1

Tries and errors for utilization of

new technologies in agriculture:
UAV, Simulation, Micon
FARMLAND LAB., YAMAGUCHI UNIVERSITY, JAPAN
ATSUSHI SAKAGUCHI
Self introduction 2

 I used to be an irrigation engineer.

I worked in East Timor, Afghanistan and
Guatemala under Japanese governmental
development assistance scheme.
Afghanistan
 After the career as an engineer, I re-entered Guatemala
university to get a doctor degree. East
Timor
 There were too many postdoctoral fellows, so to
be a researcher was very difficult in Japan.
 One day, my father suddenly passed away by
cancer in 2 weeks.
 So I thought, I also might die tomorrow by car
accident or something, and it’s better to try for
becoming a researcher that I really want to be. 2 weeks later
Contents of presentation 3

1. Development of irrigation index mapping

system by using UAV

2. Numerical simulation of soil water flux to design

subsurface irrigation and drainage system

3. Development of automatic irrigation device

by using Micon
1. Development of irrigation index 4

mapping system by using UAV

Measurement of irrigation index 5

 In FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 56,

quantity of irrigation water is calculated
basing on water content of soil in root zone.
 But, suction is a better indicator for crop EC-5 Soil water content
sensor (METER Inc.)
growth.
 Anyway, soil water content or suction is
measured at each point, so it’s not sure
whether the water content or suction is
close to the average value of the field.

Teros 21 Soil water potential

sensor (METER Inc.)
Crops are also sensors! 6

 We also can decide the irrigation timing

by measuring the crop water stress.
 Moreover, crops cover whole area of a Leaf porometer
field.
 We can measure the crop water stress by
using leaf porometer or sapflow sensor.

Sapflow sensor
Relationship between crop water 7

stress and suction

1.0
Observed
0.8
Relationship between crop Ellipse (R2=0.77)
water stress of soybean 0.6
measured by using leaf
porometer and suction of CWSI
0.4
root zone at 13 o’clock
observed at a field in 0.2
Yamaguchi university(2020)
0.0
0 100 200 300 400 500
-0.2
Suction (-kPa)
Leaf temperature 8

 But, we can’t measure the water stress of whole area in a field by using leaf
porometer or sapflow sensor.
 I think the best way is the sensing of leaf temperature.

High temperature Low temperature

Rain fed Irrigated

Two soybean fields in Yamaguchi university

CWSI 9

 Leaf temperature can be measured using

infrared radiometer sensor.
 Thermal camera equipped UAV had been very
expensive, but it became inexpensive recently. Infrared Radiometer Sensor
 Using thermal camera equipped UAV, we can (Apogee Instruments, USA)
measure the leaf temperature of whole area in a
fields.
 But, leaf temperature is not an absolute indicator
of water stress.
 CWSI (Jackson et al., 1981), which is calculated
from leaf temperature and meteorological MAVIC 2 Enterprise Advanced
condition, is the absolute indicator that can be (DJI, China)
used as an irrigation index.
 Irrigation index mapping system 10

Farmers can
Auto fly and browse the map by
observation smart phone and
Auto creation of CWSI map of each field on every day conduct irrigation
Development of the method to get 11

CWSI by using UAV

1. How to convert the thermal image of a filed taken by using UAV to leaf
temperature which is receiving sunshine at the upper part of canopy?
2. When is the optimal timing to observe the leaf temperature for CWSI calculation?
3. How much frequency of observations is needed to reduce the effects of
fluctuation in wind speed and solar radiation?

Invisible
Soil surface
(furrow) Visible
Leaf temp.
Leaves in shade Time lag
exist in canopy Stomata

Suction in root zone

Time lag
 Kununurra, Australia 12

Darwin
Arafura sea
Kununurra
Irrigated
Ord river
area
Kununurra
Perth

Dam

 Northern part of Australia is flat and tropical, but not developed.

 Government had constructed a dam, and large irrigated farmlands
emerged.
 Since cropping is impossible without irrigation, all farmlands are
irrigated.
 Main crops are Maize, Safflower, Cotton, Pumpkin, Melon and Mango. Before irrigation scheme
Observation at Frank Wise Institute 13

in Kununurra

 Crop: Maize
 UAV observation was at
every 10 minutes.
 Stomatal conductance
observations at each area
was at every 1 hour.
 Theoretical leaf temperature 14

Lower than  Maximum leaf temp. w/o transpiration

6,000
theoretical
temp.
at a given meteorological condition
5,000
(Shade
𝑟
4,000 leaves?) 𝑇 =𝑇 + 𝑅 −𝐺
𝜌𝑐
Pixels

3,000
61%
Higher than
2,000
Theoretical
leaf theoretical temp.  Minimum leaf temp. w/ potential
Average of 5 1,000 temperature
(Soil surface?) transpiration at a given
5%
thermal images 0
34%
meteorological condition
at a given time 𝑟 𝛾 𝑒 −𝑒
13.7
17.0
20.3
23.7
27.0
30.3
33.6
36.9
40.2
43.5
46.8
50.1
53.4
𝑇 =𝑇 + 𝑅 −𝐺 −
Temperature (C) 𝜌𝑐 ∆ + 𝛾 ∆+𝛾
 12:00 on July 21, 2022
Distribution of  Observed coverage ratio: 84%
pixels which has  Theoretical coverage ratio (Theoretical
temperature of leaves + shade leaves): 95%
theoretical leaves
 Observed soil surface ratio: 16%
 Theoretical soil surface ratio: 5%
Comparison of theoretical leaf 15

temperature and observed one

32 Observed leaf temp.
Mean of theoretical leaf temp.
30
Mean of thermal image
Temperature (C)

28

26

24

22

20
7/21 7/23 7/25 7/27 7/29 7/31 8/2 8/4 8/6 8/8
 CWSI calculated from theoretical 16

leaf temperature and suction of soil

0.50 These errors are not originated from the 1600
method of theoretical leaf temperature.
The cause would exist in the CWSI equation.
1200

Suction (-KPa)
0.45
CWSI

800

0.40 CWSI
Suction at 10cm dep. 400
Suction at 20cm dep.
Suction at 30cm dep.
0.35 0
7/21 7/23 7/25 7/27 7/29 7/31 8/2 8/4 8/6 8/8

This method will be the irrigation index, but not sufficient yet for practical use.
Resolution of thermal image 17

 To get the theoretical leaf

temperature, enough resolution of
thermal image is needed. So, lower
Higher altitude flight of UAV is better.
than 26 ºC
 To observe all fields in an area in a
few minutes, higher altitude flight of
Mean temperature of UAV is better.
orange frame is 21.7 ºC.  The best flight altitude of UAV
should be examined.
Frequency of observations at the 18

optimal observation timing

 The optimal observation timing (= optimal flight time) is not At least these data
sure yet, because I found a strange phenomenon on are needed to
transpiration in Kununurra that I’ve not observed it in Japan. calculate CWSI within
error of 0.05.
By using the data of observed leaf temperature, the

Absolute error to hourly


number of minutely observation data in an hour which
average makes error of CWSI larger than 0.05 was

mean leaf temp.

calculated; and one equation was developed:
.

…
Z: Enough flight times, X: Standard deviation of wind
speed at the flight time, Y: Standard deviation of solar
radiation at the flight time.
60 data of leaf temp.
 5 flight times at the optimal observation timing is enough
for Kununurra. One hour
2. Numerical simulation of soil water 19

flux to design subsurface irrigation

and drainage system
How to model the farmland 20

Modeling using HYDRUS-2D

HYPROP2
Atmospheric boundary
Atmosphere (meteorological data is needed)
Soil surface
Each soil layer
has water Soil dimension
retention curve

Deeper soil Lower boundary (usually free drainage

if ground water does not exist)
How to model the farmland 21

 Calibration
 The most important process to
model the farmland. 100 0
 Modify the initial water retention 50
curve of each soil layer by
inverse solution to make the 100
80
estimated soil water content or Calibration Validation 150
suction close to observed one.

Precipitation（mmd-1）
 Validation Suction（-kPa） Precipitation
200
60 250
 Confirmation that calibrated Observation
model can estimate the close 300
value to observed soil water
content or suction which was
Estimation
not used in calibration process. 40 350
 By this process, we consider that
400
water flux of farmland was 450
modeled. 20
 Scenario analysis
500
 Using the validated model, we
550
can estimate or predict the
result of various irrigation or
0 600
drainage management, soil Jul Oct Jan Apr Jul Oct Jan Apr Jul
management or effect of
climate change. Depth of 20cm Date
Design of subsurface irrigation 22

 Subsurface irrigation for spinach

 Since soil water flux is invisible, optimization
of subsurface irrigation is difficult.
Modeling of current water flux 23

 Soil suction of modeled field

Modeling of current water flux 24

 Soil water flux of modeled field

 Scenario analysis of design 25

Scenario 1 Soil surface

 Best design:
Line of 10cm deep Line of -160
Width = 100cm
RMSE between the predicted cmH2O
suction at the depth of 10cm
and the best suction = 23.8
Best suction Depth = 65cm
cmH2O for spinach
growth Sheet is needed
Subsurface pipe under the pipe
Width 100cm
Shape of sheet is;
Scenario 2 RMSE = 33.7cmH2O
-160 30cm
cmH2O

15cm
12cm

Width 200cm
Design of shallow depth 26

underdrainage
Neighbor fields on the same day
 Shallow depth (40cm)
underdrainage is
popular in western
Japan.
 Purpose is different
from underdrainage
to lower high ground w/o underdrain w/ underdrain
water table. Monsoon season in Yamaguchi (2020)

 It’s to drain excess Underdrain Shallow under drain

water during Original G.W. Vadose zone

monsoon season. Vadose zone

G.W.
G.W.
Design of shallow depth 27

underdrainage

 Its standard design,

depth is 40cm and Rainfall
width is 4m, has no Soil surface
reason.
Depth
 We are currently
optimizing the design Width Underdrain
suitable for
Yamaguchi, Japan.
Indicator to select the best 28

scenario
40 0
Air w/o drain

Precipitation (mm h-1)

 Volume air content and 35 Air w/ drain
soil oxygen concentration Oxygen w/o drain 5
observed at soybean 30 Oxygen w/ drain

Air content, Oxygen concentration (%)

fields equipped with Precipitation
10
underdrainage and 25
without underdrainage in
20 15
Yamaguchi (2021)
 Volume air content of soil 15
20
is a standard indicator of
10
wet damage for drainage
management, but time 5
25
lag is seen to the soil Time lag
oxygen concentration. 0 30
17 June 18 June 19 June 20 June 21 June 22 June
 Which is better indicator? Date
Indicator to select the best 29

scenario
 Growth chamber 700
experiment of soybean in
Yamaguchi university (2021) 600

Stomatal conductance (mmol m-2 s-1)

 Soil oxygen concentration is
strongly correlated to 500
stomatal conductance.
400
 Therefore, soil oxygen
concentration would be
better indicator of wet 300
damage for drainage y = 88.537e0.0911x
management than volume 200 R² = 0.9285
air content.
100
 We are currently selecting
the best design using soil
oxygen concentration as 0
0 5 10 15 20
the indicator. Soil oxygen concentration (%)
3. Development of automatic 30

irrigation device by using Micon

Which irrigation system is better? 31
 Example of soil water observation 32

approach Simulated suction under drip irrigation condition

Input the observed ET

Measured root distribution of cabbage Emitter
under the drip irrigation (2021)

Rain fed cultivation Drip irrigation cultivation

Root zone
Emitter

Observation point for

irrigation management

Irrigation Initiate Terminate

Mean suction of root zone 200cmH2O 125cmH2O
Estimated suction at observation point 190cmH2O 74cmH2O

Set this threshold into the code of Micon

Example of soil water observation 33

approach
Largest RMSE of mean VWC among given number of
observation points to the one12of
36m2の面積内の観測地点数と 12 observation points
地点平均含水率に対する任意
observed at 36m2 field
地点数での平均含水率の RMSE最大値
0.5

0.4
RMSE (m3 m-3)

0.3
6 observation points are needed
0.2 to get mean VWC of field
y = 0.9079e-0.595x
R² = 0.9767
0.1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Number of observation
観測地点数 points
Comparison of two approaches 34

Decision of the place of observation point

to measure the mean suction of root zone

Emitter

Root zone

Result:
 Meteorological approach achieved more
Distance from emitter stable suction in a day and entire irrigation
cm 0 5 10 15 20 25 period.
5 47.8 41.3 23.9 13.3 70.8 199.8
Depth

10 39.0 35.1 23.6 6.5 29.2 81.7

 However, the assumption of initial mean
suction of root zone in the soil water
15 32.3 29.5 21.3 7.8 16.3 49.7
estimation algorithm affects so much to the
20 27.7 25.6 19.2 8.5 11.4 36.6 suction controling of root zone.
RMSE between suctions at each  In case the assumption is too different from
point and mean suction of root zone actual suction, root zone will be maintained
stably but different suction from the request.
Further improvement 35

LAI sensor
 The value of LAI is important in the
meteorological approach.
 LAI effects both of the soil heat flux
(G) estimation which is needed to
calculate hourly ET and the crop
coefficient (Kc) estimation.
 I’m currently trying to estimate LAI
by using spectral sensor that I
made it using Micon.
Micon is useful for our researches! 36

Automatic rainfall runoff sampler for water quality research:

This device samples runoff water hourly to each bottle when
surface runoff exceeded the threshold of water depth.