12 NDT

Training Manual
Fundamentals
Non-Destructive
Testing
Aircraft Structures Fundamentals
Lufthansa Issue: January 1997

Technical Training GmbH For Training Purposes Only
Book No: PRELIMINARY EDITION Lufthansa Base Lufthansa 1995
For training purpose and internal use only.
Copyright by Lufthansa Technical Training GmbH.
All rights reserved. No parts of this training
manual may be sold or reproduced in any form
without permission of:
Lufthansa Technical Training GmbH
Lufthansa Base Frankfurt

D-60546 Frankfurt/Main
Tel. +49 69 / 696 41 78
Fax +49 69 / 696 63 84
Lufthansa Base Hamburg

Weg beim Jäger 193
D-22335 Hamburg
Tel. +49 40 / 5070 24 13
Fax +49 40 / 5070 47 46
Lufthansa Technical Training
AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
FUNDAMENTALS
TYPES OF INSPECTION
For Training Purposes Only
HAM US/F sd Jan 97 Page: 1

FUNDAMENTALS
GENERAL
Inspections are examinations to determine the condition of an aircraft or an
aircraft component. An aircraft inspection can range from a casual walkaround
to a detailed inspection including complete disassembly and the use of complex
inspection aids. 6. Ultrasonic Inspection
NOTE: BEFORE STARTING ANY INSPECTION, MAKE SURE THAT THE Very small cracks, too small to see by X--Ray and delamination are detected by
INSPECTION AREA IS CLEAN AND ILLUMINATED. ultrasonic inspection. An ultrasonic test instrument requires access to only one
The main inspection methods are as follows: surface of the material to be inspected and can be used either straight line or
angle beam testing techniques.
1. Visual Inspection
7. X-ray Inspection
The most fundamental method. Inspection aids: mirror, torch, magnifying glass,
borescope. This method of inspection utilizes the penetrating power of radiation and shows
the interior of objects as recorded on film. Various metals, both ferrous and
2. Tap Test nonferrous, as well as nonmetal, such as ceramics and plastics can be in-
Used in bonded sandwich components. spected. X-Ray is used to detect defects such as cracks, corrosion, debris,
loose fittings and fasteners, and damaged or broken structural assemblies. But
3. Liquid Penetrate Inspection it can’t detect all types of defects.Small defects such as small surface corrosion
This type of inspection is suitable for locating cracks, porosity or any type of or fine cracks are difficult to detect.
defect that extends to the surface. It is usable on ferrous and nonferrous met-
als as well as non-porous plastic material.
4. Magnetic Particle Inspection
Most generally used for ferrous metal parts. In this method, the part is magne-
tized and a material which contains magnetic particles is poured or sprayed
over the surface. If there are any defects in the material, either on the surface
or subsurface, north and south magnetic poles will form across the fault and
the magnetic particles will collect between the poles.
5. Eddy Current Inspection
This method detects the following defects in electrically conductive materials:

Cracks in fastener holes of faying surfaces
Overaging of aluminium alloys
Mixed materials

FUNDAMENTALS
Figure 1 Types of Inspection

FUNDAMENTALS
VISUAL INSPECTION
The most fundamental method of inspection and one that will never be re-
placed but only argumented, is the visual inspection. It is limited, of course, in
that nothing can be inspected by this method unless it is discovered, cleaned
and made visible. The basic tools required for visual inspections are sufficient
light, the old fashioned eyeball and in some cases a magnifying glass or a mir-
ror.
Flashlights are normally used to give spottype illumination to the area being
inspected, and to make flashlights more useful for inspecting in difficult loca-
tions, special inspection lights are available with long flexible extensions that
place the bulb inside areas that would otherwise be dark.
Borescopes are used to inspect the inside of engine cylinders through a spark
plug hole. A borescope is actually an optical devise similar in principle to a tele-
scope but with a built-in light source that illuminates the area being inspected.
One of the more useful types of borescope for inspecting extremely difficult
locations is the fibre optic borescope. This uses a bundle of optical glass fibres
to transmit light from a special cold light source to the end of the scope which
may be worked well up inside the engine or the structure being inspected. A
special attachment for this instrument allows a single-lens reflex camera to be
used to photographically record what is seen through the scope. Fibre optic
borescope are available in lengths up to almost four feet.

FUNDAMENTALS
A borescope is a special optical tool used to see A special flashlight with an extension for the bulb
for example the inside of engine cylinders. makes it possible to inspect hard to see locations.
Figure 2 Borescope Inspection

FUNDAMENTALS
TAP TEST
This inspection method is the simplest way to detect delamination or separation
on bonded sandwich components.
When a tap testing rod with a spherical tip is gently tapped against a bonded,
solid structure, a clear ringing sound should be heard. If delamination is pres-
ent, a change of the tone into a dull thud will be heard.

FUNDAMENTALS
Top view
Note: ”X” denotes tap test position at fastener.

Uncorroded areas yield a metallic sound.
Corroded areas yield a dull sound.
Side view
Figure 3 Tap Test

FUNDAMENTALS
LIQUID PENETRATE INSPECTION

Penetrate testing is a quick and reliable non-destructive test method for detect- and reduces its visibility and the contamination may reduce or prevent capillary
ing defects which may be too small to be detected during ordinary visual action by the penetrate.
checks and which are open to the surface made from any non-porous materi- c. If a wet cleaning process is performed all parts should be dried carefully in
als. order to avoid any presence of liquids in inspection areas.
The fundamental purpose of penetrate testing is to increase the visible contrast 2. Sufficient penetration time must be allowed so that the penetrate can fill the
between a defect and its background. This inspection method is based on the defects.
principle of capillary attraction. The area to be inspected is covered with a
a. Small fine cracks require a longer penetrating time than larger defects. The
penetrating liquid; that is, one that has a very low viscosity and low surface ten-
minimum penetration time for detecting small fine cracks is about 30 minutes.
sion. After the penetrate has been allowed to remain on the surface long
enough to completely penetrate any fault that extends to the surface all of the 3. Careful cleaning is required to prevent entrapped penetrate from being
excess is washed off, and the surface is covered with a developer. The devel- washed out of a defect.
oper is a material that will, by the process of reverse capillary action, blot the a. During the cleaning operation prior to application of the developer, it is pos-
penetrate out of cracks or other defects where it will form a visible line in the sible that the penetrate may be removed from the defect, as well as from the
developer. surface. This will not make a proper indication in the developer.
Penetrate Types NOTE: NEVER SPRAY OR FLUSH THE SURFACE OF A PART BEING IN-
SPECTED WITH SOLVENT REMOVER. THE SOLVENT ACTION
There are two types of indications used by the liquid penetrate method:
MAY REMOVE THE PENETRATE FROM THE DEFECT.
Fluorescent indication
(Zyglo Check)
Coloured Dye indication
(Dye check)
An ultraviolet, or black light is used with the fluorescent penetrate, and any de-
fect will show up as a green line. With the coloured dye method, defects show
up as red lines on the white surface of the developer.
Penetrate Process Principals
The three principals that apply to all penetrate processes and should be re-
membered at all times are as follows:
1. Part must be clean

a. Cleaning the part is essential to remove contamination from the inspection
area that means the defect must be open to the surface in order to let the
penetrate get into the defect.
b. Contaminations must be completely removed. The presence of contamina-
tion materials in a defect area reduces the sensitivity of penetrate in one or
more ways; they completely fill the defect and thus prevents entry of the pene-
trate, the contamination may be of a composition that attacks the penetrate

FUNDAMENTALS
Surface of material
Soil or part Cleaner particles
Defect
Defect
1. Part and defect soiled 2. Cleaner particles left after

pre--cleaning which may
contaminate penetrate
Figure 4 Liquid Penetrate Inspection

FUNDAMENTALS
Penetrate Process Sequence

There are seven steps to be taken when performing penetrate inspections:
1. Clean parts before applying penetrate.
2. Dry parts after cleaning.
3. Apply penetrate only to surface being checked. Allow minimum dwell time of
30 minutes.
4. Remove excess penetrate using clean cloth dampened with remover
(cleaner) and dry the parts.
5. Apply the developer.
6. Check area for defects using adequate lighting.
7. Clean parts to remove all traces of penetrate or developer.

FUNDAMENTALS
Evaporated
cleaner particles
Penerant
Defect
Defect
3. Drying after pre--cleaning 4. Penetrant applied

evaporates cleaner particles

FUNDAMENTALS
Penetrate Process Sequence (continued)


FUNDAMENTALS
Excess surface Cloth moisteed Developer

penetrant wiped away with remover absorbed
penetrant
Developer
Penetrant
6. Developer applied drying out

and absorbing penetrant
5. Surface penetrant is wiped off

FUNDAMENTALS
MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION

Magnetic particle inspection is a method of detecting invisible cracks and other
defects in ferromagnetic materials, such as iron and steel. This method of in-
spection is not applicable to nonmagnetic materials.
The inspection process consists of magnetising the part and then applying fer-
romagnetic particles to the surface area to be inspected. The ferromagnetic
particles (indicating medium) may be held in suspension in a liquid that is
flushed over the part; the part may be immersed in the suspension liquid; or the
particles, in dry powder form, may be dusted over the surface of the part. The
wet process is more commonly used in the inspection of aircraft parts.
If a discontinuity is present, the magnetic lines of force will be disturbed and
opposite poles will exist on either side of the discontinuity. The magnetised par-
ticles thus form a pattern in the magnetic field between the opposite poles. This
pattern, known as an ”indication”, assumes the approximate shape of the sur-
face projection of the discontinuity. The following types of discontinuities are
normally detected by the magnetic particle test: cracks, laps, seams, cold
shuts, inclusions, splits, tears, pipes, and voids. All these may affect the reli-
ability of parts in service.

FUNDAMENTALS
Longitudinal magnetization Circular magnetization
Attraction of particles at defect Attraction of particles at defect

Effect of flux direction on strength of indication
Figure 7 Magnetic Particle Inspection

FUNDAMENTALS
EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION

Eddy current testing (mainly low-frequency) is being used to detect thickness
change due to corrosion and cracks in multilayer structures. The use of eddy
current instrumentation, which indicates the amplitude and phase, allows corro-
sion thinning to be differentiated from layer spacing, lift-off, and cracking. The
low-frequency eddy current technique has been useful in detecting crevice or
galvanic corrosion between aluminium skins. High-frequency eddy current is
most applicable for detecting stress corrosion cracks.
The eddy current check is easy to perform using variable-frequency, imped-
ance-plane instruments having a flying dot presentation. The instrument is cali-
brated using a taper gauge made from the same material and temper as the
skin being checked. The probe is placed on the taper gauge, and the instru-
ment is balanced. The probe is then scanned toward the thin end of the stan-
dard, producing the impedance plane plot shown below. By lifting the probe
from the standard at various thickness increments, quantitative values for thick-
ness may be obtained.
The instrument is now calibrated, and the area to be inspected can be checked
for corrosion thinning, as illustrated below. The amplitude of the signal from the
corrosion may be used to determine the remaining sheet thickness by compar-
ing the lift-off response from the corrosion with a similar amplitude response
obtained from the reference standard.

FUNDAMENTALS
Corrosion
response
Air
0.050”
Lift--off
Indication for Indication for

no corrosion severe corrosion
Probe
0,025”
Skin
0,025”
Air
0,050”
Corrosion
Doubler
Method for determining
depth of corrosion
Figure 8 Eddy Current Inspection

FUNDAMENTALS
ULTRASONIC INSPECTION
Ultrasonic testing provides a sensitive detection capability for corrosion dam-
age when access is available to a surface having a continuous bulk of material
exposed to the corrosion. Stress corrosion cracks or exfoliation produces a
new interface within the material, which causes reflections in a shorter time
period than reflections from the back surface. Ultrasonic thickness gauges are
commonly used for detecting exfoliation, stress corrosion cracks and general
material thinning. Pitting and intergranular corrosion scatter the ultrasound and
can be detected by shear waves in an angular incidence. In addition, this scat-
tering can result in attenuation of longitudinal waves (straight beam), commonly
referred to as loss of back surface signal. This phenomenon serves as a
means of detecting corrosion in relatively thick structures. Its main limitation is
that increased attenuation may also be caused by sealants or adhesives. Addi-
tionally, ultrasonics cannot provide any information about layers further than the
probed one unless they are properly bonded.
NOTE: SOME LOCAL AREAS MAY HAVE ADDITIONAL COATS OF PAINT,
WHICH REDUCE THE AMPLITUDE OF THE MULTIPLE BACK
SURFACE REFLECTIONS.

FUNDAMENTALS
Typical crack
Position 1 Position 2
Back reflection Reflection from
Position 4 no cracks fastener hole
Position 3
A
A
Position1
Position 3 Position 4
Position 2 Typical crack Crack reflection Crack reflection
far angle near angle
Outboard view
Search unit
positions
Section A -- A
Figure 9 Ultrasonic Inspection

FUNDAMENTALS
X--RAY INSPECTION
Radiography is utilized to facilitate inspection of complex structures and to pro-
vide an overview of the status of a complete assembly. It has also been to de-
tect pitting corrosion in tubular steel cylinders such as torsion bars. Generally,
X-ray radiography lacks sensitivity or produces low-contrast radiographs unless
berilium-window X-ray tubes, which produce soft (low-energy) radiation, are
used. To be detectable, the changes in thickness must be on the order of two
percent of the total thickness. Radiography may be used to detect stress corro-
sion cracks when the radiation beam is parallel to the plant of the crack.

FUNDAMENTALS
Water--filled honeycomb cells

Corrosion in honeycomb
Corrosion inspection by x--ray radiography of an

aluminium honeycomb core by water intrusion
Figure 10 X-ray Inspection

TABLE OF CONTENTS
TYPES OF INSPECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
VISUAL INSPECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
TAP TEST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
LIQUID PENETRATE INSPECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
ULTRASONIC INSPECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
X--RAY INSPECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Page: i
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Types of Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Figure 2 Borescope Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Figure 3 Tap Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Figure 4 Liquid Penetrate Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Figure 7 Magnetic Particle Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Figure 8 Eddy Current Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Figure 9 Ultrasonic Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Figure 10 X-ray Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Page: ii

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Training Manual

Lufthansa Issue: January 1997

Lufthansa Technical Training GmbH

Lufthansa Base Frankfurt

Lufthansa Base Hamburg

HAM US/F sd Jan 97 Page: 1

This method detects the following defects in electrically conductive materials:

HAM US/F sd Jan 97 Page: 2

Figure 1 Types of Inspection

HAM US/F sd Jan 97 Page: 4

Figure 2 Borescope Inspection

HAM US/F sd Jan 97 Page: 6

Note: ”X” denotes tap test position at fastener.

Figure 3 Tap Test

LIQUID PENETRATE INSPECTION

1. Part must be clean

HAM US/F sd Jan 97 Page: 8

1. Part and defect soiled 2. Cleaner particles left after

Figure 4 Liquid Penetrate Inspection

Penetrate Process Sequence

HAM US/F sd Jan 97 Page: 10

3. Drying after pre--cleaning 4. Penetrant applied

Figure 5 Liquid Penetrate Inspection

Penetrate Process Sequence (continued)

HAM US/F sd Jan 97 Page: 12

Excess surface Cloth moisteed Developer

6. Developer applied drying out

Figure 6 Liquid Penetrate Inspection

MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION

HAM US/F sd Jan 97 Page: 14

Longitudinal magnetization Circular magnetization

Attraction of particles at defect Attraction of particles at defect

Effect of flux direction on strength of indication

Figure 7 Magnetic Particle Inspection

EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION

HAM US/F sd Jan 97 Page: 16

Indication for Indication for

Figure 8 Eddy Current Inspection

HAM US/F sd Jan 97 Page: 18

Figure 9 Ultrasonic Inspection

HAM US/F sd Jan 97 Page: 20

Water--filled honeycomb cells

Corrosion inspection by x--ray radiography of an

Figure 10 X-ray Inspection

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