.

- Sometimes they tell us more about adjectives

Examples:
You look absolutely fabulous

- They can also modify other adverbs

Examples:
She played the violin extremely well.
You're speaking too quietly.

2. Form of adverbs

2.1. In most cases, an adverb is formed by adding '-ly' to an adjective:

Adjective Adverb
quick quickly
cheap cheap
slow slowly

Examples:
Time goes quickly.
He walked slowly to the door.
She certainly had an interesting life.
He carefully picked up the sleeping child.
- If the adjective ends in '-y', replace the 'y' with 'i' and add '-ly':

Adjective Adverb

easy easily

angry angrily

happy happily

lucky luckily

- If the adjective ends in -'able', '-ible', or '-le', replace the '-e' with '-y':

Adjective Adverb
probable probably
terrible probably
gentle gently

- If the adjective ends in '-ic', add '-ally':

Adjective Adverb
basic basically
economic economically
tragic tragically

Note:

Exception: public – publicly

2.2. Some adverbs have the same form as the adjective:

Adjective Adverb
early early
late late
fast fast
near near
hard hard
straight straight
high high
wrong wrong

Examples:
It is a fast car.-->He drives very fast.

This is a hard exercise.-->He works hard.

2.3. 'Well' and 'good'

'Well' is the adverb that corresponds to the adjective 'good'.

Examples:
He is a good student.-->He studies well.

PRONOUNS

I. Introduction to pronouns

Pronouns take the place of nouns in sentences. Pronouns work in sentences the
same way as nouns. Pronouns are used so that nouns are not repeated. A
pronoun generally refers back to a noun that was written earlier. There are many
different kinds of pronouns. Each kind has different forms and rules for when it is
used.

II. Types of pronouns

1. Personal pronouns

Personal pronouns refer to a specific person or persons.

The personal pronouns are I, you, he, she, it, we and they.

Personal pronouns change form depending on their role in a sentence.

- The subjective case means the pronoun is used as the subject of a sentence or a
clause. The subjective personal pronouns are I, he, she, you, it, we and they.

Examples:

We are going to the meeting in the same car.

She is going to send the fax now.

- The other cases are objective and possessive. Objective case means a pronoun
usually is the object of the verb or a preposition in a sentence. Objective pronouns
are me, him, her, us and them.

Examples:

The metal chair gave him an electric shock.

Let us finalize the contract.

Frank took a phone message for her.

Note: When there is a linking verb in a sentence, the pronoun that follows it must
be in the subjective, not objective, case. A common linking verb is any form of the
verb be such as is, are, was and were.

Incorrect: This is her speaking.

Correct: This is she speaking.

The possessive case pronoun shows ownership. The possessive pronouns

are my, mine, our, ours, his, her, hers, their, theirs.

Examples:

My boss approves of my conducting of the interview.

Michael bumped his hip against the desk.

Note: Only the personal pronouns have these three cases. All other types of
pronouns only have their regular (dictionary) form and a possessive case. The
exception is the relative pronoun who. Whom is the objective case and whose is the
possessive case.

2. Relative pronouns
Relative pronouns are which, that, and who / whom. Relative pronouns relate
groups of words to nouns or other pronouns.

Example:

The secretary gave three boxes to the mailman who entered the office.

That and which can only refer to things. Who and whom can only refer to
people. Who is used as the subject of a sentence or a clause. Whom is always the
object of a verb or prepositional phrase.

Examples:

He doesn't know whom to assign to the project.

(Whom is the object of the verb to assign.)

Who will be assigned to the project has not been decided.

(Who is the subject of the verb will be assigned.)

3. Intensive pronouns

Intensive pronouns add emphasis to a noun or another pronoun. The form of an

intensive pronoun is a personal pronoun plus -self: himself, herself, myself,
yourself, themselves, ourselves.

Example:

He himself made the coffee.

4. Reflexive pronouns

Reflexive pronouns show that the sentence subject also receives the action of the
verb in the sentence. Reflexive pronouns have the same form as intensive ones: a
personal pronoun plus -self.

Example:

You might injure yourself.

Note: Objective or possessive pronouns are mistakenly used when a reflexive one
is needed.

Incorrect: Help you to whatever you need.

Correct: Help yourself to whatever you need.

5. Indefinite pronouns
Indefinite pronouns function as nouns, but they do not replace a noun. Indefinite
pronouns include everybody and some.

Example:

Everybody admires the company’s president.

6. Demonstrative pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns identify or point to nouns. Demonstrative pronouns

include this, that and such.

Example:

This is the cup he used.

7. Interrogative pronouns

Interrogative pronouns introduce questions. Interrogative pronouns

include who, which and what.

Example:

Who will be making a speech tonight?

III. Pronoun agreement with the noun

One general rule for all pronouns is that a singular noun must be replaced with a
singular pronoun. Also, a plural noun must be replaced with a plural pronoun.

Examples:

I have to do a presentation tomorrow for my manager.

The employees want their afternoon break to start later.

Note: It is important to remember that any word with an every,

like everybody, everyone, or everything is singular, not plural. Therefore, every type
words need a singular pronoun like his or her, and not a plural one like their.

Incorrect: Everybody needs to hand in their report to the manager.

Correct: Everybody needs to hand in his report to the manager.

Another general rule is that the pronoun must have the same gender (feminine,
masculine or neuter) as the noun it replaces.

Examples:

Julie wants to upgrade her computer software.

The computer had new software installed on its hard drive.

PREPOSITIONS WITH ADJECTIVES

Some adjectives go with certain prepositions. There is no real pattern – you need to learn
them as you meet them. Here are some examples but remember that there are many other
adjectives + preposition combinations that are not covered here.

1. With “AT”

 I'm quite good at English but I'm bad at maths and I'm terrible at physics.

2. With “FOR”

 Jogging is good for your health but smoking is bad for you.
 The town is famous for its cheese.
[As well as 'good for', 'bad for' and 'famous for' we also say 'qualified for' 'ready for',
'responsible for', 'suitable for' and several others.]

3. With “OF”

I'm perfectly capable of doing it myself, thank you.

I'm very fond of this old sweatshirt.

[As well as 'capable of' and 'fond of' we also say 'aware of', 'full of', 'tired of' and several
others.]

4. With “WITH”

 We're very pleased with your progress.

 You're not still angry with me are you?

[As well as 'pleased with' and 'angry with' we also say 'bored with', 'delighted with',
'satisfied with' and several others.]

5. With “TO”

 She's the one who's married to a doctor, isn't she?

 You'll be responsible to the head of the Finance department.

[Notice that you can be responsible for something but responsible to someone.]

Other common adjectives + preposition combinations include 'interested in' and 'keen on'.
It's a good idea to make a note of new combinations in your vocabulary notebook as you
meet them. Remember too that a preposition is followed by a noun or a gerund ('ing'
form).

PREPOSITIONS WITH NOUNS

1. With “FOR”

Use 'for' preceded by the following nouns:

 a check for (amount of money)

E.g. She gave me a check for $50.

 a demand for something

E.g. Unfortunately, there wasn't enough demand for our product.

 a need for something

E.g. There is a real need for discipline in this class.

 a reason for something

E.g. I have a reason for doing that!

2. With “IN”

Use 'in' preceded by the following nouns:

 a rise in something

E.g. There has been a rise in prices recently.

 an increase in something

E.g. We have seen many increases in production levels.

 a fall in something

E.g. There has been a fall in prices recently.

 a decrease in something

E.g. We have seen many decreases in production levels.

3. With “OF”

Use 'of' preceded by the following nouns:

 a cause of something

E.g. She is the cause of all his problems.

 a photograph OR a picture of something or someone

E.g. He took a photograph of the mountains.

4. With “TO”

Use 'to' preceded by the following nouns:

 damage to something

E.g. I did a lot of damage to my car the other day.

 an invitation to a celebration of some type

E.g. We were invited to their wedding.

 reaction to something
E.g. Her reaction to his behavior was quite funny.

 a solution to a problem

E.g. He provided the solution to our financial situation.

 an attitude to something (or TOWARDS something)

E.g. Your attitude to your problems doesn't help them get resolved.

5. With “WITH”

Use 'with' preceded by the following nouns:

 a relationship with someone or something

E.g. My relationship with Mary is wonderful.

 a connection with someone or something

E.g. His connections with the CIA are very limited.

 a contact with someone or something

E.g. Have you had any contact with Sarah?

6. With “BETWEEN”

Use 'between' preceded by the following nouns:

 a connection between TWO things

E.g. There is no connection between the two crimes.

 a relationship between TWO things

E.g. The relationship between the two friends was very strong.

 a contact between TWO things

E.g. There is little contact between the two parents.

 a difference between TWO things

E.g. There is no difference between those two colors.

PREPOSITIONS WITH VERBS

Some verbs are usually followed by prepositions before the object of the verb. These are
called dependent prepositions and they are followed by a noun or a gerund ('ing' form).

 He's waiting for a bus.

⇒ For is the dependent preposition for 'wait'

We can use other prepositions with 'wait' – e.g. He waited at the bus stop – but 'for' is the
dependent preposition.

Here are some other verbs with their dependent prepositions:

1. Verbs with 'FOR'

 He apologized for being late. You can also 'apologize to someone'

 I applied for the job but I didn't get it.
 How do you ask for a coffee in Polish?
 She spent many years caring for her aged parents.
 I can't go out tonight because I have to prepare for my interview tomorrow.

2. With 'FROM'

 This spray should protect you from mosquitoes.

 Has he recovered from his illness yet?
 He won an award because he saved someone from drowning.
 I suffer from hay fever.

3. With 'IN'

 She believes in ghosts.

 Our company specializes in computer software.
 You have to work hard if you want to succeed in life.

4. With 'OF'

 I don't approve of your language, young man.

 Our dog died of old age.
 This shampoo smells of bananas.

5. With 'ON'

 The film is based on the novel by Boris Pasternak.

 If you make so much noise I can't concentrate on my work.
 Come on! We're relying on you!
 We don't agree on anything but we're good friends.

6. With 'TO'
  Can I introduce you to my wife?
 Please refer to the notes at the end for more information.
 Nobody responded to my complaint.

7. With 'WITH'

 I agree with everything you've said.

 My secretary will provide you with more information if you need it.

** There are many more verb + dependent preposition combinations – make a note of
them as you meet them

PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE

1. With “AT”

At home At the theatre

At the seaside At the grocer’s, at the hairdresser’s, at the doctor’s

At school At the bottom

At the foot of the page At the beginning, at the end (of the lesson,...)

At the shop (to arrive) at the airport, railway station,...

[** arrive at is used for small places
arrive in is used for bigger places (cities, countries)]

2. With “IN”

In (something/somewhere) In + cities / countries / regions / …

e.g. in the dinning-room, in e.g. in the dinning-room, in the box, in the desk, in the North
the box, in the desk

In my opinion In good weather

In (the) newspaper In the (a) middle of (the room)

In English, German,...
3. With “ON”

On means that something is in a position that is physically touching, covering or attached

to something.

On (something/somewhere) on horseback

e.g. on the table, on the floor

On foot On TV

On the radio On the beach

4. With “IN FRONT OF”

In front of is the opposite of behind. It means at the front (part) of something.

- A band plays their music in front of an audience.

- The teacher stands in front of the students.

- The man standing in the line in front of me smells bad.

- Teenagers normally squeeze their zits in front of a mirror.

5. With “BEHIND”

Behind is the opposite of In front of. It means at the back (part) of something.

- When the teacher writes on the whiteboard, the students are behind him (or her).

- Who is that person behind the mask?

- I slowed down because there was a police car behind me.

6. With “BETWEEN”

Between normally refers to something in the middle of two objects or things (or places).

- There are mountains between Chile and Argentina.

- The number 5 is between the numbers 4 and 6.

- There is a sea (The English Channel) between England and France.

7. With “ACROSS FROM / OPPOSITE”

Across from and Opposite mean the same thing. It usually refers to something being in
front of something else BUT there is normally something between them like a street or
table. It is similar to saying that someone (or a place) is on the other side of something.

- I live across from a supermarket (= it is on the other side of the road)

- The chess players sat opposite each other before they began their game. (= They are in
front of each other and there is a table between them)

8. With “NEXT TO / BESIDE”

Next to and Beside mean the same thing. It usually refers to a thing (or person) that is at
the side of another thing.

- At a wedding, the bride stands next to the groom.

- Guards stand next to the entrance of the bank.

- He walked beside me as we went down the street.

- In this part of town there isn't a footpath beside the road so you have to be careful.

9. With “NEAR / CLOSE”

Near and Close to mean the same thing. It is similar to next to/beside but there is more of a
distance between the two things.

- The receptionist is near the front door.

- This building is near a subway station.

- We couldn't park the car close to the store.

- Our house is close to a supermarket.

10. With “ABOVE / OVER”

 Above and Over have a similar meaning. They both mean "at a higher position than
X" but above normally refers to being directly (vertically) above you.

- Planes normally fly above the clouds.

- There is a ceiling above you.

- There is a halo over my head. ;)

- We put a sun umbrella over the table so we wouldn't get so hot.

- Our neighbors in the apartment above us are really noisy.

 Over can also mean: physically covering the surface of something and is often used
with the word All as in All over.
- There is water all over the floor.

- I accidentally spilled red wine all over the new carpet.

 Over is often used as a Preposition of Movement too.

11. With “UNDER / BELOW”

 Under and Below have a similar meaning. They mean at a lower level. (Something
is above it).

- Your legs are under the table.

- Monsters live under your bed.

- A river flows under a bridge.

- How long can you stay under the water?

- Miners work below the surface of the Earth.

 Sometimes we use the word underneath instead of under and beneath instead of
below. There is no difference in meaning though they are less common nowadays.

 Under is often used as a Preposition of Movement too.

PREPOSITIONS OF TIME

1. With “AT”

- at 4 o’clock, at 5 p.m, at 1 a.m (specific times)

- at night / noon / midday

- at Christmas, at Easter, at Whitsun (holiday period)

- at once

- at last

- at the moment / at present

- at weekends

2. With “IN”

- Year (in 1980, in 1870, in 2000,...)

 - Month (in June, in May, in August,...)

- Season (in spring, in summer, in winter, in autumn,...)

- Time in a day, except for at night (in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening)

- IN TIME (He came to the party in time)

3. With “ON”

- Days in a week (on Sunday, on Monday, on Tuesday,...)

- Month + date (My birthday is on June 10th.)

- ON TIME (The film was shown on time.)

*** Note:

- The Weekend

Sometimes you will hear AT the weekend and sometimes ON the weekend. They are
both correct. ON the weekend is used in the United States whereas AT the weekend is used
in the United Kingdom.

E.g. Where did you go on the weekend? (US)

Where did you go at the weekend? (British)

- We don't use Prepositions

Remember! We do not use at, on, in, or the with the following expressions:

Today, tomorrow, yesterday, this morning, tonight, last, next, every

PREPOSITION OF MOVEMENT

Here are some prepositions that pertain to movement:

1. TO

'To' is used when there is a specific destination in mind. The destination can be a number
of things:

- A place:

Examples:

I'm going to the doctor's.

Can you direct me to the nearest post office?

- An event:

Examples:

Are you going to the party?

I have never been to a concert.

- A person:

Examples:

She came up to me.

I go to my father for advice.

- A position:

Examples:

The bathroom is to your left.

Keep to the left.

2. TOWARDS

'Towards' is used in the following instances:

- When one has movement in a particular direction in mind, rather than simply a
destination

Example: He was walking menacingly towards me.

- Or to refer to a position, in relation to a direction from the point of view of the speaker

Example: He was sitting with his back towards me.

3. THROUGH

'Through' refers to the following types of movement:

- Within a space, which can be thought of as surrounding, enclosing or around the object

Example: The train went through the tunnel.

- Movement across something, i.e. from one side of it to the other

Example: He cut through the gauze.

4. INTO

'Into' refers to the following types of movement:

- Movement from the outside to the inside of something that can be imagined as
surrounding, enclosing or around the object:

Example: He got into the car.

- Movement causing something to hit something else

Example: He swerved into the tree.

5. ACROSS

'Across' is used to describe:

- Movement from one end of something to the other

Examples:

He walked across the road.

He strode across the bridge.

- Something's position when it stretches over the surface it is on

Example: There was a barricade across the road.

- To describe something's position when it is at the opposite end from one's position

Example: We went to the restaurant across the road.

6. OVER

'Over' is used in the following instances

- To describe something's position when it is above something else

Example: The bottle is in the cabinet over the sink in the kitchen.

- To describe something's position when it covers a surface

Example: A white cloth had been spread over the corpse.

7. ALONG

'Along' is used to describe

- Movement in a line
Example: We walked along the river.

- The collective position of a group of things that are in a line

Example: He lived in one of the houses along the river.

8. IN

'In' is used in the following instances:

- Something's position in relation to the area or space or place surrounding it

Examples:

We are going to have our picnic in the park.

I left my car in the garage.

- To express towards the inside of something

Example: Put the pickle in the cabinet.

9. ON

'On' is used in the following instances:

- To describe something's position in relation to a surface

Example: There was an array of food on the table.

- To describe movement in the direction of a surface

Example: The rain falling on the roof kept me from sleeping.